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PRINCIPALS’ ROLE IN PROMOTING USE AND INTEGRATION OF
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN PUBLIC
SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN WARENG SUB-COUNTY, KENYA
MICHAEL TANUI
A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Education in Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirement for the Award of a Degree of Master of Education in
Educational Administration and Planning of the Catholic University of
Eastern Africa
2013
ii
DECLARATION
This thesis is my original work and has not been presented in any other college or university
for the award of a degree. Information obtained from other sources has been appropriately
acknowledged.
Michael Tanui Sign ___________________________
Reg. No. 1020356
Date ___________________________
This thesis has been submitted for our review and approval as university supervisors.
Dr. Marcella Momanyi,
Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Education & Sign ___________________________
HoD, Educational Administration & Planning,
The Catholic University of Eastern Africa Date ___________________________
Dr. Elizabeth Ngumbi,
Lecturer, Faculty of Education & Sign ___________________________
HoD, Curriculum Studies & Instruction,
The Catholic University of Eastern Africa Date ___________________________
iii
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to my dear daughters Barbara Jelagat and Patience Jepchirchir for
their love and faith in their father, my lovely mother Caroline Kabon and my siblings for their
unwavering support and encouragement during my studies.
iv
ABSTRACT
The emergence of Information and Communication Technologies and knowledge economies
has ushered in a paradigm shift in education. Traditional paperwork is being overtaken by
electronic devices as the standard working tools in educational institutions. The need to
assess the role of public secondary school principals in promoting the use and
institutionalization of ICTs for teaching, learning and school management has become
increasingly necessary. Principals now manage technology-mediated institutions, digital
information and virtual interactions. Teachers are becoming facilitators fostering lifelong
learning and equipping learners to look for information on their own. This study investigated
the extent of use of ICT resources, principals’ role, challenges and strategies they employ. A
mixed methods research was carried which concurrently integrated cross sectional survey and
phenomenology designs. Probability and non probability sampling procedures were used.
Sampling yielded 15 schools and 109 participants comprising 15 principals, 30 heads of
departments, 60 teachers and 4 education officials. Data was collected using questionnaires,
interview guides and observation schedules. Pilot testing was carried out on 6 principals, 8
HoDs and 10 teachers and the findings used to determine the validity, reliability and
improvement of research instruments. The questionnaires for principals, HoDs and teachers’
yielded an overall Cronbach’s alpha reliability index of 0.756. Quantitative data was analyzed
using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 and presented using
frequencies, means, percentages, tables and pie charts. Qualitative data was analyzed and
categorized into themes and presented in form of narratives and direct quotes. Most public
secondary schools in Wareng Sub-County had basic ICT hardware and software resources
which were mainly distributed and frequently used for school management tasks and
computer studies subject unlike for other subjects’ teaching and learning. Plans existed in
schools, mainly to build ICT physical and human infrastructure. There was low availability of
ICT schedules. Most schools had no incentives to motivate teachers and learners to use
computers. Majority of principals hardly used computers making them weak examples to the
rest of the school community. Some written rules existed mainly for computer laboratories
but the unwritten rules existed which brought many controls thus limiting the distribution,
access and efficient uses of available ICT resources. Challenges included low ICT literacy
levels among teachers and students, weak schools’ ICT policies and absence of clarified roles
for principals, technophobia, inadequate computer studies teachers and principals’ low levels
of ICT skills limiting their ability to supervise effective and efficient use of ICT resources.
Principals should mobilize parents and other alternative sources for ICT funds, develop
school ICT policies, require and facilitate each teacher to procure a laptop and make
computer studies compulsory in form 1 and 2. The study recommends that the Ministry of
Education should specify ICT roles for public secondary school principals in the use of
available ICT resources for teaching, learning and school management. Computer donations
should be distributed to poorer schools and to other key sections in schools such as
staffrooms. The MoE should formulate a policy requiring every teacher to procure a laptop.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Firstly, I would like to thank the almighty God for enabling me to carry out my
studies. Secondly, I am greatly indebted to my supervisors Dr. Marcella Momanyi and Dr.
Elizabeth Ngumbi for their guidance, direction and patience as they took me step by step
throughout all the stages of preparing this research thesis. They were a great source of
inspiration and their tireless efforts were far beyond the call of teaching
Thirdly, I thank my lecturers: Mr. Edward Ombajo, Mr. Stephen Mailu, Dr. Pauline
Nam and Rev. Fr. Prof. Fredrick Mvumbi for their expert advice and willingness to help
whenever I consulted them. I also appreciate my coursework lecturers in the department of
Post Graduate Studies in Education for their devoted and enlightening teaching which has
contributed immensely towards my academic achievement.
Fourthly, I would like to express my appreciation to my colleague Mr. Mark
Chemweno for facilitating my request for studies and to the Teachers Service Commission
(TSC) for granting me study leave. Many thanks to my friends; Mrs Winnie Musili, Ms
Jennifer Kiprono, Mr. Elijah Koech and Mr. Isaac Cheruiyot for their invaluable financial and
moral support. Last but not least, I would like to thank my colleagues for their rich academic
deliberations and collegial support and willingness to read and critique my work and whose
remarks refined this thesis. I appreciate the principals, heads of departments, teachers,
District Education Officer, District Human Resource Officer, District Quality Assurance and
Standards Officer and Examinations Officer of Wareng Sub-County for taking their time to
give information needed for this study. My gratitude too goes to all those who in one way or
another participated and contributed to the success of this study and are not mentioned by
name herein.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ................................................................................................................ ii
DEDICATION .................................................................................................................... iii
ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ v
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................... vi
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... xi
APPENDICES .................................................................................................................... xi
LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. xii
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ........................................................... xv
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background of the Study ............................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 Evolution of Information and Communication Technologies ............................. 2
1.1.2 Global Adoption of ICT in Education ................................................................ 4
1.1.3 Regional ICT Uptake in Education ...................................................................... 5
1.1.4 Adoption of ICT in Kenya’s Education .............................................................. 6
1.2 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................. 8
1.3 Research Questions ...................................................................................................... 10
1.4 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................. 10
1.5 Scope and Delimitations of the Study........................................................................... 11
1.6 Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DOI) ......................................................................... 12
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1.6.1 Categorization of Adopters in DOI ..................................................................... 13
1.6.2 The Process of Innovation Adoption .................................................................. 15
1.6.3 Strengths of Diffusion of Innovation Theory ...................................................... 16
1.6.4 Weaknesses of Diffusion of Innovation Theory .................................................. 16
1.6.5 Justification for Using DOI Theory .................................................................... 17
1.7. Role Theory .................................................................................................................. 17
1.7.1 Strengths of Role Theory .................................................................................... 18
1.7.2 Weaknesses of Role Theory ............................................................................... 18
1.7.3 Justification for Using Role Theory .................................................................... 20
1.8 Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................ 21
1.9 Operational Definition of Key Terms ............................................................................ 25
CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................. 27
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ...................................................................... 27
2.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 27
2.1 Use and Integration of ICT in Education ..................................................................... 27
2.1.1 Concept of ICT .................................................................................................... 27
2.1.2 Concept of ICT in Education ............................................................................... 29
2.1.3 Concept of Use and Integration of ICT in Education ......................................... 30
2.2 Kenya Educational ICT Policies and Plans ................................................................. 31
2.2.1 National Information and Communication Technology Policy 2005 .................. 31
2.2.2 Ministry of Education Strategic Plan 2008-2012 ................................................ 32
2.2.3 National Information and Communication Technology Master Plan 2017 ......... 33
2.3 Principals’ Managerial Skills ......................................................................................... 34
2.3.1 Principals’ Role in Conceptual Skills ................................................................. 35
viii
2.3.2 Principals’ Role in Human Skills ........................................................................ 35
2.3.3 Principals’ Role in Technical Skills .................................................................... 36
2.4 Information and Communication Technology Management Role of Principals .......... 38
2.4.1 Principals’ Planning Role for ICT ...................................................................... 38
2.4.2 Principals’ Organizing Role for ICT .................................................................. 39
2.4.3 Principals’ Leading Role for ICT ........................................................................ 40
2.4.4 Principals’ Controlling Role for ICT ................................................................... 40
2.5 Uses and Integration of ICT in Education .................................................................... 41
2.6 Challenges Facing Principals’ in their Roles to Use and Integrate ICT ....................... 44
2.7 Strategies used by Principals to Promote Use and Integration of ICT .......................... 48
2.8 Empirical Studies Related to Principals’ Role in Use and Integration of ICT .............. 50
2.8.1 Critique of Literature and Knowledge Gap ........................................................ 61
CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 64
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY .......................................................... 64
3.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 64
3.1 Research Design .......................................................................................................... 64
3.2 Target Population .......................................................................................................... 66
3.3 Research Location......................................................................................................... 67
3.4 Description of Sample and Sampling Procedures ......................................................... 67
3.4.1 Schools ................................................................................................................ 69
3.4.2 Principals ............................................................................................................ 70
3.4.3 Heads of Departments ....................................................................................... 70
3.4.4 Teachers .............................................................................................................. 71
3.4.5 Education Officials ............................................................................................. 72
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3.5 Description of Research Instruments ........................................................................... 72
3.5.1 Questionnaires for Principals .............................................................................. 72
3.5.2 Questionnaires for Heads of Departments .......................................................... 73
3.5.3 Questionnaires for Teachers ............................................................................... 73
3.5.4 Interview Guide for Education Officials ............................................................. 74
3.5.5 Researcher’s Observation Schedule .................................................................... 74
3.6 Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments ......................................................... 75
3.6.1Validity of Research Instruments ......................................................................... 75
3.6.2 Pilot Testing ........................................................................................................ 76
3.6.3 Quantitative Reliability of Research Instruments ............................................... 76
3.6.4 Qualitative Reliability of Research Instruments ................................................. 77
3.7 Description of Data Collection Procedures .................................................................. 78
3.8 Description of Data Analysis Procedures ..................................................................... 79
3.9 Ethical Considerations ................................................................................................. 80
CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 82
DATA PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION & DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS .. 82
4.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 82
4.1 Questionnaire Return Rate ........................................................................................... 82
4.2 Demographic Information............................................................................................. 82
4.2.1 Gender of Respondents ...................................................................................... 82
4.2.2 Age of Respondents ............................................................................................ 84
4.2.3 Highest Academic Qualifications of Respondents ............................................. 85
4.2.4 Training Attended in Educational Management ................................................. 86
4.2.5 Computer Training Attended by Respondents ................................................... 87
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4.2.6 Teachers’ and Students’ Enrollment ................................................................... 90
4.3 Extent of Use and Integration of ICT Resources .......................................................... 91
4.3.1 Availability of ICT Software Resources ............................................................ 91
4.3.2 Frequency of Use of ICT Software Resources ................................................... 93
4.3.3 Availability of ICT Hardware Resources ........................................................... 96
4.3.4 Frequency of Use of ICT Hardware Resources .................................................. 98
4.3.5 Distribution of Computers ................................................................................... 104
4.3.6 Extent of Use of ICT Resources to Perform Management Tasks ...................... 106
4.3.7 Extent of Use of ICT Resources to Perform Teaching Tasks ............................ 110
4.3.8 Extent of Use of ICT Resources to Perform Learning Tasks ............................. 113
4.4 Principals’ Role in Promoting the Use and Integration of ICT .................................... 116
4.4.1 Principals’ Planning Role to Promote Use and Integration of ICT .................... 116
4.4.2 Principals’ Organizing Role to Promote Use and Integration of ICT ................ 118
4.4.3 Principals’ Leading Role to Promote Use and Integration of ICT ..................... 120
4.4.4 Principals’ Controlling Role to Promote Use and Integration of ICT ................ 122
4.5 Challenges Facing Principals in Promoting use and Integration of ICT ..................... 124
4.5.1 Challenges Facing Principals in Promoting ICT for Management .................... 125
4.5.2 Challenges Facing Principals in Promoting ICT for Teaching .......................... 126
4.5.3 Challenges Facing Principals in Promoting ICT for Learning ........................... 126
4.6 Strategies Used by Principals to Promote Use and Integration of ICT ......................... 127
CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................................. 129
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ....................................... 129
5.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 129
5.1 Summary of the Findings .............................................................................................. 130
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5.1.1 Extent ICT Resources are used in the School .................................................... 130
5.1.2 Principals’ Role in Promoting Use and Integration of ICT ................................ 132
5.1.3 Challenges Facing Principals in Promoting Use and Integration of ICT ........... 133
5.1.4 Strategies by Principals’ to Promote Use and Integration of ICT ...................... 134
5.2 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 135
5.3 Recommendations ......................................................................................................... 136
5.4 Suggestions for Further Research ................................................................................. 137
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 138
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................... 146
Appendix I Questionnaire for Principals ................................................................... 146
Appendix II: Questionnaire for Heads of Department and Teachers .......................... 152
Appendix III: Interview Guide for Education Officials ................................................ 158
Appendix IV: Observation Schedule ............................................................................ 159
Appendix V: Letter from National Council for Science and Technology ................... 160
Appendix VI: Research Clearance Permit ...................................................................... 161
Appendix VII: Letter from Wareng District Education Officer ...................................... 162
Appendix VIII: Letter from Deputy County Commissioner, Wareng Sub-County .......... 163
Appendix IX: Reliability Indexes for Questionnaires ................................................... 164
Appendix X: Map of Uasin Gishu County ................................................................... 165
Appendix XI: Map of Wareng Sub-County ................................................................... 166
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Target Population in Wareng Sub-County ....................................................... 66
Table 2: Schools’ Sample Survey Frame ....................................................................... 68
Table 3: Participants’ Sample Survey Frame .................................................................. 69
Table 4: Reliability Indexes ............................................................................................ 77
Table 5: Age of Research Respondents .......................................................................... 84
Table 6: Highest Academic Qualification ....................................................................... 85
Table 7: Mean Enrollment for Teachers, Students and Computer Studies Subject ........ 90
Table 8: Views on Availability of Software .................................................................... 92
Table 9: Frequency of Use of Available Software .......................................................... 94
Table 10: Views on Availability and Quantity of Hardware Resources ........................... 97
Table 11: Principals’ Views on Frequency of Use of Hardware Resources ..................... 99
Table 12: HoDs’ Views on Frequency of Use of Hardware Resources ............................ 101
Table 13: Teachers’ Views on Frequency of Use of Hardware Resources ....................... 103
Table 14: Distribution of Computers Public Secondary Schools ...................................... 104
Table 15: Extent of Management Tasks According to Principals ..................................... 106
Table 16: Extent of Management Tasks According to Heads of Departments ................. 108
Table 17: Extent of Management Tasks According to Teachers ...................................... 109
Table 18: Extent of Teaching Tasks According to Principals ........................................... 110
Table 19: Extent of Teaching Tasks According to Heads of Department ........................ 111
Table 20: Extent of Teaching Tasks According to Teachers ............................................ 112
Table 21: Extent of Learning Tasks According to Principals ........................................... 113
Table 22: Extent of Learning Tasks According to Heads of Departments ....................... 114
Table 23: Extent of Learning Tasks According to Teachers ............................................. 115
xiii
Table 24: Availability of ICT Organizational Activities and Programs ........................... 119
Table 25: Frequency of Principals Using Computers ....................................................... 120
Table 26: Principals’ Support towards Promoting the Use of Computers ........................ 121
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Adopter Categories and Proportion in Diffusion of Innovations Theory ........ 13
Figure 2: Principals’ Role and Use and Integration of ICT ............................................. 21
Figure 3: Proportion of Managerial Skills and Managerial Levels ................................. 37
Figure 4: Gender of Principals ......................................................................................... 83
Figure 5: Gender of Heads of Department ....................................................................... 83
Figure 6: Gender of Teachers .......................................................................................... 83
Figure 7: Principles Trained in Educational Management .............................................. 86
Figure 8: Principals’ Level of Training in Educational Management .............................. 87
Figure 9: Principals’ Computer Training.......................................................................... 87
Figure 10: Heads of Department’s Computer Training ..................................................... 88
Figure 11: Teachers’ Computer Training ......................................................................... 89
Figure 12: Level of Schools’ Priority According to Principals ......................................... 117
Figure 13: Level of Schools’ Priority According to Heads of Department ....................... 117
Figure 14: Level of Schools’ Priority According to Teachers ........................................... 118
Figure 15: Availability of Written Rules According to Principals .................................... 123
Figure 16: Availability of Written Rules According to Heads of Department ................. 123
Figure 17: Availability of Written Rules According to Teachers ....................................... 123
xv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
BoM Board of Management
CFSK Computers for Schools Kenya
CHE Commission for Higher Education
CT Communication Technology
DEO District Education Officer
DHRO District Human Resource Officer
DQASO District Quality Standards and Assurance Officer
DVD Digital Versatile Disk
EFMIS Educational Financial Management Information Systems
E-MAIL Electronic Mail
EMIS Education Management Information Systems
EO Examinations Officer
FDSE Free Day Secondary Education
GITR Global Information Technology Report
HoD Head of Department
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IP Internet Protocol
IT Information Technology
KCSE Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education
KEMI Kenya Education Management Institute
KENET Kenya Education Network
KESI Kenya Education Staff Institute
KESSP Kenya Education Sector Support Programme
KSSHA Kenya Secondary Schools Heads Association
MoE Ministry of Education
NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development
PTA Parents Teachers Association
SEnet Schools Education Network
SMC School Management Committee
SMS Short Message Service
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences
TCP Transmission Control Protocol
TQM Total Quality Management
TSC Teachers Service Commission
WWW World Wide Web
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Education is in a period of change that is both rapid and continuous and the driving
force has been the development of information and communication technology (ICT). It is
increasingly becoming important to consider whether current leadership conceptions on
educational management in a technology-mediated environment are useful (Gurr, 2004).
Traditionally, human beings have relied on various forms of information and
communication technologies availed by the scientific progress of the day for various
purposes. Prehistoric cave drawings are considered among the first forms of human
technology for information and communication. Others were use of fire and smoke signals,
drum beats, horns and carrier-pigeons (Sarfin, 2012). Absence of well developed and written
languages led to drawing of pictures such as hieroglyphics to represent objects and sounds of
past events that words could not. Use of letters represented particular sounds and replaced
pictures. Stringing letters together created words. For hundreds of years, documents were
written and copied by hand until block printing emerged followed by Johannes Gutenberg’s
printing machine. However, it took days or weeks for the written word, limited to those
endowed with literacy technology, to arrive at its destination (McHenry, 1993).
In late 18th
century, French scientists developed faster communication equipment
that used light to transmit signals which was later improved by the telegraph machine (Sarfin,
2012). The principle behind the telegraph’s ability to transform speech into an electrical
signal and back into speech led to the invention of the telephone which relegated the
telegraph’s popularity to become a thing of the past (McHenry, 1993; Sarfin, 2012). Other
recent information and communication technologies include the radio, television (TV),
satellites and more recently computers, internet and networking innovations such as Face
2
Book, My Space, LinkedIn, Twitter and Skype. According to Gurr, (2004), advances in ICT
are changing educational settings by altering old management roles and making it timely to
consider whether our current school leadership conceptions are relevant.
Teachers have always relied on textbooks for information while principals facilitated
school management using paper, files, letters, landline telephones and words of mouth
channeled though students to parents. Initially, teaching and learning relied on the teacher as
source of information and the use of technologies such as traditional textbooks, exercise
books, pens, pencils, erasers, chalk and chalkboard to facilitate storage, retrieval and
conveyance of information to learners. Educational ICTs now places emphasis on the ability
of principals to facilitate the uses of technology for teaching, learning and management
(Gurr, 2004).
1.1.1 Evolution of Information and Communication Technologies
The real novelties in ICTs began with the development of electronics which are
solid-state integrated circuits, which harness electrical power in miniature forms and facilitate
the generation, recording, receiving, processing, storage, transmission or display of analog or
digital data (McHenry, 1993; Business Dictionary, 2011). Generations of computers have
evolved and each reflected a change to hardware of decreased size but with increased
capabilities to control computer operations (Hwee, Xiang, Canggadibrata, Qi & Jing, 2008).
The miniaturization of electronics hence microelectronics combined with the calculating
possibilities of computers and the global reach of telecommunications facilities, have greatly
transformed people’s ability to individually acquire, store, manipulate, use and disseminate
information in numeric, texts, pictures and sounds (Cole, 2004).
During the first half of 20th
century, the industrial revolution changed the agricultural
society to industrial society, while in the second half, there emerged a shift towards the use of
technology in production, distribution and manipulation of information hence the modern
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knowledge society. The production and exchange of information is a key feature in both the
modern economy and social life. This era is now referred to as ‘information society’,
‘knowledge economy’, ‘third industrial revolution’ or digital economy’ since it is driven by
data, information and knowledge (Skinner, 2012; Melody, 2011). Forester (1987) therefore
observed that the nations of the world are caught up in an information and technological
revolution which is bringing about dramatic changes in the way people work, learn and live
in society. Information and communication revolution trends have changed from telephony to
the internet, fixed to mobile telephone, narrowband to broadband, TVs to multimedia
convergence hence smart devices such as computers with digital broadcasting functions,
smart phones and smart TVs (Kagami, Tsuji & Govannetti, 2004). The increases in
knowledge transmitted via ICTs makes information to have a half-life since it constantly
undergo revision. This is drastically transforming schools from being mere venues for the
transmission of a prescribed set of information from teacher to student over a fixed period of
time (Tinio, 2003). Today's literate crowds are not those who can read and write but rather
those who can learn, unlearn and relearn (Lewis, 2012; Tinio, 2003).
Computers were originally designed to perform complex mathematical equations
(McHenry, 1993) but as White (2008) posited, they have matured to become
communications, productivity and social networking platforms with no precedent in history.
Human communications throughout history have been verbal and written but now they
largely operate electronically and globally and yet at the same time more personally
contributing significantly to globalization. Because the world is now a ‘global village’, both
work and social activities are commonly shared by groups of people who need not be
geographically near each other to be close (The New Media Consortium, 2007).
Electronic devices including computers, the internet have become more and more
ubiquitous (Tinio, 2003) and hence have established themselves as the standard working tools
4
in offices and educational institutions, dramatically aiding the shift from the traditional
paperwork to the electronic work places (Forester, 1987). Principals, teachers, learners and
machines have become increasingly interconnected through the internet, intranets and
extranets which are now more accessible and immediate. Melody (2011) adds that the
internet has become publicly accessible even via mobile phones. According to Wilmore
(2000), any educational system is in a situation of permanent change. Many of the
developments result from technological innovations which are adapted in varying degrees in
different parts of the world. In order for education to remain globally relevant and
competitive in the world of which it is part of, it must adapt to these changes.
1.1.2 Global Adoption of ICT in Education
Globally, Sweden and Singapore top the rankings of The Global Information
Technology Report (GITR) 2010-2011 as the most innovative and digitized nations. Along
with other European, North American and some Asian countries, they are on the forefront in
leveraging ICT to transform their economies. The top 20 countries come from these regions.
The GITR of 2012 surveyed 138 countries and measured among others the availability of
latest ICT technologies, access to electronic and basic services through ICT such as e-
learning, internet access in schools, internet bandwidth, use of e-mails, virtual social
networks and mobile telephone subscriptions among others. Latin America and the Caribbean
lag behind in adopting the ICT and technology (Dutta & Bibao, 2012).
Singapore is very well keeping up with the pace of technology and education. One of
the strengths of Singapore’s education system is its focus on integration of ICT into the
classroom. School principals, teachers and the use of ICTs form the cornerstone of
Singapore's education system. The government places high emphasis on the education of its
people as a resource and is extremely willing to put in money to fund schools to acquire the
necessary ICT resources for their students. It is nurturing a 'Net-savvy' workforce by making
5
a large fraction of the school curriculum to be computer based in order to establish Singapore
as the electronic learning hub for the Asian region. Currently, almost all schools in Singapore
have fully-equipped computer laboratories for use by their students. Learners brought up with
a relatively more IT-savvy background, are highly adaptable to using computers hence are
relatively more IT-savvy as compared to those of neighbouring countries (Hwee et al, 2008).
1.1.3 Regional ICT Uptake in Education
Sub-Saharan Africa’s 2012 GITR’s ranking of the level of ICT readiness is still very
low due to insufficient infrastructure which largely remains costly. Africa has low levels of
skills that do not allow for an efficient use of the available technology. Nine of the last ten
countries in GITR report belong to the African region which serves as evidence to the digital
divide that it suffers vis-à-vis more developed regions of the world (Dutta & Bibao, 2012).
Digital divide is the disparity in the access to ICTs among countries or within both advanced
and developing countries in terms of the gap between socio-economic groups e.g. countryside
and urban areas, the rich and the poor (Kagami et al 2004; Republic of Kenya, 2006).
On the contrary, Africa’s mobile phones uptake is exceptionally impressive. There
were fewer than 20million mobile phone users in Africa in 2001 and a decade later, there
were more than 500 million subscribers yet the continent is only at the initial stages of
digitization. Digitization constitutes the mass adoption by consumers, government sectors and
businesses of smart and connected ICT (Dutta & Bibao, 2012). The principles behind the
wide diffusion of mobile phones in Africa should be borrowed and applied on the appropriate
ICT technologies such as the use computers for learning, teaching and schools management.
The internet which is a source of immeasurable educational information for learners
has diffused at a faster rate than earlier generations of communications. Internet diffusion
depends on three factors; availability of network’s penetration, accessibility via an ICT
enabled device and affordability (Kagami et al, 2004). Africa’s internet user population is
6
still low as it was only 1.86% in 2000, grew by 874.6% to reach 4.7% in 2007 (Ngugi, 2007)
and now stands at 34.1%. Some internet penetration rate in 2011include 21.0% in South
Africa, 12.0% in Tanzania, 13.0% in Uganda and 15.7% in Zimbabwe (Schwab, 2012).
1.1.4 Adoption of ICT in Kenya’s Education
The Kenya Education Sector Report 2013/2014 - 2015/2016 Medium Term
Expenditure Framework accounted that the education sector continues to experience “slow
pace of ICT integration” (Republic of Kenya, 2012, p. 10). Youne (2006) identified five areas
that are problematic regarding government policy implementation of ICT in schools, one
being related to management. The Kenya National ICT Policy was rolled out to among others
promote the use and integration of ICT in education and it envisioned the need for high level
ICT leadership and championship in public schools (Republic of Kenya, 2006a).
Kenya’s ICT policy seeks to promote the “use of internet for education, training and
research” (Republic of Kenya, 2004, p. 69). In 2011, internet penetration rate in Kenya stood
at 28.0% in Kenya which represents about 12 million users. This is a major rise from 4.7% in
2007 which represented approximately 1 million users (Schwab, 2012). The World Wide
Web (WWW) creates a platform making interactive communication possible through sharing
of files, documents, dialogue and graphics thus making the hegemony of formal education
with the leaders, teachers and textbooks to draw to a close because they are no longer the sole
sources of information. Tiony (2012) noted that the use of ICT in education promotes greater
accountability, increased efficiency and cost-effectiveness and the role of public secondary
school principals in ensuring effectiveness to this end is paramount.
Sessional paper no. 14 of 2012 entitled Reforming Education and Training in Kenya
states that the government recognizes that an ICT literate workforce is the foundation on
which the country can acquire the status of a knowledge economy which is in tandem with
Kenya Vision 2030. Education is therefore being made the platform for equipping the nation
7
with ICT skills, supply ICT equipment and e-content and training of teachers (Republic of
Kenya, 2012d). The use and integration ICT and ICT education seeks to tow away from an
overcrowded and disjointed curriculum with an apparent focus on learning and memorizing
for an examination and with minimal understanding devoid of practical real world
applications. Education leadership should ensure that graduates churned out should be able to
creatively apply knowledge (Trucano, Hawkins, Voytsehovska, Foley, Aturupane, &
Jagannathan, 2011).
During the 2011/2012 Medium Term Expenditure Framework, the Ministry of
Education (MoE) sub sector equipped 243 secondary schools with computer labs and trained
2,375 secondary teachers in ICT, (Republic of Kenya, 2012). This represents a paltry about
3.0% and 5.0% consecutively and the teacher-capacity building ratio is not only small, but
the training program did not target principals who play a critical role in determining effective
management of the ICT resources. However, this is in line with Vision 2030 goal of
establishing a computer supply program that will equip students with modern ICT skills.
School principals facilitate selection and recruitment of ICT teachers, procurement of ICTs,
ensure appropriate recording in inventories, determine distribution, effective utilization,
determine ICT access, instill a maintenance culture, regular auditing, inculcating right
attitudes among all members of school community as well as disciplinary structures for
improper use and handling of ICT resources (Teklemariam & Nam, 2011).
Principals should therefore possess and demonstrate competency in managerial skills
for effective use and integration of technology (Teklemariam, 2009). There is urgent need to
apply the global shift brought about by ICTs in teaching, learning, creativity and institutional
management (The New Media Consortium, 2007). The pivotal role of school managers in the
use and integration of ICT is fundamental if the education sector is to achieve its goals and
compete effectively on the global platform. Successful implementation of ICT in schools will
8
only be realized if the principal actively supports it, learns it as well, provide professional
development and support staff in the process of change (Wilmore, 2000).
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The use of Information and Communication Technology in teaching, learning and
school management and the development of leadership and championship are some of the
objectives of the Kenya National ICT Policy (Republic of Kenya, 2006). The traditional
management role of principals in Kenya is documented (Republic of Kenya, 1999; Rinny
Educational Technical Publishing Services, 2010) and more or less known and visibly seen in
their activities by stakeholders. However, schools are increasingly becoming ICT-mediated
environments and principals’ role as far as promoting their use and integration for teaching,
learning and management cannot be pinpointed clearly. Education stakeholders such as
quality assurance and standards officers cannot evaluate principals’ extent of use of ICT if
their roles are not clarified hence the need to define expectations, sanctions and rewards.
The principals’ role contributes significantly to the successes or failures of schools.
