principles and state policies

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PRINCIPLES AND STATE POLICIES Preamble Republicanism Sovereignty resides in the people and all government authority emanates from them. - Republican form of government: one constructed on the principle that the supreme power resides in the body of the people. Its purpose is the promotion of the common welfare according to the will of the people themselves (usually determined by the rule of the majority). - In a republican form of government, sovereignty resides in the people and all government authority emanates from them. - “Democratic”: the Constitutional Commission to the 1987 Constitution added this phrase. This shows that the Philippines is not just a representative government but also shares some aspects of direct democracy. - Ex. Initiative and referendum Manifestations 1. Nemo est supra leges - Villavicencio v. Lukban, 39 Phil. 778 The primary question is: Shall the judiciary permit a government of the men instead of a government of laws to be set up in the Philippine Islands? The Mayor of the city of Manila, Justo Lukban ordered the segregated district for women of ill repute, which had been permitted for a number of years in the city of Manila, closed. Between October 16 and October 25, 1918, the women were kept confined to their houses in the district by the police. Presumably, during this period, the city authorities quietly perfected arrangements with the Bureau of Labor for sending the women to Davao, Mindanao, as laborers. The women were given no opportunity to collect their belongings, and apparently were under the impression that they were being taken to a police station for an investigation. They had no knowledge that they were destined for a life in Mindanao. They had not been asked if they wished to depart from that region and had neither directly nor indirectly given their consent to the deportation. With this situation, a court would next expect to resolve the question. By authority of what law did the Mayor and the Chief of Police presume to act in deporting by duress these persons from Manila to another distant locality within the Philippine Islands? One can search in vain for any law, order, or regulation, which even hints at the right of the Mayor of the city of Manila or the chief of police of that city to force citizens of the Philippine Islands and these women, despite their being in a sense lepers of society, are nevertheless not chattels but Philippine citizens protected by the same constitutional guaranties as are other citizens to change their domicile from Manila to another locality. On the contrary, Philippine penal law specifically punishes any public officer who, not being expressly authorized by law or regulation, compels any person to change his residence (Villavicencio vs. Lukban, 39 Phil 778). 2. Rule of majority 3. Accountability of Public Officials 4. Bill of Rights 5. Legislature cannot pass irrepealable laws 6. Separation of Powers Purpose of the separation of powers: to prevent the concentration of authority in one person or group of persons that might lead to irreparable error or abuse in the exercise to the detriment of republican institution. The separation of powers is a fundamental principle in our system of government. It obtains not through express provision but by actual division in our Constitution. Each department of the government has exclusive cognizance of matters within its jurisdiction, and is supreme within its own sphere. But it does not follow from the fact that the three powers are to be kept separate and distinct that the Constitution intended them to be absolutely unrestrained and independent of each other. The Constitution has provided for an elaborate system of checks and balances to secure coordination in the workings of the various departments of the government. For example, the Chief Executive under our Constitution is so far made a check on the legislative power that this assent is required in the enactment of laws. This, however, is subject to the further check that a bill may become a law notwithstanding the refusal of the President to approve it, by a vote of two-thirds or three-fourths, as the case may be, of the National Assembly. The President has also the right to convene the Assembly in special session whenever he chooses. On the other hand, the National Assembly operates as a check on the Executive in the sense that its consent through its

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Page 1: Principles and State Policies

PRINCIPLES AND STATE POLICIES     

Preamble      Republicanism

Sovereignty resides in the people and all government authority emanates from them.- Republican form of government: one constructed on the principle that the supreme power resides in the body of the people. Its purpose is the promotion of the common welfareaccording to the will of the people themselves (usually determined by the rule of the majority).- In a republican form of government, sovereignty resides in the people and all government authority emanates from them.- “Democratic”: the Constitutional Commission to the 1987 Constitution added this phrase. This shows that the Philippines is not just a representative government but also shares some aspects of direct democracy.- Ex. Initiative and referendum            Manifestations

