prevention and intervention for writing disabilities presented by nancy mumm, ms. ccc judith...
TRANSCRIPT
Prevention and Intervention for
Writing Disabilities
Prevention and Intervention for
Writing DisabilitiesPresented by
Nancy Mumm, MS. CCCJudith Rutberg-Self, Ph.D.
Two Compositions by Arthur The mn was sneB (2nd grade)
(In response to a picture of a girl showing her father a large fish she had caught)
I think theu shold no how to speek dififering langwges. If theu go to like dutch countri sombodie might ask them something theu cold have two kinds of langage. (5th grade)(In response to the teacher’s query, “Should children learn a second language?)
April’s Story
When April starts to write, she feels overwhelmed. So she writes as little as she can get away with ( and sometimes less than she can get away with). She is often accused of being lazy and irresponsible. She isn’t lazy at all. She explains “Whenever I try to write, I lose my ideas and get all mixed up about them. Then, when I see what I am writing, it is all a big mess and the ideas that come out are not the ones in my head. They look babyish and stupid. Then I’m afraid that one of my friends will see what I wrote or my teacher will show it to everyone or my parents will get real mad and say that I wasn’t even trying. I hate to write”.
Writing is a highly complex and demanding process Organization
Form and features
Rules and mechanics
Purposes and goals
Audience needs and perspectives
The Writer Must Be
Goal oriented
Resourceful
Reflective
Writing – There’s more to it than meets the eye!
Writing is not the mirror image of reading. Competent readers do not necessarily become competent writers.
In addition to recognizing letters automatically, one must learn to produce letters automatically.
Learning spelling patterns is more complex than learning to read them.
Writing – There’s more to it than meets the eye!
Putting ideas in writing is a more complex task than putting ideas into words. Children with difficulties in speech and language are at higher risk for writing disabilities.
Learning to spell is more complicated than learning to read. There are many more speech- to- sound variations than letter-to-sound variations.
Writing – There’s more to it than meets the eye!
Writing is Language by Hand
Reading is Language by Eye
Learning to Talk is Different Than Learning to Write
Speaking is a social interaction between cooperative, supportive partners.
Writing is solitary and the responsibility of the communication is solely on the writer.
Incidence of Written Language Disabilities
Extremely prevalent in the population of children with learning disabilities
Reading disabilities may be identified sooner, but writing disabilities are more persistent
While there has been tremendous research in reading, writing research has been limited or ignored
Children with oral language impairments are six times more likely to have difficulty reading (and hence writing) than typically developing peers (Catts)
Common Behaviors of Writing Disabled Students
Minimal planning- they draw information from memory that is somewhat appropriate, writing it down and using each idea to stimulate the generation of the next one (Graham)
Minimal attempts at revision, revision tends focus on correcting mechanical errors
Struggle with mechanics of writing – spelling, capitalization, punctuation, handwriting fluency
Overemphasize mechanics over form and process of writing
Current Writing ResearchUniversity of Washington - the “Write Stuff”
for Preventing Writing Disabilities Ongoing Since 1989
Principal Investigator – Virginia Berninger, Ph.D, Developmental Psychologist
Funded by National Institute of Child Health and
Human Development
Focuses on writing development, causes of writing disabilities, and science-based treatment to remediate writing problems in children
Myths and Realities about Writing Disabilities
Abstract of a Decade of Research at the UW
Myth 1:Reading Disability is the most common form of Learning Disability
Reality: Writing Disability is more prevalent Children who initially struggle with reading
usually learn to read but have residual writing problems
Many children who can read well have writing problems
Many students who perform poorly on State designed assessments of writing have undiagnosed writing problems
Myths and Realities about Writing Disabilities
Abstract of a Decade of Research at the UW
Myth 2: Writing Disability is a Motor Problem Reality: Writing Disabilities, like reading
disabilities, are heterogeneous
Students may have difficulty with only one or a combination of specific problems
The most common contributing process in elementary school is handwriting and/or spelling
Writing is fundamentally a language and conceptual activity
Myths and Realities about Writing Disabilities
Abstract of a Decade of Research at the UW
Myth 3: Only higher level “conceptual processes” should be taught.
