Edith Cowan University Edith Cowan University

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ECU Publications Pre. 2011

2007

Primary Connections: Reforming science teaching in Australian Primary Connections: Reforming science teaching in Australian

primary schools primary schools

Mark Hackling Edith Cowan University

Shelley Peers Australian Academy of Science

Vaughan Prain La Trobe University

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This is an Author's Accepted Manuscript of: Hackling, M., Peers, S. & Prain, V. (2007). Primary Connections: Reforming science teaching in Australian primary schools. Teaching Science, 53(3), 12-16. This Journal Article is posted at Research Online. https://ro.ecu.edu.au/ecuworks/1446

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Concerns about the status and quality of science teaching in Australian primary schoolsled the Australian Academy of Science to develop Primary Connections over 2004-8 withfunding from DEST and the support of states and territories. Primary Connections is ateacher professional learning program supported with curriculum resources that aims toenhance learning outcomes in science and the literacies of science by supporting bothinservice and preservice primary teachers to teach science effectively. Primary Connectionsis a systematic, widespread and innovative reform that complements programs within statesand territories. The program is based on an innovative teaching and learning approach thatlinks science with literacy, uses cooperative learning, embeds assessment with teaching andlearning, and follows an inquiry process including student-planned investigations. Researchhas demonstrated that the program improves teachers' confidence, self-efficacy and practice,students' learning, and the status of science within schools.

Ji\ ustral ia needs a scientifically.!!...j\ literate community if it is to.r '.

b \i,develop a knowledge-basedeconomy, address environmentalconcerns about water conservationand global warming, and healthissues such as obesity and diabetes.High quality teaching of sciencein Australian primary schools is anational priority in order to developcitizens who are scientificallyliterate and who can contributeto the social, environmentaland economic well-being ofAustralia (Peers, 2006). Studentachievement in science is thereforebeing monitored through nationalassessments of scientific literacy andinternational assessments of scienceachievement. Stimulating curiosity andcreative thinking and commencingthe leamihg journey towards scientificliteracy requires a strong and effectivescience program in the primary years ofschooling.

teachingscience

Recent national assessments of scientificliteracy and international assessmentsof science achievement raise concernsabout the health of primary science inAustralia. Less than 60% of sampledYear 6 Australian students attained orexceeded the proficiency standard in the2003 national assessments of scientificliteracy (MCEETYA, 2005). The Trends

in International Mathematics and· Science Study (TIMSS) indicates· that while the science achievement· of Australian Year 4 students hasremained stable between 1994and 2002 at a level that was abovethe international mean, countriessuch as Singapore, Hong Kongand Latvia have made significant

· improvements between 1994 and2002 (Thomson & Fleming, 2004).Seven countries scored significantlyhigher than Australia on the 2002assessments (Singapore, Taiwan,Japan, Hong Kong, England, USAand Latvia), and most of these areour trading competitors in terms ofknowledge-based exports.

Despite science being recognised as apriority area of learning for governmentsand parents (ASTEC, 1997) manyschools are poorly equipped for teachingscience, have an inadequate budgetfor science and do not have a sciencecoordinator (Hackling & Prain, 2005).Science as a learning area receives the

Volume 53 I Numbed I September 2007

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The Primary Connectionsapproach, exemplified by thecurriculum units, is based on the5Es teaching and learning modelwith assessmentembedded intothe teaching and learning process.The approach is highly innovativein that it makes links betweenscience and literacy, follows aninquiry and investigative approach,and integrates cooperative learningstrategies.

The Primary Connections 5Esteaching and learning model. ThePrimary Connections 5Es teachingand learning model (Figure 2) isan elaborated version of Bybee's(1997) 5Es model that is bothinquiry based and constructivist

Reflectionon

practicePrinciples

oflearning

andteaching

Stagedprofessionallearningworkshops

professional learning workshops,exemplary curriculum resources,opportunity to practise science teachingsupported with resources, reflectionson practice, and is linked to a set ofprinciples of learning and teaching.These elements are represented inthe Primary Connections professionallearning model in Figure 1.

