processes and components of the climate system … · processes and components of the climate...

Processes and components of the climate systemin the Earth systemPeter Michael LinkJürgen Scheffran

Research Group Climate Change and SecurityUniversität Hamburgwww.clisec-hamburg.de

Lecture 2, Climate and Society 63-181, WS 2013-14 Hamburg, October 31, 2013 With slides provided as courtesy by Jürgen Böhner

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Literature?Question: What are the key components of the Earth’s natural climate system and how are they interconnected?

Selected Readings:

Barry, R.G.; Chorley, R.J. (2003) Atmosphere, weather, and climate, Routledge.Schönwiese, Christian-Dietrich (2013) Klimatologie, 4.th edition, UTB.IPCC (2013) Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis, Contribution of WG I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, WGI AR5 4th Assessment Report.

Background material:Gebhardt, H., Glaser, R., Radtke, U., Reuber, P. (eds.) (2012) Geographie -Physische Geographie und Humangeographie, Berlin: Springer. IPCC (2007) Climate Change 2007 – The Physical Science Basis, Contribution of WG I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, UK und NY, USA.Oke, T.R. (1987): Boundary Layer Climates. – Wiley & Sons, New York.McKnight, T.L. & D. Hess (2008): Physical Geography. – Pearson. LondonHess, D. & T.L. McKnight (2009): Physische Geographie. – Pearson. London.

Processes and components of the climate systemin the Earth system

3

THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Basics

The Earth-Atmosphere System Components, Processes and Interactions

(Source:www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate)

4


The Earth-Atmosphere System Components, Processes and Interactions

(Source:www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate)(Source: http://co2now.org/Know-the-Changing-Climate)

5

Scales Spatiotemporal Dimensions


Time and Space scales of various atmospheric phenomena according to OKE (1978)

Micro-scale: 10-2 to 103 m

Local-scale: 102 to 5 x 104 m

Meso-scale: 104 to 2 x 105 m

Synoptic-scale

Macro-scale: 105 to 108 m

6

Scales Spatiotemporal Dimensions


(Source: BENDIX 2004)

topo-climate climate zone

regional climatesub-regional climate

landscape climate

micro- local- meso- macro-climate

climate of a forest standvalley

climateclimate of the lake

districttropical climate

weekdayhourminutesecond

turbulence thermal lift

con-vection

thunder-storm

local wind

cold front

cy-clone

rosbywave

Clim

atol

ogy

Scal

es

Met

eoro

logy

micro-/ local climate

7

Earth-Sun Relations The Solar System


152 mill. km

The Solar System (McKNIGHT & HESS 2008)

8

Earth-Sun Relations The Sun


RADIATION: Transport of energy via electromagnetic waves

The emitted radiation of the photosphere of the sun is called solar flux. The Earth only

receives 0,000000002 % of the whole energy emitted by the sun

DIMENSIONS

diameter: 1.390.000 km

mass: 2 × 1030 kg

9

Erdkruste

Ozeanische Kruste 6 km (0-9 km)

Kontinentale Kruste 40 km (10-80 km)

Dimensions

Mean Radius: 6.371,0 km

Equat. Radius: 6.378.1 km

Polar Radius: 6.356.8 km

Equat. Perimeter: 40.075 km

Merid. Perimeter: 40.008 km

Surface: 510.072.000 km2

Gravity: g = 9,81 [m·s-2]

Earth-Sun Relations The Earth


10

Earth-Sun Relations The Earth's Orbit


152 mill. km

11

152 mill. km

Earth-Sun Relations Insolation


Average Temperature [°C]

12

Earth-Sun Relations Irradiation


Solar constant

I0 = 1368 W·m-2 =1368 J·m-2·s-1 with a range of 0.1% (sunspots)

I0 = 1420 W·m-2 in Perihelion (3. January)

I0 = 1319 W·m-2 in Aphelion (3. July)

Daily sums of incoming solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere:

13 kWh·m-2·d-1 Pole (Summer Solstice)

12 kWh·m-2·d-1 Mid Latitudes (Summer Solstice)

8-9 kWh·m-2·d-1 Equatorial Latitudes (Summer Solstice)

hIhII 90cossin 00

Lambert’s Cosine Law

I = intensity of radiation for a sun’s altitude h [W·m-2], I0 = solar constant [W·m-2], h = sun’s altitude [°], 90 – h = solar zenith angle [°]

13

152 mill. km

Earth-Sun Relations Insolation


Average Temperature [°C]