Reality: Lower and higher levels of language need to be taught. The ability to write alphabet letters automatically is a very strong predictor of the quality of writing. Handwriting should be taught explicitly, not incidentally.
Myths and Realities about Writing Disabilities
Abstract of a Decade of Research at the UW
Myth 4: Writing instruction should be aimed only at meaning and ideas.
Reality: All areas of written language should be addressed within the same instructional session. Handwriting, spelling, and composition should be taught together, and instruction should be explicit.
Two Types of Writing Disabilities Have Been Discovered
University of Washington “The Write Stuff”
One group has initial trouble learning to read, responds well to instruction, but has persistent writing disabilities
Another group has writing disabilities without reading difficulties
Several Reasons for Writing Difficulties University of Washington “Write Stuff”
Underdeveloped spelling, handwriting, or composing skills, singly or in combination
Processing problems including automatic letter retrieval and production, working memory, fine-motor planning, orthographic (visual) or phonological (auditory) coding of letters and words
Attention Deficit Disorder/Executive Function Deficits
Lack of a school program with coordinated, explicit instruction in writing
Genetic studies have found written spelling difficulties to be inherited
Handwriting
Luria (Russian psychologist) described writing as a “Kinetic Melody” – and compared the act of writing to a finely tuned orchestra (many actions occurring at the same time)
Kinetic Memory
Requires balancing, flexing, and contracting movements as well as simultaneously stimulating some muscle groups while inhibiting other muscle groups, just as an orchestra requires the balancing of many different instruments, sound levels, and rhythms.
Multiple Brain MechanismsHandwriting
Gross and Fine Motor Coordination Dyspraxia- difficulty getting the muscles
to work together to cooperate in the right way to accomplish a motor action
“I know what to do, I can explain it, but it’s just that my muscles won’t do it.”
These students hold their pencil in an awkward way, or tightly, which helps them control their muscles better but can also make writing very slow.
Multiple Brain MechanismsMotor Memory
Students with motor memory problems may take a long time to learn to form letters.
Difficulty getting the motor movements
(engrams) for letter formation to be automatic.
Cursive writing may be difficult because of the hundreds of little movements needed to make and connect the letters
University of Washington“Write Stuff”Handwriting
Handwriting automaticity at an early age (writing alphabet letters quickly from memory) is a strong predictor of the quality of composition in older, normally developing writers.
If letter production is automatic, then the child is able to attend to higher level composing processes, such as deciding what to write about, what to say, and how to say it.
University of Washington“Write Stuff”Handwriting
Handwriting difficulties:
Must be remediated EARLY!
Handwriting must be explicitly practiced to make “motor program” (engram) automatic.
Practice involves following numbered arrow cues for
forming each letter – so letter production becomes automatized and uniform.
It is difficult to remediate awkward hand position, even if attended to early.
The ability to process the sound structure of spoken
words (phonological awareness) is directly related to spelling.
Learning to spell requires linking the spoken word to the written word, not simply visual memorization (look, cover, write).
Children need to understand that the sound structure of words is related to the structure of written words, although not always in a perfect way.
University of Washington“Write Stuff”Spelling
Children do not learn to spell or read “letter by letter
Children need to understand that letters and letter units are used to translate units in the spoken word to units in the written word.
Functional spelling units are usually one or two letters in size (ph, oa, ng)
Children who learned associations for two letter spelling units made the most progress in learning to spell and recognize words.
University of Washington“Write Stuff” Spelling
University of Washington“Write Stuff” Spelling
Children need repeated practice writing specific words to dictation
Exclusive reliance on incidental instruction during the “teachable moment” or use of personal dictionaries is not sufficient to teach spelling.