Youne (2006) argued that the success of implementing technology in British schools may be
threatened owing to the fact that to “develop key personnel and use them effectively has
remained problematic” (p. 390). It is necessary for principals to take the lead in promoting
the use and integration of ICT in schools because other stakeholders pick on the cues initiated
and sustained by an opinion leader. Waiti, (2010) pointed out that principals should “take
lead in promoting ICT integration in school curriculum to prepare students for the
technological change” (p. 62). However, Mukeka (2008) observed that a large number of
educational administrators in Kibwezi and Nzaui districts of Kenya remain reluctant and
skeptical in the use of computers.
Ordinarily, public secondary schools, in comparison to public primary schools,
possess some essential ICT resources and are generally endowed with more financial
9
resources which may be used to acquire some ICT equipment and software. Nevertheless, it
is observed that most schools’ operations are still manual and ICT equipment is used for
mundane activities like typing examinations, letters and for entertainment which as Wahome
(2011) observed, “shows lack of interest by the teachers and the school administration” p. 82.
The Basic Education Act of Kenya in 2012 stipulated that the government shall make
regulations for the promotion, development, management and governance of education
through ICT Integration, ICT Education and Educational Management Information Systems
(EMIS) (Republic of Kenya, 2012a). There is large independent procurements of computers
by schools as observed by Makhanu (2010) that there is massive investment in buying ICT
infrastructure. The government’s has also put in efforts to supply computers, construct
computer laboratories, train teachers in some schools and mobilize support from development
partners. However, the Education Sector Report; 2013/14-2015/16 Medium Term
Expenditure Framework still accounted that the sector continues to experience “slow pace of
ICT integration” (Republic of Kenya, 2012, p. 10). Although principals who are intimidated
by ICTs cannot effectively manage the technology and the users, the government’s ICT
training hardly targets principals yet they hold huge sway in facilitating recruitment and
supervision of computer teachers, ICT procurement, proper use and maintenance. Ombajo
(2009) reported that administrative support is lacking in schools. It can be observed that the
ICT-related role of public secondary schools’ principals is not clearly spelt out.
The impediments identified by recent research as limiting the use of ICT in Kenyan
schools do emanate from poor facilitative managerial roles of principals. They include poor
accessibility to ICTs, low prioritization, negative attitudes of teachers and students,
administrators’ technophobia, improper use of ICTs and inadequate administrative support
(Kyengo, 2008; Kiptalam, 2010; Wahome, 2011; Ombajo, 2009). Limited studies have
focused on the role of principals as far as ICT use and integration is concerned. Therefore, the
10
assessment of principals’ role on effective use and integration of ICT in public secondary
schools in Wareng Sub-County, Uasin Gishu County, Kenya is the quest of this study.
1.3 Research Questions
This study was guided by the following research questions:
(i) To what extent are ICT resources used and integrated in teaching, learning and
management in public secondary schools in Wareng Sub-County?
(ii) What roles do principals play to promote the use and integration of ICT in teaching,
learning and management in public secondary schools in Wareng Sub-County?
(iii)What are the challenges faced by principals in their roles to promote use and
integration of ICT into teaching, learning and school management in Wareng Sub-
County?
(iv) What strategies could be employed to address the challenges facing principals in their
roles to enhance the use and integration of ICT in Wareng Sub-County?
1.4 Significance of the Study
This study’s findings will demystify management related factors that contribute to the
slow pace in the use and integration of available ICT in public schools. It will be a basis for
the MoE officials to formulate pragmatic policies especially ICT-related roles of principals.
The Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) and the Commission for Higher Education (CHE)
will use the findings to facilitate further improvements in teachers’ training curriculum to
equip potential principals with requisite management skills in ICT-mediated schools.
Teachers Service Commission (TSC) will use applicants’ e-leadership skills as basis for
recruitment, selection and promotion of principals. Kenya Secondary schools Heads
Association (KSSHA) may use the findings to enrich principals’ seminars and conferences.
This research’s findings will increase the uptake of ICT by creating interest among
principals to benchmark on innovative ways of using and integrating technology in teaching,
11
learning and school management. This will enable teachers to be facilitators and foster
lifelong learning among students by equipping them with skills, attitudes and knowledge to
look for information on their own. The findings will be pertinent to schools’ Boards of
Management (BoM) and the Parents Teachers’ Associations (PTA) in drawing up future
strategic plans, raise funds to procure ICT resources and other management decisions on the
use of ICT. Sponsors and donors may also find the research findings useful in defining the
nature of future ICT-related supports to public institutions such as pegging future ICT
resource funding to schools on clarification of principals roles on effective use and
integration.
The study will increase principals’ and teachers’ awareness to the changes in the use
of ICT for teaching, learning and management environments in order to modify their
approaches to meet the challenges of new educational technologies. The findings too will
contribute to advancement of knowledge and further improvements of Kenya’s ICT in
Education. This will be a treasured database for researchers conducting future studies on the
role of educational leadership in promoting the use of computers, internet and other ICT
resources in educational institutions.
1.5 Scope and Delimitations of the Study
The study was confined to public secondary schools sampled from Wareng Sub-
County, Uasin Gishu County, Kenya. The Sub-County had 45 public secondary schools
categorized into Sub-County and County schools with no school of a national category.
Besides being a cosmopolitan area, Wareng Sub-County was chosen because of its
geographical territory which extends from an expansive rural setting into the metropolitan
Eldoret town thus yielded representative educational findings invaluable to other public
secondary schools in Kenya.
12
This study was restricted to finding out whether the principals of public secondary
schools were performing facilitative ICT roles towards promoting the use and integration of
ICT in sampled schools because managers are the most influential opinion leaders in school
planning, organizing, leading and controlling. However, because principals may have
significant subjectivity in self-assessing their own ICT roles, teachers and HoDs were
targeted to represent those who work under the administrator and education officials who
supervise them; notably the District Education Officer (DEO), District Human Resource
Officer (DHRO), Quality Assurance and Standards Officer (QASO) and Examinations officer
(EO) also provided source triangulation data and assessment of principals’ roles. All the
teachers and education officers who were sampled and included in the study were those
working in the Sub-County and County schools by the time of the study while those who
were absent were not included in the study even if they had relevant input.
1.6 Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DOI)
The first theory being employed by this study is the Diffusion of Innovations Theory
(DOI). The theory was chosen because this research study was focused on the role of
secondary schools’ principals, who are influential opinion leaders in communicating new
ideas and technologies hence determining their diffusion for use in teaching, learning and
management. The DOI theory is a set of generalizations regarding the typical spread of
innovations and trends within a social system and therefore explains why some innovations
are adopted while others are ignored at various levels of analysis. More importantly, DOI
explains how communication channels and opinion leaders shape adoption of ideas and
technologies in a community such as a school (Koperlainen (2011). The theory was founded
by Everett Rodgers in 1962 when he published his book, Diffusion of Innovations.
According to Rogers (1995), Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is
communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system
13
while an innovation is an idea, process, practice or device perceived as new by an individual
or social unit of adoption. Diffusion is a social process that involves and occurs through the
mass media, interpersonal communications and other social networks. Rodgers suggested that
there are four main elements in the diffusion of innovation process: innovation,
communication channels (interpersonal and mass media), time and a social system.
1.6.1 Categorization of Adopters in DOI
A striking feature of DOI is that for most members of the social system, innovation-
decision depends heavily on other members of the system. People are generally risk-averse
and this uncertainty leads to postponement of adoption till further evidence is gathered. The
attitudes of the initial persons to adopt an innovation will consequently influence the other
members in the social system. Principals, teachers and non-teaching staff adopt new ideas
and technologies at varying degrees and at different times.
Source: Kaminski, (2011).
Figure 1: Adopter Categories and Proportion in Diffusion of Innovations Theory
The adopters of a new technology fall into five groups: innovators, early adopters,
early majority, late majority and laggards as shown in Figure 1.
(i) Innovators (venturesome) represent 2.5% of adopters who are usually adventurous.
Per
centa
ge
Pro
port
ion o
f A
dopte
rs
Categories of Adopters
14
(ii) Early Adopters (respectable) represent 13.5% of a social system and include respected
opinion leaders. If a school principal is keen to adopt ICT for learning, teaching and
school management, the rest of the school community will look up to their leaders.
(iii) Early Majority (deliberate) constitute 34.0% members of a community who although are
not leaders and take longer to decide, they deliberately decide to use something new.
(iv) Late Majority (skeptical) are 34.0% members of a social system who generally approach
technology with great caution often adopting it out of economic need or social pressure
such as a government directive.
(vi) Laggards (traditional) represent 16.0% of a social system; are often isolated and hold
conservative views, highly suspicious and even resistant to new innovation and change.
Earlier adopters of an innovation say 10.0-25.0% of a school assume the role of
opinion leaders and will profoundly affect the innovation-decision of later adopters especially
if the principal is among them. Innovation decision of a school’s teachers, students and non
teaching staff depend heavily on the innovation-decisions of other school members such as
the principals who are respected opinion leaders.
Bateman and Snell (2004) explained that the speed with which an innovation spreads
depends largely on five attributes of innovations. Relative advantage is an innovation’s
perception as better than its predecessor. Compatibility is an innovation’s perception as being
consistent with existing values, past experiences and needs of adopters as well as with
existing procedures and infrastructure. Complexity is the degree to which an innovation is
perceived to be difficult to understand and use.
In addition, trialability indicates the degree with which a technological innovation can
be tested or experimented easily on a limited basis without significant cost or commitment
while observability refers to the ease with which others can visibly see the results of an
innovation. Perceived characteristics of innovations leads to the varieties of adopters and play
15
an important role in reducing some uncertainty about the innovations. Therefore, perceptions
of principals are paramount in explaining the extent of computers use and integration.
1.6.2 The Process of Innovation Adoption
Rodgers indicated that the decision to accept an innovation is neither authoritative nor
collective. Each member of a social system faces their own 5-step innovation-decisions
process: knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation and confirmation.
(a) Knowledge stage: Principals become aware of an innovation and how it functions
through the mass media and MoE official circulars. However, the adoption of innovation
depends on information and knowledge derived from interpersonal ties.
(b) Persuasion stage: A person forms a positive or negative attitude towards innovations.
The attitudes that key players in education sector subscribe to may explain the slow rate
of integration of ICT in the education sector and in individual secondary schools.
(c) Decision stage: Engagement in activities that lead to innovation’s adoption or rejection.
(d) Implementation stage: Putting an innovation into use and integrating into a social system
(e) Confirmation stage: Evaluating the results of an innovation-decision already made.
It is important for principals to understand the forces driving technological
development and the patterns they follow in order to anticipate and manage them effectively.
Firstly, there must be need to drive the process of technological innovations. Secondly,
meeting the need must be theoretically possible to be met from knowledge available from
basic science. Thirdly, the theoretical scientific knowledge must be possible to be made
practical in engineering and be implemented economically. Lastly, there must be funding,
skilled labour, time, space, political goodwill (Bateman and Snell, 2004) as well as
clarification of the managers’ roles in order to diffuse a technology
The DOI theory presumes the existence of a diffusion centre such as a department in
the MoE responsible for use and integration of ICTs in schools. The theory predicts that
16
media and interpersonal contacts of principals provide information and influences opinions
and judgments of would be users and facilitators. Principals as opinion leaders exert influence
on teachers, non-teaching staff and students’ behaviour via their personal contacts. The flow
of information on use of ICTs flows through MoE networks but the role of opinion leaders
such as the principals determines the likelihood effective use and integration of an
innovation. Besides using policy statements, circulars and national leadership, MoE should
also use public secondary school-based educational opinion leaders such as principals to
promote the use and integration of ICT innovations for teaching, learning and management.
1.6.3 Strengths of Diffusion of Innovation Theory
According to Bateman and Snell (2004), DOI provides a practical guide for
information campaigns meant to spread practical educational innovations. At the persuasion
stage, an individual seeks for information about a new idea or innovation thus the mass
media’s role cannot be down played. Therefore, DOI is suited to provide some conceptual
guidance for explaining why some principals prefer to use the old media or new media.
Ayodele (2012), states that opinion leaders such as school principals are responsible for
diffusing innovations to be adopted by late majority, late adopters, and laggards.
1.6.4 Weaknesses of Diffusion of Innovation Theory
Chile (2012) outlined that the DOI theory depicts a weaknesses by just classifying
adopters without giving the causal explanations as to why and how people adopt different
technological innovations. It is simplified to focus solely on an innovation disregarding the
complex societal, cultural and economic factors while attempting to explain failed attempts of
diffusion. Poor schools see little relevance for social networking and latest wireless internet.
Additionally, DOI may stimulate adoption by groups that do not want the innovation
making it unsustainable after change agents leave such as the transfer of a principal. This
17
necessitates the specification of the roles of the principal to ensure continuity of adoption
irrespective of the absence of the initial early adopter or opinion leader.
1.6.5 Justification for Using DOI Theory
The Diffusion of Innovations theory is very relevant in the present and in future
because new innovations keep occurring and the need to diffuse for members of a society to
adopt will exist. It emphasizes the role of interpersonal communications and influences of
opinion leaders. The theory is chosen because this study is focused on the role of principals
who constitute influential opinion leaders in communicating new ideas and technologies to
teachers, non teaching staff and students. The theory considers interpersonal communication
channels of principals to be more effective than the mass media channels in aiding the
innovation diffusion in a social system like a school (Ayodele, 2012; Lowery & Defleur,
1995).
Diffusion of innovations Theory assigns a very central role to different types of
people critical to the diffusion process. The theory says that the media influence innovators or
early adopters who influence opinion leaders who in turn influence everyone else. Principals
in this case, are well positioned to influence the rest of the school system (Ayodele, 2012).
1.7 Role Theory
The second theory that undergirds this study is the Role Theory. The study used two
theories because the research focused on ICT technology and school management roles. Role
Theory was chosen to guide this study because principals require well-defined roles to
manage and promote the use ICTs for teaching, learning and school management. Roles
effectively aid this goal because they set expected standards and have sanctions and rewards
to ensure compliance. According to Bright (2007) and Thomas (2010), role theory explains
the interactions between individuals who occupy positions by focusing on the roles they play,
what they do and don’t do in a social system such as a school. It emphasizes the expectations
18
which are held for the behaviour of the principals by teachers, students and parents and other
stakeholders. The theory proposes that human behavior is guided by expectations held by the
individual and by other people. Lorette (2013) posited that people behave in a predictable
way, because an individual’s behavior is context specific, based on social position. One’s role
behaviour is influenced by norms that govern a social position, internal and external
expectations connected to a social role and social sanctions and rewards.
The anticipation that others will apply sanctions, argued Lorette (2013) ensures
conformity to norms that accompany ones’ roles leading to role performance. The knowledge
of each other’s roles makes group members to check each individual’s performance and
determine whether it conforms to norms. Thus roles guide much of our lives, both in and out
of formal work stations. Bright (2007) defined a role as a set of expectations held by others
on what one is supposed to do in a given social position thus constitute norms. Each social
role is a set of rights, duties, expectations, norms and behaviours that a person has to fulfill.
Lorette (2013) stated that informal application of role theory encourages employees to be
creative and make suggestions on what should be implemented. However, the theory may be
formal revealing itself through policies and positions set by upper management as part of
corporate culture as Rinny Educational Technical Publishing Services (2010) outlined the
MoE general roles and responsibilities of principals.
1.7.1 Strengths of Role Theory
Biddle (1986) argued that Role theory has a broad applicability and is the nexus
between anthropology, psychology and sociology. Social scientists use roles as a fundamental
tool of analysis that helps explain apparent regularities of behavior and the structure of social
systems. The language of roles has a great deal of everydayness because roles occur in
everyday life and are of concern to those who perform them and other stakeholders. The fact
19
that roles are vehicles for conveying a school’s desired image of representationality, they can
be formulated and revised as need arise.
Role theory therefore sets the standards for what is expected of school principals and
can guide them to be effective and efficient in their efforts to use and integrate ICT. Defined
performance standards for principals’ roles in ICT may include facilitating internet access
and procurement of new varieties of ICT hardware and software for teaching, learning and
management. This will then be an important monitoring and appraisal tool for Quality
Assurance and Standards Officers.
1.7.2 Weaknesses of Role Theory
Some Principals may be content to perform traditional minimum tasks enumerated in
their job descriptions such as managing school plant and equipment and ignore the
unspecified emerging and trending ICT in education because role theory is concerned with
performance of stipulated roles however minimal. Although the MoE of Kenya stipulate roles
of public secondary school principals (Rinny Educational Technical Publishing Services,
2010), and while a principal may know what is the right thing to do, avoidance of facing an
issue or fear of conflict with teachers or other stakeholders may inhibit one from effectively
playing the role they need to play (Lorette, 2013).
According to Lorette (2013), role theory may generate conflict when teachers, non
teaching staff and other stakeholders have a set of expectations on the role of the principal
that are different from what the principals perceive and accept as their role because they
believe it is beyond their mandate, role conflict can occur. Even in the face of existing
defined roles, it is only in a ‘perfect world’ where role conflict is not an issue and where
synchrony exists between the perceptions of leaders and stakeholders as to what role the
principal should play. Role theory does not explain social deviance when it does not
20
correspond to a pre-specified role such as when principals act contrary to expectations of
their defined roles such as embezzling ICT funds and mismanagement of equipment.
1.7.3 Justification for Using Role Theory
The concept of role is one of the most popular ideas in the social sciences. Role theory
exhibits an agreed-upon set of core ideas because the philosophical stance of role theory is
attractive and useful in efforts to ameliorate human problems and advance social system
developments. The Role Theory undergirds this study since it helps to gauge whether the
principal has well-defined roles to manage the emerging use and integration of ICTs in
schools. Existence of defined ICT roles facilitates the principals’ appraisal in determining if
they are effective in using and integrating ICT in teaching, learning and school management
(Lorette, 2013). The theory was adopted for this study because roles are cultural resources of
the MoE and are continuously constructed and reconstructed as individuals in the education
system interact with technology in order to achieve greater effectiveness in the use and
integration of educational technologies.
21
1.8 Conceptual Framework
Source: Synthesis from Related Theories (p. 12-20) and Reviewed Literature (p. 35-58)
Figure 2: Principals’ Role in Promoting Use and Integration of ICT
National ICT Infrastructure
ICT policy 2005 ICT master plan 2017
Kenya Vision 2030 MoE strategic plan 2008-2012 KIE ICT curriculum, e-contents, radio and TV broadcasting MoE ICT
development partners Ministry of ICT
Use and Integration of ICT in Public Secondary Schools
Principals’ Role in Promoting Use and Integration of ICT
Planning Role: ICT in strategic plan, ICT allocation in school budget, introduce computer
studies subject and e-learning, connect internet, recruit TSC/BoM Teachers, construct
computer laboratory.
Organizing Role: Distribute ICTs to various departments, schedules for use of ICTs, define
roles of ICT teacher/prefects,
Leading Role: Principals ICT literacy, train staff in ICT, form students’ computer clubs,
procure ICTs, formulate incentives for use of computers
Controlling Role: Make and enforce rules and regulations on use of ICTs, devise feedback
mechanisms, ICT security, formulate school-wide ICT policies
Global ICT Trends
Internet Social Media
Globalization Open data
Smart devices Knowledge
economies
Management
Exams analysis
Timetabling
Online, e-mail communication
Financial and stores
management
Online registration of KCSE
candidates
Typing letters, memos,
newsletters
Learning
E-learning
Internet connectivity, access
for learning
Students ICT clubs
Watching set-books and plays
Listening/Watching KIE
broadcasts
Access to Mock and KNEC
past questions and answers
Teaching
Connect internet, access for
research
Prepare exam questions
Prepare subject notes
Prepare schemes of work,
lesson plans
Offer of computer studies
subject
Teach e-learning
22
Figure 2 shows the relationship between school principals’ roles in promoting the use
and integration of ICT for teaching, learning and school management. It indicates that,
globally, the ever-emerging technological advancements such as the internet, email, smart
devices, open data and social media have brought about globalization and the evolution of
knowledge economies. Being part of the international community and in order to improve on
its competitiveness, the Kenyan government has been influenced by the global ICT trends to
develop various ICT infrastructures such as the National ICT Policy 2005, ICT Master Plan
2017, Vision 2030, MoE strategic plan 2008-2012, ICT development partners, ICT
curriculum and e-contents, KIE radio and TV broadcasting as well as the new Ministry of
ICT in order to promote the use and integration of ICT in education. Consequently, the MoE
has formulated strategic plans and made budgetary allocations to supply computer equipment,
train teachers and construct computer laboratories in some schools. The MoE in partnership
with ICT-related development partners support the ICT policy mission to build ICT
capacities of education staff and learners, provide computers and e-content to secondary,
primary and tertiary institutions. This strengthens ICT education and ICT in education
programs. Some principals may independently appreciate and imbibe global ICT
technologies through their interactions with educational opinion leaders and diffusion of
information from the mass media. Local innovations in education may be developed to
become global trends as was done by Kenya’s Safaricom’s ‘M-pesa’, ‘M- shwari’ and ‘Lipa
na Mpesa’ mobile phone money transfer and mobile phone banking technology.
Public secondary school principals and their ICT-related roles constitute the
independent variable for this study. Principals legitimately determine the interpretation and
degree of creative implementation of government ICT policies, appreciation and inculcation
of global ICT trends. The principal’s managerial skills: conceptual, human relations and
technical skills and defined roles namely planning, organizing, leading and controlling roles
23
determine effective use and integration of ICT in teaching, learning and school management.
Without clarification of principals’ roles, the existence of national ICT infrastructure will not
automatically translate to significant uses and integrations of ICT for teaching, learning and
school management.
Principals’ planning roles related to ICT comprise activities such as inclusion of ICT
in the schools’ strategic plans, budgetary allocations for procurements and maintenance of
ICT equipment and software, internet connectivity, construction of computer laboratory,
introduction of computer studies subject, e-learning of other curriculum subjects and
recruitment and selection of computer tutors. The organizing role of principals involve
keeping and updating an ICT inventory, distribution of ICT equipment and software such as
computers to the principal’s office, deputy principal’s office, computer laboratory, accounts
office, secretary’s office, staffroom and HoDs’ offices, appointing and assigning duties and
responsibilities to teacher in charge of computer and ICT prefects, making timetables for
computer studies subject, computer literacy classes and access to computer laboratories;
schedules for KIE radio and TV broadcasts and watching of various language sets books.
Principals’ role in leading encompass the personal efforts of the principal to lead by
example through acquisition of ICT skills, own and use ICT equipment such as a laptop,
encourage staff to acquire ICT skills and ICT equipment, facilitate formation of students ICT
clubs and provide basic ICT infrastructure in the school. It is significant for principals to use
their position and influence to passionately develop and communicate a vision for use and
integration of ICT to the school community. As need arise, the principal should facilitate ICT
staff training and devise an incentives scheme for use of computers. The ICT-related
controlling role of principals entail holding periodic review of ICT plans and strategies in
staff and management meetings, devising feedback mechanisms from staff, students and
other stakeholders, provide security measures for ICTs such as grilled doors and windows,
24
facilitate the formulation of rules, regulations and consequences governing proper use and
access of ICTs in the school and communicate to the school community, formulation of ICT
school-wide policies, monitoring the uses of ICTs in the school and taking corrective
measures.
The dependent variable for this study was the role of the principals in promotion of
effective and efficient use and integration of ICT in public secondary schools in teaching,
learning and management. This was determined by measuring the following indicators:
available ICT hardware and software, distribution, accessibility to ICTs for staff and students,
variety of uses of ICT for teaching, learning and school management, availability and access
of internet to staff and students, existence of students ICT club, school web site, e-mail
address and social networking site, offer of computer studies subject, e-learning, literacy
classes and ICT skill level of the principals and staff members.
The learning activities utilizing ICT include e-learning, watching language subjects’
set-books and plays, KIE radio and TV broadcasts, accessing e-contents such as past KCSE
and past mock examinations and answers and formation of students ICT clubs. Teaching
tasks that would be promoted by the principals roles included teaching e-learning lessons,
offer of computer studies, preparation of teaching notes, examinations papers, schemes of
works and lesson plans. The management related results of the principals’ role in promoting
use of ICT included examinations analysis, generation of student’s report forms, tying letters,
e-mail communications, online registration of candidates, timetabling and financial
management. Teaching, learning and management tasks which are reliant on ICT enrich each
other and are consequently interdependent. Globally, the media and opinion leaders external
to a school diffuse ICT advancements to principals and other members of the school
community (Bateman & Snell, 2004). The use and integration of ICT in schools is therefore
determined by the influential roles of the principal as strategic opinion leaders.
25
1.9 Operational Definition of Key Terms
Blog is a school’s running web-log for individual students, parents and other stakeholders to
post opinions and ideas on management, teaching and learning policies and practices.
Distance Learning refers to learning that takes place where the teachers and students are in
physically separate locations. Traditionally it involved mailing of written materials or contact
by telephone, radio and television broadcasts. Distance learning now include e-learning.
Effective Use is the utilization of ICT resources to aid in achieving stated school educational
objectives and address targeted problems in management, teaching and learning.
Efficient Use is putting ICT resources into use in a manner that maximizes the available ICT
resources, time, money and manpower.
E-leadership refers to the interaction between technology and school principals who manage
a technology-mediated school as a social process to produce desired changes in attitudes,
feelings, thinking, behavior and performance of students, teachers and subordinate staff.
E-learning is a way of acquiring skills and knowledge that makes use of computers, radio,
television and internet in addition to other teaching resources.
Extranet is an external internet communications system shared by two or more schools.
ICT Integration is the seamless incorporation and institutionalization of ICT technologies to
enhance learning and teaching and manage a school effectively and efficiently.
ICT Use refers to the utilization of ICT hardware and software to facilitate teaching, learning
and school management.
Innovation is a change in technology from previous ways of doing things for teaching,
learning and school management.
Internet refers to the world-wide inter-connection system of computer networks via
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) and accessible to the general
public through various service providers on any one computer or enabled cell phones.
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Intranet is an internal communication system that uses the technology and standards of the
internet but is accessible only to people within a school
Knowledge Economy is technology-driven economies that create knowledge, share and use
it to contribute and produce wealth for its people.
Knowledge Society is a civilization based on the understanding that knowledge diffusion
forms a major component of human development in social, economic and political spheres.
Principal is the lead administrator in a public secondary school responsible for
implementation of educational policy guidelines and professional practices that provide
synergy for optimal utilization of ICT resources for learning, teaching and management.
Promote refer to any planning, organizing, leading and controlling activity that a school
principal engages in to facilitate the use of ICT for teaching, learning and management.
Public Secondary School is a post primary formal institution of learning funded from public
coffers and consisting of classes ranging from form one to form four.
Roles are activities and programs expected to be performed by principals of public secondary
schools to foster use and integration of ICT in teaching, learning and management.
Skill is the special ability acquired from formal education knowledge, experience, further
training to operate an electronic gadget and supervise both the personnel and equipment.
Social Networking refers to a school’s own in-house social media or user-generated content
such as on Twitter, Face Book and MySpace to facilitate peer to peer interactions and other
forms of information sharing of personal data, photos, opinions and raise funds.
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.0 Introduction
This chapter is a review of literature related to secondary school principals’ role on
promoting the use and integration of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
focusing on the concept of ICT use and integration in education, Kenya educational ICT
policies and plans and principal’s management skills. In addition, the roles of school
principals towards promoting the use and integration ICT, uses and integration of ICT,
challenges, strategies and empirical studies.
2.1 Use and Integration of ICT in Education
The policy of the MoE on ICT is to ‘integrate Information and Communication
Technology education and training into education and training systems in order to prepare the
learners of today for the Kenyan economy of tomorrow and therefore enhance the nation’s
ICT skills’ (Republic of Kenya, 2004, p. 68). The Basic Education Act of 2012 stipulates that
the government shall make regulations on conduct and management of schools ‘to provide
for the promotion, development, management and governance of education through ICT
integration and education, and EMIS and statutory structural adjustment’ (Republic of Kenya,
2012a, p. 67).
2.1.1 Concept of ICT
Communication as put by Jones and George (2009) is the process of exchanging facts,
ideas and opinions between two or more individuals or groups in order to share meanings and
reach common understanding. It enables communicants to learn and adjust to their
environments (Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University, (2007) although technology now
adapts to human needs (Deka, 2011). Technology is the technique by which people do or
make products or render services (McHenry, 1993). It constitute ideas, skills, tools and
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machines used by members of a society for extending and overcoming the natural, physical
and mental limitations that they are born with (Kreitner, 1999; Humphrey, 2006). Meijia,
Balkin, Cardy, (2008) adds that the modern concept of technology is associated with
computer-driven equipment and processes. Phatak, Bhagat, Kashlak, (2009) observed that
information, technology and knowledge are embedded in almost all the products that are used
in the modern today’s world.
According to Daft (2010), data refers to the simple, raw, unanalyzed facts and figures,
that in and of themselves, may be of little use except at a rudimentary level. Kreitner (1999);
Meijia et al, (2008) described information as organized, interpreted data converted into a
meaningful context within a relevant frame of reference which enhance effective decision
making. Useful information must be reliable, accurate, timely, relevant and comprehensive.
Knowledge, according to Daft (2010), is a conclusion drawn from information after it is
linked to other information and compared to what is already known. Unlike data and
information, knowledge has a human factor.
Information and Communication Technology refers to any device that has the ability
to create data, receive, store, retrieve, manipulate and transmit information in digital form and
is concerned with the way these different uses can work with each other. Information and
Communication Technology tools have an immense network of internet browsers, cable and
wireless operators using an infrastructure of transmission towers and data storage devices and
they include: computers, laptops, tablets, radios, television, cell phones, robots, LCD
projectors, cameras, broadcasting networks and the unseen satellites orbiting the earth
constantly sending signals from one place to another. Emails, text messages, social
networking sites facilitate communication in form of digital data (Hwee et al, 2008; Ngugi,
2007; Republic of Kenya, 2006b). Some educators narrowly limit ICTs to be computers.
