PROCESS PLANT EQUIPMENT

PROCESS PLANT EQUIPMENT

Operation, Control, and Reliability

Edited by

MICHAEL D. HOLLOWAYCHIKEZIE NWAOHAOLIVER A. ONYEWUENYI

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

Cover photography: courtesy of Chikezie Nwaoha

Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New JerseyPublished simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Process plant equipment : operation, control, and reliability / edited byMichael D. Holloway, Chikezie Nwaoha, Oliver A. Onyewuenyi.

p. cm.Includes index.ISBN 978-1-118-02264-1 (cloth)

1. Pumping machinery–Maintenance and repair. 2. Pipelines–Maintenance and repair. 3. Valves–Maintenance and repair.4. Compressors–Maintenance and repair. 5. Storage tanks–Maintenance and repair. 6. Mixing machinery–Maintenance and repair.7. Boilers–Maintenance and repair. 8. Filters and filtration. I. Holloway, Michael H., 1963– II. Nwaoha, Chikezie, 1984– III.Onyewuenyi, Oliver A., 1952–

TJ900.P725 2012621.8–dc23

2011028229

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

For the memory ofDenton Ward

student and friend

CONTENTS

Contributors xxiii

Preface xxiv

SECTION I PROCESS EQUIPMENT OPERATION

1 Introduction 3Michael D. Holloway

2 Valves 9Ali Ahammad Shoukat Choudhury, Chikezie Nwaoha, and Sharad Vishwasrao

2.1 Types of Control Valves, 102.1.1 Linear-Motion Control Valves, 102.1.2 Rotary-Motion Control Valves, 112.1.3 Nonreturn Valves, 122.1.4 Relief Valves, 12

2.2 Control Valve Actuators, 122.2.1 Pneumatic Valve Actuators, 122.2.2 Electric Valve Actuators, 132.2.3 Hydraulic Valve Actuators, 13

2.3 Control Valve Sizing and Selection, 132.3.1 Selecting a Valve Type, 142.3.2 Sizing and Selection: Letting the Computer Do It All, 15

2.4 Common Problems of Control Valves, 152.4.1 Control Valve Cavitation, 152.4.2 Control Valve Leakage, 162.4.3 Control Valve Nonlinearities, 17

2.5 Diagnosing Control Valve Problems, 192.6 Control Valve Reliability and Selection, 202.7 Control Valve Maintenance, 22

2.7.1 Detecting Control Valve Stiction, 23

vii

viii CONTENTS

2.8 Control Valve Troubleshooting, 24References, 24

3 Pumps 27Craig Redmond

3.1 Types of Pumps, 283.1.1 Positive-Displacement Pumps, 283.1.2 Dynamic Pumps, 30

3.2 Pump Applications, 343.2.1 Flooded Suction Applications, 343.2.2 Suction Lift Applications, 353.2.3 Staged Pumping, 353.2.4 Solids-Handling Applications, 36

3.3 Pump Sizing and Selection, 373.3.1 System Head Curve, 373.3.2 Pump Peformance Curves, 383.3.3 Actual Pump Sizing and Selection, 393.3.4 Net Positive Suction Head, 403.3.5 Net Positive Suction Head Available, 40

3.4 Pump Maintenance, 403.4.1 Bearing Lubrication, 413.4.2 Seal Maintenance, 413.4.3 Maintaining Performance, 433.4.4 Winterizing and Long-Term Storage, 433.4.5 Cold Temperature Installations, 43

3.5 Pump Troubleshooting, 44

4 Pipes 45Shaohui Jia

4.1 Types of Pipes, 454.1.1 Seamless Pipe, 454.1.2 Welded Pipe, 45

4.2 Pipe Selection, 464.2.1 Pipe Strength, 464.2.2 Pipe Toughness, 464.2.3 Pipe Weldability, 484.2.4 Piping Material, 48

4.3 Pipeline Network Design and Optimization, 484.4 Pipeline Failure, 50

4.4.1 Pipe External Corrosion, 514.4.2 Pipe Internal Corrosion, 524.4.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking, 53

