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1 UNIT 14 PROCESS OF CHANGE Objectives After studying this Unit you should be able to understand: what is change ? types of change alternative strategies of change process of change, a few models of change resistance to change commonly used interventions of Managing Change. Structure 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Drivers of Change in Business 14.3 Alternative Strategies of Change – at a Glance 14.4 Process of Change 14.5 Change Models 14.6 Phases of Planned Change 14.7 Resistance to Change 14.8 Overcoming Resistance to Change 14.9 Some Principles of Change 14.10 Reducing Resistance to Change: Few Suggestions 14.11 Commonly used Interventions for Managing Change 14.12 Summary 14.13 Self Assessment Questions 14.14 Further Readings 14.1 INTRODUCTION The dictionary meaning of change as a noun is — ‘making or becoming different, difference from previous state, substitution of one for another, variation’ etc. Change is also a verb meaning — ‘to undergo, show or subject to change, to make or become different’. We are experiencing changes in all spheres of our lives — food, drinks, clothing, relationships, ambitions, living standard, work, tools, techniques. The changes are occurring so fast that people say ‘in this rapidly changing world change is the only constant’. There are numerous visible and invisible forces , which are constantly affecting changes in organizations, a few of them may be enumerated as follows: Technology Tools, techniques, instruments, methods, procedures. Work force Knowledge, skills, ambitions, expectations, needs. Economy Liberalisation, globalisation, privatisation, breaking the barriers resource imbalance. Competition Mergers, acquisitions, entry of new organizations, new products, lowering prices, better services.

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UNIT 14 PROCESS OF CHANGEObjectives

After studying this Unit you should be able to understand:

� what is change ?

� types of change

� alternative strategies of change

� process of change, a few models of change

� resistance to change

� commonly used interventions of Managing Change.

Structure

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Drivers of Change in Business

14.3 Alternative Strategies of Change – at a Glance

14.4 Process of Change

14.5 Change Models

14.6 Phases of Planned Change

14.7 Resistance to Change

14.8 Overcoming Resistance to Change

14.9 Some Principles of Change

14.10 Reducing Resistance to Change: Few Suggestions

14.11 Commonly used Interventions for Managing Change

14.12 Summary

14.13 Self Assessment Questions

14.14 Further Readings

14.1 INTRODUCTION

The dictionary meaning of change as a noun is — ‘making or becomingdifferent, difference from previous state, substitution of one for another,variation’ etc. Change is also a verb meaning — ‘to undergo, show or subjectto change, to make or become different’. We are experiencing changes in allspheres of our lives — food, drinks, clothing, relationships, ambitions, livingstandard, work, tools, techniques. The changes are occurring so fast that peoplesay ‘in this rapidly changing world change is the only constant’.

There are numerous visible and invisible forces , which are constantly affectingchanges in organizations, a few of them may be enumerated as follows:

Technology — Tools, techniques, instruments, methods, procedures.

Work force — Knowledge, skills, ambitions, expectations, needs.

Economy — Liberalisation, globalisation, privatisation, breaking thebarriers resource imbalance.

Competition — Mergers, acquisitions, entry of new organizations, newproducts, lowering prices, better services.

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Social trends — Nuclear families, working couples, late marriages, onechild norm.

Political — Warning ideologies, new equations, transitoryrelationships, coalition Govts etc., single superpower.

Financial — New types of Finances and Financial Institutions

All changes are not similar in nature. Some changes keep on happening ontheir own and some are planned. There are three types of changes.

� Evolution

� Revolution

� Planned change

When people are not willing or / and not prepared for facing the change,change comes gradually as a natural process, in small adjustments or shifts inresponse to emerging problems — this type of change has been calledEvolution.

When people reach a state of readiness to resolve conflicts by applying forceon others to comply through coercion or suppression, revolution takes place.

When efforts are made to make others experience the need of change anddetermine the ideal or desired situation and striving to achieve the ideal ordesired state through planned actions — planned change takes place.

Social and Behavioural scientists have made diverse approaches to understandexplain change process.

Marilyn Ferguson has described four types of change in his “Aquarian conspiracy”

Exceptional Change

A particular change is accepted as an exception; there is no change in ongoingaspects. The existing beliefs are not changed but specific change is introducedseparately, as an exception. In THE R&D division of a large organization flexitime was introduced as an exception — all other divisions were continuing theongoing system.

Incremental Change

A gradual change, those who are affected do not experience it initially.Computerisation in offices has been introduced as an incremental change inmost of the organizations.

Pendulum Change

Change from one extreme point of view to the opposite — pendulum change.In a Company elaborate procedures of open tender was in practice forengaging Consultants; suddenly they decided to go for single tender onnegotiation basis.

Paradigm change

The new information about an event, object, behaviour, image is integrated andthe ‘picture shifts’ or enlarges, emergence of a new belief — such a change iscalled paradigm change. A ‘paradigm’, in simple words may be understood asa cognitive model of how things are or a standard for how things should be.For example, the consideration for the success of a PSU today in comparisonto those in the seventies.

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Change also has been explained as a continuum — the two extremes being

No Desired ConstantChange (Productive Change) Change

No Change Position

The ‘no change’ position indicates the ‘0’ condition of ‘inertia’ — sticking totraditional view, valuing the past conservative thinking that ‘new’ is definitelybad. Any change or deviation from the past is perceived as a threat — athreat to beliefs, habits, preferences, norms and prevailing order. An example is— evolving a performance management system, constantly sticking to theprevious method — where boss does it alone.

The major benefit from this position is ‘stability’, less efforts, comfort, less riskbut it also brings no growth, boredom, dissatisfaction, conformity and stagnation.

Constant Change

The extreme ‘right’ indicates the state of ‘constant change’ and presents adynamic approach having a constant focus on future. It considers the ‘new’ asalways good. Any change is seen as positive and resistance is seen as bad —not moving with times and an opposition to the norms and values and progress.A restlessness for knowing what is new and adapting the same without ourobjective assessment of the strong and positive aspects of what is the past orthe present, not even the existing capabilities. In order to convince orimplement the changes not much regard to the affected people is given, andeffort to convince has much jargon and force and excitement. Some times, thefocus on what is important and crucial is lost. This state provides energy,excitement and a Zeal to go ahead of the traditions.

