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How Chocolate is made?Growing CocoaOrigins of Cocoa and Its Spread around the World:

The genus Theobroma originated millions of years ago in South America, to the east of the Andes. Theobroma has been divided into twenty-two species of which Theobroma cacao is the most widely known. It is the Maya who have provided tangible evidence of cacao as a domesticated crop. Archaeological evidence in Costa Rica indicates that cacao was drunk by Maya traders as early as 400 BC. The Aztec culture, dominant in Mesoamerica from the fourteenth century to the Conquest, placed much emphasis on the sanctity of cacao.

The first outsider to drink chocolate was Christopher Columbus, who reached Nicaragua in 1502 searching for a sea route to the spices of the East. But it was Hernan Cortés, leader of an expedition in 1519 to the Aztec empire, who returned to Spain in 1528 bearing the Aztec recipe for xocoatl (chocolate drink) with him. The drink was initially received unenthusiastically and it was not until sugar was added that it became a popular drink in the Spanish courts.

Caribbean and South America:

There were attempts to satisfy Spanish domestic demand by planting cacao in Spanish territories like the Dominican Republic, Trinidad and Haiti but these initially came to nothing. More successful were the Spanish Capuchin friars who grew criollo cacao in Ecuador in about 1635. The rush by European, mercantile nations to claim land to cultivate cacao began in earnest in the late seventeenth century. France introduced cacao to Martinique and St Lucia (1660), the Dominican Republic (1665), Brazil (1677), Guianas (1684) and Grenada (1714); England had cacao growing in Jamaica by 1670; and, prior to this the Dutch had taken over plantations in Curaçaowhen they seized the island in 1620.

Africa:

Later the explosion in demand brought about by chocolate's affordability required yet more cacao to be cultivated. Amelonado cacao from Brazil was planted in Principe in 1822, Sao Tomé in 1830 and Fernando Po in 1854, then in Nigeria in 1874 and Ghana in 1879. There was already a small plantation in Bonny, eastern Nigeria established by ChiefIboningi in 1847, as well as other plantations run by the Coker family established by the Christian missions. The

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seeds planted in Ghana were brought from Fernando Po by TettehQuarshie or his apprentice Adjah, after previous attempts by the Dutch (1815) and the Swiss (1843) to introduce cocoa in Ghana had failed. In Cameroon, cocoa was introduced during the colonial period of 1925 to 1939.

Geographical IndicationsWhere is Cocoa Produced?

Cocoa is produced in countries within 10°N and 10°S of the Equator where the climate is appropriate for growing cocoa trees. The largest producing countries are Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Indonesia. The main cacao-producing countries are the Ivory Coast and Ghana, although there are numerous smaller markets in South America and Africa.

Climate Conditions:

The natural habitat of the cocoa tree is in the lower storey of the evergreen rainforest and climatic factors, particularly temperature and rainfall, are important in encouraging optimum growth.

Temperature:

Cocoa plants respond well to relatively high temperatures with a maximum annual average of 30-32°C and a minimum average of 18-21°C.

Rainfall:

Variations in the yield of cocoa trees from year to year are affected more by rainfall than by any other climatic factor. Trees are very sensitive to a soil water deficiency. Rainfall should be plentiful and well distributed through the year. An annual rainfall level of between 1,500mm and 2,000mm is generally preferred. Dry spells where rainfall is less than 100mm per month should not exceed three months.

Humidity:

A hot and humid atmosphere is essential for the optimum development of cocoa trees. In cocoa producing countries relative humidity is generally high, often as much as 100% during the day, falling to 70-80% during the night.

Light and shade:

The cocoa tree will make optimum use of any light available and has been traditionally grown under shade. It's natural environment is the Amazonian forest which provides natural shade trees. Shading is indispensable in a cocoa tree's early years.

Soil Conditions:

Cocoa is grown in a wide variety of soil types.

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Physical properties - Cocoa needs a soil containing coarse particles to leave free space for roots and with a reasonable quantity of nutrients to a depth of 1.5m to allow the development of a good root system. Below that level it is desirable not to have impermeable material so that excess water can drain away. Cocoa will withstand waterlogging for short periods but excess water should not linger. The cocoa tree is sensitive to a lack of water so the soil must have both water retention properties and good drainage.

