process economics program - markitcentralized, shale gas produced water treatment facility utilizes...

IHS Chemical

Process Economics Program

Report 288

Produced Water Management:

Membrane Engineering for Water

Reclamation

By Ronald Smith and Sumod Kalakkunnath

IHS Chemical Process Economics Program | Report 288

November 2013 © 2013 IHS

IHS Chemical agrees to assign professionally qualified personnel to the preparation of the Process

Economics Program’s reports and will perform the work in conformance with generally accepted

professional standards. No other warranties expressed or implied are made. Because the reports are

of an advisory nature, neither IHS Chemical nor its employees will assume any liability for the

special or consequential damages arising from the Client’s use of the results contained in the reports.

The Client agrees to indemnify, defend, and hold IHS Chemical, its officers, and employees harmless

from any liability to any third party resulting directly or indirectly from the Client’s use of the reports

or other deliverables produced by IHS Chemical pursuant to this agreement.

For detailed marketing data and information, the reader is referred to one of the IHS Chemical

programs specializing in marketing research. THE IHS CHEMICAL ECONOMICS HANDBOOK

Program covers most major chemicals and chemical products produced throughout the world. In

addition the IHS DIRECTORY OF CHEMICAL PRODUCERS services provide detailed lists of

chemical producers by company, product, and plant for the United States, Europe, East Asia, China,

India, South & Central America, the Middle East & Africa, Canada, and Mexico.


November 2013 © 2013 IHS

PEP Report 288

Produced Water Management: Membrane Engineering for Water Reclamation

By Ronald Smith and Sumod Kalakkunnath

November 2013

Abstract

Rising global energy demand coupled with the unbalanced allocation of energy and water resources make

the issue of water treatment and reuse pivotal to several of the fuel and chemical production processes. In

addition, future regulations and public sentiment are reversing the priority list of produced water

management strategies, with wastewater treatment, reuse, and reduced discharge gaining importance.

Efficient conservation and reuse of water can be a major contributor to the production cost and in turn affect

key project considerations such as site selection and economic viability.

In a first-of-a-kind report, we provide an independent assessment of process economics for plants treating

wastewater emerging from two water-intensive fuel production processes: 1) coal indirect liquefaction, and

2) hydraulic fracturing for shale gas. The coal liquefaction wastewater plant accepts water from a world-

class, indirect coal-to-liquids (CTL) facility that produces 53,000 bpd of clean fuels via coal gasification

followed by Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis. The shale gas produced water treatment plant is a state-of-the

art, centralized facility that accepts wastewater from multiple wells in the Marcellus Shale play. The

treatment trains designed herein utilize the SuperPro® simulation package and employ advanced

membrane-based separation strategies customized based on the feedwater chemistry. Separate treatment

trains have been developed in the CTL wastewater plant for the gasification wastewater with high solids

content and the Fischer-Tropsch wastewater with high oxygenates content. In a unique design, the

centralized, shale gas produced water treatment facility utilizes treatment trains to handle produced water

at two different levels of total dissolved solids (TDS). A thorough capital and production cost analysis is

provided for the above wastewater plants as estimated using our in-house cost algorithms (designed

specifically to develop economics for environmental processes) and corroborated by industry thought

leaders. In addition, a detailed basis developed according to EPA guidelines is provided for the incremental

costs incurred via waste hauling and disposal.

This report lays a framework for sustainable production of fuel from coal and shale gas, by devising a water

management strategy and estimating associated costs that ultimately influence the respective fuel pricing.

Our analyses indicate that water treatment and waste disposal add nearly 6% to the middle distillate fuel

price (produced via indirect coal liquefaction). Centralized wastewater treatment and waste management

for Marcellus Shale flowback fluid reduce the freshwater intake by 30%. The additional incremental cost

for doing so under Level III (TDS <20,000 ppm) regulation requirements for fracturing water reuse is

$6.13/bbl of flowback fluid. This report will be of interest to policy analysts, strategic planners, project

managers, process engineers, environmental engineers, and shale gas operators.


