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OUR CONTINENT – OUR CULTURE
2009-2011
A Grundtvig Learning Partnership
at Senior University - University of A Coruña
Coordinators: Pilar García de la Torre
Pilar Millor Arias Francisco Ascón Belver
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“Our Continent – Our Culture”, a Grundtvig Learning Partnership
(2009-2011)
Coordinators:
Pilar García de la Torre
Pilar Millor Arias
Francisco Ascón Belver
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Edited by: SeniorUniversity – University of A Coruña ISBN: 978-84-9749-490-8
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Contents
- Prologue
- Blended learning and on-line tools
- Activities and transnational meetings
- Our Continent – Our Culture in Spain
o Salvador de Madariaga. o Validity of Salvador de Madariaga’s contribution to the
idea of Europe. o Maritime trade routes between A Coruña and Flanders (I). o Maritime trade routes between A Coruña and Flanders
(II). o European Identity and Citizenship Integration Process. o Camino de Santiago: a route of culture. o Incorporation of women to work in Spain and its
influence on the education of children. o Women and migration: a view from the Spanish cinema. o Changes in the roles of women since 1945 (I). o Changes in the roles of women since 1945 (II). o Spanish and Portuguese transition to democracy and
integration into the EU, from the perspective of singer-songwriters.
o Industrialization and de-industrialization in Ferrol. o European influence in the process of modernization in
Spain.
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Grundtvig Learning Partnership “Our Continent – Our Culture”
“Our Continent – Our Culture” (OC-OC) was a Grundtvig Learning Partnership, which was developed from 2009 to 2011. The OC-OC Learning Partnership was concerned with the dynamics of active citizenship in a cultural European context. The partners strongly shared the view that the growing group of European senior citizens can play an increasingly important role in society through their involvement in local and regional projects. Study groups in partner countries discussed themes of identity, citizenship and European culture, and studied English, Italian and IT. Information, views and ideas were exchanged on the project website and on a Ning Social Network. National and international meetings were organized every year.
The following institutions were partners in the project Our Continent – Our Culture:
• Finland - Laihia, Kyrönmaan Opisto, Center for Adult Education.
• Northern Ireland – Downe U3A, 3td. Age University.
• Germany – Ada und Theodor Lessing VHS Hannover, Center for Adult Education
• Italy - Scandiano, CTP, Centre for Adult Education.
• Spain - A Coruña and Ferrol, Senior University, University of A Coruña.
• Portugal – Lousado, FORAVE, Vocational and Technical School.
Our Continent - Our Culture treated of the various ways Europeans have contributed, and are contributing, to the composite culture of
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Europe. The Partnership addressed European culture with a focus on that of partner countries.
Language learning, identity, active citizenship, European cohesion and understanding together with intergenerational linking and communication technology, were aspects of the programme.
The Action dovetailed with both the specific and operational objectives of Grundtvig:
• Specific in that the partnership intended to respond to the educational challenges of an ageing population in Europe by helping adults with pathways to improving their knowledge and competences;
• Operational by improving the quality and accessibility of mobility throughout Europe of individuals involved in adult education, assisting seniors in accessing education, facilitating the transfer of innovative practices in adult education and supporting ICT based content for learners within the partnership.
The OC-OC Project’s objectives were:
• To examine how individuals view concepts of identity and citizenship.
• To learn and actively promote language learning between the partners in two partner languages other than the home language.
• To introduce/develop ICT skills for learners throughout the Partnership.
• To examine the historical and present realities of European culture in relation to local and European levels.
• To illustrate how culture and identity are composed of cumulative components such as religion, ethnic background, language and to examine group / collective identity with emphasis on Partners Culture.
• To examine the extent to which inter-generational interaction can improve social cohesion.
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• To examine how and to what extent internal influences such as self-reflection through learning can lead to changes in previously held perceptions towards "others".
• To examine how and to what extent "reality" factors such as political, social, environmental and other changes, among them human interaction, have influenced previously held perceptions and attitudes.
To achieve the objectives of the OC-OC project, during the academic years 2009-2010 and 2010-2011, a workshop named OC-OC was performed at the Senior University of A Coruña. Approximately one hundred students, in two geographical areas (Ferrol &A Coruña), enrolled the workshop.