Chemical properties - The chemical properties of the topsoil are most important as there are a large number of roots here for absorbing nutrients. Cocoa can grow in soils with a pH in the range of 5.0-7.5. It can therefore cope with both acid and alkaline soil, but excessive acidity (pH 4.0 and below) or alkalinity (pH 8.0 and above) must be avoided. Cocoa is tolerant of acid soils provided the nutrient content is high enough. The soil should also have a high content of organic matter, 3.5% in the top 15 centimetres of soil. Soils for cocoa must have certain anionic and cationic balances. Exchangeable bases in the soil should amount to at least 35% of the total cation exchange capacity (CEC) otherwise nutritional problems are likely. The optimum total nitrogen/total phosphorus ratio should be around 1:5.

Cocoa tree varieties:

There are three types of cacao trees:

The Forastero, the most common and robust variety with the least remarkable flavor,

The Criollo, the most delicate and rare tree, with a heavily perfumed fruit, and

The Trinitario, a hybrid between the Forastero and the Criollo that displays characteristics of both trees, having an average yield of moderately aromatic beans.

The pods are cut open with machetes to reveal between 20 to 40 beans each, surrounded by a mass of sticky, white pulp. Traditionally, this was done immediately after harvest.

Breeding:

Cocoa is raised from seed. Seeds will germinate and produce good plants when taken from pods not more than 15 days under ripe.

Cuttings - Tree cuttings are taken with between two and five leaves and one or two buds. The leaves are cut in half and the cutting placed in a pot under polythene until roots begin to grow.

Budding - A bud is cut from a tree and placed under a flap of bark on another tree. The budding patch is then bound with raffia, waxed tape of clear plastic to prevent moisture loss. When the bud is growing the old tree above it is cut off.

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Marcotting (Air - Layering) - A strip of bark is removed from a branch and the area covered in sawdust and a polythene sheet. The area will produce roots and the branch can then be chopped off and planted.

Categories of Cocoa Beans:

The world cocoa market distinguishes between two broad categories of cocoa beans: "fine or flavour" cocoa beans, and "bulk" or "ordinary" cocoa beans. As a generalisation, fine or flavour cocoa beans are produced from Criollo or Trinitario cocoa-tree varieties, while bulk cocoa beans come from Forastero trees. There are, however, known exceptions to this generalisation. Nacional trees in Ecuador, considered to be Forastero-type trees, produce fine or flavour cocoa. On the other hand, Cameroon cocoa beans, produced by Trinitario-type trees and whose cocoa powder has a distinct and sought-after red colour, are classified as bulk-cocoa beans.

The share of fine or flavour cocoa in the total world production of cocoa beans is just under 5% per annum. Virtually all major activity over the past five decades has involved bulk cocoa.

Process

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Harvest:

Chocolate begins with the harvest of the cacao pods. Because the pods grow in all degrees of ripeness and at any location on the tree, most harvesting is done by hand with machetes. Two important steps must happen before the cacao can be packaged and shipped to the manufacturer. First, the pods are split open to reveal the cocoa beans instead, surrounded by the fruity pulp of the pod. This pulp is sometimes used to make drinks or desserts, as it has a pleasant fruity taste with subtle chocolate flavor.

Fermentation:

The beans and pulp are scraped from the pods and left to ferment in baskets for two to eight days. This step is crucial, as the fermentation process mellows the flavor of the beans and imparts the fruity undertones of the pulp. Without fermentation, the beans would be too astringent and bitter to enjoy. Many high-quality chocolates undergo a long fermentation process, which can be tasted in the floral, fruity notes of the final product. Fermenting begins when the beans come into contact with the air. Here, a worker uses a stick to gauge the depth of the mass in a vara, or measuring box, to determine the wage of the harvester, before transferring it to the fermentation bin. During fermentation, the pulp disintegrates, producing steamy heat and a pervasive, yeasty, sour smell. It is at this point that the beans first develop their complex characteristics.

Drying:

After fermentation, the beans are spread in a single layer and left to dry completely, usually in direct sunlight. Drying of the beans after fermentation is done on slatted wooden trays in the open air.The beans are spread out evenly and raked periodically so that they dry uniformly. As the beans dry, their colors deepen, turning them into a carpet of sepia, umber, and mocha.They are packaged and shipped to chocolate manufacturers around the world.

Roasting:

After the beans arrive at the manufacturing facility, they are roasted to bring out the most intense chocolate flavors and colors. The time and temperature of the roasting depends on the type of beans and their relative moisture levels.

Winnowing:(the shells are removed from the roasted beans called "winnowed").

After roasting, the beans are transferred to a winnower that removes the shells of the beans and leaves the “nibs”—the essence of the cocoa bean that’s full of cocoa solids and cocoa butter.