A minimum of 24 practice trials, distributed over a 2 month period, was needed for at-risk 2nd graders to master spelling words.
Spelling requires more than sound/symbol
correspondence!
In composition, journal writing is ineffective with students who have writing disabilities.
Children need guided assistance in the form of prompts
Graphic organizers are useful to help struggling writers plan what to write
Teacher modeling in which the teacher thinks aloud while planning, is helpful for teaching struggling writers.
University of Washington“Write Stuff” Composition
Multiple Brain MechanismsInvolved in the Writing Process
Writing requires the simultaneous and sequential integration of many sub-
processes
Writing
Executive FunctionsAttention
Organization/Planning and RevisingWorking Memory
Language and Higher Order
Cognition
Vocabulary Semantics
Memory
Spelling Patterns Motor Memory
Integration of Multiple
Information Sources
Gross and Fine Motor Skill
Handwriting
Executive Functions
Barkley: Those actions we perform to ourselves and direct at ourselves so as to accomplish self-control, goal directed behavior, and maximize future outcomes
Brown: The conductor’s role in an orchestra McCloskey: A large collection of “semi-
conductors”, each responsible for a separate aspect of the overall production of the orchestra, but each working in a collaborative manner with the others
Frontal Lobe = Command CenterExecutive Function Control
Internalizing Language (Self-Talk)
Controlling Emotions
Organization Planning and
Revising
Working Memory
Activation, Arousal, Effort, Paying Attention
What is Included in Executive Functions?
Holding facts in mind while manipulating information; accessing facts stored in long-term memory
Activation, Arousal, and Effort (getting started; paying attention; finishing work)
Ability to tolerate frustration; thinking before speaking or acting
Using “self-talk” to control one’s behavior and direct future actions
Taking an issue apart, analyzing the pieces
Executive Functions of WritingAttention
Attention• Involved in planning and producing responses
(April’s difficulty)• Handwriting is often a problem in children with
attention problems (location in brain)• Some children with AD/HD who have handwriting
problems show dramatic improvement in handwriting when given stimulant medication (Berninger)
• Writing development should be closely monitored in any child with AD/HD
Executive Functions of WritingAttention
Research by Mayes and Calhoun identified written expression as the most common problem of students with AD/HD (65%).
Consequently, writing essays, drafting book reports, or answering questions on tests or homework is often very challenging for these students.
A Careful Diagnosis is Critical
Executive Functions of WritingWorking Memory
The ability to hold information in mind while processing and manipulating it
Spelling Rules and
Patterns
Mechanics
Memory for Facts and
Ideas
Vocabulary and Word Finding
Motor Programs Forming Letters
Executive Functions of WritingWorking Memory
Written language difficulties include: Difficulties holding ideas in mind Quickly retrieving grammar, spelling, and
punctuation rules from long-term memory
Manipulating all this information Remembering ideas to write down Organizing material in a logical sequence Reviewing and correcting errors
Problems that Impact Working Memory
Attention and Concentration Slow Processing Speed Automaticity of lower-level skills
Automaticity of producing alphabet letters
Automaticity of spelling (knowing patterns)
Poor fine-motor/handwriting ability
Output Controls Necessary for WritingDr. Mel Levine
University of North Carolina Medical SchoolDirector of Clinical Center for the Study of Development and Learning
Output Controls
Monitoring and Regulating
Quality Control
Evaluating and Using Feedback
Reinforcement Control
Learning from Previous Experience
Option Controls
Making Decisions and Choosing Best
Alternative
Pace Control
Processing Speed
Too Slow vs. Rushing
Previewing/Planning Control
What are the
Requirements?