Contents

November 2013 iii © 2013 IHS

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 1-1

Water stress and economic growth in Arab countries ............................................................................ 1-2

Water consumption for hydraulic fracturing .......................................................................................... 1-3

Water-energy nexus ................................................................................................................................ 1-8

Risk factors for water consumers ......................................................................................................... 1-10

Background .......................................................................................................................................... 1-12

Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 1-13

Wastewater mining ............................................................................................................................... 1-14

Water reclamation and reuse ................................................................................................................ 1-14

Advanced wastewater treatment ........................................................................................................... 1-16

Ceramic membranes ......................................................................................................................... 1-16

Pretreatment technologies ................................................................................................................. 1-17

Desalination technologies ................................................................................................................. 1-17

Membrane distillation ....................................................................................................................... 1-18

Advanced membrane technologies ....................................................................................................... 1-19

Electrochemical charge-driven separation processes........................................................................ 1-20

Osmotically driven membrane processes ......................................................................................... 1-20

Membrane treatment facilities .......................................................................................................... 1-21

Report focus ......................................................................................................................................... 1-22

Report content ...................................................................................................................................... 1-22

Water reuse and conservation in Fischer-Tropsch CTL plants ............................................................ 1-24

Advantages of coal-based liquid fuels .............................................................................................. 1-31

Disadvantages of coal-based liquid fuels.......................................................................................... 1-32

Research needs ................................................................................................................................. 1-32

Location of Chinese coal fields ........................................................................................................ 1-32

Rail lines for coal transportation in China ........................................................................................ 1-33

Regional concentration of coal resources in China .......................................................................... 1-35

Water use in China............................................................................................................................ 1-36

Shale gas ............................................................................................................................................... 1-46

Shale gas resource development ....................................................................................................... 1-50

The role of the chemical industry in the US economy...................................................................... 1-52

Hydraulic fracturing ............................................................................................................................. 1-56

Shale gas resource opportunities in the United States .......................................................................... 1-56

Summary and implications ............................................................................................................... 1-57

Shale gas resource opportunities in Canada ......................................................................................... 1-64

Shale gas resource opportunities in China ........................................................................................... 1-67

Hydraulic fracturing and shale gas production ..................................................................................... 1-71

Road and well pad construction ........................................................................................................ 1-72

Drilling .............................................................................................................................................. 1-73

Casing and perforating ...................................................................................................................... 1-73


Contents (continued)

November 2013 iv © 2013 IHS

Hydraulic fracturing and completion ................................................................................................ 1-73

Production, abandonment, and reclamation ...................................................................................... 1-74

Horizontal or directional drilling ...................................................................................................... 1-74

Tight oil production by fracking ....................................................................................................... 1-76

Key water issues in shale gas and oil plays .......................................................................................... 1-85

Disposal ............................................................................................................................................ 1-85

Freshwater ........................................................................................................................................ 1-85

Regulation and community ............................................................................................................... 1-85

Recycling and reuse .......................................................................................................................... 1-86

Transportation ................................................................................................................................... 1-86

Water management in shale plays ........................................................................................................ 1-86

Water management services ................................................................................................................. 1-86

Heavy metals and solids removal ..................................................................................................... 1-87

H2S remediation and bacterial disinfection....................................................................................... 1-88

Desalination and total dissolved solids removal ............................................................................... 1-88

Clarification ...................................................................................................................................... 1-88

The way forward .................................................................................................................................. 1-88

Fractional crystallization .................................................................................................................. 1-89

2. Summary ................................................................................................................................................ 2-1

Executive summary ................................................................................................................................ 2-1

Coal liquefaction .................................................................................................................................... 2-1

Hydraulic fracturing ............................................................................................................................... 2-1

Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................ 2-1

Summary ................................................................................................................................................ 2-2

Coal liquefaction—markets ................................................................................................................ 2-2

Shale oil and gas markets ................................................................................................................... 2-4

Technology and economics ................................................................................................................ 2-4

Wastewater treatment facility for an indirect coal liquefaction plant ............................................. 2-5

Cost estimates .............................................................................................................................. 2-7

Capital investment ................................................................................................................... 2-7

Production costs ....................................................................................................................... 2-8

Solid waste management costs ................................................................................................ 2-8

Economic impact ......................................................................................................................... 2-8

Shale gas centralized wastewater treatment plant ......................................................................... 2-12

Cost estimates ............................................................................................................................ 2-14

Capital investment ................................................................................................................. 2-14

Production costs ..................................................................................................................... 2-15

Waste management costs ....................................................................................................... 2-15

Economic impact ....................................................................................................................... 2-15

3. Industry status ........................................................................................................................................ 3-1