1. Nemo est supra leges

                        -  Villavicencio v. Lukban, 39 Phil. 778 The primary question is: Shall the judiciary permit a government of the men instead of a government 

of laws to be set up in the Philippine Islands?   The Mayor of the city of Manila, Justo Lukban ordered the segregated district for women of ill repute, which had been permitted for a number of years in the city of Manila, closed. Between October 16 and October 25, 1918, the women were kept confined to their houses in the district by the police. Presumably, during this period, the city authorities quietly perfected arrangements with the Bureau of Labor for sending the women to Davao, Mindanao, as laborers.   The women were given no opportunity to collect their belongings, and apparently were under the impression that they were being taken to a police station for an investigation. They had no knowledge that they were destined for a life in Mindanao. They had not been asked if they wished to depart from that region and had neither directly nor indirectly given their consent to the deportation. With this situation, a court would next expect to resolve the question. By authority of what law did the Mayor and the Chief of Police presume to act in deporting by duress these persons from Manila to another distant locality within the Philippine Islands?   One can search in vain for any law, order, or regulation, which even hints at the right of the Mayor of the city of Manila or the chief of police of that city to force citizens of the Philippine Islands and these women, despite their being in a sense lepers   of   society,   are   nevertheless   not   chattels   but   Philippine   citizens   protected   by   the   same constitutional   guaranties   as   are   other   citizens to   change   their   domicile   from   Manila   to   another locality. On the contrary, Philippine penal law specifically punishes any public officer who, not being expressly authorized by law or regulation, compels any person to change his residence (Villavicencio vs. Lukban, 39 Phil 778).

                  2.  Rule of majority                  3.  Accountability of Public Officials                  4.  Bill of Rights                  5.  Legislature cannot pass irrepealable laws                  6.  Separation of Powers

Purpose of the separation of powers:  to prevent the concentration of authority in one person or group of persons that might lead to irreparable error or abuse in the exercise to the detriment of republican institution.

The separation of powers is a fundamental principle in our system of government. It obtains not through   express   provision   but   by   actual   division   in   our   Constitution.   Each   department   of   the government has exclusive cognizance of matters within its jurisdiction, and is supreme within its own sphere. But  it  does not follow from the fact that the three powers are to be kept separate and distinct that the Constitution intended them to be absolutely unrestrained and independent of each other.  The Constitution has  provided  for  an elaborate  system of  checks  and balances   to secure coordination in the workings of the various departments of the government. For example, the Chief Executive under our Constitution is so far made a check on the legislative power that this assent is required in the enactment of  laws. This, however,  is subject to the further check that a bill  may become a law notwithstanding the refusal of the President to approve it, by a vote of two-thirds or three-fourths, as the case may be, of the National Assembly. The President has also the right to convene the Assembly  in special  session whenever he chooses.  On the other hand, the National Assembly operates as a check on the Executive in the sense that its consent through its Commission on Appointments   is  necessary   in   the  appointment  of  certain  officers;  and  the  concurrence  of  a majority of all its members is essential to the conclusion of treaties. Furthermore, in its power to determine what courts other than the Supreme Court shall be established, to define their jurisdiction and to appropriate funds for their support, the National Assembly controls the judicial department to a certain extent. The Assembly also exercises the judicial power of trying impeachments. And the judiciary   in   turn,   with   the   Supreme   Court   as   the   final   arbiter,   effectively   checks   the   other departments in the exercise of its power to determine the law, and hence to declare executive and legislative acts void if violative of the Constitution.

The Court held:

1. That   the   government   established   by   the   Constitution   follows   fundamentally   the   theory   of separation of powers into the legislative, the executive and the judicial.2. That the system of checks and balances and the overlapping of functions and duties often makes difficult the delimitation of the powers granted.3. That in cases of conflict between the several departments and among the agencies thereof, the judiciary, with the Supreme Court as the final arbiter, is the only constitutional mechanism devised finally to resolve the conflict and allocate constitutional boundaries.4. That judicial supremacy is but the power of judicial review in actual and appropriate cases and controversies, and is the power and duty to see that no one branch or agency of the government transcends the Constitution, which is the source of all authority.5. That the Electoral Commission is an independent constitutional creation with specific powers and functions to execute and perform, closer for purposes of classification to the legislative than to any of the other two departments of the government.

6. That the Electoral Commission is the sole judge of all contests relating to the election, returns and qualifications of members of the National Assembly.

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7. That under the organic   law prevailing before the present Constitution went  into effect,  each house of the legislature was respectively the sole judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of their elective members.8. That   the   present   Constitution   has   transferred   all   the   powers   previously   exercised   by   the legislature with respect to contests relating to the election, returns and qualifications of its members, to the Electoral Commission.9. That such transfer of power from the legislature to the Electoral Commission was full, clear and complete, and carried with it ex necesitate rei the implied power inter alia to prescribe the rules and regulations as to the time and manner of filing protests.