4.5 Pipeline Inspection and Leak Detection, 544.5.1 Pipeline Inspection, 544.5.2 Pipeline Inspection Tools, 554.5.3 Pipeline Leak Detection, 56

4.6 Pipe Maintenance, 584.6.1 Pipeline Coatings, 584.6.2 Pipeline Repair, 59

4.7 Pipe Troubleshooting, 60References, 61

CONTENTS ix

5 Cooling Towers 63Zaki Yamani Zakaria and Chikezie Nwaoha

5.1 Cooling Tower Operation, 635.1.1 Cooling Tower Psychrometrics, 635.1.2 Principles of Cooling, 655.1.3 Heat Exchange, 675.1.4 Components of Cooling Towers, 67

5.2 Types of Cooling Towers, 695.2.1 Natural-Draft Cooling Towers, 695.2.2 Mechanical-Draft Cooling Towers, 72

5.3 Common Problems of Cooling Towers, 745.3.1 Scale Deposits, 745.3.2 Delignification of Wood, 745.3.3 Poor Pump Performance, 755.3.4 Poor Airflow, 755.3.5 Makeup Water, 755.3.6 Clogging of Distribution Nozzles, 75

5.4 Measuring Cooling Tower Performance, 755.4.1 Performance Assessment, 76

5.5 Cooling Tower Maintenance, 77References, 79

6 Filters and Membranes 81Flora Tong and Chikezie Nwaoha

6.1 Types of Filters, 816.1.1 Gas Filters, 826.1.2 Liquid Filters, 83

6.2 Mechanisms of Filtration, 876.2.1 Depth Straining, 876.2.2 Surface Straining, 876.2.3 Depth Filtration, 876.2.4 Cake Filtration, 87

6.3 Filter Selection, 876.3.1 Chemical Compatibility, 876.3.2 Accurate Pore Size, 87

6.4 Particle-Size Measurement Techniques, 886.4.1 Image Analysis, 886.4.2 Direct Mechanical Measurement, 886.4.3 Ultrasonics, 886.4.4 Laser Scattering Technology, 88

6.5 Filter Location, 896.5.1 Pressure Line Filters, 896.5.2 Suction Line Filters, 896.5.3 Return Line Filters, 89

6.6 Membrane Filtration, 896.6.1 Ultrafiltration, 906.6.2 Microfiltration, 946.6.3 Reverse Osmosis, 956.6.4 Nanofiltration, 102

6.7 Filter Maintenance, 1036.7.1 Preparation for Maintenance, 104References, 104

x CONTENTS

7 Sealing Devices 107Matt Tones and Jim Drago

7.1 Gaskets, 1077.1.1 Gasket Materials, 1077.1.2 Gasket and Seal Construction, 1137.1.3 Principles of Gasket Operation, 1197.1.4 Gasket and Metal Seal Applications, 1207.1.5 Gasket Selection, 123

7.2 Compression Packings, 1257.2.1 Packing Materials, 1267.2.2 Packing Construction, 1287.2.3 Packing Selection, 1297.2.4 Packing Installation, 130

7.3 Mechanical Seals, 1317.3.1 Considerations for Using Mechanical Seals, 1327.3.2 Types of Mechanical Seals, 1347.3.3 Mechanical Seal Applications, 1377.3.4 Environmental Controls, 1407.3.5 Failure Analysis, 1427.3.6 Troubleshooting Mechanical Seals, 144

7.4 Expansion Joints, 1477.4.1 Joint Construction, 1487.4.2 Principles of Joint Operation, 1497.4.3 Joint Selection, 1497.4.4 Industrial Use of Expansion Joints, 1527.4.5 Joint Installation, 1557.4.6 Joint Troubleshooting, 156