November 2013 v © 2013 IHS

Coal to liquids (CTL) ............................................................................................................................. 3-1

Shale gas—introduction ......................................................................................................................... 3-4

Geological definitions ............................................................................................................................ 3-5

History .................................................................................................................................................... 3-6

Speculations ........................................................................................................................................ 3-9

Skepticism about shale gas resources ..................................................................................................... 3-9

Worldwide shale gas ............................................................................................................................ 3-12

Price of electricity from shale gas ........................................................................................................ 3-14

Energy efficiency ................................................................................................................................. 3-15

Gas vs. coal ....................................................................................................................................... 3-15

New markets for gas in transportation ................................................................................................. 3-16

Feedstock and fertilizer ........................................................................................................................ 3-16

Gas and decarbonization ...................................................................................................................... 3-17

Shale gas development in the United States—introduction ................................................................. 3-17

Life cycle of a Marcellus Shale wellhead ......................................................................................... 3-18

Mineral leasing/acquisition and permitting ...................................................................................... 3-20

Site construction ............................................................................................................................... 3-21

Drilling .............................................................................................................................................. 3-21

Hydraulic fracturing.......................................................................................................................... 3-21

HF flowback variability .................................................................................................................... 3-21

Types of HF fluids ............................................................................................................................ 3-22

Flowback fluid characteristics .......................................................................................................... 3-22

Slickwater polymer ........................................................................................................................... 3-23

Guar polymer and other polysaccharides .......................................................................................... 3-24

Fouling .............................................................................................................................................. 3-25

Conventional HF flowback ............................................................................................................... 3-25

Other industries’ experience in water treating .................................................................................. 3-27

Completion ....................................................................................................................................... 3-27

Production ......................................................................................................................................... 3-27

Workovers ........................................................................................................................................ 3-27

Plugging and abandonment/reclamation ........................................................................................... 3-28

Industry players .................................................................................................................................... 3-28

Water’s role in hydraulic fracturing.................................................................................................. 3-28

Considerations for development of Marcellus Shale gas .................................................................. 3-29

Best management practices ............................................................................................................... 3-32

Fracking well development operations ............................................................................................. 3-33

Separation process ............................................................................................................................ 3-36

Hydraulic fracturing’s effect on water quality .................................................................................. 3-40

Effects on water quality (when something goes wrong) ................................................................... 3-42

Preparation of the drilling pad .......................................................................................................... 3-42



November 2013 vi © 2013 IHS

Well construction .............................................................................................................................. 3-42

Casing ........................................................................................................................................... 3-42

Cementing around the casing ........................................................................................................ 3-43

Depth ............................................................................................................................................. 3-44

After construction—prior to hydraulic fracturing ............................................................................ 3-44

During drilling .................................................................................................................................. 3-45

Storage .............................................................................................................................................. 3-45

During transport ................................................................................................................................ 3-45

Improper treatment ........................................................................................................................... 3-45

Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................... 3-46

Water geochemistry .............................................................................................................................. 3-47

Saline groundwater ........................................................................................................................... 3-48

Key contaminants of concern for reuse ............................................................................................ 3-50

Chlorides ........................................................................................................................................... 3-53

Hardness and scaling considerations ................................................................................................ 3-53

Hydraulic fracturing fluid reuse composition ................................................................................... 3-56

Primary treatment ............................................................................................................................. 3-61

Secondary treatment ......................................................................................................................... 3-61

Tertiary treatment ............................................................................................................................. 3-62

Membrane separation .................................................................................................................... 3-62

Electrically driven membrane separation ...................................................................................... 3-63

Thermal technologies .................................................................................................................... 3-63

Zero liquid discharge .................................................................................................................... 3-63

Desalination treatment technology types ............................................................................................. 3-63

Guidelines for produced water injection .............................................................................................. 3-66

Properties of injected produced water and its compatibility with connate waters ............................ 3-68

Produced water treatment ................................................................................................................. 3-69

Injection well design and construction ................................................................................................. 3-69

Tubing axial loading burst and collapse ........................................................................................... 3-70

Wellheads ......................................................................................................................................... 3-70

Well completions .............................................................................................................................. 3-70

Isolation of injected water at the well ............................................................................................... 3-70

Containment and confinement.............................................................................................................. 3-71

Reservoir flow and fracture propagation predictions ....................................................................... 3-71