Productive (pragmatic) Change

Between the two extremes is another approach ‘the Pragmatic approach’ ofchange — which is focused on the existing state (what is happening) andchange seen as inevitable. The emphasis is on explaining the need for changeand making a conscious choice without having a fascination or inertia for thepast nor a compulsion for a rapid change.

14.2 DRIVERS OF CHANGE IN BUSINESS

There are many visible and invisible factors, which may compel a businessorganization, how to effect changes of various types. A few general changedrivers are — increased competition, Price cuts, Technology, Laws, Customer /user demand.

Change Targets

There could be a Variety of possible targets of change in an organization.A few are :

� Vision, mission task, and goal

� Structure

� Strategy

� Systems, procedures, technology

� Organizational Values

� Management styles

� Culture

� Human resource : knowledge, skills, attitudes, values

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Table 1 : Factors Effecting Change

DRIVERS CHANGES

Manufacturing : Reduced cost as a result Cost control efforts;Company of competition. Man-power cuts,

contract, employee,automation.

High manpower cost Buy (Import) rathermanufacturing,outsourcing, manpowerreduction

Cheaper imported products Setting up manufacturing/unit in other countries.

Obsolete product due to Change products,technology change materials, technology,

main equipments

Pollution Control Laws Technology import /product substitution.Putting units in areashaving lenient laws.

Retailing : Change in choice of Customer (market)Company consumers (semi-cooked research lined

food, electrical/electron retailing.kits in place of fuel basedequipments) Advertisement

Time constraint, ease Departmental stores inin shopping. place of small scattered

stores.

Health awareness -- Low Healthy products,cholestrol oils vs. traditional substitutesoils.

Time constraint Home delivery, internet /tele shopping, automation.

14.3 ALTERNATIVE STRATEGIES OF CHANGE :AT A GLANCE

Change has been a matter of great interest to the Sociologists and BehaviouralScientists. A number of theories and models have been postulated. Olmoskhas presented a comprehensive view of a number of Change strategies andcalled them ‘Seven pure strategies of change’. Each of these strategies havebeen briefly summarised and explained.

The Fellowship Strategy

The assumption underlying this strategy seems to be, “If we have good, warminter-personal relations, all other problems will be minor.” Emphasis is placed ongetting to know one another and on developing friendships. Groups that use thismodel often sponsor discussions, dinners, card parties, and other social eventsthat bring people together.

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The fellowship strategy places strong emphasis on treating everyone equally;this often is interpreted as treating everyone the same way. All people mustbe accepted; no one is turned away. When the group is making decisions, allmembers are allowed to speak, and all opinions are weighed equally. No fact,feeling, opinion, or theory is considered inherently superior to any other.Arguments are few, because conflict generally is suppressed and avoided.

The Political Strategy

Political Strategists tend to believe that “If all the really influential people agreethat something should be done, it will be done.” They emphasise a powerstructure that usually includes not only formally recognised leaders but informal,unofficial leaders as well. Much of the work done under the political strategy isthe result of the leaders’ informal relationships.

The political strategy emphasises the identification and influence of people whoseem most able to make and implement decisions. It usually focuses on thosewho are respected and have the largest constituency in a given area. One’slevel of influence is based on one‘s perceived power and ability to work withother influential people to reach goals that are valued by one‘s constituency.

The Economic Strategy

Economic strategists believe that “Money can buy anything or any change wewant.” They emphasise the acquisition of or — at the very least, influenceover — all forms of material goods, such as money, land, stocks, bonds, andany other tradable commodity. This strategy is widely used in the United Statesand the Western world and is used most often by large corporations and by thevery rich.

Inclusion in a group that espouses this approach usually is based on possessionor control of marketable resources. Influence within the group is based onperceived wealth. Most decisions are heavily, if not completely, influenced byquestions of profitability as measured by an increase in tangible assets. Thisapproach is highly rational, based on the assumption that all people act more orless rationally from economic motives. As a result, such groups often havehigh needs for control and for rationality.

The Academic Strategy

The academic strategy assumes that “People are rational. If one presentsenough facts to people, they will change.” To this end, academic strategistsundertake an unending series of studies and produce thousands of pages ofreports each year.

Inclusion in a group that plans to use the academic strategy to solve problemsor to make changes is based primarily on one’s expertise in a given area or onone’s desire to acquire such knowledge. Leadership and influence within thegroup generally depends on the degree to which the person is perceived as anexpert. Newcomers to the field are considered to have little to contribute, whilethose with advanced degrees or many years of specialized study receive agreat deal of attention.

The Engineering Strategy

Users of this strategy try to bring about behavioural change without dealingdirectly with the people involved. The underlying assumption is, “If theenvironment or the surroundings change enough, people will be forced tochange.” Therefore, engineering strategists may spend a great deal of timestudying physical layouts, patterns of interaction, and role descriptions in workplaces and classrooms without ever speaking to the employees or students.Groups that approach change in this way often recruit members based on their

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technical skills. Group needs often are defined in terms of technical skills,which are considered more important than interpersonal styles.

The Military Strategy

The military-style approach to change is based on the use of physical force.The name military has been given to this approach because it conveys theappropriate connotation to most people, not because the military is the sole userof this approach. Police Departments, “revolutionary” student groups, and someteachers, for example, employ the military strategy.

The basic assumption behind this approach is, “People react to genuine threats.With enough physical force, people can be made to do anything.” Therefore,considerable time is spent in learning to use weapons and to fight. Physicalconditioning, strength, and agility are valued.

Membership in military-strategy groups often is determined by one‘s physicalpower and by one‘s willingness to submit to discipline. Both within the groupand in its dealings with the external environment, influence is exerted primarilythrough the fear of authority and through the threat of punishment. Membersof military-style groups need control, status, and security. They often tend toview most problems and relationships in terms of power, authority, threat andexploitation.

The Confrontational Strategy

The confrontational approach to change is based on the assumption that if onecan mobilise enough anger in enough people and force them to look at aproblem, the required changes will follow. Although conflict is stressed, thisstrategy emphasises nonviolent conflict rather than physical force.

Membership in such a group is based on one’s ability to deal with and to useconflict in ways that benefit the group.

The Applied Behavioural Science Model

Most problems are extremely complex; a cut-and-dried approach to problemsolving is not always the most effective or thorough. This is the basicassumption of the applied behavioural science (ABS) model.