14

The Atmosphere Structure and Composition


Composition of the atmosphere (McKNIGHT & HESS 2008; BENDIX 2004)

Acceleration of gravity zg 922 101cos000000059.0cos0000267.01806.9

g = acceleration of gravity [m·s-2], φ = latitude [°], z = altitude [m]

Mass of the Atmosphere: 5 × 1018 kg (5.000.000.000.000.000 tons)

15



[°C] suface

Left: Principal layers of the atmosphere and vertical temperature profile (WOFSY 2006)

Right: Structure and layers of the troposphere (GEBHARDT et al. 2007)

16



Principal layers of the atmosphere

Layers of the troposphere

─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ Turbulent Surface Layer

17

λmax = peak wavelength [μm], T = absolute temperature [K], 2898 = Wien’s constant

Wien’s displacement law

T2898

max

Stefan Bolzmann law

A = black-body (grey-body) irradiance or energy flux density [W·m-2], ε = emissivity,σ = Stefan-Bolzmann constant = 5.67·10-8

[W·m-2·K-4], T = absolute temperature of the black-body (grey-body) [K]

)(4 TA

Forms of Energy and Energy Transmission Radiation

THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange

wavelength

ener

gy fl

ux d

ensi

ty [W

·m-2

]

Earth

Sun

18

Erdkruste

Ozeanische Kruste 6 km (0-9 km)

Kontinentale Kruste 40 km (10-80 km)

Dimensions of the Earth

Mean Radius: 6.371,0 km

Equat. Radius: 6.378.1 km

Polar Radius: 6.356.8 km

Equat. Diameter: 40.075 km

Merid. Diameter: 40.008 km

Surface: 510.072.000 km2

Half-surf.: 255.036.000 km2

Disc-surf.: 127.518.000 km2

Gravity: g = 9,81 [m·s-2]

Forms of Energy and Energy Transmission Radiation


19

Energy Cascades Short-wave Radiation Balance


The generalized energy budget of earth and its atmosphere (LAUER & BENDIX 2006)

-100 +26 +4

+30 +25 -4

-70

+19

+51

Surf

ace

Atm

osph

ere

Spac

e

+19

SI SD SE QS

20

QS = short-wave radiation balance [W·m-2], SI = direct solar radiation [W·m-2], SD = diffuse short-wave beam [W·m-2], SE = reflected short-wave radiation [W·m-2], α = albedo

Short-wave radiation balance of the Earth‘s surface

Radiation Balance and Energy Budget Equations


1DIEDIS SSSSSQ

Albedo values of various surface conditions (WEISCHET 1991)

21

Solar Radiation Spatial Distribution


Average daily solar radiation at the surface (www.3tier.com/en/support/resource-maps)

22


Surf

ace

Atm

osph

ere

Spac

e

-100 +26 +4

+30 +25 -4

+6

-114

+19 +108

SI SD SE QS LE

-70

+19

+51

Energy Cascades Long-wave Radiation Balance


23

Energy Cascades Absorption


Absorptivity of selected gases of the atmosphere (www.ees.rochester.edu/fehnlab)

solar

window

atmosph.

window

24


Surf

ace

Atm

osph

ere

Spac

e

-100 +26 +4

+30 +25 -4

-70

+19

+51

+64+6

-114 +93

+19 +108 -93

-64

SI SD SE QS LE LA QL

+70

-49

-21

Energy Cascades All-wave Radiation Balance


25


Surf

ace

Atm

osph

ere

Spac

e

-100 +26 +4

+30 +25 -4

-70

+19

+51

0

-30

+30

+64+6

-114 +93

+19 +108 -93

-64

SI SD SE QS LE LA QLQ

Energy Cascades Radiation Balance


26

Q = net all-wave radiation balance [W·m-2], QS = short-wave radiation balance [W·m-2],QL = long-wave radiation balance [W·m-2], SI = direct solar radiation [W·m-2], SD = diffuse short-wave beam [W·m-2], SE = reflected short-wave radiation [W·m-2], α = albedo, LE = long-wave radiation of the earth’s surface [W·m-2], LA = downward atmospheric long-wave radiation [W·m-2]

Average annual radiation balance of the Earth‘s surface



EADI

EALDIEDISLS

LLSSQLLQandSSSSSQwithQQQ

11

27

Radiation Balance Spatial Distribution


Monthly mean net radiation [W/m²] in January (http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu)