Flow reservoir simulation ................................................................................................................. 3-72

Injection and confinement zone geomechanical properties .............................................................. 3-73

In-situ stress profile .......................................................................................................................... 3-73

Process monitoring and control ............................................................................................................ 3-73

Continuous pressure monitoring ....................................................................................................... 3-73

Injectivity and fall-off testing ........................................................................................................... 3-74



November 2013 vii © 2013 IHS

Mechanical components ................................................................................................................... 3-74

Operational issues ................................................................................................................................ 3-75

Pressure buildup ............................................................................................................................... 3-75

Confinement problems...................................................................................................................... 3-75

Mechanical complications ................................................................................................................ 3-76

Alternative strategies ........................................................................................................................ 3-76

Injection well abandonment ................................................................................................................. 3-76

Plugging strategies ............................................................................................................................ 3-76

Plugging implementation .................................................................................................................. 3-76

Water’s growing role in oil and gas ..................................................................................................... 3-77

North America produced water market ............................................................................................ 3-78

North American produced water forecast by resource ..................................................................... 3-79

North American gas production forecast by resource ...................................................................... 3-80

Top US shale gas players .................................................................................................................. 3-84

US shale gas cost curve .................................................................................................................... 3-85

North American shale gas development ........................................................................................... 3-86

Water sourcing .................................................................................................................................. 3-88

Economic effects of shale gas development ..................................................................................... 3-89

4. Technology review ................................................................................................................................. 4-1

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 4-1

Evaluation criteria .................................................................................................................................. 4-1

Waste disposal cost ................................................................................................................................ 4-3

Review and assessment of water treatment technologies ....................................................................... 4-5

Biological aerated filters ..................................................................................................................... 4-6

Media filtration ................................................................................................................................... 4-8

Membrane separation.......................................................................................................................... 4-9

Microfiltration/ultrafiltration........................................................................................................... 4-9

Ceramic MF/UF membrane ....................................................................................................... 4-10

Polymeric MF/UF membrane .................................................................................................... 4-12

High-pressure membranes ......................................................................................................... 4-14

Nanofiltration (NF) ................................................................................................................ 4-14

Electrochemical charge-driven membranes .................................................................................. 4-16

Electrodialysis (ED)/electrodialysis reversal (EDR) ................................................................. 4-16

Electrodeionization (EDI) ......................................................................................................... 4-18

Membrane distillation ................................................................................................................... 4-19

Osmotically driven membrane processes ...................................................................................... 4-23

Forward osmosis (FO) ............................................................................................................... 4-23

Hybrid membrane technologies ................................................................................................. 4-26

Dual RO with chemical precipitation .................................................................................... 4-26



November 2013 viii © 2013 IHS

Dual RO with softening pretreatment and high-pH operation (high-efficiency RO

[HERO]) ................................................................................................................................ 4-28

Dual RO with slurry precipitation and recycling RO (SPARRO) ......................................... 4-30

FO/RO hybrid system ................................................................................................................ 4-33

Commercial membrane processes .................................................................................................... 4-36

CDM produced water technology ................................................................................................. 4-36

Veolia optimized pretreatment and unique separation technology (OPUS) ................................. 4-38

Ecosphere—Ozonix ...................................................................................................................... 4-41

GeoPure Water Technologies ....................................................................................................... 4-42

Thermal technologies........................................................................................................................ 4-44

Vapor compression distillation (VCD) ......................................................................................... 4-45

Mechanical vapor recompression (MVR) evaporation—Aqua-Pure ............................................ 4-48

Mechanical vapor recompression (MVR) evaporation—212 Resources ...................................... 4-51

Multi-effect distillation (MED)—vapor compression hybrid ....................................................... 4-52

Evaporative reduction and solidification (EVRAS)—Intevras Technologies .............................. 4-55

Total Separation Solutions: SPR—Pyros ...................................................................................... 4-56

Membrane bioreactors ...................................................................................................................... 4-58

Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 4-60

5. Indirect coal liquefaction process wastewater treatment train ............................................................... 5-1

5.1 Coal gasification wastewater treatment ............................................................................................ 5-1

Design basis ........................................................................................................................................ 5-1

Material balance.................................................................................................................................. 5-3

Process description ........................................................................................................................... 5-14

Section 100—pretreatment section ............................................................................................... 5-14

Section 200—purification section ................................................................................................. 5-15