7.5 General Sealing Device Selection, 1577.5.1 Product Selection, 1577.5.2 Understanding the Forces, 1577.5.3 STAMPS Criteria, 158References, 161

8 Steam Traps 163Jacob E. Uche and Chikezie Nwaoha

8.1 Steam Trap Operation, 1638.2 Types of Steam Traps, 164

8.2.1 Thermodynamic Steam Traps, 1648.2.2 Mechanical Steam Traps, 1668.2.3 Thermostatic Steam Traps, 169

8.3 Steam Trap Installation, 1728.3.1 Outlets of Steam-Using Equipment, 1728.3.2 On Steam Lines, 172

8.4 Steam Trap Checking, 1728.4.1 Sight Method, 1738.4.2 Sound Method, 1748.4.3 Temperature Method, 1748.4.4 Fluid Conductivity Method, 174

8.5 Common Problems of Steam Traps, 1758.5.1 Air Binding, 1758.5.2 Dirt, 1758.5.3 Improper Sizing, 175

CONTENTS xi

8.5.4 Steam Trap Leakage, 1758.5.5 Steam Locking, 1768.5.6 Water Hammer, 1768.5.7 Erosion of Seat and Valve Sealing Faces, 1768.5.8 Life Expectancy, 176

8.6 Steam Trap Selection, 1768.7 Steam Trap Applications, 178

8.7.1 Protection Service, 1788.7.2 Process Service, 1788.7.3 Other Applications, 178

8.8 Steam Trap Sizing, 1788.8.1 Basic Considerations, 179

8.9 Steam Trap Maintenance, 181References, 181

9 Process Compressors 183N. Sitaram and Chikezie Nwaoha

9.1 Types of Compressors, 1839.2 Continuous Compression Compressors, 184

9.2.1 Ejectors, 1849.2.2 Dynamic, Rotodynamic, or Turbocompressors, 185

9.3 Intermittent Compression Compressors, 1869.3.1 Positive-Displacement Compressors

(Intermittent Flow), 1869.3.2 Rotary Compressors (Continuous Flow), 187

9.4 Centrifugal Compressors, 1899.4.1 Major Components of Centrifugal Compressors, 1899.4.2 Thermodynamics of Centrifugal Compressors, 1959.4.3 Energy Transfer in Centrifugal Compressors, 1969.4.4 Slip in Centrifugal Impellers, 1979.4.5 Losses and Efficiencies, 1989.4.6 Performance, Stall, and Surge, 1999.4.7 Drivers, 201

9.5 Reciprocating Piston Compressors, 2029.5.1 Compressor Operation, 2029.5.2 Thermodynamic Laws, 2039.5.3 Compression Cycles, 2039.5.4 Power Requirements, 2049.5.5 Multistage Compression, 2049.5.6 Cylinder Clearance and Volumetric Efficiency, 2059.5.7 Valve Losses, 2069.5.8 Major Components of Reciprocating Piston

Compressors, 2069.5.9 Drivers, 207

9.6 Compressor Troubleshooting, 209References, 210Further Reading, 211

10 Conveyors 213Okenna Obi-Njoku

10.1 Industrial Use of Conveyors, 21310.2 Types of Conveyors, 214

10.2.1 Belt Conveyors, 21410.2.2 Bucket Conveyors, 215

xii CONTENTS

10.2.3 Cart-on-Track Conveyors, 21510.2.4 Chute Conveyors, 21610.2.5 Gravity Wheel Conveyors, 21610.2.6 Monorails, 21610.2.7 Chain Conveyors, 21610.2.8 Pneumatic Conveyors, 21710.2.9 Roller Conveyors, 21710.2.10 Screw Conveyors, 21810.2.11 Slat Conveyors, 21810.2.12 Sortation Conveyors, 21910.2.13 Vane-Type Throwing Machines, 21910.2.14 Tow Conveyors, 21910.2.15 Trolley Conveyors, 21910.2.16 Vertical Conveyors, 22010.2.17 Vibrating Conveyors, 22010.2.18 Troughed Belt Conveyors, 22010.2.19 Magnetic Belt Conveyors, 22010.2.20 Power-and-Free Conveyors, 220