28

Radiation Balance Spatial Distribution


Monthly mean net radiation [W/m²] in July (http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu)

29

Energy Cascades Radiation Balance and Energy Budget


Surf

ace

Atm

osph

ere

Spac

e

-100 +26 +4

+30 +25 -4

0

+30

+64+6

-114 +93

+19 +108 -93

-64

SI SD SE QS LE LA QLQ-23 -7

+23 +7

0

0

0-30

QE QH

30

The generalized energy budget of earth and its atmosphere (McKNIGHT & HESS 2008)



31



Q = net all-wave radiation balance = energy budget [W·m-2], QH = sensible heat flux [W·m-2], QE = latent heat flux [W·m-2], QG = heat conduction to or from the underlying ground [W·m-2]

Energy balance of the Earth‘s surface



GEH QQQQ

EADI

EALDIEDISLS


11

32

Forms of Energy and Energy Transmission Conduction


QG = heat flux [W·m-2], k = thermal conductivity [W·m-1·K-1], T1 = temperature [K] at depth z1 [m], T2 = temperature [K] at depth z2 [m], ∆T = temperature differences [K], ∆z = thickness or vertical depth (of the ground layer) [m]

Heat conduction (ground heat flux)

Thermal properties of selected Materials

zTk

zzTTkQG

21

21

21

33

QH = sensible heat flux [W·m-2], Ca = heat capacity of air = 1200 [J·m-3·K-1], k = Karman’s constant = 0.4, T1 = temperature [K] at level z1 [m], T2 = temperature [K] at level z2 [m], u1 = wind speed [m·s-1] at level z1 [m], u2 = wind [m·s-1] at level z2 [m]

Sensible heat flux (gradient method)

Forms of Energy and Energy Transmission Convection


2

1

2

12122

ln

zz

uuTTkCQ aH

Latent heat flux (gradient method)

QE = latent heat flux [W·m-2], Lv = latent heat of vaporization [J·kg-1], k = Karman’s constant = 0.4, u1 = wind velocity [m·s-1] at level z1 [m], u2 = wind velocity [m·s-1] at level z2 [m], a1 = absolute humidity [kg·m-3] at level z1 [m], a2 = absolute humidity [kg·m-3] at level z2 [m]

2

1

2

12122

ln

zz

aauukLQ vE

34

Examples of the diur-nal course of compo-nents of the energy budget (GEBHARDT et al. 2007)

a) Coniferous forest near Freiburg/Br. –28.04 - 30.04.1976

b) Desert surface in the Gobi Desert –11.05 - 31.05.1931

c) Tropical Atlantic with cloudless sky (8°30'N/23°30'W) –06.07.1974

Energy Budget Examples


Radiation Balance (Q)

Latent Heat (QE)

Sensible Heat (QH)

Storage (QG)

35



Surf

ace

Atm

osph

ere

Spac

e

-100 +26 +4

+30 +25 -4

0

+30

+64+6

-114 +93

+19 +108 -93

-64

SI SD SE QS LE LA QLQ-23 -7

+23 +7

0

0

0-30

QE QH


36



Q = net all-wave radiation balance = energy budget [W·m-2], QH = sensible heat flux [W·m-2], QE = latent heat flux [W·m-2], QG = heat conduction to or from the underlying ground [W·m-2]

Energy balance of the Earth‘s surface



GEH QQQQ

EADI

EALDIEDISLS


11

37

Mass Cascades Water State Changes


Latent heat potential for water state changes (www.theresilientearth.com)

2482 kJ/kg

2482 kJ/kg

Latent heat of fusion (Lf)335 [kJ٠kg-1] at 0°C = 273,15 K

Latent heat of vaporization (Lv)2257 [kJ٠kg-1] at 100°C = 373,15 K

38

Mass Cascades Water State Changes


Latent heat of vaporization (empirical cubic function)

Lv = latent heat of vaporization [J·kg-1], T = temperature [°C]

79.250036418.20.00158927420.00006143 23 TTTLV

Latent heat of vaporization (simplified empirical function)

Lv = latent heat of vaporization [J·kg-1], T = temperature [°C]

610002372.05008.2 TLV

39


The global water cycle – annual values in 1000 km3 year-1 (http://iopscience.iop.org)

Mass Cascades The Hydrological Cycle

40


P = precipitation [mm], E = evaporation [mm]

Global water balance

Mass Cascades The Hydrological Cycle

EP

SREP P = precipitation [mm], R = run-off [mm], E = evapotranspiration [mm], ∆S = storage change [mm]