This model is based on the CASS?professional learning model thatproved successful in effecting teacherchange in an earl ier Australian project(Goodrum, Hackling & Trotter, 2003;Sheffield, 2004) elaborated with aset of pedagogical principles derivedfrom the Science in Schools project(Tytler, 2002). Primary Connections has

Practise

developed a suiteof comprehensivelyresourcedprofessional learningmodules and hastrained a cadreof professionallearning facil itatorswho can del iverPrimary Connectionsprofessional learningworkshops in schoolsthroughout Australia.Professionallearning facilitatorsparticipated in athree-day workshopto familiarise themwith the PrimaryConnections

~_----:---=:--::-:-_---::--_--=::::::::::::::;'---:---:---:-:_-----:-__--,-:-----.J teach ing and

learning approach,curriculum resourcesand professional

learning workshop resources. They alsoworked in state/territory teams to planapproaches for implementing PrimaryConnections in their jurisdictions.

Professional learning for preserviceteachers. A two-day workshop wasconducted in February 2007 for 64science educators from 36 universitieswho teach primary science curriculumunits in initial teacher education coursesso that new teachers will developan understanding of the PrimaryConnections approach to scienceteaching and learning. Elements ofPrimary Connections are now beingincorporated in teacher educationprograms in universities throughout

Australia.

fP.lIi'@if®§SB©JSlla~ ileaE"'Ii'ilESllgPrimary Connections is the firstAustralian initiative to address theprofessional learning needs of bothinservice and preservice teachers ofscience.

Professional learning for inserviceteachers. Primary Connectionsprovides a professionallearning program for inserviceteachers comprising a numberof complementary elements:

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Primary Connections is an initiativeof the Australian Academy of Science,funded by DEST and supported byall state and territory educationdepartments, Catholic andindependent schools sectors,and by science and literacyteacher professional associations.Primary Connections is a teacherprofessional learning programsupported with curriculumresources that aims to enhancelearning outcomes in science andthe llteracies of science.

second lowest amount of time inthe primary school curriculumaveraging 2.7% of teachingtime (Angus et el., 2004). Manyprimary teachers lack confidenceand competence for teachingscience (Appleton, 1995; Palmer,2001; Yates & Goodrum, 1990)and score poorly on self-efficacyscales that measure their beliefsabout being able to teach scienceeffectively (Riggs & Enochs, 1990).The limited science disciplinestudies and science curriculumstudies in many Australianinitial teacher education courses(Lawrance & Palmer, 2003) givesstudent teachers little opportunityto develop the pedagogicalcontent knowledge (Gess-

Newsome, 1999) required to be F' 1 Th P' C . s' l l . d Ifd t d ff ti t h f -Igure . I e rtmary ormections proreestone eemtnq mo eco.n I en an e ec ive eac ers 0 (Hackling & Prsin, 2005)SCience.

The 2001 national review of the statusand quality of science teaching andlearning (Goodrum, Hackling & Rennie,2001) indicated that the teaching ofscience in primary classrooms is patchyand recommended that primary teachersbe given access to quality professionallearning experiences supported by richcurriculum resources. It also arguedthat a collaborative national approachis essential to develop world classresources. The Primary Connectionsprogram was developed in response tothese concerns (peers, 2006).

Volume 53 I Number31 September2007 teachingscience

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Primary Connections was trialled in2005 in 56 schools involving 106teachers and more than 3000 students.Teachers completed an initial five daysof professional learning at a summerschool in January 2005 and three follow­up one-day workshops. Teachers taught atrial Primary Connections unit in Term 1,a unit the teachers developed themselvesbased on the Primary Connectionsmodel in Term 2, and a trial Primary

assessment rubrics they can downloadand modify, and provides informationon further resources such as factual andnarrative texts and relevant websites.

Development of the curriculum units.The development of the curriculumresources is based on mapping of stateand territory curriculum frameworks,the national scientific literacy progressmap (MCEETYA, 2005) and the nationalstatements of learning for science(MCEETYA, 2006). Draft curriculumunits are trial led in over 50 trial schoolsthroughout Australiaand feedback fromthe trial is used to revise the units beforethey are published and made availablefor purchase by schools. As units becomereprinted as revised editions, furtheramendments are made as opportunitiesfor enhancements are identified.

These qual ity assurance processesenabled Primary Connections to winthe 2006 Australian Publishers Awardfor Excellence in Educational Publishingin the primary teaching and learningcategory.

Scopeand sequence of curriculumunits. Primary Connections units arewritten in developmental stages (seeFigure 3) linked to years of schooling andoutcome levels of the national scientificliteracy progress map (MCEETYA, 2005),and are mapped to the four conceptualstrands of the national statements oflearning for science (MCEETYA, 2006).For example, the Plants in Action unitwhich focuses on the life cycle offlowering plants is a Stage 2 unit, havinglearning outcomes at Levels 2 and 3, andis suitable for students in their fourth andfifth ears of schoolin .