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Melody (2011) and Daft (2010) explained that ICT represents a convergence of
Communications Technology (CT) and Information Technology (IT). Communication
Technology refers to the variety of techniques, tools and methods that are used to facilitate
communication connections for instance languages, gestures, modes of dress, codes of
behaviour, rituals, artistic and cultural traditions and use of smoke and flag signals. More
recently, CT refers more narrowly to those electronic techniques that have permitted
communication to overcome the constraints of time and distance and, particularly, the
merging of computers and telecommunications technology to form IT. These include the use
of smart TVs and smart phones which have computing and integrated internet and
telecommunications capabilities (Melody, 2011).
Therefore, Information Technology is a type of communications technology which
comprises the hardware, networks and software hence does capturing, transmitting, storing,
retrieving, manipulating and displaying of data (Melody, 2011). Telecommunication is any
domestic or international transmission of information by wire, radio waves and optical media
between or among points of user’s choosing (Republic of Kenya, 2006). Dutta and Bibao
(2012) observed that the deepening convergence between CT and IT is one of the main
driving forces behind the rapid development of modern ICT industry.
2.1.2 Concept of ICT in Education
The concept of ICT education is different from ICT in education. The development
and training of ICT professionals such as engineers and programmers by imparting skills with
knowledge of the technologies themselves constitute ICT education while ICT in education is
the using of ICT equipment and software for school management, teaching and learning of all
subjects in the entire education system which is essential for knowledge creation and
innovation. The MoE and ICT policies seek to achieve ICT in education which focuses on the
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subjects being taught or studied and schools being administered using ICT. Both ICT
education and ICT in education should begin in elementary school (Mbaluka, 2009).
2.1.3 Concept of Use and Integration of ICT in Education
Education has traditionally been a process of impartation of knowledge, skills,
attitudes, values and other dispositions in order to produce a better and productive individual.
However, modern technologies expect education to go beyond traditional impartation to
enabling learners to engage in a life-long acquisition of knowledge by their own efforts
especially through the use of modern ICT. In ancient Greece, Socrates argued that education
is a slow and skilful process of extracting the latent potentialities which are already within a
learner hence it is a life-long process that begins at birth and ends with death (Wosyanju,
2009, Teklemariam & Nam, 2011; Teachers Mind, 2012). The integration of ICT is the
seamless incorporation of ICTs to support and enhance the attainment of curriculum
objectives, to enhance the appropriate competencies including skills, knowledge, attitudes
and values and to manage education effectively and efficiently at all levels (Republic of
Kenya, 2012b). The institutionalization of technology represents the degree to which the ICT
technology becomes a routine and pervasive commodity within the school so that ICT uses
become the acceptable ways of doing things.
Using and integrating ICT in school management, teaching and learning helps to shift
from the traditional approaches where for instance knowledge is transferred from teachers
and textbooks to learners with little space and time for critical analysis of issues by learners
(Republic of Kenya, 2012a). According to Wahome (2011), the degree of use and integration
of ICT in secondary schools is a product of concerted efforts of various stakeholders
including the ministry of education, principals of secondary schools, teachers and students.
The roles of public secondary schools’ principals should be clarified in order to account for
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the effectiveness and efficiencies of our policies, plans, human and physical resources which
are being employed to realize ICT use and integration.
2.2 Kenya Educational ICT Policies and Plans
A policy is a statement of intent, a guiding principle, a commitment for which, at
least, the decision-makers can be held accountable. It serves to clarify intent, describes how it
will be administered and serves to protect an organization and its subjects from
misunderstandings that might lead to unauthorized behavior or lawsuits (Duff, 2012). Policy
statements are formulated depending on the needs at the time they are made and may be
adjusted as needs change, as Mahatma Gandhi stated; “a policy is a temporary creed liable to
be changed, but while it holds good it has got to be pursued with apostolic zeal” (University
of Iowa, 2008).
Information and Communication Technology in education requires guiding policies
and plans to govern the future diffusions of innovations, specify the roles of various
stakeholders and guard against possible abuses especially due to the dynamic and continuous
changes of new technologies (Mbaluka, 2009). More specifically, policies should facilitate
the specification of principals’ roles towards promoting the use and integration of ICT in
schools.
2.2.1 National Information and Communication Technology Policy 2005
The Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005 on Policy Framework for Education Training and
Research states that the government seeks to promote the use and integration of ICT in
education and the need to have high level ICT leadership and championship to provide
oversight, inspiration, political goodwill and to facilitate the mobilization of resources needed
to develop ICT-mediated environments. The integration of ICT in education and training is to
aid preparation of the learners of today for the Kenyan economy tomorrow and therefore
enhance the nation’s ICT skills, expand the use of ICT as a tool for effective management
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and research at all educational levels, use of internet for education, training and research,
develop interactive websites and e-mail communication channels, develop ICT curricula and
establish ICT resource centres (Republic of Kenya, 2005).
Though the policy sought to work with stakeholders to provide computers for schools
and address issues like e-content, access, training of teachers, it was silent on the capacity of
school principals and their ICT roles in the management of ICT resources and the facilitation
of their use and integration at school level. The lack of clarified role of principals makes it
inconsequential to evaluate school principals’ role in managing ICT resources towards their
use and integration in learning, teaching and school management.
The policy also committed the government to “foster linkages with various
development partners in order to provide financial, material, technical assistance as well as
build capacity for sustainability” (Republic of Kenya, 2006, p. 48). Therefore, the MoE
developed partnership with a number of international organizations “to facilitate the use of
ICT in government offices and educational institutions” (p. 67). These organizations’ mission
is to provide computers to secondary, primary and tertiary institutions so as to strengthen e-
learning and other ICT education programs. They include Computers for Schools Kenyan
(CFSK), New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) e-schools, Computers for
Literacy in Kenya, Click Online and Kenya Education Network (KENET).
2.2.2 Ministry of Education Strategic Plan 2008-2012
The MoE strategic plan 2008–2012 identified the ministry’s weaknesses which
included among others “slow integration of ICT in its operations and programs” (Republic of
Kenya, 2008, p. 21) and also conceded to the fact that the sector has a “weak Education
Management Information System (EMIS)” (p. 12). The plan sought to focus on conducting
and supporting senior management training on managerial and leadership as well as ICT
skills, providing most of the officers at the headquarters with computers and in-house
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training. The strategic plan sought to conduct formal training sessions as stipulated in their
policy for at least five days every year to impart general management skills and performance
of staff across the MoE, including ICT training from headquarters management units down to
the school level. The efforts to equip principals with ICT skills should also be accompanied
by clarification of their ICT-related roles for teaching, learning and school management.
2.2.3 National Information and Communication Technology Master Plan 2017
The National ICT master Plan: Connected Kenya 2017 launched in 2013, envisions
Kenya to become Africa’s most globally respected knowledge economy. It targets among
others that every educational institution will be connected through a countrywide robust,
accessible and affordable ICT infrastructure, make public services available through ICT and
implement an integrated approach towards provision of public services to citizens through
national networks of government sectors including education. School public services for
instance include online access by parents and other stakeholders to students’ information such
as fee balances, examination results and schools’ schedules. The role of secondary school
principals towards the realization of these targets is not conceptualized by the master plan.
The plan has set seven key intervention areas which includes the education sector. It
states that education is the foundation of knowledge for all and therefore ICT will provide
connectivity for all students by providing virtual classrooms to enable learning to take place
through online participation, access to online resources for students and teachers, develop
connected academic centres, develop open data, increase online participation by adults and
set up national Schools Education network (SEnet) (Republic of Kenya, 2012c). The
undefined role of principals may impede the realization of these targets at school level.
In spite of the improvements in terms of legislature and investments in ICT by
African governments, Kitaw (2007) in Tiony (2012) observed that the uptake of opportunities
offered through ICT by government is still dismal as they are yet to commit their budgets to
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ICT developments. Mouti (2012) recommended that principals “should encourage ICT
adoption in schools by setting out school level policies and sponsoring teachers for ICT
training on work courses through the Boards of Governors” (p. 61)
2.3 Principals’ Managerial Skills
According to Smit and Cronje, (2002) management is essentially about getting things
done through other people in order to attain the goals of the organization. School
management is the process of planning, organizing, leading and controlling by using the
institution’s human, material, financial and time resources to efficiently and effectively meet
its goals. Principals should have managerial skills to supervise people and technology in
order to ensure realization of their work tasks. Gurr (2004) stated that the proliferation of
virtual knowledge team such as intranets, face book, twitter have made much of human
interactions to be mediated by ICT since “many people now exist in digital spaces for a large
part of the day” (p. 114).
Therefore, effective leadership in these ICT-mediated environments requires e-
leadership skills. Trucano et al (2011) opined that ICT skills also referred to as ‘21st century
skills’ which are essential for one to work creatively, think critically, collaborate, understand
other cultures and societies, be a flexible learner, a self-starter, problem solve, effective
communicator and identify and analyze existing information and create new knowledge.
Principals endowed with ICT skills can effectively impart the same to teachers and students
and make them to become curious and thirst for knowledge, identify challenges and
problems, think creatively about solutions, become self-starters, apply knowledge, tinker, fail,
learn, persevere and try again until new ideas are ushered in.
Jones and George (2009) stated that managerial skills are acquired through formal
education, experience and continued management training including training in ICT. New
theories and techniques are constantly being developed to improve organizational
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effectiveness such as Total Quality Management (TQM), benchmarking and web based
organizations. Gurr (2004) posited that e-leadership builds upon existing leadership. There
are three types of managerial skills: conceptual, human and technical skills required by
principals in order to promote use of ICT resources for teaching, learning and management.
2.3.1 Principals’ Role in Conceptual Skills
Conceptual skills, according to Jones and George (2009), refer to the aptitude for
principals to visualize the school as a whole especially for planning and organizing tasks. It
represents abstract thinking considered an integral requirement especially for executives in
top-level management positions. Principals who have strong conceptual skills typically have
excellent cognitive abilities to think creatively, analyze complex situations, distinguishing
between cause and effect and formulate ideas for solving problems and not symptoms.
Conceptual skills have the broadest application in all aspects of education in a school.
Principals should use their conceptual skills to come up with effective ‘home grown’ ideas
for a new process, examine a complex issue and see interrelationships and formulate a long
term, medium term and short term plans, strategies and action plans. These include creative
strategies to challenges facing schools such as slow integration of ICT.
2.3.2 Principals’ Role in Human Skills
Human skills, also called interpersonal skills, are principals’ ability to work
harmoniously with teachers, support staff and students and other stakeholders. It helps
managers to understand, communicate, develop team spirit, motivate, alter, lead and control
the behaviour of individuals and groups in schools (Jones & George, 2009). Gurr (2004)
observed that leaders “need to be able to exhibit through whatever ICT medium is used,
highly developed interpersonal skills” (p. 122). Human skills enable a school principal to
empathize with teachers, students and support staff and understand their viewpoints on issues
which they may take up opinion leadership for instance in the need to adopt a new idea or
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technology. Managers who have effective human skills consequently will most often develop
teachers, support staff and students who possess positive attitudes and high productivity.
2.3.3 Principals’ Role in Technical Skills
Technical skills are also referred to as job-specific skills and constitute abilities for
high level performance in a given type of work or occupation such as accounting, store
keeping, computer studies, biology and ICT skills (Teklemariam, 2009; White, 2008).
Teachers are usually grouped into departments according to their subject-specific skills.
Every job requires a job occupant to have certain expertise, for instance, ICT skills involve
the proficiency to use electronic devices and their related hardware and software such as
computers, laptops, internet, e-mail, e-learning, Educational Management Information
System (EMIS), Educational Management Finance Information System (EFMIS) and video
conferencing in order to facilitate performance of administrative, teaching and learning tasks.
From a management perspective, however, principals’ technical skills for instance in
ICT has to do with being knowledgeable about basic concepts and processes that constitute
computer studies, e-learning and various tasks of ICT teachers whom the principal
supervises. Principals do not have to be technology experts to lead their schools toward
effective technology use, but they do need to be informed. According to Ombajo (2009), one
underpinning requirement is that every school principal should endeavor to be competent in
the use of technology. There is rapid diffusion of distributed connectivity and ever-evolving
technological innovations which require principals to have technical skills. Technical skills
are most important for first-level managers in comparison to top-level managers. The array of
technical skills that principals require depends on the technical areas in the institution. Gakuu
and Kidombo (2010) indicated that the use and integration of ICT is influenced by the
school’s ICT policy and the principal’s level of ICT skills.
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Source: http://kalyan-city.blogspot.com/2011/06/managerial-skills-conceptual-human.html
Figure 3: Proportion of Managerial Skills and Managerial Levels
Figure 3 shows approximate ratios of various managerial skills required by different
levels of management. Organizational hierarchy at school level places the principal at top
level hence requires more conceptual skills than HoDs and teachers who operate at the
middle and lower levels of management respectively. Human relations skills are required
uniformly by all managers at all levels of management since all managers have to interact and
work with various people. At national level, the MoE organizational structure places
principals at lower level of management hence require technical skills. Therefore, the
principal simultaneously and uniquely operates at different levels of educational management
and should therefore possess the three main types of managerial skills.
Conceptual skills enable public secondary school principals to creatively plan and
organize for ICT development and uses in the school. Human skills equip principles enable
them to develop, motivate and utilize human resources towards the adoption and integration
of ICT technologies for teaching, learning and management. Technical skills facilitate
principles to be knowledgeable in ICT and other secondary school curriculum subjects in
order to promote the use of technologies for teaching, learning and management.
Additionally, it aids evaluation of performance of the innovations and technical personnel.
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2.4 Information and Communication Technology Management Role of Principals
Wilmore (2000) suggested that “there is a real need for in depth studies focusing on
the role of the principal” (p. 12) due to increasing advances in technology that has led to the
development of information age and virtual schools. He lamented that the major focus of
many studies was on the use of IT in schools, not the role of the principals. A role is a set of
expectations of a particular status or social position in which an individual occupies in an
organization (Jones & George, 2009). The role of principals in Kenya is to organize and
manage implementation of approved curriculum, manage and control school finances and
stores, manage and motivate school human resources, teach their subject specialization,
perform the tasks of secretary to the BoM and PTA and manage and maintain school plant
and equipment (Rinny Educational Technical Publishing Services, 2010).
Management of school plant and equipment include classrooms, laboratories, desks
and chairs as well as ICTs such as computers, radios, TVs, mobile phones and internet
modems or wireless devices. Principals oversee the acquisition, allocation, utilization,
monitoring and evaluation of school ICTs to ensure that they are achieving school goals. ICT
management role of principals is to facilitate the best use of institutional resources to achieve
effective use and integration. According to Jones and George (2009), principals meet these
expectations by accomplishing managerial tasks of planning, organizing, leading and
controlling.
2.4.1 Principals’ Planning Role for ICT
Planning involves thinking and identifying appropriate goals the school needs to
pursue, the standards to be attained, selecting courses of action such as developing strategies
and action plans to be adopted in order to attain the goals and allocating adequate resources.
Strategies comprise a cluster of decisions about what goals to pursue, what activities to
39
undertake and how to use resources to achieve goals. In order to measure plans, one should
have a scorecard and action plans which constitute documented strategies (Laferla, 2008).
At the planning stage, principals guide the selection of learning content and resources
(Ombajo, 2009). According to Tinio (2003), planners should not just seek to acquire the latest
technologies which may have instability challenges but should go with tried and tested
systems. The rule of thumb for educational planners however should be the learning
objectives besides considering the costs, availability of spare parts and technical support. It is
necessary for principals to promote the inclusion of ICT in the school’s long term strategic
plans and targets such as acquisition of ICT equipment, construction of computer
laboratories, annual allocation of financial resources (budgets) for ICT procurements of
equipment and maintenance and recruitment of technicians and instructors, Introduction of
computer studies, e-learning, connect the school to the fibre optic cable and internet.
2.4.2 Principals’ Organizing Role for ICT
Organizing is what a principal does to arrange and assign work and delegate authority
for personnel to work effectively. This is the structuring working relationships that allow
institutional members to interact and cooperate to achieve school goals is the principal’s
organizing task. It involves assigning tasks, grouping people into departments according to
job-specific tasks, allocating resources, laying and delegating out lines of responsibility,
authority and reporting relationships as captured in formal organizational structures (Laferla,
2008 and Daft, 2010).
The timetabling of computer studies, literacy lessons, drafting school ICT policy,
integrating ICT activities in the calendar of events, access schedule to computer laboratories,
scheduling of KIE radio and television broadcasts and students watching of set books reflects
the school’s organization of the use of available ICT resources. A principal’s organization
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and delegation will place a technician or computer teacher to be in charge of ICT facilities
and programs assisted by other teachers and computer laboratory prefects.
2.4.3 Principals’ Leading Role for ICT
In leading, school principals create, champion and articulate in a succinct and
inspiring manner, a shared vision, culture and values that teachers, support staff, students and
other stakeholders are to accomplish. This includes infusion of the passion to institutionalize
digital procedures and adopting of ICTs in the school for teaching, learning and management.
Principals should use their power, personality, influence, persuasion and communication
skills to coordinate people and activities, shape culture, communicate goals bring harmony,
encourage, coach, assist, and problem solve with employees to achieve institutional goals. A
strong school leadership is necessary to ensure the institution’s success.
According to Meijia et al (2008), leaders develop visions; ideas and objectives which
are used to alter the status quo, inspire and clarify to others where they should be headed.
Tinio (2003) stated that community-wide consultations and mobilization leading to a sense of
ownership for a project must be developed among all stakeholders. This will ensure that
sustainability is achieved. It is necessary for public secondary schools principals to champion
the mobilization of teachers to use computers by encouraging them to acquire skills on their
own or with the support of the schools through an institutional ICT training program, require
use of computer generated schemes of work and lesson plans, writing memos through staff e-
mail addresses and sms and posting calendar of events on school websites.
2.4.4 Principals Controlling Role for ICT
Controlling tasks of a school principal involve continuously checking results against
goals and taking any corrective actions necessary to make sure that plans remain on track.
This is done through monitoring and evaluation of ICT activities to determine how well the
school has achieved its goals and whether the school is on course by taking necessary
41
corrective actions needed to maintain or improve performance. Daft (2010) adds that
“Information technology is helping managers to provide needed organizational control
without strict top down constraints” (p. 7).
According to Ombajo (2009), principals guide the process of evaluation at the
implementation stage. It is imperative for principals to put in place structures to facilitate the
monitoring and evaluation of the degree of access to computers, internet and proper use of
ICTs such as printers. For instance, installing a specialized software to monitor proper use of
printer’ cartridges and printing paper. Rules formulated to govern and counter abuse of ICTs
such as the internet, institutional e-mails and school’s social networks facilitate the
controlling roles of principals. Controlling also entails safeguarding the ICT resources in the
school such as grilled windows and doors for stores and computer rooms, hiring of more
security personnel, security lighting and installation of alarms surveillance cameras. The
Kenya government’s plan to introduce free laptops from 2014 for over one million standard
one pupils has raised concerns over the management and security of the devices. It is
necessary for the role of head teachers to be clarified to ensure the success of the project.
2.5 Use and Integration of ICT in Education
According to Trucano et al (2011), Application of Information and Communication
Technology in education represents a paradigm shift from passive learning to active learning,
memorization of discrete facts to focus on what students know and can do and like long after
the facts are forgotten, single-source textbook-driven to multiple-sources research-driven,
emphasis on knowledge, comprehension and application to emphasis on synthesis, analysis
and evaluation, fragmented curriculum to integrated and interdisciplinary curriculum,
teacher-centered pedagogy to student-centered pedagogy, isolated learning to globally
connected and collaborative learning, teacher assessment based on averages to multiple
assessments from self, peers and others based on what is learned.
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Education hardware and software are becoming sophisticated, dynamic, hyperlinked,
multimedia in nature and interactive. Information and Communication Technologies are
shifting the content of education further away from rote learning towards learning by
collaboration, interaction, participation and discovery in virtual teams. Learning can now take
place in many modes: online, self-paced, personal or collaborative. Electronic media has
extended the human senses and shattered the barriers of space and time to provide increased
integration, interaction, and interdependence of people making the world a global village
(Melody, 2011; Azzi, 2012). The ICT resources are acquired, allocated and utilized to
accomplish educational objectives (Teklemariam & Nam, 2011). Hwee et al, (2008) outlined
a variety of ways in which ICTs are used in education.
Students can utilize vast resources of the internet to enrich their learning experiences.
The ICT in education places the world's information literally at the students’ fingertips which
stimulates learners’ curiosity and discovery. This brings about a more active approach to
education making the teacher to be a facilitator. Some educational software can combine
education and entertainment elements making lessons more lively and fun, especially
for young children (Kipsoi, 2012; Hwee et al, 2008). Mbaluka (2009) observed that ICTs in
the classroom creates interest in the learners making learning an interesting experience
ultimately improving educational outcomes. Today's classroom is a technology lab, a room
with students using internet connected or Wi-Fi enabled laptops, palmtops or notepads,
students attending a video conference or virtual classroom, listening to a podcast or taking a
video lecture. Modern distance learning has included e-learning which enable learners to
benefit from multimedia richness and the possibility of self-paced study anytime, anywhere.
Through ICT, teachers can now access unprecedented quantity and variety of
information on a global scale via the internet to enrich the contents of their lessons and
improve their teaching methodologies. This makes them competent professionals. Searching
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of scholarship databases e.g. journals, publications and other articles has been made easier
with web based searches where access is permitted (White 2008). Availability of
professionally developed educational software and a reliable central depository management
system makes teachers to become facilitators in the learning process. There is increasing
amounts of teaching and learning materials now available in digital copies such as e-books,
Kenya Certificate of Secondary Examinations (KCSE) and Sub-County (formerly district)
mock past paper questions and marking schemes, subject notes, syllabus, schemes of work
and lesson plans.
Teachers are directly teaching less and less facts and telling students more and more
of the methods of learning. Hwee et al, 2008) explained that teachers benefit from the ability
to distribute e-learning materials easily via modern ICT such as using electronic mails.
Through ICT, teachers are able to create interactive classes explain complex instructions
making lessons more enjoyable, which could improve student comprehension, attendance and
concentration. Tinio (2003) added that ICTs are helping to make teaching and learning into
an engaging, active process connected to real life. Traditionally, e-mentoring also called
online mentoring or virtual mentoring occurred in face-to-face meetings but now teachers and
students can access mentors through computer networks via the internet, intranet or extranets.
Nzuve (2010) opined that all organizations should install a human resource
management system because it facilitates faster access to relevant, concise, accurate and
complete information on which to base human resource planning and other decisions. Daft
(2010) observed that time, distance and boundaries are irrelevant in today’s business world.
ICT can connect school principals in virtual meetings in real time around the world for the
sharing and exchange of information and ideas. Information and Communication technology
has dissolved boundaries and now collaboration reigns. It facilitates collection, analysis and
storage of tremendous amounts of data, for easy sharing across an organization.
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Schools may utilize ICTs in administrative tasks such as timetabling of various school
subjects, analysis of students’ examinations, managing schools equipment and stores and
enrollments. Creatively, some schools using computers print using traditional stencils on dot-
matrix printers and prepare desired number of copies from ordinary duplicating machines.
They can promote communication with stakeholders such as, parents through e-mail and
mobile short message service (SMS). For instance, use of SMS as a reminder for meetings,
fee payments and other notifications such as staff meetings or students interview results
(Kipsoi, 2012).
Although mobile phones may be connected devices of conveniences, they are useful
in education for a number of institutional administrative functions such as notifying absences,
schedules, reminders, deadlines and tracking of library loans. Others include accessing the
internet and dictionary for research purposes (White, 2008). An ICT enabled school ushers in
a hyperlinked leadership rather than a hierarchical leadership, provides real time information
availability, greater knowledge sharing with stakeholders, building customized relationships,
it pressurizes schools and their principals to be more responsive to their stakeholders (Gurr,
2004).
2.6 Challenges Facing Principals in their Roles to Use and Integrate ICT
A Challenge is demanding situation which potentially may obstruct the smooth
operations of an activity thus limiting the attainments of desired goals (Dictionary Central,
2012). According to Wilmore, (2000), most principals and educators know how difficult
change management is especially the introduction of an innovative practice. Even principals
who are not technophobic find it difficult to grasp the complexities of information
technologies let alone promoting and overseeing their effective uses and integrations. The
Sessional paper no. 1 of 2005 noted challenges facing access and use of ICT in Kenya
(Republic of Kenya, 2005). However, none of the challenges is to do with principals’ roles.
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According to Kiptalam (2010); Kipsoi (2012) and Republic of Kenya (2012b), the advent of
new technologies for use in education and governmental initiatives have impacted on the
leadership and management of educational institutions in such a way that they have offered
both opportunities and challenges. Schools have a slow rate of adoption and hardly use ICTs
to manage quality output and raise teacher productivity due to a myriad of challenges facing
the institutions. Most schools have only adopted computers as a technical subject and have
hardly integrated its use in the teaching, learning and educational management.
Tinio (2003) opined that leadership plays a key role in ICT integration in education.
Many teacher or student-initiated projects have been undermined by lack of support from
above. For ICT integration programs to be effective and sustainable, administrators
themselves be competent in the use of technology and they must have a broad understanding
of the technical, curricular, administrative, financial and social dimensions of ICT use in
education. Without structuring this type of understanding, the principal cannot provide the
leadership necessary for the facilitation of the integration of ICT in secondary education.
Kiptalam (2010); Kipsoi (2012) opined that ICT literacy among school managers still
is very low, especially those that live in remote areas of Kenya. Principals’ large teaching
roles occasioned by shortage of staff and pressures from management and administration
duties dilute the leadership role of principals especially in getting in tune with new
educational technologies. Some older generation of school managers are conservative and
skeptical and hold the perception that computers require highly skilled personnel to operate.
Some principals fear that their students will be exposed to adult sites through the use of the
internet while others fear the infection of viruses to their computers and subsequent data loss.
The degree of technophobia of many principals holds back successful implementation
of IT in schools (Wilmore, 2000). Becta (2003) observed that principals’ lack of time for
training, exploration and preparation, lack of models of good practice in ICT, negative
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attitudes towards ICTs in education, computer anxiety and a lack of confidence, fear of
change and a lack of personal change management skills, lack of technical, administrative
and institutional support accounts for slow diffusion of ICTs in schools. Some schools do not
budget adequately for acquisition and maintaining the use of computers.
Unlike like face-to-face mentoring by principals, Bernadin (2010) observed that e-
mentoring of teachers, non-teaching staff and students may increase the likelihood of
miscommunication, may slow down the development of relationships, it is heavily reliant on
the competency of technical communication skills of both the mentor and protégé and quite
obviously, computer breakdowns and power outages may hamper the process.
Students may ultimately become over-reliant on technology and even have difficulties
in learning without them and this may make some of them to become lazy. Indeed, some may
not turn up for classes as they can always turn to webcasts and other reading materials
available in their school's intranet and developed e-contents in their laptops. While working
alone, computers can be resourceful but impersonal and cannot replace a teacher. Students
can become frustrated when they have difficulties either using the technologies or
comprehending subject matter and need a teacher’s help. If unchecked, experiences may
affect a student’s schooling outcomes (Hwee et al, 2008). The frequent use of computer for
school work and uncontrolled access to the internet may lead some students to side-track into
irrelevant or adult sites, computer games and social network which will in turn, reduce their
work efficiency or lead to moral degradation.
Kiptalam (2010); Kipsoi (2012) indicated that while a good number of schools have
benefited from donation of used computers, they have not been adequately equipped with the
same on maintenance and repair. Therefore, it is not uncommon to see schools’ computer lab
full of broken down computers. In the event of a system failure, wireless failure, time can be
wasted. Lack of power such as electricity due to many rural schools being unconnected while
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other alternatives sources of power may remain out of reach. Such handicapped schools may
not be able to offer computer studies. Power outages interrupt lessons and processes
Additionally, some teachers may prefer traditional approaches and fear technological
change which they perceive may render them irrelevant as computers slowly get introduced
in the class. Insufficient qualified ICT teachers still persist. Principals may prioritize staffing
the traditional curriculum subjects which are also understaffed than introducing computer
studies. There are more students willing to be taught computing skills than there are teachers
to transfer the skills. Kinyanjui (2011) noted that although computers are present in some
schools, teachers have limited or no access hence they prepare their work manually or source
computer services elsewhere and then feed into the school computers, a process that is time
consuming and costly.
The Principals who are keen to promote the use and integration of ICT for teaching,
learning and management may be hampered by the unavailability of computer laboratories,
electricity and computers. Some donated computers at times may be obsolete contributing
significantly to e-waste. A core ICT resource such as computers remains expensive especially
to poor rural schools. Most schools are not able to connect to the World Wide Web, due to
higher costs of internet connectivity coupled with low speeds (Republic of Kenya, 2004).
The fact that computers are still very expensive makes them a target for thieves. Some
schools have lost their hard-earned ICT hardware to burglary. This has made many schools to
incur extra expenses trying to burglar-proof their offices and computer rooms. This extra
expense makes some schools shy away from purchasing computers for their students. Some
community leaders may not have a priority to acquire and install computers to their schools
as a priority. They may consider health care, provision of water and other amenities as more
urgent and important than buying computers for teaching, learning and management.
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According to Pulley, Sessa and Malloy (2002) in Gurr (2004), there are five
leadership paradoxes and dilemmas associated with the increasing use of ICT. Firstly, ICT
such as email, Face book, mobile phones encourages swift decision making based on fresh
ideas and innovations yet there is need for a leader to take time to provide considered
responses. Secondly, ICT provides individuals with autonomy yet employee satisfaction also
requires a sense of community and hence how to balance autonomy without feeling isolated
is a challenge for managers. Thirdly, it’s difficult to know when to use top-down decision
making control since ICT is facilitating diminishing of organizational barriers hence
collaborative inputs into school decision making processes from all grassroots. Fourthly, it is
a challenge to sift through vast amounts of ever-increasing data churned out by ICT, see
trends and future direction for the organization. Lastly, ICT mediated school environment and
new technologies makes it a challenge to maintain focus in the midst of continuous changes.