10. That   the avowed purpose  in  creating the Electoral  Commission was to have an  independent constitutional  organ pass  upon all  contests  relating to the election,  returns  and qualifications of members  of   the  National  Assembly,  devoid  of  partisan  influence  or   consideration,  which  object would  be   frustrated   if   the  National  Assembly  were   to   retain   the  power   to  prescribe   rules  and regulations regarding the manner of conducting said contests.

11. That section 4 of article VI of the Constitution repealed not only section 18 of the Jones Law making each house of the Philippine Legislature respectively the sole judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its elective members, but also section 478 of Act No. 3387 empowering each house to prescribe by resolution the time and manner of filing contests against the election of its members, the time and manner of notifying the adverse party,and bond or bonds, to be required, if any, and to fix the costs and expenses of contest.

12. That   confirmation   by   the   National   Assembly   of   the   election   of   any   member,   irrespective   of whether his election is contested or not, is not essential before such member-elect may discharge the duties and enjoy the privileges of a member of the National Assembly.

13. That confirmation by the National Assembly of the election of any member against whom no protest   had   been   filed   prior   to   said   confirmation,   does   not   and   cannot   deprive   the   Electoral Commission of its incidental power to prescribe the time within which protest against the election of any member of the National Assembly should be filed (Angara vs. Electoral Commission, 63 Phil 139).

                        Principle of Blending of PowersInstance when powers are not confined exclusively within one department but are assigned to or shared by shared by several departments.

                        Principle of Checks and Balances                              -  The Steel Seizure case, 343 US 579, 96 L.Ed. 1153

Issue:  Did President Truman have the constitutional authority to seize and operate the steel mills?  In a 6-to-3 decision, the Court held that the President did not have the authority to issue such an order. The  Court   found   that   there  was  no  congressional   statute   that  authorized   the  President   to   take possession   of   private   property.   The   Court   also   held   that   the   President's   military   power   as Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces did not extend to labor disputes. The Court argued that "the President's power to see that the laws are faithfully executed refutes the idea that he is to be a lawmaker (Youngstown Co, vs. Sawyer, 343 US 579, 96 L.Ed. 1153).”

                              -  Bowsher v. Synar, 478 US 714

The Congress cannot control the execution of its laws; since it doesn’t possess this power, it can’t delegate it to its agents. The CG is an agent of the Legislature because Congress can remove him by a process   other   than   impeachment.   The   CG   exercises   executive   power.   Thus,   the   Act   is unconstitutional.The CG’s function under the Act is the “very essence” of execution of the laws since (1)   it  entails   interpreting the Act  to determine precisely  what kind of  budgetary  calculations are required and (2) the CG commands the President to carry out, without variation, the CG’s directive regarding the budget resolutions. Interpreting a law enacted by Congress is the “very essence” of executions of the laws. Once Congress passes legislation, it can only influence its execution by passing new laws or through impeachment.  The Constitution only explicitly provides Congress the power to remove executive officers by impeachment. Also, the Constitutional Convention explicitly rejected language that would have permitted impeachment for “maladministration,” with Madison arguing that “so vague a term will be equivalent to a tenure during pleasure of the Senate.” Thus, Congress can only remove a member of the executive branch through impeachment (Bowsher vs. Synar, 478 US 714).

                              -  Senate v. Ermita (E.O.464), G.R. No. 169777

Congress undoubtedly has a right to information from the executive branch whenever it is sought in aid   of   legislation.   If   the   executive   branch   withholds   such   information   on   the   ground   that   it   is privileged, it must so assert it and state the reason therefor and why it must be respected.  The infirm provisions of  E.O.  464,  however,  allow the executive branch to evade congressional  requests   for information without need of clearly asserting a right to do so and/or proffering its reasons therefor. By the mere expedient of invoking said provisions, the power of Congress to conduct inquiries in aid of legislation is frustrated. That is impermissible. For what republican theory did accomplish?was to reverse the old presumption in favor of secrecy, based on the divine right of kings and nobles, and replace it with a presumption in favor of publicity, based on the doctrine of popular sovereignty. Resort   to   any   means   then   by   which   officials   of   the   executive   branch   could   refuse   to   divulge information cannot be presumed valid. Otherwise, we shall not have merely nullified the power of our legislature to inquire into the operations of government, but we shall have given up something of much greater value ? our right as a people to take part in government (Senate vs. Ermita (E.O. 464), GR 169777).