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Grinding & Liquefying:

The nibs are ground to a thick, rich paste called chocolate liquor (a misleading term, since the product contains no alcohol). This liquor is the foundation for all chocolate products, and at last begins to resemble and smell like conventional chocolate.

Pressing:

The liquor is pressed to remove the cocoa butter, which leaves a powdery disc known as “cocoa press cake”. Press cake, when pulverized, becomes common cocoa powder. At this point, the chocolate process differs depending on the recipe and formulation of the manufacturer. If the chocolate is low quality, the pulverized presscake will be mixed with vegetable fats, sugar, and flavorings to become substandard chocolate. If the chocolate is going to be higher quality, cocoa butter will be re-added to the chocolate liquor, along with other ingredients like sugar, vanilla, and milk. White chocolate undergoes a similar process, except it does not contain chocolate liquor or cocoa powder. The newly mixed chocolate travels through a series of rollers to smooth out the texture before traveling to the couching machine.

Couching :

Couching is the final step in determining the ultimate flavor and texture of the chocolate. The couching machine, so-called because the original designs resembled seashells, kneads and massages the chocolate mixture for a period of time ranging from several hours to several days. The speed, temperature, and length of the couching process determines the final texture and flavor of the chocolate, as couching smooth’s the chocolate and mellows any remaining acidic tones. After couching, the chocolate is tempered in large machines that cool the chocolate to precise temperatures in order to produce shiny, smooth bars. Finally, the chocolate is poured into molds, wrapped, and ready for shipping to eager consumers around the world.

Tempering and Molding:

The chocolate is first heated to 45 °C (113 °F) to melt all six forms of crystals. Next, the

chocolate is cooled to about 27 °C (81 °F), which will allow crystal types IV and V to form. At

this temperature, the chocolate is agitated to create many small crystal "seeds" which will serve

as nuclei to create small crystals in the chocolate. The chocolate is then heated to about 31 °C

(88 °F) to eliminate any type IV crystals, leaving just type V. After this point, any excessive

heating of the chocolate will destroy the temper and this process will have to be repeated.

However, there are other methods of chocolate tempering used. The most common

variant is introducing already tempered, solid "seed" chocolate. The temper of chocolate can be

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measured with a chocolate temper meter to ensure accuracy and consistency. A sample cup is

filled with the chocolate and placed in the unit which then displays or prints the results.

Two classic ways of manually tempering chocolate are:

Working the molten chocolate on a heat-absorbing surface, such as a stone slab, until

thickening indicates the presence of sufficient crystal "seeds"; the chocolate is then gently

warmed to working temperature.

Stirring solid chocolate into molten chocolate to "inoculate" the liquid chocolate with crystals

(this method uses the already formed crystals of the solid chocolate to "seed" the molten

chocolate).

Chocolate tempering machines (or tempers) with computer controls can be used for producing

consistently tempered chocolate, particularly for large volume applications.

Tempering/depositing machine

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Crystal Melting temp. Notes

I 17 °C (63 °F) Soft, crumbly, melts too easily

II 21 °C (70 °F) Soft, crumbly, melts too easily

III 26 °C (79 °F) Firm, poor snap, melts too easily

IV 28 °C (82 °F) Firm, good snap, melts too easily

V 34 °C (93 °F) Glossy, firm, best snap, melts near body temperature (37°C)

VI 36 °C (97 °F) Hard, takes weeks to form

Manufacturing CocoaHigh quality cocoa powder must be easily dissolved and have good flavor. The beans

used for the manufacture of cocoa are selected especially for this purpose.

After roasting and winnowing (removing the outer shell from the cacao beans) they are ground making cocoa liquor. The heat which is generated melts the cocoa fat thus generating liquor, and sometimes additional heating is employed. The liquor hardens to unsweetened chocolate when it cools below 95 degrees F / 35 degrees C.

Pressure is employed to the cocoa liquid (while slightly heated) to remove some of the fat which is also called cocoa butter. The remaining cocoa solid contains 10-25% cocoa butter depending on brand. The solids are then ground to cocoa powder. Sometimes the cocoa is made alkaline by treatment with potassium carbonate; this is called Dutched cocoa. This gives a darker color and a stronger flavor. American recipes are usually made for natural cocoa powder, which has a higher acidity. Therefore baking soda may be used in recipes with natural cocoa. Baking soda should not be used with Dutched cocoa unless an acid ingredient is added, e.g. orange juice or sour cream. Cocoa used for cooking is normally unsweetened.