Section 300—posttreatment section .............................................................................................. 5-15

Section 400—solids disposal section ............................................................................................ 5-15

Process discussion ............................................................................................................................ 5-15

Product water ................................................................................................................................ 5-15

Chemical pretreatment .................................................................................................................. 5-16

Purification section ....................................................................................................................... 5-18

Posttreatment via ion exchange ..................................................................................................... 5-18

Solids disposal............................................................................................................................... 5-19

Equipment list and utility consumption ............................................................................................ 5-19

Cost estimates ................................................................................................................................... 5-21

Capital investment ......................................................................................................................... 5-21

Production costs ............................................................................................................................ 5-21

Solid waste management costs ...................................................................................................... 5-21

5.2 Fischer-Tropsch wastewater treatment ........................................................................................... 5-27

Design basis ...................................................................................................................................... 5-27



November 2013 ix © 2013 IHS

Material balance................................................................................................................................ 5-29


Section 100—pretreatment section ............................................................................................... 5-37

Section 200—purification section ................................................................................................. 5-38

Section 300—posttreatment section .............................................................................................. 5-38

Process discussion ............................................................................................................................ 5-38

FT wastewater ............................................................................................................................... 5-38

Product water ................................................................................................................................ 5-39

Dissolved air flotation ................................................................................................................... 5-39

Biological treatment ...................................................................................................................... 5-39

Trickling biofilter ...................................................................................................................... 5-39

Membrane bioreactor................................................................................................................. 5-40

Reverse osmosis (RO) membranes ............................................................................................... 5-40


Cost estimates ................................................................................................................................... 5-43



5.3 Integrated coal liquefaction (indirect process) wastewater treatment ............................................ 5-47

Design basis ...................................................................................................................................... 5-47

Material balance................................................................................................................................ 5-48

Process description/discussion .......................................................................................................... 5-57


Cost estimates ................................................................................................................................... 5-59



Solid waste management costs ...................................................................................................... 5-60

6. Centralized wastewater treatment plant for hydraulic fracturing operations ......................................... 6-1

Design basis............................................................................................................................................ 6-1

Material balance ..................................................................................................................................... 6-4


Section 100—pretreatment section ................................................................................................... 6-12

Section 200—purification section .................................................................................................... 6-13

Section 300—waste disposal section ................................................................................................ 6-13

Process discussion ................................................................................................................................ 6-13

Feedwater .......................................................................................................................................... 6-13

Chemical pretreatment ...................................................................................................................... 6-14

Low-TDS wastewater treatment ................................................................................................... 6-14

High-TDS wastewater treatment ................................................................................................... 6-14

Purification section ........................................................................................................................... 6-15

Product water .................................................................................................................................... 6-16


Contents (concluded)

November 2013 x © 2013 IHS

Solids drying ..................................................................................................................................... 6-17

Equipment list and utility consumption ................................................................................................ 6-18

Cost estimates ....................................................................................................................................... 6-20

Capital investment ............................................................................................................................ 6-20

Production costs ................................................................................................................................ 6-20

Waste management costs .................................................................................................................. 6-21

Appendix A: Design and cost bases .......................................................................................................... A-1

Appendix B: Cited references ................................................................................................................... B-1

Appendix C: Process flow diagrams ......................................................................................................... C-1


Figures

November 2013 xi © 2013 IHS

1.1 Global water supply and demand .................................................................................................... 1-1

1.2 Water stress and economic growth in Arab countries ..................................................................... 1-2

1.3 Water consumption for fracking per well ........................................................................................ 1-3

1.4 Natural hydrologic cycle ................................................................................................................. 1-5

1.5 Water management segments in the development and production

of shale resources ............................................................................................................................ 1-6

1.6 Unconventional flowback water handling in hydraulic fracturing operations ................................ 1-7

1.7 Water consumption for extraction and processing of fuels energy water intensities ...................... 1-8

1.8 Risk factors for water users ............................................................................................................. 1-9

1.9 US Drought Monitor, February 8, 2011 ........................................................................................ 1-10

1.10 US Drought Monitor, September 17, 2013 .................................................................................... 1-11

1.11 Lurgi’s methanol-to-synfuels technology process flow schematic ............................................... 1-27

1.12 Fischer-Tropsch CTL process ....................................................................................................... 1-29

1.13 Geographical location of Chinese coal fields ................................................................................ 1-33