Groups that use the ABS model tend to believe that as many people who willbe affected by the decision as possible should be included in the decision-making process. Within the group, one’s level of influence is based on one’sown knowledge and the degree to which one will be affected by the decision.Ideally, the person with the most knowledge about the problem and/or theperson most affected by the decision should have the most influence.

The ABS model considers any information or theory that will shed light on thesituation and help the group to reach a decision to be valuable. Groupmembers’ emotional needs are regarded as existing primarily for emotional andintellectual integration.

14.4 PROCESS OF CHANGE

Change is process of moving from the current state to the desired state (vision)of future. Making a change involves, moving the organizations people andculture in line with the strategies, structure, processes and systems to achievedesired state (vision).

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Existing Change (Transition) VisionSituation Desired

Situation

The existing situation is the status, which is prevailing at the moment, what theorganizations looks like now. The desired situation is the status which onedesires to prevail; it is also called vision. A vision helps in clarifying—

� What do we want to become?

� How much needs to change?

� What the Organization should look like when the change is completed?

The transition state may be defined by ascertaining the activities and processesnecessary to transform the organizations from its current state to the desiredstate — a road map — for specifying the activities, crucial interventions andevents during the transition period. For making an organization move from theexisting state to desired state some ‘force’ is to be applied.

Some forces applied by the individual(s) undergoing the change oppose theforce applied for moving to the desired state — this is called resistance. Thisalso supports Newton’s third law of motion- “Every action / force creates anopposition (resistance)”.

Successful change—the three stage model

According to Lewin’s three step model, successful change in organizationsshould follow three steps :

Unfreezing Intervening Refreezing(moving)

i) Unfreezing

Newton’s first law of motion states “Every object remains in state of rest oruniform motion in a straight line unless and until an external force is applied toit.” In the organizations also similar situations exist. When a product, serviceor profit is at a deteriorating stage but with the rapid changes there maintaininga ‘steady state’ is not possible as the situations are bringing many types offorces, usually inhibiting forces which block the pace. For example, for astagnant product, every product will remain stagnant and non-competitiveleading to decay vertically down unless and until an external, innovative andrelevant technology is proposed to cause its growth vertically upwards.

Thus for making any change some thing has to be done in a planned way todisturb the status quo: this is called de freezing (unfreezing). This stage aimsat disturbing the existing equilibrium and creates motivation to change usingmechanisms like — (a) lack of confirmation or disconfirmation (b) sharing one’sconcerns and perceptions openly, looking in to feelings, removal of barriers ofcommunications, induction of guilt and anxiety and creations of threats byreduction of psychological safety, presentation of alternative scenarios etc.

In case of any change, the effort is going to face individual resistance andgroup conformity. These change efforts for overcoming the pressures of bothindividual resistance and group conformity.

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Two types of forces emerge and at the status quo, both are in balance

a) Forces prompting the change — forces that direct the behaviour awayfrom the status quo — “Driving forces”

b) Forces hindering the movement away from the status quo — Restrainingforces.

Restraining forces

Driving forces

FORCE FIELD

Figure 1 : Forus and Change

For affecting the change :

� The Driving forces should be identified, assessed and intensified / added.

� The Restraining forces should be identified, assessed and weakened /removed.

� Both strategies are followed simultaneously.

The technique described is called ‘Force field analysis’. The method includesthe following steps:

1) Identify the problem, which you want to work and describe it.

2) Define the problem clearly indicating the present situation.

3) Define the situation desired after the problem is solved.

4) Identify the forces working for the change i.e. driving force by way ofindividual listing, brainstorming or any other means.

5) Identify and list forces likely to work against the desired change(restraining forces). These forces can be related to human resource,time, money, technology, customer requirements or any other internal,external factors.

6) From the list of driving forces and restraining forces, prioritise the forcesand identify 3-4 most significant forces under each of the both categories.

7) Make a force field diagram showing both types of forces afterprioritization. The arrows should be proportional to their priority / strength.

8) Discuss and list possible action steps for reducing or eliminating theeffect of the restraining forces and add or increase the effect of thedriving forces.

9) Determine the most effective steps under both the categories of forcesand outside which once to implement.

10) Examine the resources available for carrying out each action steps.

11) Develop a comprehensive action plan, sequence of activities and assignresponsibilities for implementation.

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12) Implement the plan.

13) Evaluate.

ii) Moving / Intervening

The steps to be taken for making the desired change should be plannedconsidering all aspects — Tasks, Technology, Structure and Human Resource.Since any organization is composed of these four inter-related and inter-dependent components, the impact of the changes should be anticipated andexamined. Since the organizational environment is a resultant of three or fourcomponents — and any organization exist in environment analysis of internaland external environment is essential.

This step aims at developing new responses by providing new information.Cognitive redefinition is a mechanism, which is achieved by identification(information) through a single source and scanning (information through multiplesources).

Refreezing

The change interventions start making the desired status in due course. Theseare to be stabilised. Refreezing stabilises a change intervention by balancing theforces which have created the desired (driving forces) and those, which areinhibiting the changes to occur (restraining forces).

Here also, Newton’s Second Law is quite helpful in understanding — “The rateof change of momentum is proportional to force applied and change takes placein the direction in which the force acts”. Hence, for rapid and deep change,forces applied should be strong, direction should be clear and force applied inthe right direction.

This stage helps stabilising and integrating the changes. This is gained byintegrating new responses into persons and into significant ongoing relationshipsthrough reconfirmation.

14.5 CHANGE MODELS

1) C.D.S. Model

This is a very simple 3 stage model developed using the work of Bechhard andHorns (1987). The three stages are:

i) Assessment of current state (scenario)

ii) Developing the desired State (scenario)

iii) Formulating the strategy / plan to move the organization (or system) fromcurrent state to the desired state.

Assessment of Current State

At this stage, efforts are made to explore, analyse and identify the problemsand unused opportunities, understanding the causes visualizing the effects. Forthis, a climate is to be created where people share their views, opinionsexperiences openly and the management is willing to admit the gaps, slippages,wastages and other problems.

Normally, a long list is generated and it is essential to prioritize and identify‘points of leverages’ — problems, which have high priority.

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Developing the Desired State (Preferred Scenario)

At this stage, efforts are made to determine how the organization ororganizational unit, project or the programme would look like after making thechanges. For preparing the scenario, alternative possibilities or preferredscenario are developed by using techniques like brainstorming, fantasy or avariety of structured exercises. Efforts are made to stimulate both right braintype thinking and left-brain type of thinking so that both conventional and non-conventional ideas are captured.