2.7 Strategies used by Principals to Promote Use and Integration of ICT
Sessional paper no 1 of 2005 suggested some strategies such as working with
stakeholders to develop a strategy on ICT in order to addresses its use in all educational
institutions and neighborhoods, incorporating access, content, training of teachers and supply
of ICT to the institutions. The Kenya Education Sector Support Program (KESSP) came up
with programs to implement the sessional paper’s proposals and alleviate the challenges
facing ICT use and integration. It envisaged the development of e-learning materials and an
e-curriculum by using experts in the region to develop local digital content (Republic of
Kenya, 2005) Successful adoption of ICTs means changing the roles, attitudes, norms,
beliefs, and values associated with the school culture and its implementers.
Kipsoi, (2012); White, (2008) suggested that lack of training for teachers and
principals can be catered for by introduction of pre-service and in-service training to include
basic computer literacy, exposure to the basics of email, search engines, website design and
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the integration of technology in the classroom and in management of education. The take up
of ICT in education is dependent on the provision of reception infrastructure; the provision of
computers and networking as well as the professional development of teachers. ICTs are
swiftly evolving technologies and even the most fluent ICT teachers need to continuously
upgrade their skills and keep abreast with the latest developments and best practices. These
include professional development in changes in teacher role, new ICT applications,
integrating ICT into the curriculum, ICT changes in the curricula
Kipsoi, (2012) added that there is need for a comprehensive ICT policy to guide the
development of ICT in education management in schools in Kenya, proper deployment of
ICT in education, build local expertise, widespread training of secondary school
administrators and prospective tutors. The government should facilitate provision of well
wired, good ventilation, security of appropriate buildings to house ICT, connection to
electricity and internet access. Teacher anxiety over being replaced by technology or losing
their authority in the classroom as the learning process becomes more digitized, knowledge
based and learner-centered can be alleviated if teachers’ capacity is enhanced to understand
and appreciate their changing roles.
In addition, leadership plays a key role in ICT integration in education. Many teachers
or student-initiated ICT projects get undermined by lack of administrative support. For ICT
integration programs to be effective and sustainable, administrators themselves must be
competent in the use of the technology and have a broad understanding of the technical,
curricular, administrative, financial, and social dimensions of ICT use in education. Technical
support specialists should be accredited to do maintenance of ICT equipment and including
software, network administration and network security. Accredited private technicians to
offer technical support helps to reduce cases of substandard services to public institutions.
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The MoE should educate principals on how to choose from the bulk of existing
private ICT-based educational materials whose content may be of little relevance to
education. It is imperative too for the principals ICT roles to be defined, monitored and
periodically evaluated by the quality Assurance and Standards Officers.
2.8 Empirical Studies Related to Principals’ Role in Use and Integration of ICT
A research was conducted by Papaioannou and Charalambous (2011) in Cyprus on
primary school principals’ attitudes towards ICT as well as their perceptions about the factors
that facilitate or inhibit ICT integration in primary schools. The study used mixed methods
approach and had a questionnaire return rate of 52.4%. The study focused on attitudes and
this study seeks to clarify the roles of principals. It found out that Cyprus primary school
principals, generally, hold positive attitudes towards ICT. However, a number of statistically
significant differences were observed across gender, years of service, academic
qualifications, access to a computer, in-service training on ICT for teaching and learning
purposes, existence of a computer in the principal’s office, computer experience, and the
principals’ attitudes towards ICT.
None of the internal inhibitors to ICT integration identified by the study focused on the
principals’ factors such as defined roles. It recommended that the principals still need more
tailor-made in-service training and incentives in order to transfer their theoretical enthusiasm
into practice. Because roles have rewards and sanctions, it should address the lack of zeal to
translate theory into practice which is the focus of this study.
A discourse by Gurr (2004) in Australia entitled ICT, Leadership in Education and E-
Leadership, explored into how the concept of e-leadership is developing through research in
non-educational settings in surveys and interviews of business leaders. It observed that
leadership studies focus on the changing leadership styles and most ignore the changes in
organizations as a result of ICT especially where interactions are mediated by ICT. While the
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study incorporates leadership styles, this study focuses on managerial roles of principals. It
states that there appear to be no studies on e-leadership in education by indicating that “there
is no serious exploration of the role played by leadership in enhancing or constraining” ICT
use and integration (p. 115) which is why this study’s assessment of principals’ role in use
and integration of ICT meets the identified need.
The dissertation focused on e-leadership communication with team members using
technology and did not delve into the facilitative e-leadership roles of principals in the
increasingly ICT mediated schools. It found out that the interaction between ICT and
leadership is changing our assumptions about leadership because “leadership influences
appropriation of technology, group processes and outcomes” (p. 121). Therefore, leadership
role remains a core leadership quality which is the focus of this study.
In his study, Kiptoo (2012) assessed institutional and head teacher factors influencing
integration of ICT in secondary school management in Kamukunji and Starehe districts of
Nairobi city. He sought to among others establish existence of ICT policies and the extent to
which head teachers’ perceptions towards ICT influences its integration in secondary school
management. The study adopted survey research design without specifying the specific
survey or indicating whether it will use mixed approach yet the last section of the
questionnaires solicited qualitative data and the data analysis techniques specified that open-
ended questions which were subjected to thematic analysis. The sampling methodology only
indicated that it used both probability and non-probability sampling procedures yet it did not
describe the specific sampling methods. The sample size was adequate because it comprised
the total population for most of the target groups. However, the target groups were not
comprehensive since institutional factors for the study should have included more
representatives of the school community such as teachers, computer teachers, BoM, sponsors,
PTA, students and subordinate staff. The study established that ICT policy was lacking in
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most schools and the perceptions of principals and teachers was generally negative and had a
significant influence on ICT integration in management.
The study suggested that research should be conducted on the role of MoE in ICT
integration in secondary school management and that a similar study be carried out in a rural
set up since the findings from the highly urban and metropolitan Nairobi province limits the
generalization of the findings. On the contrary, MoE has some its ICT related roles specified
in the national ICT policy and the MoE strategic plan such as training of teachers, financing
of some selected schools to construct computer laboratories and supply of ICT equipment for
example computers and the roles of its semi-autonomous agencies like KIE in developing
computer studies syllabus, e-content such as language set books and subject lessons for radio
and TV broadcasting. The study did not look into the roles of the principals in ICT
integration in schools which is the focus of this study.
The findings on the location of computers and internet access in the schools show that
their diffusion has penetrated into some aspects of school management while teachers and
students cannot easily access them yet they not only constitute the bulk of the school
community but they also play a critical role in the use and integration for learning and
teaching. Access challenges on already available ICT resources point to poor facilitative
organizational role of principals. The study did not establish the roles of the head teachers as
an institutional factor which can be used to evaluate the rate of use and integration of ICTs in
schools as proposed in this study.
A study by Kabau (2012) focused on the challenges to ICT in public primary school
teaching and learning process in Nyeri central district. Though conducted in public primary
schools, it found out that majority of schools in this rural setting had no computers and other
ICT devises in their schools including even radios and TVs and teachers hardly use the
internet in schools. It also found out that there is limited in-service training of primary school
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teachers on ICT proficiencies which may apply to principals since they are under MoE.
Majority of schools where ICTs are used for teaching, albeit to a limited extent, have
technicians conducting the lesson due to insufficient knowledge and skills on the part of most
of the teachers. The study observed that the relationship between the role of School
Management Committee (SMC) and use of ICT was statistically significant since it posted a
p-value of 0.036 which was less than 0.05 hence implying that SMC plays a significant role
in ensuring availability of ICT facilities. It recommended that SMC should address the
challenges limiting the use of ICTs by mobilizing stakeholders such as parents, religious and
political leaders to build ICT infrastructure and promote its use in teaching and learning.
However, the SMCs heavily depend on the technical guidance of the head teachers who are
the chief executives charged with planning, organizing, leading and controlling the day to day
affairs of the school. This is why this study seeks to find out the ICT-related roles of
principals.
An assessment by Gogo (2012) of the factors affecting the use of ICT in teaching and
learning in secondary schools in Kangema-Muranga County investigated among others the
teachers’ ICT knowledge and skills in application of ICT and the schools’ administrative
practices that influence the use of ICT in teaching and learning. It targeted principals and
teachers and used questionnaires, interview guides and observation to collect data. It used
consultations and expert judgment by supervisors to establish their validity. Reliability of the
instruments was done using test-retest which registered a correlation coefficient of 0.80
which is higher than the recommended 0.75 hence reliable (Kothari, 2004; Gay, Mills &
Airasian, 2009). The study found out that many factors influence ICT integration. The study
concluded that restrictive administrative practices mainly limited budgetary allocations and
lack of proper ICT policies in schools leading to limited ICT use and integration in secondary
schools. It therefore apparent that the ICT roles of the principals are not defined hence they
54
cannot be held accountable for what they do or do not do on the extent of use and integration
of ICT in schools.
A research was conducted in Kakamega North District of Kenya by Waiti (2010) on
determinants of integration of ICT in public secondary school curriculum. It concluded that
although 32.0% of principals understood what is meant by ICT integration in the curriculum
and its delivery and had some computer skills, some of the principals were rated poor by the
teachers in terms of providing ICT equipment and materials like text books, computer
hardware and software as well as technical support. The study identified principals and
teachers as key determinants to ICT integration in the curriculum and stated that principals
should ‘take lead in promoting ICT integration in school curriculum to prepare students for
the technological change’ (p. 62). The principals should do this by ‘registering for higher
levels of education where computer skills are a pre-requisite’ and that ‘every school should
adopt the national ICT policy and a plan for its implementation’ (p. xv). The study however
did not zero in on the influence of principals role as one of the key determinants of ICT
integration.
Descriptive survey research design was adopted by the study which used
questionnaires for principals and teachers and checklists for availability and type of hardware
and software installed. The questionnaire return rate was 78.1% and 77.9% for head teachers
and principals respectively which according to (Mugenda and Mugenda, 2003) is very good.
The study used both content and constructs validity and tested data collection instruments’
reliability using split half technique. The study suggested that a research should be conducted
on the roles of Kenya Education Staff Institute (KESI) now Kenya Educational Management
Institute (KEMI) in ICT integration in school curriculum as perceived by head teachers and
teachers. It explained that such a study could reveal whether the top management appreciates
and supports ICT integration in school curriculum. Given that the study saw the need for
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definition of the roles of principals’ trainers and assessors, it is equally important that the
roles of the principals is also outlined as far as the integration of ICT in public secondary
schools is concerned as proposed by this study.
A study conducted by Mouti (2012), sought to assess school based factors influencing
adoption of ICT in administration of public secondary schools in Makadara district, Kenya. It
aimed to establish availability of ICT resources for use in administration, attitudes of school
administrators towards ICT adoption and availability of ICT Technical support. The sample
size of the study was very adequate since it targeted all the 10 public secondary schools in
Makadara district and realized a response of 61.0% which is good (Mugenda & Mugenda,
2003). The purposive method of sampling of 10 principals, 10 deputy principals and 80 (total
of 100 respondents) weakens the representability and hence generalization of the findings.
Noticeably, the teachers and students who ideally constitute the bulk of users in using ICT for
teaching and learning were not included in the target population as a critical portion of school
based factors which the study sought to establish.
The findings showed that all the schools had computers, 83.0% had printers, 50.0%
had scanners and 17.0% had facsimile (fax) machines. Computers were distributed to
principals, secretaries, bursars, deputy principals and HoDs. The distribution of computers to
the staffroom and for students was lacking which puts into focus the principal’s
organizational role in catering for their ICT needs. Regardless of the availability and
distribution of computers, most of the schools used manual records to perform tasks such as
timetabling, admission of students, managing attendance, generating students’ report forms at
the end of the term, schemes of work, library books, fees statements, budgeting and stores
management records. In as much as all administrators were computer literate, the study
established that only 33.0% used computers to register new students, 16.0% used to manage
class attendance, 50.0% used for timetabling and 50.0% used for preparation of student report
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forms. The low usage by the administrators indicates inadequate capacity and lack of
confidence to use and integrate computers effectively for administrative processes. The
principals poor championing of the diffusion of ICT in school management could be due to
undefined expectation which emanate from clarified roles.
One third of the schools had internet connectivity which cuts off a critical mass of
HoDs, teachers and students from the vast educational information available in the World
Wide Web. Some principals pointed out that increase in the use of computers triggers a major
cost implication on printer toners cartridges and printing paper. The findings showed that few
principals and half of the deputy principals ever attended training in ICT. The training was
for literacy in MS Word, MS Excel, E-mail and internet. Findings showed that the level of
literacy was quite low in MS PowerPoint, MS Access, Outlook, Publisher, QuickBooks,
Photoshop and PageMaker. Few HoDs were computer literate.
The study established that the much needed source of ICT technical support to aid in
the procurement, use and maintenance of ICT equipment came from the principals. However,
the MoE School procurement policy which follows a well laid down process in awarding
tenders through tendering, procurement and evaluation committees should not involve the
principal. The advice of the principal as indicated in the study’s findings may be a pointer to
the immense influence and role that the principals have on the quality of ICT hardware and
software and hence the degree of diffusing their use and integration which is why this study
focuses on their ICT roles.
Migwi (2009) carried out a study on public secondary school teachers’ preparedness
in integrating ICT for instruction in Ruiru division of Thika District, Kenya. It found out that
while schools voiced a demand for more computers, schools may not necessarily need many
more computers to integrate them for learning in schools as much as they need to optimize
the ones they currently have. 52.0% of schools in the study had some computers and
57
computer laboratories and 18.0% had internet connectivity. About 78.0% of students had no
access to computers at all while 18.0% of teachers had access and yet 52.0% of schools had
computers in their laboratories. The study found out that some of the teachers were less
accepting to new technologies and had low level of awareness on options available to
integrate ICT for instruction. 91.0% of teachers had no training or exposure on the use of
computers for instruction and some were indeed computer illiterate. The research only
assessed the attitudes of teachers and not principals. Some teachers opined that embracing
technology in instruction may replace them while others thought that it would expose
students to pornographic content. The school principal should play a leading role in
facilitating the tutor’s ICT skills which will consequently aid faster diffusion of ICTs in
teaching and learning. The study did not outline the role of principals in the challenges facing
the preparation of teachers for integration of ICT in for instruction.
Ombajo (2009) carried out a study on the challenges facing the integration of ICT in
mathematics and sciences in secondary schools in Vihiga district. The study employed
descriptive research design. It administered questionnaires to principals, teachers and students
and interview schedules to teachers from 15 purposively sampled schools. The study revealed
that the extent of computer use by students and teachers in Vihiga district was minimal
despite the positive attitudes they had towards the use of computers. The challenges facing
ICT integration in the schools included inadequate administrative support, inadequate teacher
training, limited technical support and inadequate hardware and software availability.
The study identified inadequate administrative support among other challenges which
if addressed, could raise the likelihood of integration of ICT in the teaching and learning. It
stated that “the extent of successful implementation of ICT in education depends to a great
extent on the principals” (p. 27). The research found out that “teachers and head teachers’
responses agree that administrative support is lacking in schools in Vihiga district” (p. 54).
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The study indicated that policy in relation to the use of computers is still not clear. It
suggested that “there is need for a clear policy to give direction to what should be done
otherwise the use of ICT will remain low and integration would remain haphazard based on
how every school interprets the use of ICT” (p. 54). However, this study proposes that the
existing policy guidelines are satisfactory and what is lacking to address the low usage of
computers and slow pace of integration is the clarification of roles of principals of public
secondary schools.
Makhanu (2010) conducted a study on Principals’ literacy in information and
communication technology (ICT): Towards improving secondary school performance in
Kenya. It studied the extent of ICT literacy among principals in the Western province of
Kenya based on the assumption that improving leadership is the key to good school
performance. The study delved into change management of principals as change agents.
A mixed mode methods research was conducted involving both quantitative and
qualitative approaches. 188 secondary school principals in the Western province were used
for data analysis. School principals responded to questionnaire 1 which investigated ICT
literacy. Deputy Principals responded to questionnaire 2 which investigated school
performance. Open-ended questions, semi-structured interviews and observation schedules
were used to obtain qualitative data. The target population was however narrowed to
principals and their deputies only and should have included education officials who manage
the administrators.
The study established among others that school performance correlated positively
with a principal’s ICT access, ICT knowledge and ICT application in school leadership
functions. Therefore, the research concluded that the ICT literacy of a principal correlates
positively with school performance and plays a significant role in influencing school
performance. However literate a principal is, it is not specifically required of them to use the
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skills to perform their outlined traditional functions to ensure that they use ICT to promote
teaching learning and management. This is because there is no clear role specified to
principals as suggested by this study.
The research recommended to stakeholders to develop ICT literacy among school
principals by decentralizing ICT training centres to zonal educational offices and providing
standardized EMIS to schools and mobile ICT training services in schools. The MoE should
encourage ICT application in school management by communicating to principals using
digital media only in order to compel them to learn ICT skills. This would not be binding
unless there is a formal requirement by the MoE on principals.
The study noted that there is massive investment in buying ICT infrastructure, but
principals’ training does not appear to be a priority. It can be observed however, that even if
principals were highly literate in ICT, their role in using their literacy and the available ICT
resources in schools for teaching, learning and management need to be spelt out to ensure that
they are expected to be effected.
Another research was carried out by Wahome (2011) to assess the preparedness and
extent of use of ICT in public secondary schools in Kandara District, Muranga County,
Kenya. It concentrated on current status of ICT infrastructure; extent of use of ICT equipment
in school management, teaching and learning, attitudes of principles towards ICT use and
integration, challenges faced in ICT implementation and suggested strategies to overcome
them. Schools owned computers, printers and LCD projectors whose availability were scored
at 41.9%, 39.5% and 2.3% consecutively and ‘perceived to be expensive’ by principals. The
study revealed the low availability of some ICT equipment which an ordinary school should
reasonably afford. These include Radio 32.6%, Television 16.3%, Video Decks 4.7%, and
DVD and VCD players 9.3%. This low availability of basic equipment can be explained by
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other factors not disclosed by the research findings as pointed out by the researcher that it
“shows lack of interest by the teachers and the school administration” p. 82.
The implication of low availability of some basic ICT equipment means that learners
do not learn by playing electronic content such as Kiswahili and English language set books
or listen to the Kenya Institute of Education’s (KIE) radio or TV programs. The study found
out that 33.7% of students do not use any ICT equipment at all in learning and 39.5% of
teachers do not use any ICT equipment for instruction. The study observed that the use and
integration of ICT in secondary schools in Kandara was “still at its infancy and majority of
the schools were using the ICT equipment for only the basic use like typing, printing, and
storing of examination and official documents” (p.vi). Based on this conclusion, the study
identified challenges facing schools as they tried to integrate ICT. These include: lack of
enough ICT resources and inadequate trained ICT teachers. Thy study does not specify the
challenges which emanate from principals’ management roles as suggested by this study.
Internet connectivity in schools was found to be low because majority of principals
felt it was expensive and that teachers were not interested with it. A very high proportion of
principals 81.8% suggested that the government should provide more support for ICT and
qualified personnel at the district level 72.8%. However, there are other ICT equipment such
as TVs, radios and DVD players which most schools can afford and yet they are not available
or they are under-utilized. Even schools which have computers registered only 60.0% of
teachers and 58.0% of students who accessed them. The question of access of what is already
available is primarily an effective management organizational role. It was the research
finding that computer literacy of teachers 51.2% and principals 77.9% is not a major
hindrance in the integration of ICT in teaching and learning. Building teachers’ and
principals’ ICT capacity through computer literacy courses does not seem to potent success in
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effective use and integration ICT in schools as much as defining the roles of principals in the
diffusion of the technologies as proposed by this study.
2.8.1 Critique of Literature and Knowledge Gap
Most of the reviewed studies similarly used mixed methods approach like
Papaioannou and Charalambous (2011) in Cyprus but it had a much lower questionnaire
return rate of 52.4% and 61.0% (Mouti, 2012). Although Kiptoo (2012), adopted a survey
research design, it did not specify the specific survey design used or particular sampling
methods. The study’s target group was not comprehensive since institutional factors
influencing integration of ICT in secondary school management should have included more
institutional representatives and school community other than principals.
Papaioannou and Charalombous (2011) suggested that Cyprus’ principals needed
more tailor-made in-service training and incentives to aid in translating their theoretical
enthusiasm into practice. A related research on principals’ literacy was done in Kenya by
Makhanu (2011) who observed that there is massive investment in buying ICT infrastructure
but principals’ training does not appear to be a priority. However, Wahome (2011) found out
that principals’ computer literacy did not automatically translate into promotion of use and
integration of ICT in schools. Therefore, emphasis on ICT literacy, more tailor-made in-
service training and incentives for principals only bring about theoretical enthusiasm without
practically translating into promoting the use and integration of ICT for teaching, learning
and school management. This is due to absence of clarified roles. Clarified roles for
principals specify rewards and sanctions thus portents greater success towards changing
theoretical enthusiasm into practice.
According to Kiptoo (2012), a research should be carried out on the role of MoE in
ICT integration in secondary school management. Waiti (2010) too proposed that a research
should be done on the role of KEMI on ICT integration in school curriculum. However, the
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role of MoE’s on integration of ICT exists for instance in its strategic plans to finance
construction of computer laboratories, supply computers to schools and train teachers. The
agency of MoE such as KIE has been tasked to develop e-contents and ICT curriculum for
schools. In both recommendations, the role of principals who manage ICT resources at
schools level was missing which is the thrust of this study. A discourse done in Australia by
Gurr (2004) identified that there is no serious exploration of the role played by educational
leadership in enhancing or constraining ICT use and integration and it suggested that roles
should be spelt out. The recommended study from a developed country was therefore carried
out in Kenya in this present study.
In a research done by Gogo (2012), it established that restrictive administrative
practices limit ICT use and integration in public secondary schools. This is confirmed by the
slow pace of ICT integration (Republic of Kenya, 2012). Research reports also indicate that
principals remain reluctant and skeptical of computers (Mukeka, 2008), display lack of
interest (wahome 2011) yet they should take the lead in promoting ICT integration in schools
(Waiti, 2010). However, it is apparent that principals cannot be held accountable for what
they do or do not do as far as promotion of ICT effective and efficient use and integration is
concerned if their roles are not clarified as sought by this present study.
Reviewed literature demonstrates the timely need for ICT use in teaching, learning
and school management. Past research findings appreciate the various internal and external
factors and challenges facing effective use and integration in schools. The reviewed studies
from Kenya and other countries of the world focused on e-leadership (Gurr, 2004); teachers’
preparedness in integrating ICT for instruction (Migwi, 2009); Challenges facing ICT
integration (Ombajo, 2009); ICT access to principals and secondary school performance
(Makhanu, 2010); principals attitudes and perceptions about factors that facilitate or inhibit
ICT integration (Papaioannou and Charalambous, 2011); preparedness and extent of use of
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ICT (Wahome 2011); Challenges to ICT (Kabau, 2012); head teacher factors influencing ICT
integration (Kiptoo, 2012) and school based factors influencing adoption of ICT in
administration (Mouti, 2012). Gurr (2004) suggested that it is important to spell out the roles
of educational leadership in the use and integration of ICTs in education. Wilmore (2000)
also opined that “there is a real need for in depth studies focusing on the role of the principal”
(p. 12). He lamented that the major focus of many studies has been on the use of IT in
schools, not the role of the principals. Therefore, none of the studies focused on assessment
of principals’ role on effective use and integration of ICT in public secondary schools as done
by the present study.
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CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This chapter describes the research design and methodology that was used to conduct
this study in order to generate answers to the research questions. It provides an explanation of
the research designs, research location, target population, sample and sampling procedures,
data collection instruments, validity, piloting and reliability of research instruments, data
collection procedures, data analysis procedures and ethical considerations.
3.1 Research Design
This study used mixed methods research approach where both quantitative cross
sectional survey and qualitative phenomenology research designs were integrated and used
concurrently. Creswell and Clark, (2007) argues that mixed methods approach encourages the
use of multiple worldviews by combining inductive and deductive thinking which helps to
answer questions and provide more comprehensive evidence in numbers and words for
studying research problems than either quantitative or qualitative. Mixed methods approach is
chosen, as Creswell (2003) points out, because it converges the results of quantitative and
qualitative paradigms hence safeguard the purpose of triangulation, aid complementarity and
expand the breadth and scope of the study. Creswell and Clark (2007) opined that “graduate
students typically collect both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study” (p. 8).
However, mixed methods research takes more time and resources to collect and analyze data.
Therefore, this study employed both cross sectional survey and naturalistic phenomenology
research designs to assess the role of public secondary school principals in the promoting the
use and integration of ICT in Wareng Sub-County.
Quantitative research is the collection and analysis of numerical data in order to
describe, explain, predict or control phenomena of interest. Underlying quantitative research
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methods is the philosophical assumption that the world is relatively stable, uniform and
coherent that researchers can measure, describe, understand and make generalizations (Gay et
al, 2009). Numerical data is used to perform statistical analysis and the results used for
answering research questions and generalize to the target population (Ogula, 2005).
Cross sectional survey research design was used in this study to obtain data at one
point from various samples at different public secondary schools namely principals, Heads of
Departments (HoDs) and teachers and from education officials namely District Education
Officer, District Human Resource Officer (DHRO), District Quality Assurance and Standards
Officer (DQASO) and examinations officer (EO). Cross sectional survey is appropriate for
getting information at one point in time so as to describe the current characteristics of
randomly selected samples from each of the components at the same time. Gall, Gall and
Borg (2007) observes that survey research yields much valuable knowledge about opinions,
attitudes and practices which has helped shape educational policy and initiatives to improve
existing conditions. However, being a quantitative research design, survey research does not
bring out direct voices and the context in which participants talk, it does not accommodate
researcher’s biases and interpretations. Qualitative research makes up for these weaknesses
(Creswell & Clark, 2007).
Qualitative research approach as described by Gay et al (2009) seeks to probe deeply
into the research setting to obtain in-depth understanding about the way things are, why they
are that way and how participants in their contextual natural settings perceive them. It enables
the uncovering of the subtle, less overt and personal understandings. The naturalistic design
that was used in this study is phenomenology. According to Gall et al (2007),
phenomenology is “the study of the world as it appears to individuals when they lay aside the
prevailing understandings of those phenomena and revisit their immediate experience of the
phenomena” (p. 495). The central characteristic of phenomenology is the emphasis on
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participants’ experiences and interpretations. It sought to understand the experiences in
educational ICT technology from the perspectives of public secondary school principals (Gay
et al, (2009). The systematic procedure of conducting a phenomenology study involve:
identification of a topic of personal and social significance, selecting appropriate participants,
interviewing participants and analyzing the interview data. Phenomenological inquiry is a
straight forward procedure capable of detecting many aspects of experience that may prove to
be important with no further analysis (Gall et al, 2007). On the contrary, Creswell and Clark
(2007), notes that qualitative research is deficient because the researcher’s subjective
interpretations and the ensuing biases makes it difficult to generalize the findings. This
supports the adoption of a mixed methods research approach as was employed in this study.
3.2 Target Population
The target population in which this study sought to generalize the findings (Gall et al,
2007 and Mugenda and Mugenda, 2003) in Wareng Sub-County was 45 principals, 225 heads
of department, 409 teachers and 4 education officers as shown in Table 1. The education
officials were the District Education Officer (DEO), District Human Resource Officer
(DHRM), District Quality Assurance and Standards Officer (DQASO) and Examination
Officer (EO).
Table 1
Target Population in Wareng Sub-County
Categories Population (N)
Principals 45
Heads of Department 225
Teachers 409
Education Officials 4
Total Participants 683
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Principals were targeted because their emerging role in managing ICT-mediated
schools and the variety of ICT resources donated or acquired by parents and other
stakeholders is critical and is what this study sought to have it clarified. The future success of
the diffusion of ICT in schools may be hinged on their roles since they play a pivotal in
formulating policies, plans, and prioritization in budgetary allocations, procurement, repairs,
maintenance and other roles such as organizing, leading and controlling.
Heads of Departments are members of school senior management and together with
teachers work closely under the principal and hence provided useful contextual information
for triangulation and assessment of principals’ role in promoting use of ICT. Education
officials gave useful supervisory, evaluative information and perceptions on the principals’
role towards effective use and integration of ICT for teaching, learning and management in
public secondary schools. Education officers were strategically positioned to report on
principals administrative performances of various roles.
3.3 Research Location
The study was carried out in Wareng Sub-County, Uasin Gishu County, Kenya. The
Sub-County has both an urban and rural setting with cosmopolitan populace and is a host to
schools which previously benefitted from the government’s support for construction of
computer laboratories, supply of computers and training of teachers. The Sub-County hosts a
wide variety of schools from varied locations, categories, sizes, diverse student populations
and resources. Thus, the location potentially yielded a rich, representative and generalizable
data on the principals’ role on the diffusion of ICTs and their uses and integration in schools.
3.4 Description of Sample and Sampling Procedures
This study used probability and non-probability sampling procedures to sample target
groups namely schools, principals, Heads of Departments and education officials as
explained below. Sampling is necessitated by difficulty of subjecting a whole population of
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interest to investigation due to prohibitive monetary costs and time. Gall et al (2007) and Gay
et al (2009) states that a probability sampling procedure also known as ‘random’ or ‘chance’
selection has every item of the population given an equal chance of inclusion in the sample
for instance simple random sampling, systematic or stratified sampling. Non probability
sampling procedures such as purposive and snowball do not afford any basis for estimating
the likelihood that each item in the universe has of being included in a sample.