1.14 Rail lines for coal transportation in China ..................................................................................... 1-34

1.15 Concentration of coal resources in China by region ...................................................................... 1-35

1.16 Precipitation and distribution of water resources in China ............................................................ 1-38

1.17 Population of China and the world as of the new millennium ...................................................... 1-41

1.18 China’s GDP composition by sector, 2012 ................................................................................... 1-43

1.19 Effects of urban migration ............................................................................................................. 1-44

1.20 Total water use .............................................................................................................................. 1-46

1.21 Projected total dry natural gas production in the United States from conventional and

unconventional sources ................................................................................................................. 1-47

1.22 Shale gas formation ....................................................................................................................... 1-48

1.23 The hydrocarbon resource triangle for gas and oil development................................................... 1-49

1.24 US manufacturing GDP by industry 2010 ..................................................................................... 1-53

1.25 Participation in US GDP by industry 2011 ................................................................................... 1-53

1.26 River basins and subbasins overlying the Marcellus Shale ........................................................... 1-60

1.27 Marcellus Shale within Susquehanna River Basin boundaries ...................................................... 1-61

1.28 Six subbasins of the Susquehanna River Basin ............................................................................. 1-62

1.29 Distribution of shale gas resources in China ................................................................................. 1-67

1.30 Hydraulic fracturing ...................................................................................................................... 1-72

1.31 Multiple vertical vs. horizontal well patterns ................................................................................ 1-75

1.32 US tight oil production from selected plays .................................................................................. 1-77

1.33 US oil shales and pipeline infrastructure ....................................................................................... 1-79

1.34 Top 10 shale oil reserves holders .................................................................................................. 1-80

1.35 US oil and gas rig counts ............................................................................................................... 1-81

1.36 Location of Monterey/Santos Shale gas plays in California ......................................................... 1-83

2.1 Coal liquefaction wastewater treatment

Process schematic ............................................................................................................................ 2-7


Figures (continued)

November 2013 xii © 2013 IHS


Comparison of production costs .................................................................................................... 2-12

2.3 Centralized wastewater treatment for Marcellus Shale gas operation

Process schematic .......................................................................................................................... 2-14



3.1 CTL plants and projects worldwide ................................................................................................. 3-1

3.2 Unconventional liquids as a percentage of total world liquids ........................................................ 3-2

3.3 Projected unconventional liquids fuel production by type .............................................................. 3-2

3.4 Fischer-Tropsch liquid fuel production from CTL .......................................................................... 3-3

3.5 Fischer-Tropsch liquids production from CTL processes ............................................................... 3-3

3.6 US domestic production of shale gas .............................................................................................. 3-5

3.7 High-volume hydrofracking fluids composition ............................................................................. 3-8

3.8 US shale gas plays ......................................................................................................................... 3-10

3.9 Global map of 48 shale gas basins in 32 countries ........................................................................ 3-13

3.10 Phases and key steps in developing a Marcellus Shale gas well ................................................... 3-19

3.11 Map of the Marcellus Shale ........................................................................................................... 3-29

3.12 Location of issued well permits in Pennsylvania, January 2012 ................................................... 3-30

3.13 Water management methods for produced and flowback water in Pennsylvania ......................... 3-31

3.14 Mechanical vapor recompression process ..................................................................................... 3-39

3.15 Fundamental research for each stage of water use in hydraulic fracturing ................................... 3-41

3.16 Mechanical features of a shale gas well ........................................................................................ 3-43

3.17 Depth to saline water ..................................................................................................................... 3-47

3.18 Common scale-forming minerals .................................................................................................. 3-49

3.19 Barium ion concentration across the Marcellus Shale ................................................................... 3-55

3.20 Water treatment options and output from every process step ........................................................ 3-58

3.21 Level 1 treatment train ................................................................................................................... 3-61

3.22 Lime softening treatment train ...................................................................................................... 3-62

3.23 Electrodialysis treatment train ....................................................................................................... 3-63

3.24 Time series data for TDS concentrations of Marcellus Shale flowback water from 19

different wells in 19 different locations ......................................................................................... 3-64

3.25 Injection wells in the United States ............................................................................................... 3-66

3.26 North American produced market by activity, 2010 ..................................................................... 3-78

3.27 Produced water volume forecast .................................................................................................... 3-79