P = precipitation [mm], E = evapotranspiration [mm], R = run-off [mm]

Simplified general water balanceREP

General water balance

41

Global Carbon Cycle: All storages in 1015 g carbon and all fluxes in 1015 g carbon per year [1015 = 1 peta-gramm = 1.000.000.000 tonns = 1 bil. tonns] average value according to the Global Carbon Project 2010 (GEBHARDT et al. 2011)

consumptionof fossil fuels

volcanism 5. atmosphere

flux

2. oceans

1. sediments

4. soils and peat3. fossil fuels

phot

osyn

thes

isve

geta

tion

resp

iratio

nso

ilre

spira

tion

land use

chan

ge6. vegetation

Mass Cascades The Carbon Cycle


1,1

4,1

7,7

Net emissions [1015g]+ 7,7 (± 0,5) consumption of fossil fuel+ 1,1 (± 0,7) land use changes≈ 8,8

Net changes of carbon cycle [1015g]+ 4,1 (± 0,1) Increase in atmosphere+ 2,3 (± 0,4) to 2,4 (± 0,7) storage in oceans+ 2,4 storage in terrestrial biosphere≈ 8,8

42

THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Atmospheric Dynamics

-90 -60 -30 0 +30 +60 +90

Latitude-80 -60 -40 -20 0 +20 +40 +60 +80

Latitude

SP Eq. NP SP Eq. NP

Rad

iatio

n Fl

ux [W

/m²]

Alb

edo

Cloud C

over [%]

QS QLQ

QS ToA

planetaryalbedo

surface albedo

cloud cover

Left: Zonally averaged cloud cover, surface albedo and planetary albedo (Institute for Marine and Atmospheric research Utrecht – IMAU – www.phys.uu.nl)

Right: Zonally averaged all-wave radiation balance and its components (www.phys.uu.nl)

Driving Force Energy Balance

43

Driving Force Closed-Cell Circulation

Deficit Deficit

relative warm

relative cold

relative warm

relative coldL

L L


Excess

Zonally averaged radiation balance and potential circulation (LAUER & BENDIX 2006)

44

∆p/∆z = pressure gradient [hPa·m-1], ρ = air density [kg·m-3], g = accelaration of gravity = 9.807 [m·s-2], M = average molar mass of atmospheric gases= 0.02896 [kg·mol-1], T = absolute temperature [K], R = universal gas constant = 8.314 [J·K-1·mol-1]

Hydrostatic equation

Acceleration of gravity

zg 922 101cos000000059.0cos0000267.01806.9

g = acceleration of gravity [m·s-2], φ = latitude [°], z = altitude [m]

Pressure and Wind Mass of the Atmosphere


gzp

RTpM

gRT

pMgzp

with that

45

pz = pressure at altitude z [hPa], pb = pressure at the lower reference level (e.g. pressure at sea level) [hPa], TV = average virtual temperature at level z to zb [K], z = altitude [m], zb = altitude of the lower reference level (e.g. sea level) [m], g = acceleration of gravity = 9.807 [m·s-2], RL = specific gas constant of dry air = 287.05 [J·kg-1·K-1], e = water vapor [hPa], p = pressure [hPa]

Barometric formula



VL

bbz TR

zzgpp exp with 2

vzVzbV

TTT

TV = Virtual temperature [K], e = vapor pressure [hPa], p = pressure [hPa], T = absolute temperature [K]

Virtual temperature

peTTV 378.0

46


Cross-section of the pressure distribution in the troposphere (GEBHARDT et al. 2007)


hPa

polar cold air baroclinic zone tropical warm air

47


Global differential heating and vertical pressure distribution in the troposphere

Pressure and Wind Closed-Cell Circulation

hPa

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

polar cold air tropical warm air polar cold air

hPa

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

hPa

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000


hPa

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

L H LhPa

300400500600700800900

1000


hPa

3004005006007008009001000

L H L

H L H

48

temperature

altit

ude

Pressure and Wind Vertical Air Motion and Stratification


Environmental lapse rates (ELR) and tropospheric stratification

(a) decreasing temperature

(b) surface inversion

(c) upper air inversion

(a) ELR

(b) ELR

(c) ELR

top of troposphere

49

temperature

altit

ude

dry adiabatic lapse rate (~1K/100m

)m

oist adiabatic lapse rate (< 1K/100m

)