In a descriptive survey study, Mugenda and Mugenda (2003); Cohen, Manion and
Morison (2007) stated that it is adequate to take 10.0% to 20.0% of the total population for a
large and a small population respectively. If a population is homogeneous, a smaller random
sample size is adequate. However, the higher the sample size, the better.
Table 2
Schools’ Sample Survey Frame
Type of School Total Categories Total Sub-County
Population (N)
Sample
Size (n)
Sample%
of Total
County (Provincial)
Schools
4 Mixed day 1 1 2.2%
Mixed Day & Boarding - - -
Mixed Boarding - - -
Girls Boarding 2 2 4.4%
Boys Boarding 1 1 2.2%
Sub-County
(District)
Schools
41 Mixed day 36 7 15.5%
Mixed Day & Boarding 1 1 2.2%
Mixed Boarding - - -
Girls Boarding 3 2 4.4%
Boys Boarding 1 1 2.2%
Total 45 Schools 45 15 33.3%
Source: Wareng Sub-County Education Office, March 2013
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There were 45 public secondary schools in Wareng Sub-County as shown in Table. A
sample (n) of 33.3% of the schools was selected. The Sub-County had 8.8% of schools as
County (formerly provincial) schools and 24.3% as Sub-County (formerly district).
Table 3
Participants’ Sample Survey Frame
Participant
Categories
Population
Total (N)
Desired Sample
Size n (%)
Actual Sample
n (%) of Desired
Sampling Technique
Principals 45 15 (30 %) 15 (100%) Automatic inclusion
Heads of
Departments
225 30 (13.3 %) 28 (93.3%) Purposive sampling, simple
random sampling
Teachers 409 60 (14.6 %) 50 (83.3%) Systematic, purposive and
snowball sampling
DEO, DHRO,
QUASO & EO
4 4 (100.0 %) 4 (100.0%) Purposive sampling.
Total Participants 683 109 (15.9 %) 97 (88.9%) -
Source: Wareng Sub-County Education Office, March 2013
Table 3 indicates that the study’s participants were made up of 30.0% of principals,
13.3% of HoDs, 14.3% of teachers inclusive of computer studies teachers and 100.0% of the
targeted population of education officials namely District Education Officer, District Human
resource Officer, District Quality Assurance and Standards Officer and Examinations Officer.
The total number of participants was 109 representing 16.17% of the total population. The
study registered over 80.0% actual sample size of the desired sample size.
3.4.1 Schools
According to the data in Table 2, the 45 public secondary schools in Wareng Sub-
County were generally heterogeneous and therefore stratified random sampling was used.
Firstly, stratified random sampling criterion was based on type of school which yielded 4
County schools and 41 Sub-County schools. According to Kothari (2004) and Mugenda and
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Mugenda (2003), stratified random sampling ensures inclusion in the sample of the sub-group
which otherwise would be omitted entirely by other sampling methods because of their small
numbers. Further stratified random sampling was done on the County and Sub-County
schools into various sub-strata based on category of school: mixed day, mixed day and
boarding, mixed boarding, boys’ boarding, and girls’ boarding schools. The number of
schools to make up the sample from each sub-stratum was then determined and sampling of
schools employed simple random sampling, automatic inclusion and purposive sampling as
shown in Table 2.
Schools were purposively picked if they offered computer studies subject, if they had
computer studies teacher or if they were ICT beneficiaries of MoE support for construction of
computer laboratories and supply of computers and training of teachers. This is because such
schools were considered to have the required information with respect to the objectives of
this study. Simple random sampling was used to pick 7 Sub-County day schools and 2 Sub-
County girls’ boarding schools. The name of each school was written on a piece of paper,
folded and placed in a tin and the researcher blindly picked one school, replaced the paper,
shook the container and picked another school until the desired sample size was sampled. The
rest of the schools were automatically included because of their small number in their strata.
3.4.2 Principals
The principals of the 15 sampled schools were all included automatically among the
study participants as shown in Table 3. This is because the principals belong to the schools
which were selected to participate in the study.
3.4.4 Heads of Departments
Purposive sampling was used to select Heads of Departments to ensure proportion of
gender representation and those who were deemed to have relevant information as shown in
Table 3. These included HoDs for technical and applied science departments where computer
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studies subject is one of its subjects. Other departments were those already using ICT such as
computers for e-learning or DVDs and TVs for watching set books and plays.
Sampled schools which had computers being used in all departments had simple
random sampling used to select HoDs. The name of each academic department was written
on a piece of paper, folded and placed in a tin and the researcher blindly picked one
department, replaced the paper, shook the tin and pick another HoD until the average of two
per school was sampled. A total of 13.3% of HoDs was selected.
3.4.5 Teachers
Table 3 shows that teachers participating in the study were sampled using both
systematic random sampling, purposive and snowball sampling techniques. A proportion of
14.6% of teachers were selected to participate in the study. The 60 teachers who were
sampled from 130 teachers gave a ratio factor 0.4615 or approximately a ratio of 1:2.
Therefore, the total number of teachers in a school was multiplied by the ratio factor to
compute the proportional sample of teacher-participants per school.
Computer studies teachers were selected using purposive sampling because they were
viewed to have the required information and were strategically positioned to assess
principals’ role on the use and integration of ICT schools. Computer studies teachers or other
teachers deemed to be better placed to provide ICT-related assessment suggested other
teachers whom they considered as having relevant information and therefore, snowball
sampling technique was utilized. The rest of the teachers were picked using systematic
sampling excluding the principal, HoDs and computer studies teachers. The researcher
identified each individual school’s teacher’s population, determined the desired proportional
sample size, obtained and randomized the list of the teachers, determined the Kth
teacher by
dividing the total staff by the desired sample size. If a school had a staff population of 20
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teachers and desired proportional sample size is 9, then the Kth
teacher was 20÷9=2.22 hence
every 2nd
name in the list was the teacher who was picked to participate in the study.
3.4.6 Education Officials
Purposive sampling was used to select 4 education officers namely DEO, DHRO,
DQASO and EO as shown on Table 3. The officers occupy positions which enable them to
interact professionally with principals and therefore have relevant supervisory information to
assess their ICT-related roles. The participant education officers were drawn from Wareng
Sub-County.
3.5 Description of Research Instruments
Data was collected using questionnaires for principals, Heads of departments and
teachers, interview guide for education officers and a researcher’s observation schedule on all
the sampled schools.
3.5.1 Questionnaire for Principals
A questionnaire consist of a number of carefully designed questions printed in a
definite order on a form or set of forms used for collecting data directly from people (Kothari,
2004; Ogula, 2005). Mugenda and Mugenda (2003) adds that some questions may be closed-
ended which have a list of possible alternatives from which respondents select the answer that
best describe their situation and includes ‘other’ to cater for responses that do not fit given
categories. Although closed-ended questions are difficult to construct and limiting to
respondents, they are easier to administer, analyze and are economical in terms of time and
money. Open ended questions give respondents complete freedom of response in their own
words. They permit greater depth useful for qualitative analysis, they are simpler to
formulate, give insight to feelings, hidden motivations and interests and may motivate
respondents to express what they consider important. However, open-ended questions are
time consuming and may yield unsolicited and even irrelevant data.
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The questionnaire for principals (appendix I) was a combination of open-ended and
closed-ended items mainly made up of the following sections: A: demographic information;
B: availability of ICT resources; C: role of principals; D: extent of use of ICT resources; E:
challenges faced by principals as they promote ICT use and integration and F: strategies by
principals. Sections C, D, E and F of the questionnaire answered the four research questions.
After the questionnaire was filled in, the researcher asked some probing questions to
principals in order to explore deeper into some of the issues emerging from structured items
in the questionnaires and therefore get their experiences and interpretations regarding ICT use
and integration in teaching, learning and school management.
3.5.2 Questionnaire for Heads of Departments
The questionnaire administered to Heads of departments (appendix II) was having
similar items as the questionnaires for principals. It solicited for information on the
principals’ role in promoting the use and integration of ICT for teaching, learning and school
management. The items in the questionnaire were based on mixed methods research design
with both closed-ended and open-ended questions. Closed-ended questions were included
because they are easy to administer, easy to analyze and are therefore economical in terms of
time and money and allows for collection of data from a large sample. The open-ended
questions are easy to formulate and were helpful in collecting more in-depth responses from
the HoDs. The HoDs responses greatly enriched the study and aided in triangulating the
findings from the principals on the latter’s role in promoting the use and integration of ICT
for teaching, learning and school management.
3.5.3 Questionnaire for Teachers
The questionnaire administered to teachers (appendix II) was similar to the one
administered to HoDs which also served to enrich and triangulate the findings from the
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principals. Like the HoDs’ questionnaire, the teachers’ questionnaire had closed-ended and
open-ended questions which provided both extensive and in-depth data respectively.
3.5.4 Interview Guide for Education Officials
An interview guide, is a face to face encounter with a respondent (interviewee) and a
researcher (interviewer) where a general plan is followed in orally asking questions and
making comments to lead a respondent towards giving data (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003).
Probing was used to get deeper information. A friendly relationship with prospective
respondents prior to the actual interview is a prerequisite for obtaining maximum cooperation
and accurate information. Interview guides are flexible, yield high response rates, required
data and in-depth data. However, they involve more travels hence are more expensive, time
consuming, requires more interpersonal and communication skills which novice researchers
may not possess and are prone to subjectivity due to much freedom given to interviewer.
The interview guide for education officials (appendix III) was employed in soliciting
for information from four purposively sampled officers in order to probe deeper into their
experiences and interpretations on ICT use and integration in public secondary schools. The
officers were the District Education Officer, District Human Resource Officer, District
Quality Assurance and Standards Officer and Examination Officer. The study sought the
officers’ supervisory assessment of principals’ role, challenges and strategies by principals in
promoting the use of computers and other ICTs for teaching, learning and school
management,
3.5.5 Researcher’s Observation Schedule
The study’s observation schedule (appendix IV) also referred to as a checklist was
used by the researcher to collect data on defined behaviours and activities (Gay et al, 2009) in
order to confirm the responses in the questionnaires. The researcher verified by observing
analyzed examinations results in notice boards, accessing existing school websites, observing
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accounts financial transactions, e-learning lessons, ICT generated timetables and availability
of computer laboratory. Observation schedules were used on all the sampled schools visited
by the researcher.
3.6 Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments
Validity is the measure of how accurate a test measures what it purports to measure
and that the results obtained therefore actually represents the phenomenon under study (Gay
et al, 2009; Kombo & Tromp, 2011). The validity of the research instruments used in this
study was established through the pilot administration of questionnaires in 6 schools on 6
principals, 8 HoDs and 10 teachers and helped to remove any observed ambiguities.
Reliability is the measure of the degree to which a research instrument consistently
measures whatever it is measuring in repeated trials (Gay et al, 2009). Reliability therefore is
the accuracy of the results obtained by use of a research instrument and not about the
instrument itself. Reliability helps to determine how much error is present in the test score.
3.6.1 Validity of Research Instruments
The researcher subjected instruments to content validity which is the degree to which
data solicited using a particular instrument represent a comprehensive coverage of specific
domains of indicators or content of a particular concept (Cohen, et al, 2007). Besides items
on socio-demographic details, questionnaires for principals, Heads of Departments and
teachers, appendix II and appendix III respectively, included items on availability and extent
of use of ICT hardware and software, ICT related role of the principal in planning,
organizing, leading and controlling, challenges facing principals role and possible strategies.
Face validity was done by assessing whether the instruments measure what they appear to
measure according to the researcher’s subjective judgments and those of peers.
Additionally, the expertise and the scrutiny of two university supervisors assigned to
the researcher were sought as well as a panel of experts from the department of educational
76
administration and planning (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003). Their comments and suggestions
were incorporated into the final draft of the research instruments. Source triangulation was
used to validate the instruments by making principals and teachers to respond to some similar
questions. Method triangulation was also employed using questionnaires, interview guides
and observation schedules to collect similar information.
3.6.2 Pilot Testing
Pilot testing is a preliminary survey (Kothari, 2004) and was carried out by
administering questionnaires to 6 principals, 8 HoDs and 10 teachers from the neigbouring
Eldoret East Sub-County. Participants in the pilot test were chosen because according to Gay,
et al (2008), though they did not participate in the study, they were similar to the intended
participants and were considered thoughtful and critical. The pilot test participants were from
various categories such as male, female, young and older teachers. The participants were
encouraged to make comments and suggestions which were used to improve the items such
as re-wording in the questionnaire and interview guides.
Pilot testing was conducted in order to detect any deficiencies and difficulties that
respondents were likely to face when responding to the items. The purpose was to establish if
any questions made respondents feel uncomfortable and to make sure that all the participants
in the sample understood the questions in the same way. Moreover, the researcher was able to
find out how long it took to complete the survey and so regulated it. The findings of the pilot
study were used to determine the validity and reliability of the research instruments.
3.6.3 Quantitative Reliability of Research Instruments
The structured and Likert type items based on the study’s research questions in the
questionnaires yielded quantitative data which was coded and entered into Statistical Package
for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 and used to compute Cronbach’s Alpha reliability test.
These were items from extent of use of available ICT hardware and software resources and to
77
perform learning, teaching and management tasks and principals’ roles in promoting use and
integration of ICT. The study used Cronbach’s Alpha reliability test which estimate internal
consistency by determining how items on a test relate to all other test items and to the total
test (Gay et al, 2009). According to Bowling (2002) an alpha index of 0.5 or higher is
considered as a sign of acceptable internal consistency.
Table 4
Reliability Indexes
Questionnaire Cronbach's Alpha No. of Items
Teachers 0.691 37
HoDs 0.781 37
Principals 0.868 37
Overall Reliability Index 0.756 37
Table 4 shows that the study used 37 likert type items from the research questions
which yielded a reliability of 0.691 for teachers’ questionnaire, 0.781 for HoDs questionnaire
and 0.868 for principals’ questionnaire as shown as indicated in appendices IX. The overall
reliability index for teachers’ questionnaire, heads of department’s questionnaire and
principals’ questionnaire was 0.756. The overall reliability index was higher than the
recommended index of 0.5 and therefore acceptable.
3.6.4 Qualitative Reliability of Research Instruments
According to Creswell (2009); Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007), the reliability of
research instruments in qualitative data focuses on the researcher for being the instrument
itself. In qualitative research, both validity and reliability of research instruments are treated
together. The trustworthiness of a researcher therefore involves credibility, transferability,
dependability and confirmability.
78
According to Lincoln and Guba (1985), credibility (truth value) refers to confidence
in the findings from informants and the context in which the study was undertaken. In this
study, the researcher allowed respondents to consent to participate in the study, the right to
withdraw and encouraged them to be frank. Respondents were assured that the status of the
respondent was independent and the findings would be treated with confidentiality and would
not be used to implicate them whatsoever. Moreover, triangulation was undertaken using a
wide range of informants and instruments for collecting data.
Transferability (applicability) refers to showing that the findings can be applied to
other contexts and settings. The researcher followed a research design and methodology,
collected in-depth data and for description of the phenomenon of the study. This allows other
researchers to have a proper understanding and able to make judgments about the findings
and transfer to other contexts.
Dependability (consistency) indicates that the findings are steady if the study could be
repeated. The researcher ensured employment of triangulation of data collection methods. In
addition, the researcher reported in detail the processes within the study, thereby enabling the
future researchers to repeat the work, if not necessarily to gain the same results.
Confirmability (neutrality) involves the degree of neutrality or the extent to which the
findings of a study are shaped solely by the participants and not the researcher bias,
motivation or interests. The researcher used method and source triangulation in order to avoid
the effect of investigator’s bias. Leading questions were avoided during engagements and
interviews and respondents were given sufficient time. The researcher has also acknowledged
within the research report the reason of employing qualitative approach.
3.7 Description of Data Collection Procedures
Upon meeting the requirements for the research proposal at the department of
postgraduate studies in education at the Catholic University of Eastern Africa, the researcher
79
applied for a research permit from the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology
through the National Council for Science and Technology. The researcher visited relevant
authorities in Wareng Sub-County namely the Sub-County Commissioner and District
Education officer in order to submit copies of the research permit and sought clearance before
proceeding to the sampled institutions. Further clearance from school principals was sought
followed by building of rapport, administering of questionnaires and confirming when to
collect filled questionnaires. During the visits to schools, observations were made and
observation schedules were filled for each of the sampled institutions.
Seeking of clearance from the relevant authorities such as DEO and principals and
booking appointments prior to the visits avoided engaging respondents to participate in the
study without their informed consent and at inconvenient schedules. The researcher
administered research instruments to participants namely principals, HoDs, teachers and
education officials. The researcher personally collected data by administering the research
instruments in order to facilitate high response rate. The researcher aided collection of
unbiased responses by emphasizing on respondents’ anonymity by requesting them not to
indicate their names or those of their institutions and assure them that the information given
would be treated in confidence and used solely for the study.
3.8 Description of Data Analysis Procedures
Data obtained from the questionnaires, observations and interviews in its original
form may be difficult to interpret. Such data must be cleaned, coded, entered into a computer
and analyzed and thereafter, make conclusions and recommendations. Data analysis is
therefore the process of bringing order and meaning to raw data. This research used
quantitative and qualitative data analysis procedures (Kothari, 2004).
Quantitative data was obtained from the closed-ended items in questionnaires.
Questionnaire response rate was computed and its adequacy established. The questionnaire
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response rate for principals was 100.0%, HoDs was 93.3% and teachers’ questionnaire was
83.3%. According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2003), the subjects who responded to
questionnaires were adequate if it was 50.0%, good at 60.0% and very good at 70.0%. Raw
data was analyzed after being coded and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social
sciences (SPSS) version 20. Data was summarized using descriptive statistics such as
frequencies, means and percentages and presented using tables and pie charts.
Qualitative data was derived from observations, interviews conducted on education
officials and from the open-ended items on the various categories of questionnaires. The raw
data were examined and analyzed to establish accuracy, usefulness and completeness.
Analyzing qualitative data involved systematically searching, arranging, organizing, breaking
data into manageable units, synthesizing and looking for patterns among variables. The
researcher categorized data into themes and used thematic analysis to discuss the findings and
presented them in form of narratives and direct quotes.
3.9 Ethical Considerations
Ethical tenets were applied during the course of this research (Ogula, 2010 & Dooley,
1995). The researcher did not offer any inducements whatsoever to encourage participants to
participate in the study. The purpose of the study was made known to respondents with whom
their voluntary and informed consent including the option to withdraw was sought before
they participated in the study. Anonymity of participants and confidentiality of their
disclosures was done by requesting the respondents not to disclose their identities in the
research instruments. Respondents were also assured that their responses would be used
solely for the study. The researcher ensured that no psychological harm was inflicted on
participants for instance by desisting from asking embarrassing questions.
The researcher sought for research authorization from the Ministry of Higher
Education, Science and Technology through the National Council for Science and
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Technology as evidence for proficiency to conduct research. Subsequent due processes,
permissions and notifications to conduct research were also sought from relevant institutions
and respondents in Wareng Sub-County. The researcher acknowledged authors and works
cited.
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CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
4.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the findings, discussions and interpretations of the assessment of
principals’ role in promoting the use and integration of ICT in public secondary schools in
Wareng Sub-County, Uasin Gishu County. The data was collected using questionnaires,
observation schedules and interview guides. The questionnaires were issued to 13.3% of the
Heads of Departments, 14.6% of teachers and 33.3% of principals while interview guides
were administered to 100.0% of targeted education officials. The data was analyzed using
frequencies, means and percentages to enable the researcher to answer research questions.
Findings were presented in form of frequency tables, pie charts, narratives and direct quotes.
4.1 Questionnaire Return Rate
The respondents’ questionnaires return rate for principals’ was 100.0%, HoDs’
recorded 93.3% and teachers’ was 83.3%. According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2003) a
response rate of 70.0% and above is very good.
4.2 Demographic Information
The demographic information of the respondents was sought in order to provide
background information for assessing the principals’ role in promoting the use and
integration of ICT in public secondary schools. The background information sought included
gender, age, highest academic qualification, training in educational management, formal
computer training and enrolment of teachers and students.
4.2.1 Gender of Respondents
The gender of principals, HoDs and teachers who participated in the study was varied
as summarized in Figures 4, 5 and 6.
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Figure 4: Gender of Principals
From the study, Figure 4 shows that majority of the principals, 53.3% were male
while 46.7% were female. Comparatively, the sampled principals’ male-female ratio is much
higher since out of the 45 public secondary school principals in Wareng Sub-County, 77.7%
were male while 22.2% were female.
Figure 5: Gender of Heads of department
The gender of Heads of Departments is shown in Figure 5 which indicates that most
of the HoDs 53.6% were male and a smaller proportion 46.4% was female. The proportion of
male to female was similar between principals and HoDs.
Figure 6: Gender of Teachers
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Figure 6 points out that the largest number of teachers, 66.0% was male and 34.0%
were female. The majority of respondents involved in the study had more males than females.
Thus there was gender disparity in the distribution of the respondents with more male than
female staff in public secondary schools in Wareng Sub-County. However, this is still below
the gender equality and equity policy in Kenya which seeks to attain measurable equal
representation of women and men in access to jobs, opportunities, education and control of
society and its institutions (Republic of Kenya, 2006c)
4.2.2 Age of Respondents
Table 5
Age of Research Respondents
Age Bracket
Principals Heads of Department Teachers
F % F % F %
25-29 years - - 3 10.7 23 46.0
30-34 years - - 3 10.7 12 24.0
35-39 years 1 6.7 3 10.7 4 8.0
40-44 years 6 40.0 14 50.0 7 14.0
50-54 years 4 26.7 5 17.9 2 4.0
55 years and above 4 26.7 - - 2 4.0
Total 15 100.0 28 100.0 50 100.0
Table 5 shows the age brackets of respondents as sought by the study. The largest
number of principals 40.0% and HoDs 50.0% were aged between 40 and 44 years. Majority
of the teachers 46.0% were aged between 25 and 29 years. The study showed that nearly all
the principals 93.2% were aged above 40 years, HoDs 78.6% aged above 35 years and most
teachers 78.0% were below 39 years of age.
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The findings showed that majority of the teachers were in their youthful age and
would therefore be venturesome and easily become early adopters of ICT technologies as
indicated by DOI theory. The HoDs and principals were above 35 and 40 years respectively
which may influence them to concur with DOI categorization of adopters of ICT innovations
as traditional and skeptical (Rogers, 1995). By virtue of their age, principals and HoDs have
more experience in teaching and school management. These experiences guide the
development of e-contents and introduction of use and integration of ICT in schools.
4.2.3: Highest Academic Qualification of Respondents
Table 6
Highest Academic Qualification
Academic
Qualification
Highest Academic
Qualification
Principals Heads of Department Teachers
F % F % F %
Diploma Diploma in Education - - 2 7.1 11 22.0
PGDE - - - - 1 2.0
Bachelors BED 9 60.0 14 50.0 27 54.0
BSC - - 1 3.6 3 6.0
BA - - 1 3.6 1 2.0
Masters MED 2 13.3 5 17.9 2 4.0
MSC 1 6.7 2 7.1 1 2.0
MBA 1 6.7 - - 1 2.0
Others 2 13.3 - - - -
The highest academic qualification of respondents shown on Table 6 was sought since
ICT skills for learning, teaching and management were acquired through formal education
(Jones & George, 2009). Majority of the principals, 60.0% with 50.0% HoD’s and 54.0% of
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the teachers had Bachelors degree in education. The principals who had Master’s academic
qualification were 39.9%, with 25.0% of HoDs and 8.0% were teachers.
Relevantly, only 13.3% of principals, 17.9% of HoD’s and 4.0% of teachers had
acquired a Masters degree in education. Only 22.0% of the teachers had diploma
qualification. The findings indicated that all respondents had above diploma academic
qualification hence they possess the requisite professional training to facilitate the use and
integration of ICT for teaching, learning and school management in public secondary schools.
4.2.4 Training Attended in Educational Management
From the study the respondents were asked whether they had attended training in
educational management and the findings were summarized in Figures 7 and 8.
Figure 7: Principles Trained in Educational Management
According the findings given in Figure 7, majority of the principals 80.0% had
attended training in educational management. However 20.0% of them had not attended any
training in educational management. Therefore, most of the respondents had attended formal
training in educational management which aided management functions of principals notably;
planning, organizing, leading and controlling roles.
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Figure 8: Principles’ Level of Training in Educational Management
Of the respondents who had attended training in educational management; 60.0% had
undergone diploma training, 13.3%, degree training 6.7% and other courses of management.
Most principals are ideally equipped with managerial skills to supervise school plant and
equipment (Rinny Educational Technical Publishing Services, 2010) However, Waiti (2010)
stated that principals should register for higher levels of education where computer skills are
a pre-requisite to aid in promoting the use and integration ICT in schools
4.2.5 Computer Training Attended by Respondents
The respondents were asked whether they had attended any formal computer training
and the findings were summarized in Figures 9, 10 and 11.
Figure 9: Principals’ Computer Training
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Figure 9 indicates that 46.7% of principals had attended formal computer training but
a larger proportion, 53.3% had not attended any formal computer training. Only 26.7% of the
principals had undergone computer packages classes and 20.0% had taken certificate courses.
From the study, the principals who can use computers and had not attended any formal
computer training had acquired the skills through various informal ways. About 40.0% had
acquired the skills from self training and 13.3% from colleagues.
Therefore, 53.3% of principals acquired computers skills from informal training
whose contents cannot be specified and quantified. Although the contents of the formal
computer training offered in commercial training institutions may not be relevantly tailored
for educational settings, even so, fewer principals have gone through formal computer
training. Gakuu and Kidombo (2010) indicated that the use and integration of ICT is
influenced by the principal’s level of ICT skills, but the findings imply that most were
informally trained. Therefore, principals may be unable to effectively and efficiently
supervise and promote the use and integration of ICT for teaching, learning and management.
Figure 10: Heads of Department’s Computer Training
Figure 10 shows that 53.6% of HoDs had attended formal computer training and
46.6% had not attended any formal computer training. The 46.4% of HoDs who attended
formal computer training had undergone computer packages classes and 7.1% had taken
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certificate courses in computer training. The findings indicate that most of the HoDs 53.6%
had attended formal computer training.
From the study, the respondents who can use computers and had not attended any
formal computer training had acquired the skills through various informal ways. There were
21.4% HoDs who had obtained their ICT skills through self training, with 17.9% through
colleagues and 7.1% through family members. The large fraction of HoDs, 46.6% who had
not attended any formal computer training poses a serious challenge on their readiness to use
and integrate ICT in schools.
Figure 11: Teachers’ Computer Training
Figure 11 indicates teachers constitute the largest proportion 76.0% in school staff
who had attended formal computer training with only 24.0% who had not attended any
formal computer training. Of the respondents who attended formal computer training, 54.0%
of the teachers had undergone computer packages classes and 14.0% had taken certificate
courses in computer training. Only teachers had taken diploma and degree courses in
computer training. The findings show that most computer studies teachers hold a certificate
and very few are qualified with a diploma and degree. Computer studies teaching profession
therefore did not attract highly trained computer studies teachers.
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From the study, the respondents who can use computers and had not attended any
formal computer training had acquired the skills through various informal ways. For instance,
20.0% of the teachers had acquired the skills through self training. Although Wahome (2011)
indicated that the literacy of teachers in Kandara district was 51.2%, and principals registered
77.9%, it did not delve into whether they underwent formal or informal training.
4.2.6 Teachers’ and Students’ Enrollment
The enrolment of students and teachers were sought during the study. Computer
studies subject enrollment and the mean enrolment for teachers and students was obtained as
summarized in Table 7.
Table 7
Mean Enrollment for Teachers, Students and Computer Studies Subject
Category
Male Female Total
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Teachers 8.1 3.7 9.3 6.7 17.4 9.6
Students 259.1 257.6 242.0 163.3 386.5 245.8
Computer Studies Subject Enrollment
Form 1 82.3 62.8 96.3 65.2 117.0 62.7
Form 2 60.7 49.2 58.3 37.6 86.9 61.1
Form 3 16.3 10.3 21.3 12.6 26.8 23.3
Form 4 19.3 4.9 16.0 11.5 27.0 21.0
Total 44.6 31.8 48.0 31.7 64.4 42.0
The mean teacher enrolment was higher for female at 9.3 compared to that of male of
8.1. The mean student enrolment was found to be higher in male at 259.1 as compared to
female of 242 students. From the study, female teachers were many compared to male.
However, the mean enrolment of female students enrolled for computer studies subject was
higher for female at 21.3 compared to male of 16.3.
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The computer studies subject mean enrolment showed that form one had the highest
number of male was 82.3 than female which were 65.2. It was followed by form two with a
mean of 60.67 male and 58.3 females. Form four had a mean enrolment of 19.3 males and
16.0 females. Computer studies enrolment was higher for male students in form 1, 2 and 4
while female enrolment was higher in form three. Overall, mean female enrollment of 48.0 for
computer studies was higher than for male students at 31.8.
4.3 Extent of Use and Integration of ICT Resources
The study sought to establish the extent in which Information and Communication
Technology resources were used and integrated in teaching, learning and management in
public secondary schools in Wareng Sub-County. To answer the research question, the
information on availability of ICT resources in the school was sought through establishing
the available ICT software and hardware, their quantities and frequency of use, how
computers are distributed, their working conditions and internet connectivity. Information
was collected using closed and open-ended items in questionnaires and observation schedules
as presented below.
4.3.1 Availability of Software
The principals, HoDs and teachers had varied views on the availability of software as
shown in Table 8.