                  7.  Non-delegation of powers                              -  Phil. Interisland Shipping Ass'n. v. CA, GR 100481, Jan. 22, 1997

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The fixing of rates is essentially a legislative power. When he issued E.O. No. 1088, President Marcos was authorized under Amendment No. 6 of the 1973 Constitution to exercise legislative power, just as he was under the original 1973 Constitution, when he issued P.D. NO. 857 which created the PPA, endowing it with the power to regulate pilotage service in Philippine ports. Although the power to fix rates for pilotage had been delegated to the PPA, it became necessary to rationalize the rates of charges   fixed   by   it   through   the   imposition   of   uniform   rates.   That   is   what   the   President   did   in promulgating E.O. No. 1088. As the President could delegate the ratemaking power to the PPA, so could he exercise it in specific instances without thereby withdrawing the power vested by P.D. No. 857, Section 20(a) in the PPA "to impose, fix, prescribe, increase or decrease such rates, charges or fees... for the services rendered by the Authority or by any private organization within a Port District (Philippine Interisland Shipping Ass'n vs. CA, GR 100481, Jan. 22, 1997).”

                        Potestas delegata non delegare potest

Premised on the ethical principle that delegated power constitutes not only a right but also a duty to be performed by the delegate through the instrumentality of his own judgment and not through the intervening mind of another.

                        Permissible Delegation

The constitutionality of Act No. 4221 which provides for a system of probation for persons eighteen years of age or over who are convicted of crime is challenged on three principal grounds: (1) That said Act   encroaches   upon   the   pardoning   power   of   the   Executive;   (2)   that   it   constitutes   an   undue delegation of legislative power and (3) that it denies the equal protection of the laws.  

As already stated, the Jones Law vests the pardoning power exclusively in the Chief Executive. But,  probation and pardon are not  coterminous;  nor  are   they  the same.     In  probation,   the probationer   is   in  no true sense,  as   in  pardon,  a   free man.  He  is  not  finally  and completely exonerated. He is not exempt from the entire punishment which the law inflicts.  The  Court held that   the   Probation   Act   does   not   conflict   with   the   pardoning   power   of   the   Executive.   The pardoning power, in respect to those serving their probationary sentences, remains as full and complete as if the Probation Law had never been enacted. The President may yet pardon the probationer   and   thus   place   it   beyond   the   power   of   the   court   to   order   his   rearrest   and imprisonment. 

The power to make laws or the legislative power is vested in a bicameral Legislature by the Jones Law   (sec.   12)   and   in   a   unicamiral   National   Assembly   by   the   Constitution   (Act.   VI,   sec.   1, Constitution of the Philippines.  The Philippine Legislature or  the National  Assembly may not escape its duties and responsibilities by delegating that power to any other body or authority. Any attempt to abdicate the power is unconstitutional and void, on the principle that potestas delegata non delegare potest.  The rule,  however,  which forbids the delegation of  legislative power   is   not   absolute   and   inflexible.   It   admits   of   exceptions.   An   exceptions   sanctioned   by immemorial practice permits the central legislative body to delegate legislative powers to local 

authorities. In testing whether a statute constitute an undue delegation of legislative power or not, it is usual to inquire whether the statute was complete in all its terms and provisions when it   left   the   hands   of   the   legislature   so   that   nothing   was   left   to   the   judgment   of   any   other appointee or delegate of the legislature (People vs. Vera, 65 Phil 56).

                              a.  Tariff Powers to the Presidenta. (Sec. 28 (2), Art. VI;

(2) The Congress may, by law, authorize the President to fix within specified limits, and subject to such limitations and restrictions as it may impose, tariff rates, import and export quotas, tonnage and wharfage dues, and other duties or imposts within the framework of the national development program of the Government.

                              b.  Emergency Powers to the Presidentb. Section 23 (2), Art VI)

(2) In times of war or other national emergency, the Congress may, by law, authorize the President, for a limited period and subject to such restrictions as it may prescribe, to exercise powers necessary and proper to carry out a declared national policy. Unless sooner withdrawn by resolution of the Congress, such powers shall cease upon the next adjournment thereof.