A few indicators or criteria are also developed to indicate the achievement ofdesired state. These criteria would help in future to determine to what extentthe desired scenario has been arrived at.

Evaluate each of the scenarios by using different evaluation methods and select themost visible one. At this stage, left-brain type of thinking will be quite useful.

Anticipate the difficulties likely to be experienced while making action steps toreach the desired scenario. Examine if appropriate steps can be taken andresources will be adequately available. Otherwise, examine the feasibility ofimplementation of the next preference.

Re-work on the selected preferred scenario to make it more explicit and inspiring.

Getting the commitment for the change initiatives and resources, the commitmentof the key persons in the organization and outside should be assured.

Formulating the strategy action plan to move the organization from the currentstate to the desired state

These states deal with how the movement from the existing to the desiredstate would be accomplished. Thus, this stage would indicate how the resultswould be accomplished. For this, a wide range of strategies to reach the newstage or preferred scenario would be identified. Using the right brain typethinking, the alternative strategies are identified, then evaluation of each of thealternative strategies would be made and that appropriate strategy would beselected which would help in achieving the desired outcome. These strategieswould next be translated in the form of workable plans.

2. ADPI Model

This Model is based on the work of NR Jones. It consists of the followingstages.

Figure 2 : ADPI Model

Organizational

analysis

Implementation

Planning the Change

Designing ChangeIntervention

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Organizational Analysis

This phase aims at developing an understanding about the organization, itsculture and readiness for change. Efforts are made to understand the tasks,structure, strategies, systems, procedures and management practices, morale,motivation and internal and external environment. Different researchtechniques, interviews, brainstorming and workshops are used.

Designing Change Intervention

At this stage, vision or the desired state of the organization is prepared. Activeinvolvement of Top management and a wide agreement on the interventions areessential.

The key resource persons and other team members must be identified andsome team building initiatives are taken to ensure shared vision and commitmentto change. Role of each member should be clarified.

A number of workshops, training sessions, meeting and presentations are usuallyheld at this stage.

Planning for the Change

The objective of this stage is to plan for effecting the desired changes forachieving the vision. An action plan is prepared indicating the activities,responsibilities, time frame, counting huge measures and required resources.

Implementation

This is the most crucial stage. The action plan has to be implemented. Theinvolved persons are to be educated and convinced about the gains. Extensivecommunication is required and high orders of leadership skills especiallypersuading skills are required. A number of presentations, meetings, workshopsare to be held. The success depends on the internal resource persons orfacilitates who would work in tandem with the change agent / consultant. It isdifficult to get successful implementation without Project Management skills.

3) Action Research

A change process based on systematic collection and analysis of data is calledaction research. In this approach, data is collected to diagnose the problem andaction steps are identified on the basis of the analysis of the data. It is a five-step process. These steps have been enumerated as follows.

Diagnosis

Under the guidance of a change agent / consultant, data is gathered about theproblems, perceptions, concerns and the expected changes from the employeesof the organization. Questions, interviews, secondary records and a variety oftechniques are used for collection of data.

Analysis

At this stage, analysis of the data collected in the previous step is carried outto identify the problems, patterns of behaviours etc. The change agent orconsultant draws inferences and identify the primary concerns, problem areasand expectations.

Feedback

Action research is a collaborative process and therefore emphasises deepinvolvement of the employees likely to be involved. Therefore, the highlights ofthe analysis in terms of concerns and problem areas are shared with theemployees specially those cross sections from where data had been collected.

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With the help of representatives of employees, action plan for bringing aboutneeded change in the specific areas is carried out.

Action

Actions planned in the action plan mentioned above are set to motion in linewith an explicitly prepared implementation plan.

Evaluation

At the planned intervals, an evaluation is carried out to know to what extentimplementation has taken place and desired changes have been arrived at.Necessary steps may be taken for collection, modification or further work.

4) OD models

As discussed in Unit 13, OD efforts are comprehensive change effortscomprising a variety of focus. The model mentioned in Unit 13 with examplesof different OD interventions may be referred.

14.6 PHASES OF PLANNED CHANGE

For getting the enduring results, change cannot be left to choice; rather plannedefforts will have to be made. Consolidating various models, a general approachof making planned change may be evolved —

– Creating awareness and disturbance.

– Feeling the need of change

– Exploring the readiness

– Diagnosis

– Designing and planning interventions

– Intervening — managing the transition

– Evaluation and

– Follow-up

Creating and Communicating Awareness

It is a well-known fact to many that frogs are amphibious creatures havingtremendous adaptability. They have survived all ages because of this — theycan survive in all climates, in all situations, all temperatures. Some experimentscarried on frogs in laboratories are highly shocking.

In a few shallow pans, frogs were kept in water at normal temperature. Thepans were kept on Bunsen burners which were heating the water in pans veryslowly. Even if the water became very hot the frogs did not jump out of thepans — quite surprising. The water started boiling — the frogs got boiled!

Pans with room temperature water once again put on the bunsen burners.When the water became quite hot (but not boiling) around 60 - 70 Degree Ctemperatures frogs were dropped in the pans. Within flash of moment frogsjumped out and save themselves.

Many of us are like the frogs — we develop tolerance and adaptability andignore the “temperature” and end up boiling. ‘Awareness’ therefore is the firststage. A process of enhancing the awareness of self by considering the aims,goals, vision, mission and the state of their achievement, future environmentalscenarios, extrapolations and forecast is useful for enhancing awareness.Bench marking and competitor intelligence are two other triggers of enhancingawareness.

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The awareness creates anxiety to create future scenarios, — likely gains andproblems — and therefore generates energy in those who become aware. Forexample, in BHEL in 1983, the HR Manager was trying to project the role ofPersonnel function in achieving the Corporate objectives (1985-90) and couldrealise that if the manpower strength and turnover/sales keeps on increasing atthe previous rate, then in 1990 the company will be in red only because ofManpower strength. He got alarmed and made a series of presentations indifferent fora. After initial reaction, the top Management also became awareand alarmed of the impeding situation. This created planned efforts ofManpower Planning in the leadership of the HR Manager. After 2 years, theManpower strength started decreasing — today the strength is 43,000 againstthe strength of 78,000 in 1983-84. The turnover during the period hasincreased from Rs. 800 crores to 8000 crores.