10.3 Conveyor Selection, 22110.4 Conveyor Safety, 22110.5 Conveyor Maintenance, 22210.6 Summary, 222

References, 223

11 Storage Tanks 225Marcello Ferrara and Chikezie Nwaoha

11.1 Types of Storage Tanks, 22511.1.1 Aboveground Tanks, 22511.1.2 Underground Tanks, 226

11.2 Storage Tank Classification, 22711.2.1 Aboveground Tanks, 22711.2.2 Underground Tanks, 227

11.3 Construction Materials, 22711.3.1 Tank Materials, 22711.3.2 Protective Coatings, 22811.3.3 Insulation, 229

11.4 Common Problems of Storage Tanks, 22911.4.1 Corrosion, 22911.4.2 Vapor Losses, 23011.4.3 Storage Tank Fires, 231

11.5 Storage Tank Maintenance, 23311.5.1 Tank Blanketing, 23311.5.2 Holiday Detection, 23311.5.3 Tank Cleaning, 234

11.6 Tank Appurtenances, 24111.6.1 Mixers, 24111.6.2 Dikes, 24111.6.3 Insulators, 24111.6.4 Platforms and Ladders, 24211.6.5 Gauging Devices, 24211.6.6 Valves, 24211.6.7 Manways, 24311.6.8 Diffusers, 243

CONTENTS xiii

11.6.9 Water Cannons, 24311.6.10 Vents, 24311.6.11 Grounding, 24311.6.12 Supporting Structures, 243

11.7 Storage Tank Maintenance, 243References, 244

12 Mixers 245Jayesh Ramesh Tekchandaney

12.1 Mixing Concepts: Theory and Practice, 24612.1.1 Batch and Continuous Mixing, 24612.1.2 Selection of Mixing Equipment, 24712.1.3 Design of Mixing Equipment, 24712.1.4 Scale-Up of Mixing Equipment, 247

12.2 Fluid Mixing, 24812.2.1 Fluid Mixing Applications, 24812.2.2 Mixing Regimes, 24912.2.3 Power Consumption in Agitated Vessels, 24912.2.4 Flow Characteristics, 25112.2.5 Liquid Agitation Equipment, 253

12.3 Solid Blending, 26412.3.1 Properties of Solids Affecting Blending, 26412.3.2 Types of Blend Structures, 26512.3.3 Mechanisms of Solid Blending, 26512.3.4 Segregation Mechanisms, 26512.3.5 Scale-Up of Solid Mixers, 26612.3.6 Solid Blending Equipment, 266

12.4 Mixing High-Viscosity Materials and Pastes, 27412.4.1 Dispersive, Distributive, and Convective Mixing, 27512.4.2 Power for Viscous Mixing, 27512.4.3 Scale-Up of High-Viscosity Mixers, 27512.4.4 Heat Transfer, 27512.4.5 Equipment for Mixing High-Viscosity Materials

and Pastes, 27512.5 Mechanical Components in Mixing Equipment, 284

12.5.1 Motors, 28412.5.2 Mixer Speed Reducers, 28512.5.3 Couplings, 28712.5.4 Bearings, 28812.5.5 Shaft Seals, 28912.5.6 Variable-Speed Operation Devices, 29112.5.7 Mixer Installation, Startup, and Maintenance, 29212.5.8 Mixer Specifications, 295References, 295

13 Boilers 297Celestine C. G. Nwankwo

13.1 Types of Boilers, 29813.1.1 Water Tube Boilers, 29913.1.2 Fire Tube Boilers, 30013.1.3 Pot Boilers, 30013.1.4 Saddle Boilers, 30113.1.5 Packaged Boilers, 301