Early Stage 1 1--''------+----------

Stage 1 2-3---S-tage 2 L ~_4--5------ ----2-3--·------·1

Stage 3 ~-=~=-!-----r-3-=4 I* From the National Scientific Literacy Progress Map (MCEETYA, 2005)

Figure 3. Relationships between stages, years of schooling andscientific literacy progress map levels

fCutr'!i"kutiumtre§@utr'e:es;To supportteachers inthe practicalimplementationof the innovativeteachingand learningapproach,PrimaryConnections is developing a suite ofcurriculum units. Each unit containscomprehensive, easy-to-read teacherbackground information and step-by­step lesson guides based on the PrimaryConnections SEs teaching and learningmodel with assessment embedded ateach stage. Appendices explainingsome of the science Iiteracies used,and containing 'How to' sheets fortechniques such as conducting a fairtest and organising cooperative teamsare provided, as well as equipmentlists. The website supports teachers with

in that ideas are developed fromexperiences of science phenomena,prior knowledge, rich discussions,teacher feedback and explanation,and opportunities to represent and re­represent developing understandings.

Embedded assessment. The PrimaryConnections SEs teaching and learningmodel embeds diagnostic, formativeand summative assessment into theteaching and learning process becauseresearch shows that students' priorknowledge and teachers' monitoringof students' learning and the provisionof formative feedback are powerfulfactors influencing achievement (Black &Wiliam, 1998; Hattie, 2003). Embeddingthe diagnostic and formative assessmentsupports teach ing that addressesstudents' alternative conceptions andmoves them towards more scientificallyvalid explanations.

Linking science and literacy. PrimaryConnections recognises that thereare synergies that can be achieved inthe teaching and learning of scienceand literacy. Science-specific as wellas everyday Iiterac1es are requiredby students to effectively engagewith science, construct scienceunderstandings and develop scienceprocesses, and to represent andcommunicate ideas and informationabout science (Gee, 2004; Lernke, 1998;Norris & Phillips, 2003; Unsworth,2001). Primary Connections providesopportunities for students to develop theliteracies needed to learn science and torepresent their science understandingsand processes. Science provides apurpose and context for meaningfulliteracy activities in which studentsinterpret and construct science texts.

Inquiry and investigative approach. Todevelop an understanding of the natureof science (Lederman & l.ederrnan,

2004), an

ngage stu ents an e ICI pnor nowe ge understanding, of scientific

Diagnostic assessment evidence (Gott &xplore--' i ProvldeFiai'laS=on expe:C:r"'le'C::n-:Cce~oTU:t:-=e:-Cp=-C:e:-::n:-=oC=mC:Ce=-::n=-::oC:=n-l Duggan, 1996)

I Formative assessment and to becomeIExplam-- --neveropscfen-c:-:e::-e:=Cx'C::p"la:=Cn::-:a:Lt"'10C:::n7s-"fo:=Cr::-e::::xC-:p""e:-::n''''e7::n-=-ce=-=s=--a=n:=1 scie ntifica IlyI representations of developing understandings Iiterate, students

I Formative assessment need to be-Eiaoo'i'"i,i1e Extend understandmgsfo a new~conteXfoTmaRe engaged in

an inquiryconnections to additional concepts though student oriented andplanned investigations

an investigativei Summative assessment of investigating outcomes

va uat~rRe-represenCunaerstalidlngs, ref ect on earmng approach1 journey and collect evidence about achievement to learning

JI of outcomes science. Primary

ConnectionsI . ~ummativ::_~_s.!essment of conceptual outcomes units include

Hgure 2. The Primary Connections 5Es teaching and leaming both teacher-mode! (Al..lstraiJanAcademy of Science, 20(5) guided and

student-plannedinvestigations so that students canpractise and develop the processes andskills required for working scientifically.