A variety of strategies, such as presentation, publications in Newsletters,workshops, Quiz, sessions and presentations in Management Developmentprogrammes may be used for enhancing awareness.

This awareness creates an imbalance and disturbs the status quo. Peoplebecome uncomfortable and respond in different ways. Usually energy levelincreases for denial and opposition of the issues.

Feeling the Need

Once the awareness spreads and increases, the involved people start feeling theneed of the change of elimination of the unhealthy situations. They startthinking about ways and means to avoid this undesired situation.

People start thinking about the consequences if no change is made.

When the actual / projected results are not in line with expectations, needs areintensely felt.

Any person at any level can feel the need, but sharing will help enhance theclarity.

Exploring Readiness for Change

In spite of the strongly felt need, it is essential to explore the readiness of theorganization to change. A process facilitator may call a meeting / workshop ofsenior people and on the basis of observations on the interaction, he can get anidea of the readiness to change. When too much fascination for the status quois sensed, fear and apprehensions are strongly expressed, case of failure arecited more than success stories, resource scarcity is repeatedly presented —resistance to change efforts is likely to be high. OD should not be initiated ina hurry.

Some consultants conduct a few workshops for assessing the readiness.Instruments / questionnaires are also used by some consultant. An approachdeveloped by J William Pfeiffer and John E Jones may be suggested. Thisapproach is based on 15 indicators, which they have developed in the form of acheck list (instrument). The indicators are being enumerated below under threebroad classes.

General Considerations

� Size of the organization

� Growth rate

� Crisis (situation)

� Macro economics

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� OD history

� Culture

Resources

� Time commitment

� Money

� Access to people

� Labour Contract limitations

� Structural flexibility

People Variables

� Interpersonal skills

� Management development

� Flexibility at the top

� Internal change agents

This instrument / check list can be served to a number of people in theorganization, including the top management and the findings should bediscussed. This will not only give an idea about the readiness, but also raisethe awareness towards some of the crucial pre-requisites. For details ‘ODreadiness’ by J.W. Pfeifer and John E Jones’ in ‘The 1978 Annual Handbookfor Group Facilitators may be referred.

A few questions may be considered for examining various aspects —

� Commitment / support of the Top Management for desired changes.

� Sense of urgency advisable in the top management.

� The perceived Power of Top management.

� Clarity of vision in Top management.

� Shared vision — to what extent the vision is shared by stakeholders.

� Congruence of targeted change efforts with ongoing change efforts in theorganization.

� Decision making style and quickness.

� Hierarchy in organization — flat and flexible more conducive to change.

� Super ordination — Willingness of Line Managers to sacrifice their personalinterest for the good of organization.

� Customer focus of the organization.

� Monitoring of competitors by the management.

� Risk taking — the extent to which managers / employees are rewarded fortaking risk.

� Innovativeness — the extent to which innovativeness is encouraged.

� Communication channel — both directions.

� History / experience of past change efforts.

� Trust level between employees and management

� Availability of Resource persons (change facilitators — internal / external)

� Cooperation / Collaborative attitude.

Sharing the benefits of change enhances readiness of change.

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Diagnosis

This has been discussed in Unit 13.

Planning Interventions

This is also discussed in Unit 13.

One should be able to agree on defining

� What are the specific goals of change?

� Who are the involved people (stake holders)?

� What are the restraining and driving forces?

� What contingency measures to be considered for emergency situations?

� What interventions will be made?

� How the success will be measured? etc.

Intervening — Managing the Transition

Preparing the Team

For carrying out the interventions, a team of internal resource persons isprepared. Ideally, this is a multi-disciplinary team which would make theinterventions and help in its successful implementation. The internal resourcepersons should be skilled in Human Process facilitation and should haveundergone intensive training programmes.

Conducting the Activities

Whatever interventions have been planned, are to be implemented. In manyareas, employees would pose resistance which is to be overcome. If theapproach appears to be inadequate or inappropriate amendments are to bemade. The experiences are to be documented highlighting both process andcontent aspects. Regular interaction with the committee / task force membersand Consultants is very essential.

Mid Course Evaluation

After interventions have been made, periodic evaluation is required forascertaining whether the interventions are bringing desired results. If yes, thenfurther follow up is required. If not, it must first be examined whetherinterventions have been made as per the plan. If interventions have been madeas per the plan but are not giving the desired results, the causes must beexamined and if needed, alternative interventions should be designed andintroduced.

Before making the interventions, the management / facilitators should be clearabout.

a) What is the change going to be made?

b) What are the reasons for benefits of the organization?

c) How will change affect the individuals – who experience it?

d) What supports and tools are needed to manage transition?

While making interventions the involved persons force different types ofproblems.

The processes at the transition stage are quite important. Whenever managerssuspect that the change is likely to come — their initial reaction is that of“shock”. Their performance starts receding and they give different negativecomments. This shock starts spreading. In a multi unit public sector undertaking,

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when the Top Management decided to introduce a KRA based PerformanceManagement System, there was an initial reaction of shock. It affected theirsense of well-being and perform adversely.

Soon after, a strong tendency to deny that there is anything wrong in theprevailing system emerged and managers tried to show an enhancedcompetence (ability) to protect the existing status. They started showing thatthe present system was quite good. Very soon, there was a realisation that theaverage is imminent and they have to bear the pangs of change. Thisrealisation was spread and managed positively for enhancing the readiness ofchange by introducing planned efforts by introducing mechanisms for awarenessgeneration, training, involvement of users, interest and support of senior and toplevel managers. All these created strong emotions — at one side fear ofunknown — on the other side benefits of the new system, pressure on roles,future possibilities, benefits, losses, implications etc. The pressure for unlearningthe existing ways and learning the new ways created different types of fearsand anxieties.

The ensuring uncertainty created frustration in many leading to sliding downsense of well-being and performance level. The intensified training sessions,realization of possible losses and benefits, envisioning of future gradually ledexecutives toward acceptance of the system. The sense of confidence, wellbeing and performances started climbing upward. The desire and effort ofexperimentation started getting reinforced. They accepted the challenges andstarted efforts for adopting the new system. There were slippages andmistakes — which got rectified. Communication enhanced and people startedsharing their experiences — feelings, hopes, successes, failures. The leadershiphelped people to get a better understanding.