                                    -  First Emergency Powers cases, 84 Phil. 368

Commonwealth Act No. 671 does not in term fix the duration of its effectiveness. The intention of the Act has to be sought for in its nature, the object to be accomplish, the purpose to be subserved, and its relation to the Constitution. Article VI of the Constitution provides that any law passed by virtue thereof should be "for a limited period." "Limited" has been defined to mean "restricted; bounded; prescribed; confined within positive bounds; restrictive in duration, extent or scope."   The words "limited period" as used in the Constitution are beyond question intended to mean restrictive in duration. Emergency, in order to justify the delegation of emergency powers, "must be temporary or it can not be said to be an emergency."  

The assertion that new legislation is needed to repeal the act would not be in harmony with the Constitution either. If a new and different law were necessary to terminate the delegation, the period for the delegation, it has been correctly pointed out, would be unlimited, indefinite, negative and uncertain; "that which was intended to meet a temporary emergency may become permanent law,"; for Congress might not enact the repeal, and even if it would, the repeal might not meet the approval of the President, and the Congress might not be able to override the veto. Furthermore, this would create the anomaly that, while Congress might delegate its powers by simple majority, it might not be able to recall them except by a two-third vote. In other words, it would be easier for Congress to delegate its powers than to take them back. This is not right and is not, and ought not to be, the law. 

Page 4: Principles and State Policies

More anomalous than the exercise of legislative function by the Executive when Congress is in the unobstructed exercise of its authority is the fact that there would be two legislative bodies operating over   the same field,   legislating concurrently  and simultaneously,  mutually  nullifying  each other's actions. Even if the emergency powers of the President, as suggested, be suspended while Congress was in session and be revived after each adjournment, the anomaly would not be limited. Congress by a two-third vote could repeal executive orders promulgated by the President during congressional recess, and the President in turn could treat in the same manner, between sessions of Congress, laws enacted by the latter. This is not a fantastic apprehension; in two instances it materialized. In entire good   faith,  and   inspired  only  by   the  best   interests  of   the  country  as   they   saw  them,  a   former President promulgated an executive order regulating house rentals after he had vetoed a bill on the subject enacted by Congress, and the present Chief Executive issued an executive order on export control after Congress had refused to approve the measure.

What   then   was   the   contemplated   period?   President   Quezon   in   the   same   paragraph   of   his autobiography furnished part of the answer. He said he issued the call for a special session of the National Assembly "when it became evident that we were completely helpless against air attack, and that it was most unlikely the Philippine Legislature would hold its next regular session which was to open on January 1, 1942."   It is our considered opinion, and we so hold, that Commonwealth Act No. 671 became inoperative when Congress met in regular session on May 25, 1946, and that Executive Orders Nos. 62, 192, 225 and 226 were issued without authority of law.  In so far as it is insinuated that the Chief Executive has the exclusive authority to say that war not ended, and may act on the strength of his opinion and findings in contravention of the law as the courts have construed it, no legal principle can be found to support the proposition. There is no pretense that the President has independent or inherent power to issue such executive orders as those under review.   

After   the  convening  of  Congress  new  legislation  had   to  be  approved   if   the  continuation of   the emergency powers, or some of them, was desired. In the light of the conditions surrounding the approval of the Emergency Power Act, we are of the opinion that the "state of total emergency as a result of war" envisaged in the preamble referred to the impending invasion and occupation of the Philippines by the enemy and the consequent total disorganization of the Government, principally the  impossibility   for  the National  Assembly to act.  The state of  affairs  was one which called for immediate action and with which the National Assembly would would not be able to cope. The war itself  and  its attendant chaos and calamities could not have necessitated the delegation had the National Assembly been in a position to operate (First Emergency Powers Cases, 84 Phil 368).

                                    -  Second Emergency Powers cases, 92 Phil. 603

As the Act was expressly in pursuance of the constitutional provision, it has to be assumed that the National Assembly intended it to be only for a limited period. If it be contended that the Act has not yet been duly repealed, and such step is necessary to a cessation of the emergency powers delegated to the President, the result would be obvious unconstitutionality, since it may never be repealed by the   Congress,   or   if   the   latter   ever   attempts   to   do   so,   the   President   may   wield   his   veto.   This eventuality has in fact taken place when the President disapproved House Bill No. 727, repealing all Emergency Powers Acts. The situation will  make the Congress and the President or either as the 

principal authority to determine the indefinite duration of the delegation of legislative powers, ? in palpable repugnance to the constitutional provision that any grant thereunder must be for a limited period, necessarily to be fixed in the law itself and not dependent upon the arbitrary or elastic will of either the Congress or the President.