Cooperative learning. PrimaryConnections recognises socialconstructivist principles by providi ngopportunities for cooperative group workin which discussion and negotiationfacilitate eo-construction of meaning.Team roles and skills based on thosedeveloped in the Primary Investigationsprogram (Australian Academy ofScience, 1994) are used to supportcooperative group work in PrimaryConnections. Research has demonstratedthat cooperative learn ing faci Iitates gai nsin achievement, higher order thinking,generation of new ideas, and in socialand communication skills (lohnson &Iohnson, 1994).

teachingscience Volume 53 I Number 3 I September 2007

Connections unit in Term 3. Data werecollected by teacher questionnaire,student questionnaire, case studies andby analysis of student work samples. Afull research report (Hackling & Prain,2005) documents all details of thedata collection, analysis and researchfindings. Impacts of the program onteachers, students and schools arereported here in summary form.

Impact on teachers. Teachers'confidence with nine science andliteracy teaching strategies was assessedon a five poi nt scale. Mean confidencescores increased significantly (p < .05)from 3.34/5 at the beginning of theprogram to 4.04/5 at the end ofTerm2. Teachers' self-efficacy beliefs wereassessed using a 10 item scale based onRiggs and Enochs' (1990) instrument.Teachers' mean total self-efficacy score(/50) increased significantly (p < .05)from 35 to 41, that is, teachers had morepositive beliefs about their effectivenessas teachers of science. Of educationalsignificance, the number of teacherswith low to moderate self-efficacy scores(:530) was reduced from 22 to one bythe end ofTerm 2. Teachers with lowself-efficacy are likely to avoid teachingscience.

Teachers also reported the frequencywith which they used a range of teachingand learning strategies. The strongestincrease in strategy use was recordedfor developing literacy skills needed forlearning science, which suggests thatteachers recognised the importance ofthese ski lis and had the resources andconfidence to teach them. There wasalso a strong increase in the frequencyof use of diagnostic assessment as aconsequence of it being scaffoldedinto Engage lessons, and an increasedfrequency of doing hands-on activities.At the end ofTerm 1, teachers indicatedtheir science teaching had improvedthrough increased hands-on practicalwork, inquiry and investigations,focussing on one topic for a whole term,the 5Es structure, more time on science,

Volume 53 I Number3 I September2007

increased confidence andthe better sequencing andflow between lessons.

The following interviewquotes from trial teachersexemplify the impactof Primary Connectionson their confidence andpedagogical contentknowledge:

... for a start, I'mteaching science, whichis remarkable. Even moreamazing is that I'm awareof how important scienceand good science teachingare to a child's education.What is the bonus for me isthat I'm enjoying teachingscience. (Teacher 46)

I now have more lead-in sessions to a topic/concept, ratherthan just one-off lessons. The teachingin sequence approach over a period oftime is a more meaningful experience foreveryone. (Teacher 27)

I need a book to list how this programhas helped my science teaching. Moreorganised, more contact with outcomes/indicators, confident with experiments,can see a purpose, big picture is muchclearer, can talk (about science) moreconfidently, children have picked up onenthusiasm etc. (Teacher 15)

When asked at the end ofTerm 2, 'Hasyour science teaching improved as aresult of participating in the PrimaryConnections program?', 96 of 97teachers responded 'Yes'. When askedto explain how their science teachinghad improved the teachers identifiedaspects of their knowledge, confidenceand practice that had improved as aresult of participating in the program.Almost a third of teachers indicated theywere now more confident, corroboratingother evidence about confidence andincreased self-efficacy. A fifth indicatedthey had a better understanding of theconcepts and processes of science,

which is indicative ofimproved pedagogicalcontent knowledge(PCK). Improvingteachers' PCK was animportant aim of theprogram.

The amount of sciencetaught increaseddramatically as a resultof the trial and there wasalso a shift from teachingscience mainly in theafternoon to teachingscience in both morningsand afternoons. The

amount of science taught was greatest inTerm 1 of the trial when teachers wereworking with trial Primary Connectionsunits, however, even when workingfrom teacher developed units in Term2 the percentage of teachers teachingless than 30 minutes per week wasreduced from 27% to 11% and thepercentage teaching an hour or moreper week had increased from 31% to62%. Time on task has been recognisedas a fundamental variable influencinglearning as it determines learningopportunity. Clearly this program hasgiven students in the trial schools farmore opportunity to learn science.

Impact on students. Eighty-seven percent of teachers reported that studentshad responded positively or verypositively to the Primary Connectionsactivities and learning approach.Seventy-six percent of teachers rated theamount of students' science learningwith Primary Connections as better thanprevious and 78% indicated thatthequality of students' science learning wasbetter than previous.