Pressure and Wind Vertical Air Motion and Stratification


Dry adiabatic lapse rate, saturated (moist) adiabatic lapse rate, environmental lapse rate (ELR) and thermal stratification

(a) dry-labile and moist-labile

(b) dry-stable and moist-labile

(c) dry-stable and moist-stable

(d) inversion(a) ELR(b) ELR

(c) ELR

(d) E

LR

50


Global differential heating and vertical pressure distribution in the troposphere

General Atmospheric Circulation Closed Cell-Circulation

hPa

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000


hPa

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

hPa

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000


hPa

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

L H LhPa

300400500600700800900

1000


hPa

3004005006007008009001000

L H L

H L H

51


General Atmospheric Circulation Circulation in the Upper Troposphere

Left: Configuration of the polar and subtropical jet streams (LUTGENS & TARBUCK 2001)

Right: Cross sectional view of the jet streams (LUTGENS & TARBUCK 2001)

52



Rosby Waves and jet streams in the upper troposphere (McKNIGHT & HESS 2008)

Circulation pattern in the upper troposphere (GEBHARDT et al. 2007)

zonal circulation mixed circulation meridional circulation cut-off effectrid

getroug

h

53

Mechanism of Rossby-wave development in the upper air flow of the extratropicalwesterlies (GEBHARDT et al. 2007)

f = coriolis parameter

ζ = relative vorticity



anticycloniccurvature

decreases

cyclonic curvature

increases

f incre

ases f decreases

54



Wave development and controlling forces (LAUER & BENDIX 2006)

trough

ridge

low pressure

high pressure

geostrophicwind

no rotation

anticyclonicrotation

cyclonicrotation

no rotation

gradient force coriolis force centrifugal force wind field

55

Interrelation between upper and lower tropospheric flow currents and develop-ment of dynamic pressure systems

Development of convergent (con.) and divergent (div.) currents in the upper air flow of the extratropical westerlies (LAUER & BENDIX 2006)

increasing gradient decreasing gradient

con.

div.con.

div.

L

upper troposphere

lower troposphere

divergence convergence

convergence divergenceL H

H L



56

Highly idealized depiction of the global circulation


General Atmospheric Circulation Principal Pressure and Wind Systems

(ww

w.ri

chho

ffman

clas

s.co

m/im

ages

)

57

Cross section of northern hemispheric circulation by latitude – cell circulation, subtropical jet stream and polar jet stream (www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream)



58



Left: Idealized winds generated by pressure gradient and coriolis force

Right: Actual wind patterns owing to land mass distribution (LUTGENS & TARBUCK 2001)

59Global sea level pressure distribution for January (LUTGENS & TARBUCK 2001)



60Global sea level pressure distribution for July (LUTGENS & TARBUCK 2001)



61

Schematic diagram showing the formation of extra-tropical cyclone and fronts from upper-level divergence


General Atmospheric Circulation Extratropical Circulation

(www.people.fas.harvard.edu)

62

Depression with a leading warm front and a trailing cold front moving from west to east

Fronts, winds, weather positions of the high and low


General Atmospheric Circulation Extratropical Circulation

(www.atmos.uiuc.edu)

www.atmos.uiuc.edu

63


General Atmospheric Circulation Tropical Circulation

(http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov)

64


General Atmospheric Circulation Tropical Circulation

The correlation between convergence, divergence, and Hadley circulation (KUMP et al. 2004)

65

Typical maximum polward position of the Inner Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) at its seasonal extremes (McKNIGHT & HESS 2008)


General Atmospheric Circulation Extratropical circulation

66

THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Ocean Dynamics

General Oceanic Circulation Thermohaline circulation

67


General Oceanic Circulation Possible impacts of a THC shutdown

(Kuhlbrodt et al., 2009)

68


General Oceanic Circulation The ocean as carbon sink

69


Ocean-Atmosphere-Interaction Normal state in the Pacific region

70


Ocean-Atmosphere-Interaction El Niño

71


Ocean-Atmosphere-Interaction La Niña

72

CLIMATE CHANGE Indication & Reconstruction

Archives Overview

Archives (Proxy data) for the reconstruction of former (Paleo-) Climates and Climate Change (BRADLEY 1999)