(blueprint)
Diagnostic Assessment of Writing
Current Achievement Measures
Educational/Instructional Program
Executive Function/Attention
Lower Level Processing Skills
Assessment of WritingLower Level Processing Skills
Orthographic Awareness
The ability to hold words, letter groups, and letters in memory -the ability to “image” words in the mind
Writing words and nonwords viewed briefly (1 second)
Reading words and nonwords viewed briefly (1 second)
glitter
a
physical
a
fracagen
3rd and 4th letters
Lower Level SkillsPhonological Awareness
Hearing the sounds that make up words
Understanding that “CAT” is made up of the individual speech sounds “C-A-T”
Say “string” Now say it without the “st”
Say “sprite” Now say it without the “p”
Lower Level SkillsPhonological Memory
Repetition of nonsense words The ability to hold in mind the sounds
within words
Important spelling multi-syllabic words
Poor phonological memory - forget the beginning of word by the time the end has been decoded
Lower Level SkillsLanguage Processing Measures
Formulated Sentences (semantics) Viewing a picture and making up a sentence
about it using particular required words Measures language skills
Word Fluency Write all the words that you can think of that are
round Measures access to words from “mental
dictionary”
Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN)
The ability to quickly read letters, words, numbers.
A measure of the access to “name codes” – fluency of language
Related to reading fluency, processing speed
S X C G H K S B E W F S
L U T B C E A Q K L R V
H T B P T D X Z G B E F
K J R G C M U X G E S L
P U V D S Q A Z J F A T
R L K V E G M O Q P D A
Lower Level SkillsHandwriting Measures
Related Fine Motor Processes Finger repetition Finger succession Finger localization
Automatic retrieval and production of ordered alphabet letters
Copying Written text (speed and fluency)
Achievement Measures Composing
Sentences and Paragraphs – quality
Writing Speed and Fluency Measures Writing simple sentences quickly
Spelling Real Words Pseudowords (made-up words that follow regular spelling
patterns) brangle, snirk, psychomation
Vocabulary Development
Mechanics
Cognitive Processing
Cognitive Processes
Verbal Comprehension Working Memory Processing Speed Perceptual Reasoning
Vocabulary KnowledgeComprehension
Holding Events in Mind“Mental Scratchpad”
Speed of Information Processing
Output Speed
Visual Spatial AbilityNonverbal Reasoning
Attention/Executive Function Cognitive Assessment (IQ)
Processing Speed Working Memory
Behavioral Checklists Parent Teacher Self-Report
Neuropsychological Assessment Planning/Organizing/Impulsivity/Attention
Observation Classroom Testing
Educational/Instructional Assessment
Classroom Observation
Records Review
Curriculum Review
Teacher Interview
School Assessment for Special Education Services
School assessment focuses on qualification for services using the “severe discrepancy model”.
School assessment is not designed to be diagnostic.
A child can have a significant learning disability and not qualify for special education services.
What is a Specific Learning Disability?Definition From the Individuals With
Disabilities Act (IDEA)
Specific Learning Disability: A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or in using language spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations
Does not include problems resulting from visual, hearing, or motor handicaps, mental retardation, emotional disturbance, or environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. (1967, 1975 Federal Guidelines)
How Do Children Qualify for Services?
Current guidelines use a" discrepancy formula” to determine the presence of a “Specific Learning Disability” (SLD)
Severe discrepancy between ability (as measured by IQ) and achievement (as measured by current academic achievement testing)
If there is not a significant difference between predicted scores based on IQ, then it is assumed that the child is performing at the “expected level” and does not meet criteria for services.
Why the Discrepancy Formula is Wrong:
The “Wait to Fail Model”
Every state uses a different discrepancy formula – different criteria, different assessments
There is no scientific evidence of intrinsic differences between children with achievement discrepancy and children without achievement discrepancy. Both groups make gains with treatment.
Comparison of Reading Disabled Children With and Without IQ-Achievement Discrepancy
9
Why the Discrepancy Formula is Wrong: The “Wait to Fail Model”
Using a discrepancy model interferes with the early identification of learning disabilities. Poor academic performance cannot be reliably measured until grade 3, creating a “wait to fail” model. Children need to get bad enough to qualify for services. Often, these students never catch up.