The evaluation of the emerging situation, feedback amendments and enhancedcommunication, helped integration of the efforts and the system gotimplemented.

Evaluation / Follow up

The results of the change initiatives should be measured periodically — the gapbetween the planned and desired. For this, a befitting feedback mechanism isto be set up — to gather information by survey, focus groups, interviews etc.Usually, it has been found that even if encouraging results are obtained in thebeginning, with the passage of time, it starts deteriorating. Managers interveneby way of providing support, appreciation and training etc. Special meetings,celebrations, support groups and certain types of reinforcements are needed forsustaining and enhancing the results.

14.7 RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

According to Newton‘s third Law of Motion “to every action there is an equaland opposite reaction.” Resistance to change, is therefore, bound to be there.Real change will be effective only when -

Driving forces > Restraining forces

Resistance is ability to avoid what one does not want from the environment.Resistance to change is a behaviour designed to discredit, delay or prevent theimplementation of a change.

Resistance is of two types — Individual resistance and Organizationalresistance. Resistance is not always harmful.

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An individual poses resistance to all those efforts, which are against his/her‘Self Concept’— a response to protect one habits, beliefs, values. Resistanceprevents from getting hurt, guards one’s effectiveness, heightens one’sawareness to oneself and keeps one from becoming distracted. It providesstability and predictability of one‘s behaviour. If there is no resistance, there willbe a ‘chaotic randomness’ in organizations. Resistance stimulates discussionsand re-examination.

In organizations resistance helps in differentiating talents, providing newinformation, producing energy and making the work environment safe (HBKarp). Resistance, thus, gives both benefits as well as problems.

Individual Resistance

Resistance in different situations has varying intensity. The idea itself generatesthe first level of intensity — it is the initial or the first response when a personcomes to know about the proposed change. This is primarily because of thenatural liking for the ‘status-quo’. This is also due to lack of awareness aboutthe desired change — its importance, impact, costs and benefits, their ownconcept and view of the changes. Some times even if the change is derived,there is a dislike for the timing, the change agent, the cost factor or the extraefforts required.

There are some issues, which are not observed or experienced initially. Theseare the deeper issues. The issues may not be found to cause resistance initially,but it is experienced and becomes visible while discussing or working on theissues. These appear in different ways:

� Mistrust

� Punishments

� Rewards

� Need for respect, reward, recognition

� Fear of loss (monetary or status)

� Lack of resilience.

The level 3 issues are deeply imbedded — entrenched. This is caused byconflicting values, visions, life goals, historical animosity etc. This may be as aresult of the combination of some factors described at previous two levels.

Resistance to change does not always becomes explicit or observable. Mostlythese are hidden and come out indirectly, therefore, it is not easy to observeand anticipate.

Some causes of individual resistance:

- Increased work load — loss of comfort

- Loss of security (the unknown)

- Loss of belongingness (with new people)

- Failure (loss of esteem)

- Loss of interest (boredom)

- Change in habits (loosing ease and spontaneity)

- Loss of income (economic facts)

- Loss of change in perceptions — inner disturbance and lack of communication.

The resistance of change is of different types:Logical, Attitudinal and Sociological.

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Logical resistance is based on rational gaps or disagreements with facts,reasoning and conceptual differences. Attitudinal resistance is due to emotionalor psychological reasons like fears, lack of trust etc. Sociological resistance isdue to group / social aspects like politics, vested interests, sharing of benefits ofa particular group, presentation of group‘s identity, value report etc.

To summarise, individuals resistance to change is due to one or more of thefollowing reasons as enumerated by R. Likert and others:

� Selective Perception

Employees perceive same events / things differently — as such the changeobjective and outcomes are not perceived exactly in the same way. Alsopersons are more interested in seeing how they would be affected personally,rather than seeing the big picture.

� Fear of Unknown

People prefer familiar actions and events; change brings in new patterns, whichdisturb the habits.

� Lack of Information

Lack of knowledge or information about what is expected or why the changeis important or how change will effect and whom results in resistance.

� Hostility towards Change Initiator

The image / relationships with the change initiatives causes some resistance.

Organizational Resistance

Organizations, by nature, are conservative and resist change. A few sources oforganizational resistance have been enumerated below :

InertiaThreats to Power

Group norms

Resource Threat to Limitedallocation expertise focus

Figure 3 : Organisational Resistance

Inertia

Due to the Task, Structure, Strategy, Technology, Systems, Procedures andfamiliar people, organizations get frozen or are in a steady state. The idea ofbringing in charge creates the feeling of disturbance in the equilibriam. Henceresistance.

Limited Focus

All organizational systems are inter-related, therefore change in one causesstress and strain on others. Therefore, if a change is carried out in one system/sub-system, there is a natural tendency in the other components to resist theensuing changes — as these do not want to get disturbed.

OrganizationalResistance to

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Group Norms

By way of the past interactions working, a group norm settles in. Changequestions these norms and seeks establishment of other norms — henceresistance.

Threat to Expertise

People have acquired a degree of expertise and specialisations which makethem comfortable and self esteem is high — due to change in organizations —there is a danger of getting some of the expertise obsolete and acquisitions ofnew expertise /specializations. This needs a lot of personal / group effort — assuch resistance.

Threat to Power

Change may bring in new structure, new technology, new systems, procedures,new delegation of powers, new relationships that may cause a threat to someof the sources of power, hence resistance

Resource Pressure

All the above-mentioned changes may create pressure on various types ofresources including manpower resources. This perception causes resistance.

Many Scholars and Professionals have conducted research for understandingcauses of resisitance in organizations. Some of the important causes ofresistance to changes have been enumerated as following :

� The proposed change has not been described through documents, writtendown description not available.

� Lack of clarity on the purpose of the change.

� Lack of involvement of the people affected by the change.

� Change efforts initiated on the basis of a personal appeal.

� Group norms and organizational culture have not been considered.

� Lack of information to employees about the change

� Sharp increase in workload during implementation.

� Non-additional and resolution of the worries and concerns and fears of theaffected persons.

� Non-clarification / resolution of the issues and anxieties relating to jobsecurity, transfers redeployment etc.

14.8 OVERCOMING RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

As mentioned earlier, resistance is a positive force and provides opportunitiesfor having a thorough understanding of contextual factors as well as issuedirecting and emerging out of the interventions.