To provide a measure of learningachievement, the science journals ofthree classesof students who completedthe Plants in Action unit at one of thecase study schools were analysed.The students represented two intactclasses of Year5 students and the Year5 students from a combined Year 4/5class.The work samples generated in theEngage and Evaluate lessons were ratedagainst levels in the National ScientificLiteracy Progress Map (MCEETYA,2005). To provide a more fine-grainedanalysis, levels of achievement werefurther subdivided into the sublevels-i­developing, consolidating and achieved.Explicit criteria for levels and sublevelswere defined and dual coding byconsensus of two experienced coders

teachingscience

ensured a high level of coding reliability.

At the beginning of the unit the modallevel of achievement was Level 2Consolidating and at the end of the unitit had risen to Level 3 Consolidating.Levels were converted to scores tofacilitate calculation of means andstatistical comparison of Engage andEvaluate mean scores.The mean scorehad more than doubled over the courseof the unit and at the end of the unit78% of theseYear 5 students wereworking at or beyond Level 3 in theirconceptual understandings of plant lifecycles. Level 3 is the national proficiencystandard for Year 6 students' scientificliteracy.

Impact on schools. Trial teachers'perceptions of the status of science intheir schools were elicited in the teacherquestionnaires. Teachers were asked torank science in importance relative tonine other learning areas. The percentageof teachers indicating science was inthe top three subjects doubled from24% to 50% as a result of the PrimaryConnections trial in their schools. Whenprincipals of trial schools were asked'What impact has Primary Connectionshad on your school?', the most commonresponses were: it has raised the profileof science in my school; the wholeschool is involved in teaching science;science teaching has improved; and,more science is being taught in myschool.

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Primary Connections is a nationalinitiative that aims to reform the teachingof science in Australian primary schoolsand enhance learning outcomes inscience and the Iiteracies of science.The project supports inservice teacherswith professional learning workshopsand curriculum resources illustratingthe Primary Connections approachto teaching and learning. By January2008 approximately 300 professionallearning facilitators will have beentrained to facilitate workshops in schoolsthroughout Austral ia. University scienceeducators from all Australian universitiesthat offer teacher education courses haveattended a workshop on the PrimaryConnections approach to science andliteracy teaching and learning. Elementsof the Primary Connections approachare being incorporated into sciencecurriculum units in initial teachereducation courses to ensure that newgraduates are familiar with the programand its approach to science teaching andlearning,

Research data from the trial of PrimaryConnections in 2005 indicates thatthe program has had a positive impact

teachingscience

on teachers, students and schools. Theprogram improved teachers' confidence,self-efficacy and practice, students'learning, and the status of science withinschools. The combination of professionallearning and being supported in theirteaching with curriculum resourcesenhances teachers' confidence, self­efficacy and practice through buildingscience pedagogical content knowledge.As a consequence of increasedconfidence and self-efficacy and usingthe curriculum resources, the teachersincreased the amount of time they taughtscience. Teachers improved practiceand teaching time increased students'opportunity for learning science whichresulted in strong science achievementgains.

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This project and associated research isfunded by the Australian Government j

Department of Education, Science andTraining as a quality teacher initiativeunder the Austral ian GovernmentQual ity Teacher Programme.

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Further information about PrimaryConnections and the research reporton the 2005 trial of the program isavailable at www.science.org~primaryconnecti0 ns

~eie!{'eli1(f:;®SAngus, M., Olney, H., Ainley, )., Caldwell, B., Burke,G., Selleck, R., & Spinks. J. (2004). The sufficiencyof resources for Australian primary schools.Canberra: DEST.Appleton, K. (1995). Student teachers' confidence toteach science. Is more science knowledge necessaryto improve self-confidence? International Journal ofScience Education, 17,357-369.Australian Academy of Science. (1994). PdmaryInvestigations. Canberra: Australian Academy ofScience.Australian Academy of Science. (2005). PrimaryConnections: Plants in action. Canberra: AustralianAcademy of Science.Australian Science,Technology and EngineeringCouncil (ASTEC}. (1997). Foundations for Australia'sfuture: Science and technology in pdmaryschools.Canberra: Australian Government PublishingService.Black, P:, & Wiliam, D. (1998). Inside the black box:Raisingstandards through classroom assessment.Phi Delta Kappan, 80(2),139-148.Bybee, R. W. (1997). Achieving scientific literacy:From purposes to practical action. Portsmouth, NH:Heinemann.Gee,). P. (2004). Language in the scienceclassroom:Academic social languagesas theheart of school-based literacy. In E.W. Saul (Ed.l,Crossing borders in literacy and science instruction:Perspectives in theory and practice (pp. 13-32).Newark, DE: international Reading Association/National ScienceTeachers Association.Gess-Newsome,J. (1999). Pedagogicalcontentknowledge: An introduction and orientation. In J.Cess-Newsome & N.G. Lederman [Eds.], Examiningpedagogical knowledge: The construct and itsimplication for science education. Dordrecht:Kluwer Academic Publishers.Goodrum, D., Hackling, M., & Rennie, L. (2001).The status and qualify of teaching and learning ofscience in Australian schools: A research report.Canberra: Department of Education, Training and