Current federal guidelines exclude services to children due to environment, inadequate teaching, cultural, and economic disadvantage, the very children who need services!
Demise of the Severe Discrepancy Formula
The Congress has passed a bill that will end the federal law requiring a discrepancy formula in May, 2005, after more than 25 years!!!
New models will need to be set up: Early Intervention Three-Tiered Model Response to Intervention
Intervention
Best Practices in Treating Writing Problems
Be Wary Of….. Unsolicited assessments or screenings by people
offering “free screenings” for learning problems, and then recommending their type of intervention.
Alternative and unproven therapies that propose to “cure” learning disabilities. There is no “cure” for learning disabilities, per se.
Assessment that is not directly related to the specific academic deficit. Scientific research does not demonstrate the efficacy of “crossed dominance theory”, “learning style”, “eye tracking exercises and colored lenses”, or “sensory integration” as interventions for reading, writing, spelling, or math disabilities.
InterventionWhat Works
Handwriting Automaticity Training PAL Guides Big Strokes for Little Folks
PAL Writing Lessons
PAL Talking Letters Desk Guide
Spelling Marsha Henry’s Words Program
Word Structure Analysis Greek and Latin Roots/Morphology
How To Teach Spelling
PAL Talking Letters
PAL Orthographic Awareness Training
Executive Function Approach to Writing:Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) Graham and Harris
Developed 15 years ago
Belief that every child can write
Teaches specific strategies for Planning Writing Revising Editing
Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) Goal Setting
What is required? Self-instructions
“self-talk” - modeled by teacher Self-monitoring
checking for accuracy Self-assessment
Did I meet my goals? Self-reinforcement
Making the work meaningful
Example of an SRSD Strategyfrom Graham and Harris “Making the Writing Process Work”
Three-Step Planning 1. Think-who will read this?
Why am I writing this?
2. Plan what to say – Use S-P-A-C-E Setting Purpose Action Conclusion Emotions
3. Write and Say More
Other Cognitive Strategies for Writing
Mnemonic Strategies for Theme Writing TOWER
Think of Ideas Order Ideas Write Ideas – connected paragraphs Error Monitor (organization, sentence
structure, minor errors) Recopy (for neatness, format)
Other Cognitive Strategies for Writing
Mnemonic Strategy for Error Correction – COPS
Capitalization Overall Appearance Punctuation Spelling
Assistive Technologies
Voice Recognition Computer Software Dragon Naturally Speaking
Mind-Mapping Computer Software Inspiration, KidSpiration
Keyboarding Alphasmart
504 or IEP Recommendations and Accommodations
Classroom Tape recording class lectures Algorithms for checking work on desktop Not having writing corrected by classmate Extra time on written tests including SAT, WASL Oral tests instead of written tests Pre-written class lecture notes Alpha-Smart or laptop computer Scribe
Academic Accommodations andRecommendations
Homework: Voice recognition or mind-mapping software Shorter assignments/assignments broken down into
shorter sections with intermediate due dates Not counting mechanical/spelling errors
Handwriting: Pencil grips PAL handwriting lessons (primary grade students) or
explicit handwriting instruction Eliminate requirements for cursive writing In math, using graph paper to line up numbers
Homework Tips Encourage your writer to map out ideas (prewriting
strategies) There are software programs to help such as
Kidspiration and Inspiration Provide a homework area that is well organized at a
table or desk and not on a bed. Reinforce that the first writing attempt is a draft.
Writing is a mult-step process. Develop strategies to help your child to self-monitor
their work. In partnership with your child, develop a writing process checklist.
University of Washington Learning
Disabilities Center “Mantra”
Imagine ALL the children learning well in school
You may say we are dreamersBut then we are not the only onesWe hope you will join us andThe world will be a better place
.