T = Temperature

N = Precipitation

B = Biomass and Vegetation

V = Volcanic eruption

E = Terrestrial magnetic field

M = Sea-level fluctuations

C = Chemical composition

S = Solar radiation

73

Radiocarbon dating: dating of carbonaceous organic material up to about 58 to 62 ka using the half-life of the radioactive carbon-14 (14C)Thermoluminescence (TL): determination of the time elapsed since the material containing crystalline minerals was exposed to sunlightOxygen isotope method: analysis of the 18O/16O ratio in marine sediments and iceVarve chronology: counting and measuring thicknesses in annual paired layers of stratified limnic sediments (varved clays) Dendrochronology: tree-ring dating based on the analysis of patterns of tree-ringsPollen analysis: Reconstruction of vegetatio, analyzing the distribution of pollen grains of various species contained in depositsLichenometry: geochronologic aging using lichen growth (Rhizocarpon geographicum) to determine the age of exposed rocks

Archives Dating Methods


74


Archives Dating Methods

Loess-paleosol-sequence and chrono-stratigraphy of the Baoji loess profile in the Chinese Loess Plateau (GEBHARDT et al. 2007:301)

„L“ in the second column indicates (glacial) loess and correspond to glacial (even-numbered) marine isotope stages (left column)

„S“ indicates (interglacial) soil formation and corresponds to interglacial uneven-numbered isotope stages (right column)

The correlation allows a back dating by means of remanent magnetization (right column)

75

CLIMATE CHANGE Causes

External and Internal Forcing Overview

Natural causes of climate changes

1. Changes of Earth-Sun relationships (i.e. the Earths’ orbital parameters) and changes of solar radiation emission (cyclic fluctuations of solar activity)

2. Changes of the surface structure and the planetary albedo of the Earth (depending on land-sea-distri-bution, topography, ice cover, cloud cover)

3. Changes of the chemical compo-sition of the Earths’ atmosphere (carbon dioxid, water vapor content, methane etc.) or the amount of aerosols

76

Orbital and Solar Variations Milankovitch-Cycles

Precession

19.000, 22.000 and 24.000 Years

Obliquity

41.000 Years

Eccentricity 95.000, 125.000 and 400.000 Years


77

Orbital and Solar Variations Milankovitch-Cycles


Now [ka ago]

Milutin Milanković(1879 – 1958)

James Croll (1864)

78

Orbital and Solar Variations Sunspot Numbers


Prior to 1749, sporadic observations of sunspots were compiled and placed on consistent monthly framework by HOYT & SCHATTEN (1998). Since ~1749, continuous monthly averages of sunspot activity were reported by the Solar Influences Data Analysis Center, World Data Center for the Sunspot Index, at the Royal Observatory of Belgium. The ~11 year solar magnetic cycle is associated with the natural waxing and waning of solar activity.

79

Distribution of active volcanoes in the Holocene with a significant concentration at plate margins and subduction zones (GEBHARDT et al. 2007: 269)

Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere Volcanism


Pacific Plate

North AmericanPlate

South American Plate

AfricanPlate

EurasianPlate

Indo-Australian Plate

Antarctic Plate

80

Volcanism

Solid and/or gaseous components are raised by volcanic activities. The types of eruption differentiate between:

• Exhalation: Outgassing

• Effusion: Non-explosive delivery of solid and liquid components

• Explosion: Ejection of flowed and/or solid particles



81


The June 12, 1991 eruption column from Mount Pinatubo taken from the east side of Clark Air Base (USGS 2010)

(http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes)


82

Evolution of Climate Geological Dimensions

1 second = 146 yrs.1 minute = 8.750 yrs.1 hour = 525.114 yrs.1 day = 12.602.739 yrs.1 month = 383.333.333. yrs.1 year = 4.600.000.000 yrs.

History the Earth 4,6 bil. yrs. 365 days 1. JanuaryFormation of eldest Rocks 3,8 bil. yrs. 301 days 3. MarchDevelopment of Life / Photosynthesis 3,7 bil. yrs. 293 days 11. MarchFirst Fossils 570 mio. yrs. 45 days 15. NovemberExtinction of the Dinosaurs 65 mio. yrs. 5 days 26. DecemberHomo Errectus Heidelbergensis 600.000 yrs. 68 min. 31. Dec. – 22.52’00’’Homo Sapiens settles in Europe 30.000 yrs. 3,4 min. 31. Dec. – 23.56’34’’Nativity / Imperium Romanum 2.000 yrs. 14 sec. 31. Dec. – 23.59’46’’Industrial Revolution 146 yrs. 1 sec. 31. Dec. – 23.59’59’’

CLIMATE CHANGE Climate History

Duration of Lecture787.500 years

processes and components of the climate system … · processes and components of the climate...

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