Although House Bill No. 727, had been vetoed by the President and did not thereby become a regular statute, it may at least be considered as a concurrent resolution of the Congress formally declaring the termination of the emergency powers. To contend that the Bill needed presidential acquiescence to produce effect, would lead to the anomalous, if not absurd, situation that, "while Congress might delegate its power by a simple majority, it might not be able to recall them except by two-third vote. In other words, it would be easier for Congress to delegate its powers than to take them back. This is not right and is not, and ought not to be the law."

Insofar as the Congress had shown its readiness or ability to act on a given matter, the emergency powers delegated to the President had been pro tanto withdrawn, Executive Orders Nos. 545 and 546 must be declared as having no legal anchorage. We can take judicial notice of the fact that the Congress has since liberation repeatedly been approving acts appropriating funds for the operation of   the   Government,   public   works,   and   many   others   purposes,   with   the   result   that   as   to   such legislative task the Congress must be deemed to have long decided to assume the corresponding power   itself  and   to  withdraw  the  same  from the  President.     Shelter  may  not  be   sought   in   the proposition that the President should be allowed to exercise emergency powers for the sake of speed and expediency in the interest and for the welfare of the people, because we have the Constitution, designed to establish a government under a regime of justice, liberty and democracy. In line with such   primordial   objective,   our   Government   is   democratic   in   form   and   based   on   the   system   of separation of powers. Unless and until changed or amended, we shall have to abide by the letter and spirit of the Constitution and be prepared to accept the consequences resulting from or inherent in disagreements between, inaction or even refusal of the legislative and executive departments. Much as   it   is   imperative   in   some   cases   to   have   prompt   official   action,   deadlocks   in   and   slowness   of democratic processes must be preferred to concentration of powers in any one man or group of men for obvious reasons. The framers of the Constitution, however, had the vision of and were careful in allowing delegation of legislative powers to the President for a limited period "in times of war or other national emergency." They had thus entrusted to the good judgment of the Congress the duty of  coping with any national  emergency by a more efficient  procedure;  but   it  alone must  decide because emergency in itself cannot and should not create power. In our democracy the hope and survival of the nation lie in the wisdom and unselfish patriotism of all officials and in their faithful adherence to the Constitution (2nd Emergency Powers Cases, 92 Phil 603).

                              c.  Delegation to the Peoplec. Sec. 32, Art. VI; Sec. 10, Art X; Sec. 2, Art. XVII; RA 6735);

Section 32. The Congress shall, as early as possible, provide for a system of initiative and referendum, and the exceptions therefrom, whereby the people can directly propose and enact laws or approve or reject any act or law or part thereof passed by the Congress or local legislative

Page 5: Principles and State Policies

body after the registration of a petition therefor signed by at least ten per centum of the total number of registered voters, of which every legislative district must be represented by at least three per centum of the registered voters thereof.

Section 10. No province, city, municipality, or barangay may be created, divided, merged, abolished, or its boundary substantially altered, except in accordance with the criteria established in the local government code and subject to approval by a majority of the votes cast in a plebiscite in the political units directly affected.

Section 2. Amendments to this Constitution may likewise be directly proposed by the people through initiative upon a petition of at least twelve per centum of the total number of registered voters, of which every legislative district must be represented by at least three per centum of the registered voters therein. No amendment under this section shall be authorized within five years following the ratification of this Constitution nor oftener than once every five years thereafter.

The Congress shall provide for the implementation of the exercise of this right.

                              d.  Delegation to Local Government Units                              e.  Delegation to the Administrative Bodies                                    Power of Subordinate Legislation                                          -  Miners Association v. Factoran, GR 98332, Jan. 16, 1995 The power of administrative officials to promulgate rules and regulations in the implementation of a 

statute is necessarily limited only to carrying into effect what is provided in the legislative enactment. The   questioned   administrative   orders   are   reasonably   directed   to   the   accomplishment   of   the purposes of the law under which they were issued and were intended to secure the paramount interest   of   the   public,   their   economic   growth   and   welfare.   The   validity   and   constitutionality   of Administrative Order Nos. 57 and 82 are sustained, and their force and effect upheld (Miners Assn vs. Factoran, GR 98332, Jan. 16, 1995).