Some managers use strategies to break the resistance using coercion oremotional appeals — which prove to be dysfunctional. Some managers try toavoid or bypass the resistance by ignoring the opposition views, opinions andfeeble signals. They don‘t confront the issues or do some thing to deflect theresistance by some gimmicks and tactics — ultimately fail to deliver results andcreate a number of dysfunctional processes in the organization. Otherdysfunctional strategies used by managers for overcoming resistance are — theefforts of minimising the resistance by calling on traditions, attributing the causeof change to group or Top Management and hiding the emerging issueshighlighting some thing of the past or future.

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Overcoming resistance to change calls for a positive approach towardsresistance. One may try to agree to the assumption — Resistance is a positiveforce and needs to be honored rather than suppressed, avoided or minimised.’Another assumption is ‘encourage the free expression of resistance and capturethe key ideas’. The positive approach suggests that the Resistance should beencouraged to be brought to surface, it should be honored rather than showingreaction or defensiveness. The issues (resistance) should be explored andemotional and tangible issues should be separated. Then the issues andunderstandings should be reviewed and real issues identified and clarified. Thecause and effect diagram will be useful.

14.9 SOME PRINCIPLES OF CHANGE

Change has been one of the most interesting and intensive issues before socialand behavioural scientists. On the basis of their research and experience anumber of principles / rules have been formulated. Some of these collectedthrough various sources are:

� Organization is a system comprising many inter-related / inter - dependentcomponents. Change in one component affects others.

� Accepting ownership in the change process best facilitates change.

� Any change upsets the equilibrium of the organizational system — hence itwill be resisted. Change interventions should be made in a planned way,otherwise the system would return back to its past patterns

� People really don’t resist change; they resist the pain or threat, which theyanticipate for themselves or others out of it.

� An enlightened self-interest of stakeholders helps in changing.

� There is a high significance of ‘timing’ in change — time should be ripewhile making changes.

� An accurate and comprehensive design diagnosis is essential for designingappropriate interventions.

� Through Power, one gets what one wants to get, by posing resistance onetries to avoid what he does not want to get or do.

� Change agents are required for affecting changes. They must know how toanalyze and manage the restraining and driving forces.

� High adaptability helps change agents and change plans.

� High self-awareness is required in change agents, which helps the planningfor change.

� Honoring it, rather than suppressing, avoiding or minimising it best managesresistance.

� The people affected by change should actively participate in making thechange.

� A person can work best with other‘s resistance by first understanding andaccepting his own resistance.

� The acceptance of organizational change will increase if the peopleaffected are invited to contribute to the change process, communicatedhonestly about all facets of change, given concrete feedback about thechange and recognized appropriately for their specific contributions.

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14.10 REDUCING RESISTANCE TO CHANGE : FEW SUGGESTIONS

To reduce resistance to change in the key steps, few suggestions are discussedbelow:

i) Initiation of Change

� Resistance will be low if the persons involved perceive the change projectas their own, rather than imposed on them by others.

� Resistance will be low if the whole hearted support from Top Managementis available.

ii) Type of Change

� Resistance will be low if the involved persons are convinced that thedifficulties experienced in their job would come down after implementation.

� Resistance will reduce if the change is likely to bring interesting andsatisfying experience, to the concerned individuals.

� Resistance will be less if the change is congruent and supports the valuesand ideals of the concerned individual.

� The perception that the power autonomy, and security will not be adverselyaffected.

iii) Process of Change

� If the persons likely to be affected have taken part in diagnosis, and haveagreement on the basic change problems and felt its importance —resistance will be less.

� Resistance will become low if the change makers (or sponsors) (i) see theopponent‘s view points empathize with them and (ii) take steps to removetheir perceived fears.

� Resistance will be reduced if feedback is taken from the affected personsand they are apprised of the steps to be taken.

� If there is enough change flexibility and project is kept open to revision andamendment on the basis of evaluation and feedback.

14.11 COMMONLY USED INTERVENTIONS FOR MANAGING CHANGE

It is very difficult to enumerate and explain all interventions for managingchange effectively. However, a few important techniques commonly used areenumerated below :

Communication

Authentic and complete communication on the objective, coverage, timing, costs,individual and organizational implications and change methods and theconsequences of not going for change and post change benefits is mostessential for managing change.

At the Corporate office of a large organization, as prelude to making change, itwas diagnosed that the executives numbering 15 were not communicating witheach other. The communication climate was hostile and top management wasperceived as autocratic. Enhancing Communication climate emerged as one ofthe major concerns. As one intervention, the executives were asked to sit

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together for 15 minutes in the conference hall around the round table. Initiallyexecutives resented it but gradually they started sharing some of the operationalproblems they were facing and others started responding by giving theircomments and solutions. They started opening up and sharing their feelings,concerns, agreements and disagreements etc. Within a few weeks, this meetingbecame the most liked forum of communication and sharing. Often they had toextend the timing. This forum became the initiating and facilitating platform forthe major changes the function made for next few years.

There is no standard plan for communication, but pre intervention diagnosisshould attempt to understand the communication climate, styles and barriers.Creation of a supportive communication climate is highly useful in makingchange interventions.

Education and Training

All involved persons may not have the desired environmental, organizational,functional, technical, financial, strategic, behavioural knowledge and skills.Education and training is very essential at all stages.

In the pursuit of designing and commissioning a comprehensive PerformanceManagement system in a large PSU, almost two years were spent in educatingand training the senior management personnel and users to make themunderstand the concept, realize the need, express their satisfaction anddissatisfaction from the existing system, define their expectations from theproposed system. Even the design of the proposed system was prepared intraining and developments programmes using Behavioural Science basedinterventions. After the programme was approved for implementation, a seriesof training programmes were conducted for the users. Background support wasprovided through internet and publication of literature. Over 200 PerformanceManagement Systems trained separately or ensuring smooth implementationcould multiply the efforts. Even an interactive website was installed forresolving the doubts on line. All this helped in covering a large section ofwidely prevalent executives in a short time and fear of change could be almosteliminated.

Participation and Involvement

The persons likely to be affected need to be involved right since the initialstage. Their active involvement in all stages of the processes not only willprovide valuable ideas at every stage; rather it will inculcate a sense ofownership.

In installing an incentive scheme in a medium size Engineering company, theline managers and worker representatives were involved right since beginningi.e. from the stage of feeling the need, identifying the benefits and problems,collecting and analysis of data and designing the system and developing theearning table.