3.28 North American gas production forecast by resource ................................................................... 3-80

3.29 North American shale gas production hot spots ............................................................................ 3-81

3.30 North American produced water equipment market forecast by resource .................................... 3-82

3.31 Breakeven Henry Hub price for natural gas resources in analyzed plays ..................................... 3-86

3.32 Projected North American shale gas cumulative production (by shale gas field) ......................... 3-87

4.1 Schematic drawing of biological aerated filter ................................................................................ 4-6

4.2 A typical spiral wound high-pressure membrane element ............................................................ 4-14


Figures (concluded)

November 2013 xiii © 2013 IHS

4.3 Schematic diagram of an electrodialysis stack .............................................................................. 4-16

4.4 Production of ultrapure water with EDI technology...................................................................... 4-19

4.5 Membrane distillation .................................................................................................................... 4-20

4.6 Water diffusion in forward osmosis (FO) and pressure-driven processes (RO and NF) ............... 4-23

4.7 Schematic of a generic forward osmosis system for desalination ................................................. 4-24

4.8 Dual RO with chemical precipitation ............................................................................................ 4-26

4.9 Schematic of a dual RO system that incorporates a softening pretreatment and intermediate

high-pH operation (high-efficiency RO [HERO]) ......................................................................... 4-28

4.10 Schematic of seeded slurry precipitation and recycle RO (SPARRO) .......................................... 4-30

4.11 FO/RO hybrid system .................................................................................................................... 4-33

4.12 CDM wastewater treatment train process ...................................................................................... 4-36

4.13 Process schematic of Veolia produced water treatment system .................................................... 4-39

4.14 Simplified schematic for a VCD Unit ........................................................................................... 4-46

4.15 Schematic of Aqua-Pure MVR evaporation process ..................................................................... 4-48

4.16 Schematic of EVRAS process for brine treatment ........................................................................ 4-55

4.17 Schematic of the PYROS™ system for produced water treatment ............................................... 4-57

4.18 Membrane bioreactor ..................................................................................................................... 4-59

5.1 Coal gasification wastewater treatment train .................................................................................. C-3

5.2 Fischer-Tropsch wastewater treatment train ................................................................................... C-5

5.3 Coal liquefaction wastewater treatment train ................................................................................. C-7

5.4 Coal gasification wastewater treatment


5.5 Fischer-Tropsch wastewater treatment




6.1 Shale gas fracturing wastewater treatment train ............................................................................. C-9

6.2 Mixing model for TDS reduction of recycled hydraulic fracturing fluid ...................................... 6-17




Tables

November 2013 xiv © 2013 IHS

1.1 Water quality parameters used to determine quality of reclaimed water ...................................... 1-15

1.2 Coal to transportation fuels ........................................................................................................... 1-25

1.3 China’s water consumption by sector ............................................................................................ 1-36

1.4 Comparative data for gas shale basins in the United States .......................................................... 1-51

1.5 Shale gas production in China and the United States .................................................................... 1-70


Water balance .................................................................................................................................. 2-6


Total capital investment .................................................................................................................. 2-9


Production costs............................................................................................................................. 2-10


Total capital investment ................................................................................................................ 2-16




Incremental production costs summary ......................................................................................... 2-19

3.1 Water balance for 53,000 bbl/day CTL fuels plant ......................................................................... 3-4

3.2 Levelized cost of power from next-generation resources .............................................................. 3-15

3.3 Standard terms and conditions for mineral rights leasing ............................................................. 3-20

3.4 Breakdown of additives ................................................................................................................. 3-36

3.5 Key contaminants that affect fracturing fluid reuse ...................................................................... 3-50

3.6 Relative soluble cation content in the Marcellus Formation ......................................................... 3-52

3.7 Average and instantaneous TDS values for shale formations ....................................................... 3-52

3.8 Chlorides and estimated TDS concentration for day 5 to 15 for an average Marcellus Shale

well ................................................................................................................................................ 3-53

3.9 Selected solubility constants .......................................................................................................... 3-54

3.10 Temperatures at or below which ionic compounds can precipitate—analysis of barium

sulfate, strontium carbonate, and calcium carbonate ..................................................................... 3-54

3.11 Marcellus flowback composition................................................................................................... 3-55

3.12 Specifications for reuse fracturing water in the Marcellus Shale .................................................. 3-56