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Manufacturing Chocolate1.Chocolate is mainly made of cocoa beans, taken from the pods of cocoa trees. These trees are grown mainly in equatorial regions under bigger trees to protect them from direct sunlight. They take 7 years to produce their first fruit, which grows on their trunks and bigger branches.

Once picked, the pods are opened to extract the cocoa beans. The beans are fermented under banana leaves, and then dried in the sun. Then they are packed in big jute sacks and dispatched to chocolate-producing countries.

2.When they arrive at the manufacturer, they are sorted and cleaned, and then roasted like coffee beans. Finally, they are ground into chocolate liquor.

3.That liquor is then mixed with different ingredients depending on the chocolate to be produced. For black chocolate: sugar, vanilla and lecithin. For milk chocolate: sugar, powdered milk and lecithin.

4. For white chocolate the liquor is pressed to extract cocoa butter, which is then mixed with sugar, powdered milk and lecithin. The left-over of the pressed liquor is cocoa powder, which is mainly used to manufacture chocolate drinks.

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5.Next, the chocolate is "couched" in a large vat containing a marble roller which kneads, blends, and grinds the mixture at 45°C for 72 hours. This process evaporates the acidity in the cocoa beans and ensures the mellowness of chocolate.

6.In order to be used, the chocolate has to be "tempered", i.e. heated to 50°C, cooled back down to 20°C and finally warmed back up again to 32°C, the ideal working temperature. This process gives a chocolate that has a glossy sheen and breaks perfectly under your teeth. If chocolate is too cold it becomes dull, and if it is too warm it becomes grey, as cocoa butter seeps to the surface.

Types of ChocolateThe main types of chocolate are white chocolate, milk chocolate, semisweet chocolate,

bittersweet chocolate and unsweetened chocolate. These types of chocolate may be produced with ordinary cacao beans (mass-produced and cheap) or specialty cacao beans (aromatic and expensive) or a mixture of these two types. The composition of the mixture, origin of cacao beans, and the treatment and roasting of beans, and the types and amounts of additives used will significantly affect the flavor and the price of the final chocolate.

White chocolate:

Chocolate made with cocoa butter, sugar, milk, emulsifier, vanilla and sometimes other flavorings. It does not contain any non-fat ingredients from the cacao bean and has therefore an off-white color. In some countries white chocolate cannot be called 'chocolate' because of the low content of cocoa solids. It has a mild and pleasant flavor and can be used to make Chocolate Mousse, Panna Cotta and other desserts.

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Some brands from around the world:

Milk chocolate

Sweet chocolate which normally contains 10-20% cocoa solids (which includes cocoa and cocoa butter) and more than 12% milk solids. It is seldom used for baking, except for cookies.

Some brands from around the world:

Dark chocolate:

Sweetened chocolate with high content of cocoa solids and no or very little milk, it may contain up to 12% milk solids. Dark chocolate can either be sweet, semi-sweet, bittersweet or unsweetened. If a recipe specifies 'dark chocolate' you should first try semi-sweet dark chocolate.

Sweet dark chocolate:

Similar to semi-sweet chocolate, it is not always possible to distinguish between the flavor of sweet and semi-sweet chocolate. If a recipe asks for sweet dark chocolate you may also use semi-sweet chocolate. Contains often 35-45% cocoa solids.

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Semi-sweet chocolate:

This is the classic dark baking chocolate which can be purchased in most grocery stores. It is frequently used for cakes, cookies and brownies. Can be used instead of sweet dark chocolate. It has a good, sweet flavor. Contains often 40-62% cocoa solids.

Some examples:

Bittersweet chocolate:

A dark sweetened chocolate which must contain at least 35% cocoa solids. Good quality bittersweet chocolate usually contains 60% to 85% cocoa solids depending on brand. If the content of cocoa solids is high the content of sugar is low, giving a rich, intense and more or less bitter chocolate flavor. Bittersweet chocolate is often used for baking/cooking. If a recipe specifies bittersweet chocolate do not substitute with semi-sweet or sweet chocolate. Please ensure that you buy the correct type! European types of bittersweet chocolate usually contain very large amounts of cocoa solids, and some of them have quite bitter taste.

Some examples:

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Unsweetened chocolate:

A bitter chocolate which is only used for baking. The flavor is not good, so it is not suitable for eating. Use it only if a recipe specifies 'unsweetened chocolate'. It contains almost 100% cocoa solids, about half of it might be fat (cocoa butter).

Some examples:

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