Facilitation and Support

The change initiatives are to be facilitated by skilled Facilitators (changeagents). This helps in surfacing the issues, proposal — resolution of conflict,team building and development of a conducive change climate.

Facilitation is a process in which a person, acceptable to all members of thegroup, substantially neutral and having no decision making authority intervenesto help a group improve the way it defines and solves problems and makesdecisions in order to enhance the effectiveness of the group.

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To intervene, according to Chris Argrysis, means to enter in to an ongoingsystem for the purpose of helping those in the system.

The main task of a Facilitator is to help the group increase its effectiveness byimproving its processes.

A process refers to how a group works together and includes how memberstalk to each other, how they identify and solve problems, how they makedecisions and how they handle conflicts etc.

Normally in a group, without a Facilitator, members focus on contents andignore the processes. Content refers to what a group is working on, what is thesubject matter, task, methods, procedures, cost, time, controls etc.

Facilitation is of two broad types- basic facilitation and developmental facilitation.

In basic facilitation, it is expected that the Facilitator would guide the groupusing the principles of effective group processes -observing both contents andprocesses.

In developmental facilitation, group members expect the Facilitator to monitorand guide the group‘s processes and teach them how to accomplish this goal.

Negotiation

In dealing the resistance, negotiation is quite useful as the change agent has toexchange something of value for reducing the resistance. This also is usefulwhen resistance comes from a powerful person. Three basic types ofNegotiating Styles have been described — Tough battler, the SupportiveFacilitator and Cognitive Reasoner. A negotiator should understand these 3styles and should be well versed in using all the three styles as each style iseffective in a particular situation. There are a few other models alsodescribing different styles of negotiation. Although Collaboration is the mostdesirable strategy, other strategies - avoidance, accommodation, Competitionforcing and compromise also have their limitations and benefits.

Co-opting

Assigning a key individual member a desirable role is quite effective inmanaging change. The co-opted person becomes a Key Resource Person incharge of project and by way of his power base, is able to influence others.His involvement and contribution helps the change process.

Two other interventions mentioned below are not positive interventions,however, in critical situation, these interventions are also useful.

Manipulation

It is a covert influencing tactics which uses twisting and distortion of facts tomake them appear more attractive and potent. This also includes hiding orwithholding undesirable information, and creating rumours. Cooptation alsosometimes is used as manipulative tactics.

Coercion —Implicit and Explicit

This involves application of direct threats or force on those who are resisting orare likely to resist. In situation of crisis it is often successful, otherwise not soeffective.

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14.12 SUMMARY

In this rapidly changing world change is the only constant. In this unit we havetried to define change, understand the concept of change and types of change.Drivers for change and alternative strategies of change has also beendiscussed. Different models of change are described followed by the conceptof resistance to change and how to overcome resistance to change.

14.13 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) Consider your present job and indicate which benefits emerging out of aneffective change management is most important to you ?

a) Career advancement

b) Improved prospects

c) Job Security

d) Increased job satisfaction

e) Respect and recognition

2) a) Which of the changes at your work place you experienced in therecent past —

— new boss — new system / procedures

— new work group — new products / services

— new position (responsibility) — new customer

— new equipment — new location

— new suppliers

b) Which change was most difficult for you ?

c) What were your thoughts and feelings before the change? Did youhave any fears ? What were those ?

d) How did you cope with the change ?

e) What would have helped you to cope with the changes better?

3) Complete the following sentence by writing as many adjectives / phrases asyou can think of

Change is ---------------------------------------

e.g. painful, agonising --------------------------

4) Complete the following sentence by writing as many adjectives / phrases asyou can think of

Change is -------------------------------

e.g. refreshing, energetic, profitable ---------------

5) Think of a change which would be beneficial to your company /organization and respond to the following four questions --------

a) What is the change you have thought of ?

b) What are the reasons / benefits of the change ?

c) How would the change affect the involved persons ?

d) What support and tools should be provided to the involved persons formanaging the transition ?

6) A large scale company is to introduce a new Performance ManagementSystem. Presently, the company practices an annual confidential report typeof appraisal system, which is done by the superiors annually.

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14.14 FURTHER READINGS

Fergusan, M. The Acquarian conspiracy: Personal and SocialTransformation in the 1980s. (Ed. J.P. Tarcher) LosAngels (1980).

Olmosk, K.E, Seven. Pure Strategies of Change in The 1972 AnnualHandbook of Group Facilitators (Ed. Pfeiffer & Jones), Pfeiffer &Company San Diego(1972).

Kurt Lewin, Field theory in Social Science, Harper and Row, New York(1951).

Beckhard, R. Harris, R.T Organizational transitions: Managing ComplexChanges, Addison Wesley (1987).

Jones, Neil Russel, The Managing Change, Research Press, New Delhi(1997).

Eager G., Change Agent Skills: Assessing and Designing Excellence,University Associates California (1988).

Fohman, Mark.A. et al. Action-research as applied to Development, inOrganization Development and Research (Ed. Wendell L French et al)Business Publications Inc., Dallas (1978).

The 1978 Annual Handbook of Group Facilitators, Pfeiffer and CompanySan Diego (1978).

Lilkert, R. New Patterns of Management, McGraw Hill, New York (1961).

Likent, R, The Human Organization, McGraw Hill, New York (1967).

Retaining Professional Nurses: A planned process Vogt. et al. The C.VMosby, St. Louis (1983).

Ross, Kubler, Elizabeth., Transition Curve in Creating Culture Change :Successful Total Quality Management. Atkinson, E., Philip, ProductivityPress (India) Pvt. Ltd., Aladran (1990).

Chris Argyris, Management and Organization Development: The Path formXA to YB, McGraw Hill, New York (1971).

Chris, Argyris, Intervention theory and method: A Behavioural Science View.Reading, Mass: Addison Wesley (1970).

K. Thomas, Conflict and Negotiation process in Organizations inHandbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology (Ed. M.DDunnette and L. M Hough), Consulting Psychologists Press Alto CA(1992).

Karp, H.B., The Change Leader, Pfeiffer & Company, San Diego (1996).

Lewin, Kurt. Field theory in Social Science, Harper & Row, New York(1951).

Beckhard, R. Harris, R.T Organization transitions: Managing ComplexChanges, Addison Wesley (1987).

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