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Table 8
Views on Availability of Software
Principals HoDs Teachers
ICT Software Available Not Available Available Not Available Available Not Available
F % F % F % F % F % F %
Kiswahili language
set books/plays
10 66.7 5 33.3 19 67.9 9 32.1 30 60.0 20 40.0
English language set
books/plays
10 66.7 5 33.3 15 53.6 13 46.4 31 62.0 19 38.0
Timetabling software 5 33.3 10 66.7 17 60.7 11 39.3 23 46.0 27 54.0
Exams analysis
software
11 73.3 4 26.7 15 53.6 13 46.4 29 58.0 21 42.0
School e-mail 10 66.7 5 33.3 15 53.6 13 46.4 26 52.0 24 48.0
School website 1 6.7 14 93.3 6 21.4 22 78.6 15 30.0 35 70.0
School social media
e.g. face book
1 6.7 14 93.3 8 28.6 19 67.9 12 24.0 38 76.0
Subject e-learning
contents/DVDs
12 80.0 3 20.0 17 60.7 11 39.3 24 48.0 26 52.0
Past mock questions
and answers
13 86.7 2 13.3 21 75.0 7 25.0 37 74.0 13 26.0
Past KCSE questions
and answers
12 80.0 3 20.0 21 75.0 7 25.0 34 68.0 16 32.0
Finance software 9 60.0 6 40.0 13 46.4 15 53.6 18 36.0 32 64.0
Video tapes 8 53.3 7 46.7 11 39.3 17 60.7 20 40.0 30 60.0
Majority of the principals 86.7%, HoDs 75.0% and teachers 74.0% identified past
mock questions and answers to be the most available software. Generally, there was fairly
similar and consistent rating by principals, HoDs and teachers on availability of most
software. For instance principals, HoDs and teachers rated Kiswahili language set
books/plays at 66.7%, 67.9% and 60.0% respectively; past mock questions and answers at
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86.7%, 75.0% and 74.0% respectively and past KCSE questions and answers at 80.0%,
75.0% and 68.0% respectively.
The software that was rated with much lower percentage of availability by principals
are timetabling software 33.0%, school website 6.7% and school social media 6.7%.
Comparatively, their availability was rated highly by HoDs timetabling software 33.0%,
school website 6.7% and school social media 6.7%.and teachers timetabling software 33.0%,
school website 6.7% and school social media 6.7%. The principals had a large percentage for
availability of subject e-learning contents/DVDs 80.0% and finance software 60.0%.
However, e-learning contents/DVDs and finance software received a much lower rating by
HoDs 60.7% and 46.4% respectively and teachers 48.0% and 36.0% respectively.
The large variation in the ratings of software indicates that it was available and was
not being used by teachers and HoDs. This implies that principals had not encouraged
pervasive use among HoDs, teachers and accounts officers for teaching, learning and
financial management. Principals rated availability of school website at 6.7% against 21.4%
of HoDs and 30.0% of teachers. Equally, school social media e.g. face book was scored as
available by 6.7% principals against 28.6% HoDs and 24.0% teachers. This indicated
existence of unofficial sites started by computer savvy students and accessed by HoDs and
teachers and hardly by principals.
4.3.2 Frequency of Use of Available Software Resources
According to Table 9, the most used software was past mock and past KCSE questions
and answers. The frequency of use of past mock questions and answers was rated by 53.3%
of the principals to be very often and 33.3% is often used, while 42.9% of the HoDs rated it
as often used, 17.9% very often used. The number of teachers which indicated very often
used was 34.0%, often used 24.0%, sometimes used stood at 14.0% and rarely used 2.0%.
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Table 9
Frequency of Use of Available Software
Key: P-Principals, HoD - Heads of Department, T - Teachers
Respo-
ndent
Not Available
Frequency of Use
Very Often Often Sometime Rarely Never
F % F % F % F % F % F %
Kiswahili language set books/plays P 5 33.3 2 13.3 3 20.0 5 33.3 - - - -
HoD 9 32.1 3 10.7 14 50.0 2 7.1 - - - -
T 20 40.0 6 12.0 15 30.0 9 18.0 - - - -
English language set books/plays P 5 33.3 2 13.3 3 20.0 5 33.3 - - - -
HoD 13 46.4 3 10.7 9 32.1 3 10.7 - - - -
T 19 38.0 8 16.0 16 32.0 7 14.0 - - - -
Timetabling software P 10 66.7 5 33.3 - - - - - - - -
HoD 11 39.3 5 17.9 12 42.9 - - - - - -
T 27 54.0 12 24.0 9 18.0 2 4.0 - - - -
Exams analysis software P 4 26.7 7 46.7 1 6.7 1 6.7 2 13.3 - -
HoD 13 46.4 8 28.6 7 25.0 - - - - - -
T 21 42.0 17 34.0 10 20.0 2 4.0 - - - -
School e-mail P 5 33.3 3 20.0 1 6.7 4 26.7 1 6.7 1 6.7
HoD 13 46.4 7 25.0 6 21.4 2 7.1 - - - -
T 24 48.0 5 10.0 13 26.0 4 8.0 4 8.0 - -
School website P 14 93.3 - - - - 1 6.7 - - - -
HoD 22 78.6 3 10.7 3 10.7 - - - - - -
T 35 70.0 3 6.0 6 12.0 4 8.0 2 4.0 - -
School social media e.g. face book P 14 93.3 - - 1 6.7 - - - - - -
HoD 19 67.9 - - 5 17.9 2 7.1 1 3.6 - -
T 38 76.0 3 6.0 2 4.0 3 6.0 4 8.0 - -
Subject e-learning contents/DVDs P 2 20.0 1 6.7 6 40.0 4 26.7 1 6.7 - -
HoD 11 39.3 5 17.9 5 17.9 5 17.9 2 7.1 - -
T 26 52.0 5 10.0 13 26.0 4 8.0 2 4.0 - -
Past mock questions and answers P 1 6.7 8 53.3 5 33.3 - - - - - -
HoD 7 25.0 5 17.9 12 42.9 4 14.3 - - - -
T 13 26.0 17 34.0 12 24.0 7 14.0 1 2.0 - -
Past KCSE questions and answers P 3 20.0 8 53.3 4 26.7 - - - - - -
HoD 7 25.0 5 17.9 14 50.0 2 7.1 - - - -
T 16 32.0 17 34.0 13 26.0 4 8.0 - - - -
Finance software P 6 40.0 6 40.0 2 13.3 1 6.7 - - - -
HoD 15 53.6 5 17.9 8 28.6 - - - - - -
T 32 64.0 11 22.0 5 10.0 1 2.0 1 2.0 - -
Video tapes P 7 46.7 3 20.0 4 26.7 1 6.7 - - - -
HoD 17 60.7 3 10.7 4 14.3 2 7.1 2 7.1 - -
T 30 60.0 5 10.0 8 16.0 2 4.0 5 10.0 - -
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The ratings by principals on past KCSE questions and answers showed 53.3% very
often used, 26.7% often used while HoDs indicated 17.9% very often used, 50.0% often used.
It was rated by 34.0% of the teachers to be very often used and 26.0% often used. More than
half of principals, HoDs and teachers rated past mock and KCSE questions and answers as
very often and often used hence the most used.
Majority of the principals 46.7%, HoDs 28.6% and teachers 34.0% equally rate higher
the exams analysis software as very often used. Kiswahili and English language set
books/plays, received similar ratings of 20.0% often used and 13.3% very often used. The
HoDs’ ratings were much higher at 50.0% as often used and 10.7% very often used for
Kiswahili set books/plays and at 32.1% as often used and 10.7% very often used for English
language set books/plays. Teachers too showed a higher rating than principals that the
frequency of using English language set books/plays were rated by 32.0% of the teachers as
often used, 16.0% as very often used. Teachers’ frequencies of using Kiswahili language set
books/plays were rated at 30.0% as often used and 12.0%. Kiswahili and English language
set books/play were therefore generally frequently used software.
The lower ratings by principals evidently imply that principals were not fully aware of
the extent of use of Kiswahili and English language set books/plays because they hardly used
them. Moreover, it is not a requirement in the role of principals to monitor and consequently
be held accountable by the MoE in ensuring the use of various e-contents for teaching and
learning. During an interview session with the DQASO officer, he pointed out that:
The quality assurance and standards officers are using the same monitoring and
evaluation tools of yesteryears for supervision of schools; we have not revised and
updated the evaluation instruments to include uses of various ICT resources for
teaching, learning and management in schools.
The least used software resource in public secondary schools was the school website
and school social media. Only 6.7% of principals indicated that they sometimes used school
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website and 6.7% indicated that social media e.g. face book was often used. However, a
larger fraction of HoDs indicate that school website was very often at 10.7% and often used
at 10.7%, while school social media e.g. face book was reported as often used by 17.9%,
7.1% and never used by 3.6% of HoDs. Teachers stated that school website was very often
used 6.0%, often used 12.0%, sometimes used 8.0% and rarely used 8.0% while social media
e.g. face book was rated as often used 6.0%, often used 4.0%, sometimes used 6.0% and
rarely used 8.0%. This implies that teachers are more conversant more than principals about
social media and other sites operated by students and which some HoDs remarked that the
students operate unofficially under school-related names.
Most principals, HoDs and teachers indicated that school e-mail was very often and
often used. The TSC and KNEC required schools to do online communication. Less than half
of respondents reported that subject e-learning contents/DVDs were utilized very often and
often. This implied that e-learning in public schools was still low. Timetabling software was
fairly used in some schools as shown by 33.3% of the principals as very often used, 42.9% of
HoDs as often used and 24.0% as very often used. Equally fairly used software in schools
was finance software and video tapes.
4.3.3 Availability of Hardware Resources
The information on availability of hardware in the School was sought from the study.
Information was collected from the respondents using questionnaires and observation
schedules. The principals, HoDs and teachers had varied views on the availability of
hardware as presented in Table 10.
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Table 10
Views on Availability and Quantity of Hardware Resources
ICT Equipment Mean Quantity
Principals Heads of Department Teachers
Available Not
Available
Available Not
Available
Available Not
Available
F % F % F % F % F % F %
Copy printer 1.4 9 60.0 6 40.0 16 57.1 12 42.9 29 58.0 21 42.0
Digital camera 1.0 3 20.0 12 80.0 10 35.7 18 64.3 11 22.0 39 78.0
Duplicating machine 1.3 10 66.7 5 33.3 6 21.4 22 78.6 30 60.0 20 40.0
Fax machine 1 6.7 14 93.3 5 17.9 23 82.1 5 10.0 45 90.0
Internet modem/wireless 1.2 9 60.0 6 40.0 12 42.9 16 57.1 22 44.0 28 56.0
Landline telephone 1.0 4 26.7 11 73.3 4 14.3 24 85.7 21 42.0 29 58.0
LCD projector 1.0 8 53.3 7 46.7 7 25.0 21 75.0 21 42.0 29 58.0
Computers for office use 4.6 14 93.3 1 6.7 20 71.4 8 28.6 35 70.0 15 30.0
Overhead projector 1.0 6 40.0 9 60.0 12 42.9 16 57.1 24 48.0 26 52.0
Photocopy machine 1.0 10 66.7 5 33.3 16 57.1 12 42.9 23 46.0 27 54.0
Printer 1.2 12 80.0 3 20.0 16 57.1 12 42.9 32 64.0 18 36.0
Radio 1.0 8 53.3 7 46.7 15 53.6 13 46.4 26 52.0 24 48.0
Satellite dish and decoder 1.0 1 6.7 14 93.3 8 28.6 20 71.4 11 22.0 39 78.0
Scanner 1.0 3 20.0 12 80.0 8 28.6 20 71.4 13 26.0 37 74.0
School cell phone 1.0 8 53.3 7 46.7 8 28.6 20 71.4 17 34.0 33 66.0
School laptop 1.0 5 33.3 10 66.7 12 42.9 16 57.1 25 50.0 25 50.0
Computers for teaching 14.5 11 73.3 4 26.7 17 60.7 11 39.3 28 56.0 22 44.0
Television 1.5 10 66.7 5 33.3 17 60.7 11 39.3 31 62.0 19 38.0
VCD/DVD Player 1.0 11 73.3 5 33.3 17 60.7 11 39.3 29 58.0 21 42.0
Video decoder/player 1.0 5 33.3 10 66.7 9 32.1 19 67.9 13 26.0 37 74.0
Table 10 shows that availability of computers for office use was rated as available by
a large fraction of principals at 93.3%, HoDs at 71.4% and teachers at 70.0% while 6.7%,
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28.6% and 30.0% respectively indicated not available. Printers received the second highest
rating after computers for office use as available at 80.0% from principals, 57.1% from HoDs
and 64.0% from teachers. Other available hardware which received over 50.0% rating as
available among principles, HoDs and teachers were computers for teaching 73.3%, 60.7 and
56.0%; VCD/DVD player at 73.3%, 60.7% and 58.0%; television at 66.7%, 60.7% and
62.0%; copy printer at 60.0%, 57.1% and 58.0%; Radio at 53.3%, 53.6% and 52.0%
respectively.
From the study, the hardware that were in low availability by principals, HoDs and
teachers included; digital camera, fax machine, landline telephone, overhead projector,
satellite disc and decoder, scanner, school laptop and Video decoder/player. However, school
laptop and video decoder/player received a much higher rating from HoDs and teachers than
the principals’. It is clear therefore most public secondary schools are possession of
computers and other basic ICT resources to enable them perform technology mediated
teaching, learning and management tasks.
The mean of available hardware per school is generally low. Generally, there was an
average of 1.0 hardware per public secondary school except for computers for office use
(4.6), computers for teaching (14.5) and television (1.5). There are more computers for office
use than are available for teaching which indicates that management tasks are catered for than
teaching and learning.
4.3.4 Frequency of Use of Hardware Resources
The information on frequency of use of hardware in the public secondary schools was
sought from respondents. The principals, HoDs and teachers had varied views.
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Table 11
Principals’ Views on Frequency of Use of Hardware Resources
ICT Equipment Frequency of Use
Very Often Often Some Times Rarely Never
F % F % F % F % F %
Copy printer 9 60.0 - - - - - - - -
Digital camera 2 13.3 1 6.7 - - - - - -
Duplicating machine 7 46.7 - - 1 6.7 - - - -
Fax machine 1 6.7 - - - - - - - -
Internet modem/wireless 4 26.7 3 20.0 2 13.3 - - - -
Landline telephone - - 3 20.0 1 6.7 - - - -
LCD projector 1 6.7 3 20.0 4 26.7 - - - -
Computers for office use 14 93.3 - - - - - - - -
Overhead projector - - 3 20.0 3 20.0 - - - -
Photocopy machine 10 66.7 - - - - - - - -
Printer 10 66.7 - - - - 2 13.3 - -
Radio 6 40.0 - - 2 13.3 - - - -
Satellite dish and decoder - - - - - - - - 1 6.7
Scanner 1 6.7 1 6.7 - - - - 1 6.7
School cell phone 4 26.7 - - - - 3 20.0 1 6.7
School laptop 3 20.0 3 20.0 - - - - - -
Computers for teaching 7 46.7 2 13.3 2 13.3 - - - -
Television 5 33.3 4 26.7 1 6.7 - - - -
VCD/DVD Player 5 33.3 3 20.0 2 13.3 1 6.7 - -
Video decoder/player 2 13.3 1 6.7 1 6.7 - - 1 6.7
Table 11 shows principals’ views on frequency of use of hardware resources. The
frequency of use of computers for office use was rated by 93.3% of the principals to be very
often used. The frequency of use of printer was rated by 66.7% of the principals to be very
often used and 13.3% never used. The frequency of use of computers for teaching were rated
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by 46.7% of the principals to be very often used and 13.3% often and sometimes used.
However, 33.3% very often use computers and 20.0% often used VCD/DVD Player.
From the study the availability of the following hardware; digital camera, fax
machine, landline telephone, overhead projector, satellite disc, scanner, school laptop and
Video decoder/player was low. The frequency of use of duplicating machine 47.6%,
Photocopy machine 66.7% and television 33.3% rated by the principals to be very often used.
The frequency of use of copy printer was 60.0% and internet 26.7% rated by the principals to
be very often used. Half of the principals 53.3% identified LCD projector, Radio and School
laptop to be available, with 46.7% as not available. The frequency of use of LCD projector
was rated 26.7% sometimes, Radio 40.0% and School laptop 20.0% rated by the principals to
be very often used. It can be observed the findings of the principals’ rating that although
schools have basic hardware, they are generally using hardware most frequently to perform
administrative tasks and less frequently for teaching, learning.
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Table 12
HoDs’ Views on Frequency of Use of Hardware Resources
ICT Equipment Frequency of Use
Very Often Often Some Times Rarely Never
F % F % F % F % F %
Copy printer 13 46.4 1 3.6 2 7.1 - - - -
Digital camera 8 28.6 - - 2 7.1 - - - -
Duplicating machine 5 17.9 - - - - - - 1 3.6
Fax machine 3 10.7 2 7.1 - - - - - -
Internet modem/wireless 3 10.7 7 25.0 2 7.1 - - - -
Landline telephone 3 10.7 - - - - - - 1 3.6
LCD projector - - 7 25.0 - - - - - -
Computers for office use 13 46.4 4 14.3 - - 1 3.6 2 7.1
Overhead projector 6 21.4 - - 4 14.3 1 3.6 1 3.6
Photocopy machine 10 35.7 5 17.9 - - 1 3.6 - -
Printer 15 53.6 - - - - - - 1 3.6
Radio 5 17.9 5 17.9 4 14.3 - - 1 3.6
Satellite dish and decoder 4 14.3 2 7.1 2 7.1 - - - -
Scanner 1 3.6 2 7.1 5 17.9 - - - -
School cell phone 4 14.3 2 7.1 2 7.1 - - - -
School laptop 6 21.4 4 14.3 2 7.1 - - - -
Computers for teaching 11 39.3 6 21.4 - - - - - -
Television 8 28.6 3 10.7 2 7.1 4 14.3 - -
VCD/DVD Player 3 10.7 10 35.7 2 7.1 2 7.1 - -
Video recorder/player 5 17.9 2 7.1 2 7.1 - - - -
Table 12 reports HoDs views on frequency of use of hardware resources. The
frequency of use of computers for office was rated by 46.4% of the HoDs to be very often
used and 14.3% often used. The frequency of use of computers for teaching was rated by
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39.3% to be very often used; with 10.7% very often used VCD/DVD player and 28.6% very
often used Television. However, 21.4% often use computers for teaching, and 10.7% often
used television and 35.7% used VCD/DVD Player.
The frequency of use of printer were rated by 53.6% to be very often used, with
46.4% very often use copy printer and 35.7% very often used photocopying machine. The
frequency of using internet modem/wireless was rated to be 10.7% very often and 21.4% vey
often used overhead projector and school laptop. The rating of the frequency of use of
hardware by HoDs indicated existence of essential hardware which could be enhanced to
perform administrative tasks and less frequently for teaching, learning.
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Table 13
Teachers’ Views on Frequency of Use of Hardware Resources
ICT Equipment Frequency of Use
Very Often Often Some Times Rarely Never
F % F % F % F % F %
Copy printer 19 38.0 6 12.0 2 4.0 2 4.0 - -
Digital camera 6 12.0 3 6.0 2 4.0 - - - -
Duplicating machine 16 32.0 8 16.0 4 8.0 - - 2 4.0
Fax machine 2 4.0 3 6.0 - - - - - -
Internet modem/wireless 11 22.0 8 16.0 2 4.0 1 2.0 - -
Landline telephone 12 24.0 5 10.0 2 4.0 1 2.0 1 2.0
LCD projector 6 12.0 6 12.0 9 18.0 - - - -
Computers for office use 20 40.0 11 22.0 2 4.0 2 4.0 - -
Overhead projector 12 24.0 3 6.0 7 14.0 2 4.0 - -
Photocopy machine 18 36.0 2 4.0 2 4.0 1 2.0 - -
Printer 22 44.0 7 14.0 3 6.0 - - - -
Radio 8 16.0 8 16.0 6 12.0 4 8.0 - -
Satellite dish and decoder 6 12.0 1 2.0 4 8.0 - - - -
Scanner 3 6.0 4 8.0 4 8.0 2 4.0 - -
School cell phone 8 16.0 6 12.0 2 4.0 1 2.0 - -
School laptop 19 38.0 6 12.0 - - - - - -
Computers for teaching 18 36.0 8 16.0 - - 1 2.0 1 2.0
Television 20 40.0 7 14.0 1 2.0 1 2.0 2 4.0
VCD/DVD Player 10 20.0 11 22.0 5 10.0 3 6.0 - -
Video decoder/player 10 20.0 1 2.0 - - 1 2.0 1 2.0
According to Table 13, the frequency of use of Computers for office was rated by
40.0% of the HoDs to be very often used and 22.0% often used while the frequency of use of
computers for teaching was rated by 36.0% to be very often used, with 12.0% as often used.
The rating of printer was 44.0%, television 40.0% and 32.0% as very often use duplicating
machine. The frequency of using VCD/DVD Player was rated to be 20.0% very often and
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22.0% vey often used which was low. Teachers, 52.0% identified radio and 50.0% school
laptop to be available but not very often used. The findings from the teachers’ rating indicate
too that schools have basic hardware. The efficiency with which the available hardware was
used was low. They and frequently used for administrative tasks and less frequently for
teaching, learning. This a measure of departure from the findings of Mouti (2012) which
found out that regardless of the availability and distribution of computers, most schools used
manual records to perform management tasks such as timetabling, admission of students,
managing attendance, generating students’ report forms at the end of the term, schemes of
work, library books, fees statements, budgeting and stores management records.
4.3.5 Distribution of Computers
During the study, the distribution of computers in a school was sought and the
respondent’s views were summarized in Table 14.
Table 14
Distribution of Computers in Public Secondary Schools
Location
Quantity No. in Use No. Not in Use
No. Connected
to Internet
Total Mean Total Mean Total Mean Total Mean
Principal’s office 15 1.7 10 1.3 5 2.5 2 1.0
Deputy principal’s office 9 1.0 8 1.0 1 1.0 - -
HoDs offices 10 2.0 9 1.8 1 1.0 - -
Secretary’s office 20 1.3 20 1.3 - - 4 1.3
Accounts office 13 1.3 13 1.3 - - 3 1.5
Computer laboratory 149 17 147 16.3 2 2.0 11 11.0
Staffroom 6 1.2 6 1.2 - - - -
Stores - - - - - - - -
Library 6 1.5 6 1.5 - - - -
Others 1 1.0 1 1.0 - - - -
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From the study findings in Table 14, most of the computers in public secondary
schools in Wareng Sub-County were found in the computer laboratory as compared to other
locations. From the study it showed that a mean distribution of 17.0 computers were in the
computer laboratory in schools, with a mean of 16.3 in use, mean of 2.0 not in use and 11.0
connected to internet. The mean distribution of computers showed that the secretary’s office
had 1.3 and accounts office had a mean of 1.3 computers per school while staffrooms had a
mean of 1.2 computers per school. The findings therefore indicate that computers were not
evenly distributed within and among public schools.
In order to establish the ratio of students and teacher to computers in public schools in
Wareng Sub-County, the mean enrolment was used. Since the mean enrolment of students
was 386.0 per school (Table 7), it showed that 24.0 computers per school were available.
This indicates that student to computer ratio of 1:24 was too high for effective use and
integration of ICT learning in public secondary schools.
There were more computers in principals’ offices at a mean of 1.7 than in each
staffroom at 1.2 which was too low to sufficiently promote their uses for learning and
teaching among the teachers. The mean enrolment of teachers was 17.4 per school compared
to a mean of 1.2 computers in each staffroom. The teacher to computer ratio was therefore
1:15 which was too high for effective use and integration of ICT teaching and learning in
public secondary schools in Wareng Sub-County, Uasin Gishu County. From the study it
showed that most of the computers were concentrated in management sections of the schools
such as secretary’s and accounts office rather than in the teaching and learning areas for
instance the staffroom, computer studies room. Kinyanjui (2011) noted that although
computers are present in some schools, teachers have limited or no access and some resort to
source computer services elsewhere.
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4.3.6 Extent of Use of ICT Resources to Perform Management Tasks
The study sought to establish extent to which hardware and software available are
used to perform management in public secondary schools in Wareng Sub-County.
Table 15
Extent of Management Tasks According to Principals
Management tasks Very Often Often Some Times Rarely Never
F % F % F % F % F %
Processing exam
results/students report forms
10 66.7 2 13.3 - - - - 3 20.0
Timetabling 7 46.7 1 6.7 1 6.7 - - 6 40.0
School fees management e.g.
print receipts
9 60.0 1 6.7 - - - - 5 33.3
Typing letters, memos,
newsletters
13 86.7 2 13.3 - - - - - -
Managing stores inventories 2 13.3 - - - - 6 40.0 7 46.7
Online registration of
candidates
9 60.0 3 20.0 - - - - 3 20.0
E-mail communication - TSC,
MoE, KNEC
5 33.3 2 13.3 1 6.7 2 13.3 5 33.3
Updating of school website - - 1 6.7 1 6.7 2 13.3 11 73.3
Library management 1 6.7 - - - - 1 6.7 13 86.7
M-pesa fee payment 1 6.7 - - 1 6.7 1 6.7 12 80.0
SMS reminders/convene
meeting/communications
4 26.7 4 26.7 1 6.7 - - 6 40.0
From the study most of the principals 86.7% very often used ICT resources in schools
for typing letters, memos, newsletters, 66.7% very often and 13.3% often used ICT resources
for processing exam and students results in their schools, with only 20.0% had never used.
Majority of the principals 60.0% very often use ICT resources for school fees management
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e.g. print and online registration of candidates in their schools, with only 33.3% and 20.0%
respectively had never used the resource for school fees management and online registration
of candidates in their schools. Other management tasks that the principals very often used
were, 33.3% E-mail communication to TSC and MoE and 40.0% timetabling.
The least used ICT resources for management included 26.7% sms
reminders/convening meetings, 13.3% managing stores inventories and 6.7% each for library
management and M-pesa fee payment, 73.3% updating of school website, 46.7% in managing
stores inventories It can be observed therefore that ICT resources in schools were used for
basic management tasks which includes typing, processing examinations, e-mail
communications with MoE, TSC, KNEC registration of candidates and school fees
management. The TSC, KNEC and MoE had made it a requirement for schools to use online
communications with them. This approach has in effect indirectly defined the roles of
principals and successfully improved the use of ICT in schools for management functions.
Consequently, it is apparent that making it a requirement for schools to use digital processes
is more effective than seeking to improve the basic human and physical infrastructures which
already exist in most public secondary schools.
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Table 16
Extent of Management Tasks According to Heads of Departments
School Management Tasks Very Often Often Some Times Rarely Never
F % F % F % F % F %
Processing exam results/students report forms 22 78.6 1 3.6 2 7.1 1 3.6 2 7.1
Timetabling 18 64.3 5 17.9 2 7.1 1 3.6 2 7.1
School fees management e.g. print receipts 12 42.9 4 14.3 5 17.9 2 7.1 5 17.9
Typing letters, memos, newsletters 21 75.0 4 14.3 1 3.6 1 3.6 2 7.1
Managing stores inventories 5 17.9 4 14.3 5 17.9 1 3.6 13 46.4
Online registration of candidates 14 50.0 5 17.9 3 10.7 1 3.6 5 17.9
E-mail communication - TSC, MoE, KNEC 7 25.0 11 39.3 2 7.1 1 3.6 7 25.0
Updating of school website - - 8 28.6 2 7.1 4 14.3 14 50.0
Library management 1 3.6 - - 3 10.7 7 25.0 17 60.7
M-pesa fee payment 3 10.7 1 3.6 6 21.4 4 14.3 14 50.0
SMS reminders/convene meeting/ comm 7 25.0 7 25.0 - - 1 3.6 13 46.4
Table 16 indicates that according to most of the HoDs, ICT resources are very often
used for the following management functions: 75.0% of schools use it for typing letters,
memos, newsletters, and 78.6% for processing exam/students report. From the study,
majority of the HoDs reported that other management tasks that utilize ICT resources include
50.0% for online registration of candidates 64.3% for timetabling, 42.9% School fees
management e.g. print receipts, sms reminders/convene meeting/communications and E-mail
communication to TSC and MoE. The requirement by MoE agencies and statutory
commissions such as KNEC and TSC for schools to use ICT technology has greatly increased
use and integration of ICT for management tasks.
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The management tasks according to HoDs that least use ICT resources (rarely and
never use) are; 85.7% library management, 64.3% M-pesa fee payment, 64.3% updating
school website and 50.0% for managing stores inventories. Hardware and software resources
were therefore used in most of the management tasks in public secondary schools. It is set to
increase with increased diffusion of use of mobile money transfer services and mobile money
payment services for instance “Lipa na M-Pesa”.
Table 17
Extent of Management Tasks According to Teachers
School management tasks Very Often Often Some Times Rarely Never
F % F % F % F % F %
Processing exam results/students report forms 34 68.0 12 24.0 2 4.0 - - 2 4.0
Timetabling 23 46.0 13 26.0 3 6.0 6 12.0 5 10.0
School fees management e.g. print receipts 14 28.0 10 20.0 2 4.0 13 26.0 11 22.0
Typing letters, memos, newsletters 34 68.0 9 18.0 6 12.0 - - 1 2.0
Managing stores inventories - - 6 12.0 5 10.0 11 22.0 28 56.0
Online registration of candidates 19 38 6 12.0 8 16.0 3 6.0 14 28.0
E-mail communication - TSC, MoE, KNEC 8 16.0 12 24.0 5 10.0 7 14.0 18 36.0
Updating of school website 6 12.0 8 16.0 1 2.0 9 18.0 26 52.0
Library management 7 14.0 5 10.0 - - 12 24.0 26 52.0
M-pesa fee payment 2 4.0 - - 6 12.0 12 24.0 30 60.0
SMS reminders/convene meeting/ comm 12 24.0 16 32.0 5 10.0 2 4.0 15 30.0
Table 17 gives information solicited from teachers to establish the extent ICT
resources are used and integrated in management. According to teachers, the very often and
often performed management tasks using ICT resources were; 92.0% for processing exam
and students ports, 86.0% typing letters, memos and newsletters, timetabling, 50.0% online
registration of candidates, 30.0% e-mail communication to TSC and MoE, 56.0% sms
reminders/convene meeting/communications.