YouthAffairs.Coodrum, D., Hackling, M. & Trotter, H. (2003).Collaborative Australian Secondary ScienceProgrem: Pilot study. Perth: Edith Cowan University.Gott, R., & Duggan, S.(1996). Practical work: Itsrole in the understanding of evidence in science.International journal of Science Education, 18(7).Hackling, M. W. & Prain,V. (2005). PrimaryConnections: Stage 2 Trial: Research ReportCanberra: Australian Academy of Science.Hattie, J. (2003). Teachers make a difference:What is the research evidence? Paperpresented atthe Australian Council for Educational ResearchConference on Building TeacherQuality.lohnson, R.1. & johnson, D. W. (1994). An overviewof cooperative learning. In J.Thousand, A. Villa & A.Nevin (Eds). Creativity and colteboretive learning.Baltimore: Brookes Press.t.awrance, G. A. & Palmer, D. H. (2003). Cleverteacher, clever sciences: Preparing teachers for thechallenge of teaching science, mathematics andtechnology in 21st Century Australia. Canberra:DES1.Lederman, N. G., & l.ederman, J.S.(2004). Natureof science and scientific inquiry. In G. Venville &V. Dawson (Eds.), The art ofscience teaching inAustralian schools. Melbourne: Alien and Unwin.l.emke, J.(1998)Multiplying meaning: Visual andverbal semiotics in scientific text. In L Martin & R.Veel (Eds.)Reading science: Critical and iunctionelperspectives on discourses of science. London;Roulledge.Ministerial Council on Education,Employment,Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA). (2005).National Year6 science assessment report: 2003.Melbourne: Curriculum Corporation.Ministerial Council on Education, Employment,Training and YouthAffairs (MCEETYA). (2006).Statements of learning for science. Melbourne:Curriculum Corporation.Non'is, S. P., & Phillips, L. M. (2003). How literacyin its fundamental senseis central to scientificliteracy. Science Education, 87,224-240.Palmer, D. H. (2001). factors contributing to attitudeexchange amongstpreservice elementary teachers.Science Education, 86, 122-138.Peers, C. (5.) E., (2006). Making a Difference:Primary Connections Stage 3 Project BriefCanberra: Australian Academy of Science.Retrieved on 1 June2006 from www.science.org..aulprimarvconnectionsRiggs, I. & Enochs, L. (1990). Towards thedevelopment of an elementary teacher'sscienceteachi ng efficacy belief instrument. ScienceEducation, 74, 625-637.Sheffield, R. (2004). Facilitating teacher professionallearning: Analysing the impect of an Australianprofessional learning model in secondary science.Unpublished PhD thesis,Edith Cowan University,Perth,Western Australia.Thornson, S. & Hernlng, N. (2004). Examining theevidence: Science achievement in Australian schoolsin TlMSS 2002. Camberwell, Victoria: AustralianCouncil for Educational Research,Iytler, R. (2002). School Innovation in Science (5i$):Focussingon teaching. Investigating, 18(3), 8-11.Unsworth, L. (2001)Teaching multiliterecies acrossthe curriculum: Changing contexts of text and imagein classroom practice. Buckingham, UK: OpenUniversity Press.vates,S. & Coodrum, D. (1990). How confidentare primary school teachers in teaching ...-;:-'.._.Research in Science Education, 20, 300-305.

rA~--~------------'I~bou[ the authorsMark Hackling works at Edith CowanUniversity, WA.

Shel!ey Peers is Managing Director ofPrimary Connections, Australian Academyof Science, I\CT.

Vaughan Prain works at LaTrobeUniversit r Victoria.

Volume 53 I Number3 I September2007