                                    Principle of Subdelegation of Powers

                                    Doctrine of Qualified Political Agency

                        Tests for valid delegation                              a.  Completeness Test

Law must be complete in all its essential terms and conditions so that there is nothing for the delegate to do except to enforce it.

                              b.  Sufficient Standard TestMaps   out   the   boundaries   of   the   delegate’s   authority   by   defining   the   legislative   policy   and indicating the circumstances under which it is to be pursued.

                                    -  Ynot v. IAC, 148 SCRA 659    The minimum requirements of due process are notice and hearing which may not be dispensed with 

because they are intended as a safeguard against official arbitrariness. It is a gratifying commentary on our judicial system that the jurisprudence of this country is rich with applications of this guaranty as proof of our fealty to the rule of law and the ancient rudiments of fair play.  This is not to say that notice and hearing are imperative in every case for, to be sure, there are a number of admitted exceptions in view of the nature of the property involved or the urgency of the need to protect the general  welfare   from a clear  and present  danger.    The protection of   the general  welfare   is   the particular function of the police power which both restraints and is restrained by due process. The police power is simply defined as the power inherent in the State to regulate liberty and property for the promotion of the general welfare.     By reason of its function, it extends to all the great public needs and is described as the most pervasive, the least limitable and the most demanding of the three inherent powers of the State, far outpacing taxation and eminent domain  (Ynot vs. IAC, 148 SCRA 659).

                                     -  De la Llana v. Alba, 112 SCRA 294

                                    Legislative standard need not be expressed

                                          -  Hirabashi v. United States, 320 US 99

Did the President's executive orders and the power delegated to the military authorities discriminate against Americans and resident aliens of Japanese descent in violation of the Fifth Amendment which restrains discriminatory  legislation by Congress as amounts to denial  of due process?   The Court found the President's orders and the implementation of the curfew to be constitutional. Chief Justice Stone,   writing   for   the   unanimous   Court,   took   into   account   the   great   importance   of   military installations and weapons production that  occurred on the West Coast  and the "solidarity"  that individuals of Japanese descent felt with their motherland. He reasoned that restrictions on Japanese actions served an  important national   interest.  The Court ducked the thorny relocation issue and focused solely on the curfew, which the Court viewed as a necessary "protective measure." Stone argued that racial discrimination was justified since "in time of war residents having ethnic affiliations with  an   invading  enemy may be a  greater   source  of  danger   than  those  of  a  different  ancestry (Hirabayashi vs US, 320 US 81).”

                                          -  Chiongbian v. Orbos, 245 SCRA 253

The creation and subsequent reorganization of administrative regions have been by the President pursuant to authority granted to him by  law.   The choice of the President as delegate  is   logical because the division of the country into regions is intended to facilitate not only the administration of local governments but also the direction of executive departments which the law requires should have regional offices. The regions themselves are not territorial and political divisions like provinces, cities,   municipalities   and   barangays   but   are   "mere   groupings   of   contiguous   provinces   for administrative purposes."

Page 6: Principles and State Policies

There  is,   therefore,  no abdication by Congress of   its   legislative power  in conferring on the President the power to merge administrative regions. The question is whether Congress has provided a sufficient standard by which the President is to be guided in the exercise of the power granted and whether in any event the grant of power to him is included in the subject expressed in the title of the law.  On the question of standard. A legislative standard need not be expressed. It may simply be gathered or implied. Nor need it be found in the law challenged because it may be embodied in other statutes on the same subject as that of the challenged legislation.

With respect to the power to merge existing administrative regions, the standard is to be found in the same policy underlying the grant to the President  in R.A. No. 5435 of the power to reorganize the Executive Department, to wit: "to promote simplicity, economy and efficiency in the government to enable it to pursue programs consistent with national goals for accelerated social and economic development and to improve the service in the transaction of the public business." Indeed, as the original eleven administrative regions were established in accordance with   this   policy,   it   is   logical   to   suppose   that   in   authorizing   the   President   to   "merge   [by administrative determination] the existing regions" in view of the withdrawal from some of those   regions   of   the   provinces   now   constituting   the   Autonomous   Region,   the   purpose   of Congress was to reconstitute the original basis for the organization of administrative regions (Chionbian vs. Orbos, 245 SCRA 253).

                  8.  State Immunity (supra)                  9.  Election through popular will