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Teachers indicated that the following management tasks rarely used ICT including
those that have never used; 48.0% School fees management e.g. print receipts, 76.0% library
management, updating of school website, 84.0% using M-pesa fee payment and 78.0% in
managing stores inventories. More management tasks therefore utilize ICT resources in the
school. This implies that use and integration of ICT in school management is entrenched.
This is in agreement with Wahome (2011) who found out that the use and integration of ICT
in secondary schools in Kandara district still at its infancy as majority of the schools were
using the ICT equipment for only the basic services like typing, printing, and storing of
examination and official documents.
4.3.7 Extent of Use of ICT Resources to Perform Teaching Tasks
The study sought to establish from principals, HoDs and teachers the extent to which
ICT hardware and software available in schools are used to perform Teaching tasks in public
secondary schools in Wareng Sub-County.
Table 18
Extent of Teaching Tasks According to Principals
Teaching tasks
Very Often Often Some Times Rarely Never
F % F % F % F % F %
Preparation of examination
papers/questions
9 60.0 2 13.3 - - - - 4 26.7
Preparing schemes of work,
lesson plans
7 46.7 3 20.0 - - 1 6.7 4 26.7
Teaching computer studies
subject
7 46.7 4 26.7 - - - - 4 26.7
Internet research for teaching
notes
2 13.3 5 33.3 2 13.3 2 13.3 4 26.7
Preparation of mark sheet
lists, class lists
7 46.7 6 40.0 - - 1 6.7 1 6.7
Teaching e-learning subject
lessons
4 26.7 3 20.0 4 26.7 1 6.7 3 20.0
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Table 18 shows extent of use of ICT resources to perform teaching tasks. The high
frequency according to principals in which the teaching tasks were performed comprising
very often and often used include; 73.3% preparation of examination papers and questions,
66.7% preparing schemes of work, lesson plans, 73.4% teaching computer studies subject,
86.7% preparation of mark sheet lists, class lists. Between 6.7% and 26.7% of the schools
that participated in the study reported that they have never performed any of the listed ICT
teaching tasks.
Use of ICT resources for internet research for teaching notes and teaching e-learning
subject lessons were rated lower for both very often and often used at 46.6% and 46.7%
respectively. This implies that teaching tasks had recorded lower integration index because
internet research for teaching notes and teaching e-learning subject lessons are core to using
ICT for teaching. Teaching computer studies subject was evidently emphasized in most
schools than using e-learning for the other subjects.
Table 19
Extent of Teaching Tasks According to Heads of Departments
Teaching tasks
Very Often Often Some Times Rarely Never
F % F % F % F % F %
Preparation of examination
papers/questions 17 60.7 2 7.1 2 7.1 1 3.6 6 21.4
Preparing schemes of work,
lesson plans 11 39.3 7 25.0 4 14.3 3 10.7 3 10.7
Teaching computer studies
subject 18 64.3 3 10.7 2 7.1 - - 5 17.9
Internet research for teaching
notes 14 50.0 2 7.1 6 21.4 4 14.3 2 7.1
Preparation of mark sheet
lists, class lists 13 46.4 5 17.9 6 21.4 2 7.1 2 7.1
Teaching e-learning subject
lessons 6 21.4 5 17.9 6 21.4 3 10.7 8 28.6
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Table 19 shows HoDs’ views on extent of use of ICT resources to perform teaching
tasks. From the findings, majority of HoDs very often use ICT resources 60.7% for
preparation of examination papers and questions, 39.3% preparing schemes of work, lesson
plans, and 64.3% for teaching computer studies subject. Other very often ratings by HoDs are
50.0% for internet research for teaching notes, 46.4% preparation of mark sheet lists, class
lists.
Although a half of the teachers, 50.0% use internet resources to research for teaching
notes 50.0%, they do not use ICT resources to teach students as shown by a low rating 21.4%
for teaching e-learning subject lessons. It therefore means that ICT resources have not
significantly been used and integrated into teaching especially e-learning for other subjects.
Table 20
Extent of Teaching Tasks According to Teachers
Teaching tasks Very Often Often Some Times Rarely Never
F % F % F % F % F %
Preparation of examination
papers/questions
35 70.0 11 22.0 2 4.0 1 2.0 1 2.0
Preparing schemes of work,
lesson plans
22 44.0 18 36.0 5 10.0 1 2.0 4 8.0
Teaching computer studies
subject
25 50.0 14 28.0 2 4.0 - - 9 18.0
Internet research for teaching
notes
10 20.0 10 20.0 6 12.0 10 20.0 14 28.0
Preparation of mark sheet
lists, class lists
32 64.0 9 18.0 6 12.0 - - 3 6.0
Teaching e-learning subject
lessons
9 18.0 14 28.0 8 16.0 - - 19 38.0
Table 20 shows frequency of use of ICT resources according to teachers. From the
study, majority of the teachers, 70.0% rated very often performed the preparation of
examination papers and questions, 50.0% teaching computer studies subject and 64.0%
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preparation of mark sheet lists, class lists. Although some schools reported having never
performed the teaching tasks, internet research for teaching notes and teaching e-learning
subject lessons were rated higher at 28.0% and 38.0% respectively. There is therefore still
little emphasis on the use of ICT for teaching task among teachers as Kiptalam (2010);
Kipsoi (2012) observed that most schools have only adopted computers as a technical subject
and have hardly integrated its use in the teaching, learning and educational management.
4.3.8 Extent of Use of ICT Resources to Perform Learning Tasks
The research question sought to establish from principals, HoDs and teachers the
extent to which ICT hardware and software available in schools are used to perform Learning
tasks in public secondary schools in Wareng Sub-County.
Table 21
Extent of Learning Tasks According to Principals
Learning Tasks Very Often Often Some Times Rarely Never
F % F % F % F % F %
Internet learning for students
and teachers
1 6.7 3 20.0 3 20.0 5 33.3 3 20.0
Accessing mocks, KCSE exams 5 33.3 2 13.3 5 33.3 - - 3 20.0
Watching set books and plays 4 26.7 2 13.3 4 26.7 2 13.3 3 20.0
Staff/students computer literacy
lessons
2 13.3 4 26.7 4 26.7 2 13.3 3 20.0
Teaching/learning computer
studies subject
6 40.0 1 6.7 3 20.0 - - 5 33.3
Listening to KIE radio, TV
broadcast
3 20.0 2 13.3 3 20.0 3 20.0 4 26.7
Table 21 shows the frequency of performance of teaching tasks according to public
secondary school principals in Wareng Sub-County. The study revealed most highly rated
learning task in schools is learning computer studies subject by students 40.0% and watching
set books and plays 26.7%. Evidently, internet learning for students and teachers scored 6.7%
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for very often used and 20.0% for often performed indicating that internet use not yet
pervasive in schools.
Over 20.0% of the findings from principals showed that schools had never performed
any of the learning tasks using ICT resources. Listening to KIE radio and TV broadcast
26.7% received a much higher rating for never performed task than other learning tasks.
Many secondary schools do not engage learners to KIE radio and TV broadcasts. From the
findings given by principals, it shows that there is low performance of learning tasks using
ICT resources in public schools compared to management and teaching tasks.
Table 22
Extent of Learning Tasks According to Heads of Departments
Learning Tasks Very Often Often Some Times Rarely Never
F % F % F % F % F %
Internet learning for students
and teachers 8 28.6 8 28.6 3 10.7 5 17.9 4 14.3
Accessing mocks, KCSE
exams 9 32.1 10 35.7 2 7.1 5 17.9 2 7.1
Watching set books and plays 9 32.1 8 28.6 2 7.1 7 25.0 2 7.1
Staff/students computer
literacy lessons 3 10.7 6 21.4 5 17.9 4 14.3 10 35.7
Teaching/learning computer
studies subject 10 35.7 8 28.6 2 7.1 3 10.7 5 17.9
Listening to KIE radio, TV
broadcast 9 32.1 6 21.4 1 3.6 12 42.9 - -
Table 22 presents the frequency of performance of teaching tasks according to public
secondary school HoDs in Wareng Sub-County. From the study, the tasks that use ICT
resources for learning are mainly very often, 28.0% for internet learning for students and
teachers, 35.7% for often accessing mock and KCSE exams, 32.1% for very often watching
set books and plays and 35.7% very often for teaching/learning computer studies subject.
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The least performed learning tasks as reported by HoDs as rarely performed is
listening to KIE radio and TV broadcast and as never performed is staff/students literacy
lessons. The findings indicate low usage of ICT resources for learning tasks in schools. This
poses a great challenge to learners who have to access much of their learning and revision
materials which now largely exist in digital form.
Table 23
Extent of Learning Tasks According to Teachers
Learning tasks Very Often Often Some Times Rarely Never
F % F % F % F % F %
Internet learning for students
and teachers
8 16.0 12 24.0 4 8.0 5 10.0 21 42.0
Accessing mocks, KCSE
exams
21 42.0 16 32.0 3 6.0 6 12.0 4 8.0
Watching set books and plays 4 8.0 19 38.0 8 16.0 5 10.0 14 28.0
Staff/students computer
literacy lessons
6 12.0 14 28.0 12 24.0 2 4.0 16 32.0
Teaching/learning computer
studies subject
9 18.0 18 36.0 3 6.0 8 16.0 12 24.0
Listening to KIE radio, TV
broadcast
4 8.0 4 8.0 5 10.0 12 24.0 25 50.0
The frequency of performance of teaching tasks according to public secondary school
teachers in Wareng Sub-County are captured in Table 23. The findings indicate that higher
ratings are 42.0% of schools very often perform learning tasks by accessing mocks and
KCSE exams, 38.0% often watch set books and plays and 36.0% often use ICT resources for
teaching/learning computer studies subject. HoDs report that most schools report rarely
performing and using ICT resources for teaching purposes. The tasks which featured as never
performing learning tasks are 42.0% for internet learning for students and teachers, 32.0% for
staff/students computer literacy lessons and 50.0% listening to KIE radio and TV broadcast.
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From the findings, it showed that teachers and students don’t use the ICT resources for
learning tasks as much as is used for management and teaching tasks.
4.4 Principals’ Role in Promoting Use and Integration of ICT
The research question of the study was to establish roles principals play to facilitate
use and integration of ICT in teaching, learning and management in public secondary schools
in Wareng Sub-County. To answer the research question, questionnaires accompanied by
brief interviews which sought further clarifications. The management roles were grouped into
four, namely planning role, organizing role, leading role and controlling as presented,
discussed and interpreted below.
4.4.1 Principals’ Planning Role in Promoting Use and Integration of ICT
The researcher sought to establish if there were plans in public secondary schools in
Wareng Sub-County, such as in strategic plans and school budgets, to promote the use and
integration of ICT resources such as computers and TVs for teaching, learning and school
management. The open ended question yielded qualitative information from principals, HoDs
and teachers. Majority of the respondents indicated that there were plans to purchase more
computers, LCD projectors, flat screen TV, satellite dish and decoder, printers, train teachers
in ICT and encourage them to use it in their lessons, build computer laboratory and expand
existing ones, introduce compulsory computer studies subject in form 1 and 2 and make it a
KCSE examinable subject. Some schools had captured plans on ICT in their strategic plans
such as e-learning where one HoD gave a planned target which stated that “each teacher to
deliver at least 25.0% of content via e-learning”
Other respondents reported that there were plans to service and network computers,
employ ICT teacher, install internet. However, some respondents mentioned that there were
no plans in their schools. The plans are mainly geared toward building ICT physical and
human infrastructure. The plans solely depended on the initiatives of each school and the
117
principal and not due to existence of a defined ICT role from MoE which also requires them
to effectively and efficiently utilize them for teaching, learning and management.
Figure 12: Level of Schools’ Priority According to Principals
Figure 13: Level of Schools’ Priority According to Heads of Department
118
Figure 14: Level of Schools’ Priority According to Teachers
Figures 12, 13 and 14 shows responses from the research question which sought to
establish the level of priority put in place by schools to promote the use and integration of
ICT for teaching, learning and management. From the study 46.7% of the principals, 46.4%
HoDs and 42.0% teachers highly prioritized the use and integration of ICT for teaching,
learning and management. However, 13.3% of principals and 25.0% of HoDs reported that it
was not a priority to promote the use and integration of ICT. The findings of the study
showed that though some schools have other urgent priorities, most of the schools find it a
priority to promote the use and integration of ICT for teaching, learning and management.
4.4.2 Principals’ Organizing Role in Promoting Use and Integration of ICT
The research question required respondents to indicate the availability of ICT
organizational activities and programmes in school as summarized in Table 24.
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Table 24
Availability of ICT Organizational Activities and Programs
Activities Principals Heads of Department Teachers
Available Not
Available
Available Not
Available
Available Not
Available
F % F % F % F % F % F %
Computer studies subject
timetable
12 80.0 3 20.0 16 57.1 12 42.9 36 72.0 14 28.0
Students computer laboratory
general access timetable /program
8 53.3 7 46.7 19 67.9 8 28.6 26 52.0 24 48.0
Computer laboratory timetable
for subjects’ use for e-learning
5 33.3 10 66.7 14 50.0 14 50.0 12 24.0 38 76.0
Schedule for watching set
books/plays
7 46.7 8 53.3 13 46.4 15 53.6 16 32.0 34 68.0
Computer laboratory prefect(s) 6 40.0 9 60.0 11 39.3 17 60.7 21 42.0 29 58.0
Roles and responsibilities of the
computer studies teacher
10 66.7 5 33.3 19 67.9 9 32.1 37 74.0 13 26.0
Computer club for students 1 6.7 14 93.3 11 39.3 17 60.7 10 20.0 40 80.0
Computer literacy
timetable/schedule
7 46.7 8 53.3 10 35.7 18 64.3 19 38.0 31 62.0
Table 24 indicates that most schools have computer subject timetable rated at 80.0%,
57.1% and 72.0% by principals, HoDs and teachers respectively. Other ICT organizational
schedules though undocumented that principals, HoDs and teachers highly and consistently
reported as available are student’s computer laboratory general access, and roles and
responsibilities of computer studies teacher. Fewer schools had computer laboratory
timetable for subjects’ e-learning, computer laboratory prefects, schedule for watching set
books and plays, computer literacy lessons and computer club for students. A head of
department stated that “the need to use a TV, DVD player is teacher driven especially by
those who are keen to use technology.” The low availability of schedules promoting the use
of ICT in public secondary schools implies that the available ICT resources were not
efficiently utilized.
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Another research question sought to establish the benefits of a computer club for
students in schools where they exist. Respondents indicated that a computer club enabled
club members come up with ICT projects, to access computer lessons and e-learning
materials. Though a computer club for students can enhance technology learning among
students, it does not exist in most schools as reported by 93.3% of principals, 60.7% of HoDs
and 80.0% of teachers.
4.4.3 Principals’ Leading Role in Promoting Use and Integration of ICT
The research question required respondents to identify the incentives which exist in
schools given to HoDs, teachers and students or subordinate staff to encourage them to use
computers. Heads of departments and teachers opined that there were no incentives in their
schools. However, identified incentives existing in other schools included; availability of free
internet in school, access ICT resources such as laptops and desktop computers, computers in
the staffroom, free capacity training in ICT and attending e-learning workshops, purchase and
accessibility of e-contents such as revision materials, allocating time to study computers,
giving of cash token for using computers e.g. to analyze examinations and requiring certain
tasks to be submitted in digital format e.g. examinations, schemes of work.
Table 25
Frequency of Principals Using Computers
Computer ICT
Services
Respondents
Always Often Some Times Rarely Never
F % F % F % F % F %
Communications
Principals 3 20.0 4 26.7 1 6.7 3 20.0 4 26.7
HoDs 3 10.7 2 7.1 6 21.4 14 50.0 3 10.7
Teachers 7 14.0 15 30.0 9 18.0 6 12.0 13 26.0
Social Network e.g.
Face Book, Twitter
Principals 1 6.7 3 20.0 5 33.3 3 20.0 3 20.0
HoDs 3 10.7 3 10.7 5 17.9 11 39.3 3 10.7
Teachers 5 10.0 7 14.0 3 6.0 14 28.0 21 42.0
Doing School Work
e.g. Teaching
Principals - - 1 6.7 2 13.3 9 60.0 3 20.0
HoDs 4 14.3 3 10.7 9 32.1 12 42.9 4 14.3
Teachers 10 20.0 13 26.0 8 16.0 7 14.0 12 24.0
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Respondents were asked to identify the frequency with which principals use
computers to perform various ICT services. From the study the frequency of principals’
exemplary leading role in using computer ICT services was varied as summarized in Table
25. The rating of principals, 26.7% reported they often use e-mail communications for
official or private contacts. On the contrary, 50.0% of HoDs opined that principals rarely use
and 26.0% of teachers reported that they often use e-mail communications. On whether
principals use social network e.g. Face Book and twitter, 33.0% of principals indicated they
sometimes use, 39.3% of HoDs reported principals rarely use and 42.0% of teacher stated
that that principals never use it. About half of principals, 60.0% and 42.9% of HoDs stated
that the former rarely do school work e.g. teaching using computers while 26.0% of teachers
indicated that principals often use computers to do school work.
The findings of this study showed that computer ICT services such as e-mail
communications, access to social media or doing personal school work were not frequently
used by principals. Many young people including secondary school students keep in touch
and share ideas and air their views on a wide array of topics through social networks. This
made principals to be weak examples in leading technology mediated school environments.
Table 26
Principals’ Support towards Promoting the Use of Computers
Principals’ of Support Principals Heads of Department Teachers
F % F % F %
Very supportive 5 33.3 16 57.1 22 44.0
Supportive 10 66.7 8 28.6 23 46.0
Neither supportive nor unsupportive - - 4 14.3 4 8.0
Not supportive - - - - 1 2.0
Total 15 100.0 28 100.0 50 100.0
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Table 26 shows responses from respondents on the principal as supportive towards to
the use and integration of computers and other ICTs for teaching, learning and school
management. From the study, 66.7% of principals, 28.6% of HoDs and 46.0% of the
teachers, identified that principals were supportive towards the use and integration of
computers and other ICTs for teaching, learning and school management. However, 33.3% of
the principals, 57.1% HoDs and 44.0% of teachers mentioned that principals were very
supportive. The findings showed that the principals were generally supportive towards the
use and integration of computers and other ICTs for teaching, learning and school
management. On the contrary, Ombajo (2009) established that administrative support was
lacking in schools in Vihiga district.
During an interview with the DEO, it emerged that
A secondary school principal offered to have his laptop to be used to do school work
while another principal has rented a room at a nearby shopping centre served with
electricity, installed a computer and printer managed by the school secretary.
Additionally, a teacher remarked that;
Our principal has played a major role in ensuring the provision of school DVD player
and TV for use for language set books and plays and purchase of examinations’
analysis program. He encourages teachers to use computers to generate schemes of
work and students’ examinations. Class teachers no longer use a lot of time in manual
analysis and ranking of students scores which was riddled with inaccuracies
This showed that with a clearly defined job description, principal would facilitate the
use of technologies in education.
4.4.4 Principals’ Controlling Role in Promoting Use and Integration of ICT
Respondents were asked to indicate if there existed written rules and regulations
governing the use of ICT resources in schools and the findings were summarized in Figures
15, 16 and 17.
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Figure 15: Availability of Written Rules According to Principals
Figure 16: Availability of Written Rules According to Heads of Department
Figure 17: Availability of Written Rules According to Teachers
The findings of this study showed that 89.3% of the HoDs, 64.0% of the teachers and
only 33.3% principals identified that there were written rules and regulations governing the
use of ICTs resources. However, majority of the principals 66.7%, 10.7% of HoDs and 36.0%
teachers identify that there are no written rules and regulations governing the use of ICTs
resources such as computers in school. The findings showed that most of the schools had no
written rules and regulations governing the use of ICTs resources such as computers.
However, the researcher observed that schools had written rules and regulations for computer
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laboratories. Some of the unwritten rules and regulations that existed in schools included no
access to unauthorized persons into computer rooms, use of computers and students must
have an instructor and accessibility at specified times only. A computer studies teacher had
observed a new challenge to school management that:
The existing school rules do not allow students to bring electronic gadgets such as
mobile phones, tablets and laptops to school. But some students in our school would
genuinely wish to carry them along from home and use in accessing e-contents.
The study sought to establish the security measures principals had put in place for the
safety of ICT resources. These were also observed by the researcher and included installed
burglar proof computer doors, windows and ceilings, security lighting, existence of fire
extinguishers, central storage of laptops and use of school security personnel. Other measures
were supervising students while in the lab, labeling all ICT resources and maintaining an
inventory. Use of passwords especially to computers with vital information, installing
antivirus programs, appointment of an officer in charge of ICT resources, blocking access to
pornographic sites and computer games and regular repairs and maintenance. The findings of
the study showed that in the sampled schools, principals had put in place elaborate control
measures. In an interview with the DEO, it emerged that
Over-emphasis on controlling measures by school principals who lock up computers
for fear of being damaged, saw students of one of the school in the district go on
strike protesting the over-restrictions of access to ICT resources by teachers and
students.
The poor distribution of ICT resources and few organizational access schedules had
culminated in limiting the access of ICT resources especially by teachers and students.
4.5 Challenges Facing Principals in Promoting use and Integration of ICT
The research question sought to find out the challenges that faced principals in their
efforts to promote the use and integration of ICT resources for teaching, learning and school
management. Principals, HoDs and teachers presented varied challenges as outlined below:
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4.5.1 Challenges Facing Principals in Promoting use and Integration of ICT for
Management
The most cited management challenge facing principals in their endeavor to promote
pervasive use and integration ICT in public secondary schools was identified as lack of
sufficient funds to construct computer laboratories and procure ICT hardware such as
computers and software. This led to a large student and teacher ratio to computers in public
secondary schools. However, most secondary schools can afford basic ICT infrastructure
which was not efficiently accessed and maximized especially for teaching and learning. The
principals, HoDs, teachers and education officials cited other challenges too.
Low levels of computer literacy among teachers and learners. Principals pointed out
that it was costly in terms of money and time to train the staff. Equally significant was the
principals’ low levels of ICT skills which limited their ability to effectively supervise the use
and integration of ICT in public secondary schools. Fear of computers of some teaching staff
and negative attitudes of teachers towards incorporating ICT into teaching and learning. More
significantly, the technophobia among some principals makes them apprehensive and hence
gives low managerial support for the use of ICT.
There was no school or government policy that required principals or teachers to use
ICT hence attracting sanctions and rewards which principals can use to enforce use of
technology. A principal said that;
The Ministry of Education circular that was communicated to schools was a mere
suggestion for schools to be innovative and embrace information and communication
technology. Moreover, principals are simply encouraged in seminars and head
teachers’ conferences to embrace ICT in their schools.
Teachers often misuse ICT resources such as printing paper and printer toners for
personal work and playing computer games, using internet to access social sites and not to
conduct research and prepare teaching learning materials. Some teachers missed lessons as
they follow broadcasted programs on TV or engaged in with computer games or social
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media. Some students tamper with and damage computer resources while in the laboratory
because one computer teacher or technician may not adequately cover the whole laboratory at
once. Some BoM computer studies teachers hired by schools do not have the requisite
teacher’s qualifications pausing challenges to schools since some even damage and steal
computer accessories. Some suppliers of ICT resources to schools deliver low quality items
such as used and refurbished computers and software leading to high costs in repairs and
maintenance coupled with the absence of government technicians.
4.5.2 Challenges Facing Principals in Promoting use and Integration of ICT for
Teaching
Principals opine that some teachers especially the older generation were reluctant,
skeptical and uncooperative to embrace ICT use in teaching. However, there was inability by
computer savvy teachers to access computers in the staffrooms as distribution has focused on
school administration, HoDs and computer laboratories for computer studies subject. Most
schools had only one LCD projector limiting its use by teachers. It was reported that there
was lack of adequate time to learn ICT, prepare e-contents and incorporate ICT technology in
teaching and e-learning due to large teaching work occasioned by staff shortages.
Shortage of TSC computer studies teachers was cited as a challenge to promoting ICT
for teaching. The retention rate of graduate computer teachers is lower than diploma holders
as they easily get absorbed in other areas outside education. It was also noted that computer
laboratories are mainly reserved for use for computer studies and there is no enough time and
space to incorporate e-learning lessons for other subjects.
4.5.3 Challenges Facing Principals in Promoting use and Integration of ICT for
Learning
It was found out that there are few computers for students to access e-contents such as
past mock and KCSE questions and answers and other learning materials as seen in Table 7.
However, even with the limited ICT resources, a head of department indicated that;
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Whenever some students are using computers and accessing the internet, they use them
for social media and computer games as opposed to learning activities. This has made
some schools to emphasize more access to computers by senior students who are using
e-contents to prepare for their final examinations.
Most learners were reported as illiterate in the use of ICT resources such as computers.
High cost of accessing internet for schools made teachers and student to use traditional modes
of learning. Power outages and lack of alternative sources of power causes interruptions to
teaching, learning and management activities mediated by ICT. This has made some schools
to still hold onto traditional paper work and manual procedures.
4.6 Strategies Used by Principals to Promote Use and Integration of ICT
The study sought to find out what public secondary school principals should do to
ensure effective use and integration of ICT learning, teaching and school management. The
qualitative responses from principals, HoDs and teachers showed that some principals
encouraged parents to support financially the use and integration of ICT technologies. This
may be through introduction of a vote head for ICT development such as targeted annual
purchases of hardware, software, offer of unlimited internet, repairs and maintenance. There
was need for diversification of the sourcing of funds to develop ICT resources in the school
such as from donors, constituency development funds (CDF), fund raising, schools’ sponsors
and income generating projects. According to the District Education officer;
Due to the absence of specific requirements for ICT uses in schools, principals could
prioritize and procure more ICT hardware and software resources for teaching,
learning and school management from part of the finances for instructional materials
in the Free Day Secondary Education (FDSE) funds.
Schools should come up with school-based programs to encourage and facilitate staff
members to own laptops and undergo ICT training. This included sensitizing and motivating
teachers, learners and the wider school community on the need to embrace the use of ICT for
teaching, learning and management. There is need for a policy to that fosters the introduction
of computers in school staffrooms.
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Additionally, computer studies subject was being made compulsory for all students in
form 1 and form 2 following a specified national syllabus. Elaborate timetables should exist
to ensure maximize access and utilization of available human, ICT hardware and software
and computer rooms for teaching, learning, and school management activities.
At individual levels, they should provide a leading role in use of ICT for teaching,
learning and management activities in the school. Making the use of ICT for teaching,
learning and school management a requirement in a school wide policy will register greater
success. Kipsoi, (2012) observed the need for a comprehensive ICT policy to guide the
development of ICT in education management in schools in Kenya, proper deployment of
ICT in education, building of local expertise, widespread training of secondary school
administrators and prospective tutors. The TSC requirement for online submission of staff
returns and the KNEC expectation for school to carry out online registration of candidates
and other communications has compelled schools to improve acquisition and use ICT.
A question was asked to the sampled sub-County education officials on what ICT
roles they would recommend for public secondary schools principals. Principals should
include ICT in the annual school budgets as mandatory before approval alongside other
ordinary budgetary allocations. All principals and the school BoM should be sensitized to
mobilize alternative sources of funds to develop ICT in their schools. School rules and
regulations should be revised to accommodate authorized electronic equipment such as
laptops and smart phones for use by students in aiding learning. Computer studies should be
made compulsory for all students in form 1 and 2. Principals should procure ICT instructional
materials using the Free Day Secondary Educations funds. Principals should be expected to
monitor, evaluate and report on the uses and the impacts of ICT in teaching, learning and
school management. The principal should ensure school-level incentives are put in place to
motivate students and learners to creatively use ICT.
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.0 Introduction
This study on Principals’ Role in Promoting the Use and Integration of ICT in Public
Secondary Schools was conducted in Wareng District, Uasin Gishu County, Kenya. It was
guided by four research questions: the extent ICT resources were used and integrated and the
planning, organizing, leading and controlling roles that principals played to promote use and
integration of ICT. The other questions sought to establish the challenges faced by principals
in their roles to promote the use and integration of ICT and the strategies that principals could
employ to address the challenges facing principals in their roles to enhance the use and
integration for teaching, learning and school management.
The related literature was reviewed and it showed there is no serious exploration of
the role played by educational leadership in enhancing or constraining ICT use and
integration and should therefore be spelt out (Gurr, 2004). Tailor-made in-service training
and incentives to schools (Papaioannou and Charalombous, 2011), massive investment in
buying ICT infrastructure (Makhanu, 2011) did not translate into promotion of use and
integration of ICT in schools (Wahome, 2011). Public schools and the MoE faced slow pace
of ICT integration (Republic of Kenya, 2012) and research reports indicated that principals
remain reluctant and skeptical of computer (Mukeka, 2008), display lack of interest (wahome
2011) and should take the lead in promoting ICT integration in schools (Waiti, 2010). Roles
have rewards and sanctions and the clarification of the principals’ role potent greater
successes towards the use of available ICT resources for teaching, learning and school
management. A mixed methods research was integrated employing descriptive cross
sectional survey and naturalistic phenomenology. Probability and non probability sampling
procedures were used with 109 participants. Data was collected using questionnaires
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interview guides and observation schedules. Quantitative data was analyzed using SPSS and
presented using frequencies, means, percentages, tables and pie charts. Qualitative data was
categorized into themes and presented in form of narratives and direct quotes.
5.1 Summary of the Findings
The study showed that majority of the respondents; principals, HoDs and teachers
were males than females. Most teachers were below 39 years old and thus relatively younger
hence easy to be early adopters of ICT technologies. Most Heads of Departments were aged
above 35 years while principals were aged above 40 years. Therefore, both were experienced
in teaching and management which may concur with Diffusion of Innovations Theory
categorization of adopters of technological innovations as traditional and skeptical
(Rogers,1995).