3.13 Specifications for reuse fracturing water in the Marcellus Shale after blending ........................... 3-57

3.14 Technology options for water treatment performance ................................................................... 3-60

3.15 Primary and secondary treatment technologies (by function) ....................................................... 3-62

3.16 Desalination treatment technologies .............................................................................................. 3-64

3.17 Specifications of desalination technologies ................................................................................... 3-65

3.18 Commercial wastewater desalination processes and vendors ....................................................... 3-66

3.19 Water requirements for various energy resources ......................................................................... 3-79

3.20 Application of advanced membrane filtration technologies .......................................................... 3-82

3.21 Top US shale gas players (by play) ............................................................................................... 3-85

4.1 Description of assessment criteria ................................................................................................... 4-2

4.2 Biological aerated filter assessment ................................................................................................ 4-8


Tables (continued)

November 2013 xv © 2013 IHS

4.3 Media filtration assessment ............................................................................................................. 4-9

4.4 Ceramic MF/UF membrane assessment ........................................................................................ 4-12

4.5 Polymeric MF/UF membrane assessment ..................................................................................... 4-13

4.6 Technical assessment of nanofiltration .......................................................................................... 4-15

4.7 Technical Assessment of ED and EDR ......................................................................................... 4-18

4.8 Technical assessment of membrane distillation ............................................................................ 4-22

4.9 Technical assessment of forward osmosis ..................................................................................... 4-25

4.10 Technical assessment of dual RO with chemical precipitation ..................................................... 4-27

4.11 Technical assessment of dual RO with softening pretreatment and high-pH operation (high-

efficiency RO [HERO]) ................................................................................................................. 4-29

4.12 Technical assessment of slurry precipitation and recycling RO (SPARRO)................................. 4-32

4.13 Technical assessment of hybrid FO/RO system ............................................................................ 4-35

4.14 Technical assessment of CDM produced water treatment technology .......................................... 4-38

4.15 Technical assessment for Veolia OPUS ........................................................................................ 4-40

4.16 Technical assessment for Ecosphere Ozonix process .................................................................... 4-42

4.17 Technical assessment of GeoPure Water Technologies ................................................................ 4-44

4.18 Technical assessment of VCD ....................................................................................................... 4-47

4.19 Technical assessment of Aqua-Pure MVR evaporation process ................................................... 4-50

4.20 Technical assessment of the 212 Resources water treatment system ............................................ 4-52

4.21 Technical assessment of MED-VCD hybrid ................................................................................. 4-54

4.22 Technical assessment of the EVRAS evaporative system ............................................................. 4-56

4.23 Technical assessment of the PYROS evaporative system ............................................................. 4-58

4.24 Technical assessment of membrane bioreactors ............................................................................ 4-60

4.25 Applicability scores for produced water treatment by technology ................................................ 4-61


Design bases .................................................................................................................................... 5-3


Component group classification ...................................................................................................... 5-4


Stream flows .................................................................................................................................... 5-5


Stream composition ....................................................................................................................... 5-11

5.5 Coal gasification wastewater treatment boiler feedwater quality requirements ............................ 5-16


Title 22 soluble threshold limits .................................................................................................... 5-19


Major equipment ........................................................................................................................... 5-20


Utilities summary .......................................................................................................................... 5-21




Tables (continued)

November 2013 xvi © 2013 IHS


Capital investment by section ........................................................................................................ 5-23




Design bases for waste disposal sites, waste hauling, and disposal .............................................. 5-26


Design bases .................................................................................................................................. 5-28


Stream flows .................................................................................................................................. 5-30




Major equipment ........................................................................................................................... 5-42










Design basis ................................................................................................................................... 5-48


Stream flows .................................................................................................................................. 5-49


Major equipment ........................................................................................................................... 5-58










Design bases for waste disposal sites, waste hauling, and disposal .............................................. 5-65


Design bases .................................................................................................................................... 6-3


Stream flows .................................................................................................................................... 6-5




Tables (concluded)

November 2013 xvii © 2013 IHS


River water composition ................................................................................................................ 6-17


Major equipment ........................................................................................................................... 6-19










Design bases for waste disposal sites ............................................................................................ 6-26


Design bases for waste hauling and disposal ................................................................................. 6-26


Incremental production costs summary ......................................................................................... 6-27

process economics program - markitcentralized, shale gas produced water treatment facility utilizes...

Documents