All the respondents had above diploma academic professional qualification with most
having a bachelor’s degree in education hence professionally qualified. Majority of computer
studies teachers had certificate and diploma level of training meaning that teaching profession
is yet to attract more graduate ICT teachers. Most principals had not attended formal
computer training but had informally acquired computer skills either from self training,
colleagues or family members’ coaching. Therefore, principals were ill equipped to
effectively supervise ICT mediated institutions. The summary of the study findings discussed
below are based on the research questions used in the study.
5.1.1 Extent ICT Resources are used in the School
The ICT software that was most available and used by schools included past mock
and past KCSE questions and answers, exams analysis software, Kiswahili and English
language set books/plays and e-mail. The software with least availability and low usage
included timetabling software, school website and school social media. The large variation in
the ratings of the software indicates that there are ICT software available and is not being
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used by teachers and HoDs. This implies that principals have not encouraged their pervasive
use among HoDs, teachers, and accounts officers for teaching, learning and financial
management. It is not a firm requirement for principals to monitor and ensure their use for
teaching and learning. The DQASO pointed out that they too have not updated their
monitoring and evaluation instruments to include uses of ICT resources in schools.
The ICT hardware which was rated as available include copy printer, internet
modem/wireless, LCD projectors, computers for office use, photocopy machine, printer,
radio, school cell phone, computers for teaching, television and VCD/DVD player. The
hardware which were least available included; digital camera, fax machine, landline
telephone, overhead projector, satellite disc and decoder, scanner, school laptop and Video
decoder/player. However, it can be observed from the findings of respondents’ ratings that
although schools have basic ICT hardware, they were generally using ICT hardware most
frequently to perform administrative tasks and less frequently for teaching, learning tasks.
The average number of available ICT hardware per school is generally low. Except
for computers for office use, computers for teaching and television, there were approximately
1 hardware resource per public secondary school. There were more computers for office use
than were available for teaching which indicates that management tasks are catered for than
teaching and learning. The findings indicated that computers were not evenly distributed
within and among public schools. Schools with computers apparently received more from
MoE’s donations while more deserving schools were left out. Most of the computers were
concentrated in management sections of the schools such as secretary’s and accounts office
leaving out the teaching and learning areas for instance the staffroom and e-learning rooms.
More management tasks therefore utilize ICT resources in the school making use and
integration of ICT in school management is entrenched. From the findings given by
principals, it shows that there is low performance of learning tasks using ICT resources in
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public schools compared to management and teaching tasks. Teaching computer studies
subject was evidently emphasized in most schools than using e-learning for the other
subjects. It therefore means that ICT resources had not significantly been used and integrated
into teaching especially e-learning for other subjects.
5.1.2 Principals’ Role in Promoting Use and Integration of ICT
Principals had many ICT related plans that were mainly geared toward building
physical and human infrastructure. The plans solely depended on the initiatives of each
school and the principal and not due to existence of a defined ICT role from MoE. There is
no requirement in the roles of principals which expect them to effectively and efficiently
utilize available ICT resources for teaching, learning and school management.
There were hardly any computer laboratory timetables for subjects’ e-learning,
computer laboratory prefects, schedule for watching set books and plays, computer literacy
lessons and computer club for students. The low availability of schedules promoting the use
of ICT in public secondary schools implies that the available ICT resources were not
efficiently utilized.
Heads of departments and teachers reported that there were no incentives in their
schools to motivate teachers, students and subordinate staff to use computers. However, the
incentives identified in other schools included; availability of free internet in school, access
ICT resources such as departmental laptops and desktop computers, installing computers in
the staffroom, free capacity training in ICT and attending e-learning workshops, purchase and
accessibility of e-contents such as revision materials, allocating time to study computers,
giving of cash token for using computers e.g. to analyze examinations and requiring certain
tasks to be submitted in digital format e.g. examinations, schemes of work. Majority of
principals scarcely use computers. The findings showed that most of the computer ICT
services such as e-mail communications, access to social media or to do their personal school
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work are not frequently used by principals. This renders principals to be weak examples in
leading a technology mediated school environment. The findings also showed that the
principals were supportive towards the use and integration of computers and other ICTs for
teaching, learning and school management. This shows that with clearly defined ICT roles for
principals, they were supportive towards use of technologies in education.
The findings of the study showed that there were elaborate control measures. Most of
the schools had no written rules and regulations governing the use of ICTs resources such as
computers in school. Schools had written rules and regulations for computer laboratories.
Other unwritten rules and regulations existed in most schools which include unauthorized
persons had entry restrictions to computer rooms and use of computers and students must
have an instructor, accessibility at specified times only. It emerged that over-emphasis on
controlling measures by principals saw students of one school in the district go on strike over
restriction of access to ICT resources. This is due to poor distribution of ICT resources and
few organizational access schedules had limited the access of ICT resources especially by
teachers and students.
5.1.3 Challenges Facing Principals in Promoting Use and Integration of ICT
The study showed that impediments that limit effective use of ICT for school
management included lack of sufficient funds to construct computer laboratories and procure
ICT hardware such as computers and software, Low levels of computer literacy among
teachers and students, misuse ICT resources such as printers, paper, playing computer games,
using internet to access social sites or missing lessons as they follow TV broadcast, damage
on computers by some students and inadequate trained computer studies teachers. Other
challenges included poor distribution of government sourced ICT resources to already fairly
equipped schools, fear of computers and negative attitude among teachers and principals and
principals’ low levels of ICT skills limit their ability to effectively supervise the use and
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integration of ICT in public secondary schools. Since most schools had some Basic ICT
hardware and software, there is no school or government policy that attracts sanctions and
rewards requiring principals or teachers to use ICT.
Challenges facing principals in promoting use and integration of ICT for teaching
include; reluctant teachers to accept ICT use in teaching, inability by teachers to access
computers in the staffrooms since their distribution has focused on school offices, HoDs and
computer laboratories, lack of TSC computer studies teachers. Few computers and LCD
projector for teachers, lack of time to learn ICT, prepare e-contents for in teaching and e-
learning due to large teaching work. Lack of internet access for teachers’ research work and
computer laboratories are mainly reserved for use by computer studies and there is no enough
time and space to incorporate e-learning lessons for other subjects.
Learning related challenges facing principals in promoting use and integration of ICT
were cited as; students use computers and the internet for social media and games as opposed
to learning, few computers for students and teachers, most learners are illiterate, high cost of
accessing internet for schools, power outages and lack of an alternative source of power and
inability for learners to access computers and e-contents.
5.1.4 Strategies Used by Principals to Promote Use and Integration of ICT
The study suggested various approaches to address the challenges that limit principals
from promoting use and integration of ICT in public secondary school. These include:
encourage parents to support financially the use and integration of ICT resources,
diversifying alternative sources of funds to develop ICT resources, principals to procure more
ICT hardware, software resources through part of the Free Day Secondary Education (FDSE)
funds, schools should come up with programs to encourage and facilitate staff members to
own laptops and take up ICT training, make computer studies subject compulsory for all
students in form 1 and form 2, sensitize and motivate teachers, learners and the wider school
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community to embrace the use of ICT, ensure principals provide a leading role in use of ICT,
create elaborate timetables to ensure maximize access and utilization of available human, ICT
hardware, software and computer rooms for teaching, learning, and school management
activities, introduce computers in staffrooms. Making the use of ICT for teaching, learning
and school management a requirement in a school wide policy will register greater promotion
of use and integration of ICT in public schools.
5.2 Conclusion
There was gender disparity with more male than female principals among public
secondary school principals in Wareng Sub County, Uasin Gishu County. Most principals
were aged over 40 years indicating they had sufficient experience for teaching and school
management. There is requisite academic qualification among principals but few of them had
undergone formal computer training and instead had acquired the skills informally. Computer
studies subject was optional and its student enrollment was low.
Most public secondary schools had basic ICT hardware and software resources which
were mainly distributed for school management and computer studies subject. Teaching and
learning areas for students and teachers have low distribution of ICT resources. Management
related tasks were more frequently carried out than teaching and learning tasks. Computer
studies subject and students were given more attention and emphasized than e-learning for
other subjects.
Plans existed in schools, most in strategic plans, mainly to build ICT physical and
human infrastructure and hardly any plans to maximize available resources. This is due to the
absence sanctions and rewards associated with clarified roles. There was low availability of
ICT schedules leading to less efficient utilization of available ICT resources. Most schools
have no incentives to motivate teachers and learners to use computers. Majority of principals
hardly use computers making them weak examples to the rest of the school community.
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Although the only written rules were for computer laboratories, there were other unwritten
rules which tended to bring out many control structures that limited the distribution, access
and efficient uses of ICT resources.
There is low level of ICT literacy among teachers and students, weak school ICT
policies and absence of clarified roles for principals from MoE that requires ICT to be used
for teaching, learning and school management. Other challenges to principals included;
damage to ICT resources by students and misuse by teachers, technophobia, inadequate
computer studies teachers and principals’ low levels of ICT skills limit their ability to
supervise pervasive use of ICT resources for teaching, learning and school management.
There is need for principals to involve financial support of parents in ICT resource
development, mobilize alternative sources of funds for ICT resources, develop school ICT
policies, require and facilitate each teacher to procure a laptop, make computer studies
compulsory in form 1 and 2. Computer donations should be distributed to poorer schools and
to other key sections in schools such as staffrooms.
5.3 Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study and in order to enable principals of public
secondary schools to promote the use and integration of ICT for teaching, teaching and
school management, the following recommendations were made: The Ministry of Education
should specify the roles of public secondary school principals in order to achieve greater
efficiency and effectiveness in the use of available ICT resources for teaching, learning and
school management. The roles of teachers and QASO officers in ensuring use and integration
of ICT resources should also be outlined and enforced. The Teachers Service Commission
should peg future recruitment and promotions of teachers to those who have undergone ICT
training for e-learning and ability to integrate ICT into their duties of management, teaching
and learning respectively.
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Principals should facilitate the formulation of school wide policies in line with the
policies of MoE for use and integration of ICT in public secondary schools. The academic
professional training that teachers, HoDs and principals undergo should be assessed if it is
relevantly meeting the threshold to promote the use and integration of ICT in public
secondary schools. The formal computer training courses that educationists undertake,
usually in commercial trading centers, should be evaluated to ensure it meets teachers’
educational needs for e-learning in schools.
The training of computer studies teachers at degree and especially diploma level
should be increased and they should be tasked to teach other teachers how to integrate ICT in
their teaching subjects. The quality assurance and standards officers should equally be well
versed in integration of ICT in education in order to effectively facilitate and evaluate
teachers. The Ministry of Education should formulate a policy requiring every public
secondary school teachers to procure and own a laptop through a government incentive such
as subsidy, tax waiver or creation of an affordable laptop loan scheme. The supplies and
donations of computers and other ICTs to schools should be focused on leveraging those
resources and bridging the divide that exists among schools especially rural and poorer
schools. Schools should train students and inculcate ethical values related to modern uses of
computer technologies, the internet, social networks and a maintenance culture in the
handling of ICT resources.
5.4 Suggestions for Further Research
(i) The role of parents, teachers, sponsors in promoting use and integration of ICT
(ii) Effectiveness of funded ICT projects in public schools.
(iii) Factors influencing the distribution of funded ICT resources in public secondary schools
(iv) Strategies for effective and efficient use of ICT in public secondary schools
138
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146
APPENDIX I
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR PRINCIPALS
I am a postgraduate student at the Catholic University of Eastern Africa (CUEA)
pursuing a master’s degree in Educational Administration and Planning. The purpose of this
questionnaire is to enable the researcher to assess the role of the principal in effective use and
integration of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in public secondary
schools in Wareng Sub-County, Uasin Gishu County. You are encouraged to answer all the
questions because your responses are very important to the study. Your answers will be
treated with confidentiality and used for this study only. Do not write your name or sign on
the questionnaire.
Thank you very much for accepting to take part in this study.
Michael Tanui
Section A: Demographic Information
Please tick [√] in the bracket in front of the most appropriate response and use the spaces
provided for explanation where applicable.
1. Indicate your gender: (a) Male [ ] (b) Female [ ]
2. Indicate your age bracket
(a) 25-29 years [ ] (b) 30-34 years [ ] (c) 35-39 years[ ] (d) 40-44 years [ ]
(e) 45-49 years [ ] (f) 50-54 years [ ] (g) 55 years and above [ ]
3. Your highest academic qualification
(a) Diploma - Dip.Ed [ ] PGDE [ ] Other (specify) ______________________
(b) Bachelors - B.Ed [ ] B.Sc) [ ] B.A. [ ] Other (specify) _____________
(b) Masters - M.Ed [ ] M.Sc) [ ] M.A. [ ] Other (specify) ________
(d) Other (specify) _________________________________________________________
4. (a) Have you taken training in educational management? (i) Yes [ ] (ii) No [ ]
(b) If yes, specify to what level
(i) Certificate [ ] (ii) Diploma [ ] (iii) Degree [ ] (iv) Other_____________
5. (a) Have you attended formal computer training? (i) Yes [ ] (ii) No [ ]
(b) If Yes, specify to what level
(i) Computer packages [ ] (ii) Certificate [ ] (iii) Diploma [ ]
147
(iv) Degree [ ] (v) Other (specify) ______________________________________
(c) If No and you can use computers, state how you acquired the skills.
(i) Self training [ ] (ii) Family member(s) [ ] (iii) Colleague(s) [ ]
(iv) Other (specify) _____________________________________________________
6. Enrollments:
(a) Teacher and student enrollment:
Category Male Female Total
Teachers
Students
(b) Computer studies subject enrollment
Class Male Female Total
Form 1
Form 2
Form 3
Form 4
Section B: Availability of ICT Resources in the School
7. The following ICT software have been acquired by some schools. Please tick [√] which
one is available or not available in your school and to what extent it is being used.
SN ICT Software Available Not
Available
Frequency of Use
Very
Often Often
Some
Times Rarely Never
(a) Kiswahili language set books/plays
(b) English language set books/plays
(c) Timetabling software
(d) Exams analysis software
(e) School e-mail
(f) School website
(g) School social media e.g. face book
(h) Subject e-learning contents/DVDs
(i) Past mock questions and answers
(j) Past KCSE questions and answers
(k) Finance software
(l) Video tapes
Other
148
8. The following ICT equipment is found in some schools. Please indicate by a tick [√] the
one available or not available, quantity and the frequency of use in your school.
SN ICT Equipment Available Not
Available Quantity
Frequency of Use
Very
Often Often
Some
Times Rarely Never
(a) Copy printer
(b) Digital camera
(c) Duplicating machine
(d) Fax machine
(e) Internet modem/wireless
(f) Landline telephone
(g) LCD projector
(h) Computers for office use
(i) Overhead projector
(j) Photocopy machine
(k) Printer
(l) Radio
(m) Satellite dish and decoder
(n) Scanner
(o) School cell phone
(p) School laptop
(q) Computers for teaching
(r) Television
(s) VCD/DVD Player
(t) Video decoder/player
Other
9. The table below show how computers may be distributed in a school. Please indicate the
appropriate quantities in the spaces provided or any other remarks.
SN Location Quantity No. in Use No. Not in Use No. Connected to Internet
(a) Principal’s office
(b) Deputy principal’s office
(c) HoDs offices
(d) Secretary’s office
(e) Accounts office
(f) Computer laboratory
(g) Staffroom
(h) Stores
(i) Library
Other
149
10. (a) If there are computers connected to the internet, state what internet is used for _____
_______________________________________________________________________
(c) If no computers are connected to internet, why do you think they are not? ________
_______________________________________________________________________
Section C: Extent of Use of ICT Resources in the School
11. Based on the ICT equipment and software available in your school, indicate the extent to
which they are used to perform teaching, learning and school management tasks?
SN Task Very
Often Often
Some
Times Rarely Never
Management
(a) Processing exam results/students report forms
(b) Timetabling
(c) School fees management e.g. print receipts
(d) Typing letters, memos, newsletters
(e) Managing stores inventories
(f) Online registration of candidates
(g) E-mail communication - TSC, MoE, KNEC
(h) Updating of school website
(j) Library management
(k) M-pesa fee payment
(l) Sms reminders/convene meeting/communications
Other (specify)
Teaching
(a) Preparation of examination papers/questions
(b) Preparing schemes of work, lesson plans
(c) Teaching computer studies subject
(d) Internet research for teaching notes
(e) Preparation of mark sheet lists, class lists
(f) Teaching e-learning subject lessons
Other (specify
Learning
(a) Internet learning for students and teachers
(b) Accessing mocks, KCSE exams
(c) Watching set books and plays
(d) Staff/students computer literacy lessons
(e) Teaching/learning computer studies subject
(f) Listening to KIE radio, TV broadcast
Other (specify
150
12. (a) If the school uses e-contents for teaching various subjects, which subjects use e-
learning? ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
(b) Of what benefit(s) has e-learning contributed to teaching and learning? _______
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Section D: Principals’ Role in Promoting Use and Integration of ICT
Below are some of the roles principals play in promoting use and integration of ICTs for
teaching, learning and management. Indicate what is applicable for you and your school.
13. (a) What plans (such as in school strategic plan, school budget etc) exist in the school to
promote the use and integration of various ICTs such as computers and TVs for
teaching, learning and school management? _________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) What is the level of priority that your school has put in place to promote the use and
integration of ICT for teaching, learning and management?
(i) Not a priority [ ] (ii) Low priority [ ] (iii) Moderate priority [ ]
(iv) High priority [ ] (v) Essential Priority [ ]
14. (a) The table below shows arrangements of some ICT activities in schools. Please
indicate with a tick [√] where applicable what is available or not available
SN Item Available Not Available
(a) Computer studies subject timetable
(b) Students computer laboratory general access timetable/program
(c) Computer laboratory timetable for subjects’ use for e-learning
(d) Schedule for watching set books/plays
(e) Computer laboratory prefect(s)
(f) Roles and responsibilities of the computer studies teacher
(g) Computer club for students
(h) Computer literacy timetable/schedule
Other (specify)
(b) If it exists, how beneficial is the students’ computer club? _____________________
____________________________________________________________________
151
15. (a) Which incentives, if any, do you do you give to HoDs, teachers, students or
subordinate staff to encourage them to use computers? ________________________
____________________________________________________________________
(b) As the principal, how often do you use computers for the following ICT services?
Please indicate with a tick [ √ ] where applicable.
ICT Service Always Often Some
t
i
m
e
s
Rarely Never
E-mail communications
Social network e.g. Face book, twitter
Doing your school work e.g. teaching
(c) How do you rate yourself as supportive towards the use and integration of computers
and other ICTs for teaching, learning and school management?
(i) Very supportive [ ] (ii) Supportive [ ]
(iii) Neither supportive nor unsupportive [ ]
(iv) Lukewarmly supportive [ ] (v) Not supportive [ ]
16. (a) Are there written rules and regulations governing the use of ICTs resources such as
computers in the school? (i) Yes [ ] (ii) No [ ]
(b) What security measures are in place for the safety of ICT resources? ____________
____________________________________________________________________
Section E: Challenges Facing Principals in their Efforts to Use and Integrate ICT
17. As a principal, what challenges do you face in your role of promoting the use and
integration of ICT for learning, teaching and school management?
Learning _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Teaching _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Management_____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Section F: Strategies for Principals’ to Effectively Use and Integrate ICT
18. In your opinion, what should a principal do in order to ensure effective use and
integration of ICT in the school for learning, teaching and management?
Learning _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Teaching _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Management_____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Thank you very much
152
APPENDIX II
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR HEADS OF DEPARTMENT AND TEACHERS
I am a postgraduate student at the Catholic University of Eastern Africa (CUEA)
pursuing a master’s degree in Educational Administration and Planning. The purpose of this
questionnaire is to enable the researcher to assess the role of the principal in effective use and
integration of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in public secondary
schools in Wareng County, Uasin Gishu County. You are encouraged to answer all the
questions because your responses are very important to the study. Your answers will be
treated with confidentiality and used for this study only. Do not write your name or sign on
the questionnaire.
Thank you very much for accepting to take part in this study.
Michael Tanui
Section A: Demographic Information
Please tick [√] in the bracket in front of the most appropriate response and use the spaces
provided for explanation where applicable.
1. (a) Indicate your gender: (a) Male [ ] (b) Female [ ]
(b) Designation: (i) HoD [ ] (Name of department) ________________ (ii) Teacher [ ]
2. Indicate your age bracket
(a) 25-29 years [ ] (b) 30-34 years [ ] (c) 35-39 years[ ] (d) 40-44 years [ ]
(e) 45-49 years [ ] (f) 50-54 years [ ] (g) 55 years and above [ ]
3. Your highest academic qualification
(a) Diploma - Dip.Ed [ ] PGDE [ ] Other (specify) ______________________
(b) Bachelors - B.Ed [ ] B.Sc) [ ] B.A. [ ] Other (specify) _____________
(b) Masters - M.Ed [ ] M.Sc) [ ] M.A. [ ] Other (specify) _____________
(d) Other (specify) _________________________________________________________
4. (a) Have you attended formal computer training? (i) Yes [ ] (ii) No [ ]
(b) If Yes, specify to what level
(i) Computer packages [ ] (ii) Certificate [ ] (iii) Diploma [ ]
(iv) Degree [ ] (v) Other (specify) ______________________________________
(c) If No and you can use computers, state how you acquired the skills.
(i) Self training [ ] (ii) Family member(s) [ ] (iii) Colleague(s) [ ]
(iv) Other (specify) _____________________________________________________
153
Section B: Availability of ICT Resources in the School
5. The following ICT software have been acquired by some schools. Please tick [√] which
one is available or not available in your school and to what extent it is being used.
SN ICT Software Available Not
Available
Frequency of Use
Very
Often Often
Some
Times Rarely Never
(a) Kiswahili language set books/plays
(b) English language set books/plays
(c) Timetabling software
(d) Exams analysis software
(e) School e-mail
(f) School website
(g) School social media e.g. face book
(h) Subject e-learning contents/DVDs
(i) Past mock questions and answers
(j) Past KCSE questions and answers
(k) Finance software
(l) Video tapes
Other
6. The following ICT equipment is found in some schools. Please indicate by a tick [√] the
one available or not available, quantity and the frequency of use in your school.
SN ICT Equipment Available Not
Available
Frequency of Use
Very
Often Often
Some
Times Rarely Never
(a) Copy printer
(b) Digital camera
(c) Duplicating machine
(d) Fax machine
(e) Internet modem/wireless
(f) Landline telephone
(g) LCD projector
(h) Computers for office use
(i) Overhead projector
(j) Photocopy machine
(k) Printer
(l) Radio
(m) Satellite dish and decoder
(n) Scanner
154
SN ICT Equipment Available Not
Available
Frequency of Use
Very
Often Often
Some
Times Rarely Never
(o) School cell phone
(p) School laptop
(q) Computers for teaching
(r) Television
(s) VCD/DVD Player
(t) Video decoder/player
Other
7. The table below show how computers may be distributed in a school. Please [ √ ] to
indicate if it is available or not, working condition and internet connectivity.
SN Location Available Not
Available Functional Not Functional
Connected
to Internet
(a) Principal’s office
(b) Deputy principal’s office
(c) HoDs offices
(d) Secretary’s office
(e) Accounts office
(f) Computer laboratory
(g) Staffroom
(h) Stores
(i) Library
Other
10. (a) If there are computers connected to the internet, state what internet is used for _____
_______________________________________________________________________
(c) If no computers are connected to internet, why do you think they are not? ________
_______________________________________________________________________
Section C: Extent of Use of ICT Resources in the School
11. Based on the ICT equipment and software available in your school as shown below,
indicate the extent to which they are used to perform teaching, learning and school
management tasks?
155
SN Task Very
Often Often
Some
Times Rarely Never
Management
(i) Processing exam results/students report forms
(j) Timetabling
(k) School fees management e.g. print receipts
(l) Typing letters, memos, newsletters
(m) Managing stores inventories
(n) Online registration of candidates
(o) E-mail communication - TSC, MoE, KNEC
(p) Updating of school website
(m) Library management
(n) M-pesa fee payment
(o) Sms reminders/convene meeting/communications
Other (specify)
Teaching
(g) Preparation of examination papers/questions
(h) Preparing schemes of work, lesson plans
(i) Teaching computer studies subject
(j) Internet research for teaching notes
(k) Preparation of mark sheet lists, class lists
(l) Teaching e-learning subject lessons
Other (specify
Learning
(g) Internet learning for students and teachers
(h) Accessing mocks, KCSE exams
(i) Watching set books and plays
(j) Staff/students computer literacy lessons
(k) Teaching/learning computer studies subject
(l) Listening to KIE radio, TV broadcast
Other (specify
12. (a) If the school uses e-contents for teaching various subjects, which subjects use e-
learning? ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
(b) Of what benefit(s) has e-learning contributed to teaching and learning? _______
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
156
Section D: Principals’ Role in Promoting Use and Integration of ICT
Below are some of the roles principals play in promoting use and integration of ICTs for
teaching, learning and management. Indicate what is applicable for you school principal and
your school.
13. (a) What plans (such as in school strategic plan, school budget etc) exist in the school to
promote the use and integration of various ICTs such as computers and TVs for
teaching, learning and school management? _________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) What is the level of priority that your school has put in place to promote the use and
integration of ICT for teaching, learning and management?
(i) Not a priority [ ] (ii) Low priority [ ] (iii) Moderate priority [ ]
(iv) High priority [ ] (v) Essential Priority [ ]
14. (a) The table below shows arrangements of some ICT activities in schools. Please
indicate with a tick [√] where applicable what is available or not available
SN Item Available Not Available
(a) Computer studies subject timetable
(b) Students computer laboratory general access timetable/program
(c) Computer laboratory timetable for subjects’ use for e-learning
(d) Schedule for watching set books/plays
(e) Computer laboratory prefect(s)
(f) Roles and responsibilities of the computer studies teacher
(g) Computer club for students
(h) Computer literacy timetable/schedule
Other (specify)
(b) If it exists, how beneficial is the students’ computer club? _____________________
____________________________________________________________________
15. (a) Which incentives, if any, are you given as HoDs, teachers, students or subordinate
staff to encourage them to use computers? _________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
157
(b) How often do you think the school principal uses computers for the following ICT
services? Please indicate with a tick [ √ ] where applicable.
ICT Service Always Often Some
t
i
m
e
s
Rarely Never
E-mail communications
Social network e.g. Face book, twitter
Doing school work e.g. teaching
(c) How do you rate the principal as supportive towards the use and integration of
computers and other ICTs for teaching, learning and school management?
(i) Very supportive [ ] (ii) Supportive [ ]
(iii) Neither supportive nor unsupportive [ ]
(iv) Lukewarmly supportive [ ] (v) Not supportive [ ]
16. (a) Are there written rules and regulations governing the use of ICTs resources such as
computers in the school? (i) Yes [ ] (ii) No [ ]
(b) What security measures are in place for the safety of ICT resources? ____________
____________________________________________________________________
Section E: Challenges Facing Principals in their Efforts to Use and Integrate ICT
17. What challenges does principal face in his/her role of promoting the use and integration
of ICT for learning, teaching and school management?
Learning _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Teaching _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Management_____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Section F: Strategies for Principals’ to Effectively Use and Integrate ICT
18. In your opinion, what should a principal do in order to ensure effective use and
integration of ICT in the school for learning, teaching and management?
Learning _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Teaching _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Management_____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Thank you very much
158
APPENDIX III
INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR EDUCATION OFFICIALS
The researcher will discuss and interview education officials guided by the following
questions.
1. What challenges do principals face in their role of promoting the use and integration of
ICT for learning, teaching and school management?
(i) _____________________________________________________________________
(ii) ____________________________________________________________________
(iii) ____________________________________________________________________
(iv) ____________________________________________________________________
(v) ____________________________________________________________________
2. In your opinion, what should a principal do in order to ensure effective use and
integration of ICT in the school for learning, teaching and management?
(i) _____________________________________________________________________
(ii) ____________________________________________________________________
(iii) ____________________________________________________________________
(iv) ____________________________________________________________________
(v) ____________________________________________________________________
3. What roles would you suggest should be specified to principals in order to realize use
and integration of ICT in teaching, learning and school management? _______________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Thank you very much
159
APPENDIX IV
OBSERVATION SCHEDULE
With the assistance of school authorities and under the guidance of officers
concerned, the researcher will observe the following ICT equipment, documents and
activities to ascertain their availability, use and integration.
SN Type of Equipment/Task
Availability
Remarks Available
Not
Available
1 Computers(s)
2 Computer laboratory
3 Printer(s)
4 TV
5 Radio
6 Computerized fees and other
financial transactions
7 Records of analyzed students’
exam performance
8 Computer room access
timetable/ICT Timetables
9 Copies of schemes of work
10 Copy of school strategic plan
11 Copy of rules and regulations
12 Computer studies, e-learning
class/lesson
13 Copy of roles and responsibilities
of computer studies teacher
Other
160
APPENDIX V
LETTER FROM NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
161
APPENDIX VI
RESEARCH CLEARANCE PERMIT
162
APPENDIX VII
LETTER FROM WARENG DISTRICT EDUCATON OFFICER
163
APPENDIX VIII
LETTER FROM DEPUTY COUNTY COMMISSIONER, WARENG SUB-COUNTY
164
APPENDIX IX
RELIABILITY INDEXES FOR QUESTIONNAIRES
(a) Reliability Index for Principals’ Questionnaire
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items
.868 37
(b) Reliability Index for Heads of Departments’ Questionnaire
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items
.781 37
(c) Reliability Index for Teachers’ Questionnaire
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items
.691 37
(d) Overall Reliability Index for Teachers’, HoDs’ and Principals’ Questionnaires
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items
.756 37
165
APPENDIX XIV
MAP OF UASIN GISHU COUNTY
166
APPENDIX X
MAP OF WARENG SUB-COUNTY