The general objectives of the OC-OC Workshop at the Senior University of A Coruña were:
• Learning to learn and learning to share.
• Giving the students a more active role in their learning process.
• Teaching the students to work in a team.
The specific objectives of the workshop were:
• Strengthening the use of IT and English to foster communication between students of the project and develop the potentials of the web site and the Ning Social Network: exchange information and opinions.
• Discussing the issue of European identity.
Our methodology was based on team and individual activities, with fortnightly 2-hour meetings, plus small-group work. This was supplemented by attendance to master classes and conferences and by virtual learning. The aim was to enhance the knowledge and use of IT tools, such as internet, email, blog design, the project’s website, and the Ning Social Network amongst students.
Learners had easy access to different learning resources in order to apply the knowledge and skills they learnt under the supervision and support of the teacher inside and outside the classroom.
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We have combined face-to-face instruction with computer-mediated instruction through Ning Social Network and a blog.
The role of the instructor is critical because requires a transformation process to that of learning facilitator. The skills required for technology use were limited in our senior students, and so, instructors developed the role of assisting students with computer skills and applications, helping them access the internet, and encouraging them to be independent learners.
The following programme of activities was implemented:
• IT lessons.
• Language learning: Italian and English.
• Seminar on European Identity.
• Training on research methodology and searching information.
• Field work (data collection and trips to key places).
• Interviews on European identity.
• Writing essays and preparing the presentations (power point presentations).
• Publishing on-line in the blog of the workshop.
• Transnational meetings with learners and coordinators where the learners presented their essays and exchanged experiences and knowledge about European culture with the learners from other countries.
A formative evaluation was carried out at every international meeting. Students in local project groups filled in initial aspiration forms as well as final assessment forms.
Monitoring of the partnership was ongoing throughout the action (via e-mail and at coordinators’ meetings).
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Blended Learning and On-Line Tools
Blended learning is defined as a learning method that combines face-to-face and virtual teaching [1].
This is not a new concept. In fact, we all know that for many years it has been a common practice to mix lectures with a more active methodology such as case studies, debates, films, video, audio, etc. It has also been called “hybrid model”, “computer mediated instruction” or “mixed learning”.
Heinze and Procter [2] have used the following definition for blended learning in higher education:
“Blended learning is learning that is facilitated by the effective combination of different modes of delivery, models of teaching and styles of learning, and is based on transparent communication amongst all parties involved with a course”.
Blended learning emerged for economic and pedagogic reasons [3]:
- Opposite to traditional education, blended learning allows to reduce costs.
- The quality of lectures may be improved by using multimedia presentations.
- It gives students more responsibility and more individual learning skills.
- Blended learning works as a catalyst for changing teachers’ attitudes as a previous step to a radical change towards a completely online methodology.
In order to achieve the objectives of the learning partnership OC-OC, an active and participative methodology was used under the principle of
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"learning to learn and learning to share". Face-to face training was mixed with a more individual approach in which students had to search and gather information using IT: internet, mail, power point presentations, creation and use of forums - panel discussion, blogs of the OC-OC workshop, social networks and websites.
In this methodology was very important individual work and team work, in the axe of presence (face-to-face) education through the reading and commentary-discussion of the texts proposed, and through IT.
Website of the OC-OC project:
http://www.ourcontinent-ourculture.eu
Our Continent – Our Culture website was the way to communicate the aims and results of the learning partnership.
Online tools like this website are the best way to disseminate the activities and outcomes of the project such as: European Identity Survey, the agenda of the transnational visits, …
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Social Network:
http//ourcontinentourculture.ning.com
Digital learning resources and online social networking are strong forces in education today. These resources have allowed our senior students to improve their skills in a foreign language and the adquisition of new skills in IT, meanwhile they communicated with each other and shared their ideas and experiences about European culture, citizenship and identity.
Blog of the European Workshop OC-OC
http://ourc.wordpress.com
In the European Workshop OC-OC, the widest used communication tool was a blog that complemented the project's website. In this blog the learners had available all the information that was generated in the workshop: content of the following sessions, materials to download, audios and videos of the language lessons, pictures of the activities, etc.
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The most important contents of the blog were the essays of the students, uploaded and published on it, after their exhibition during the transnational visits.
References
[1] G.E. Marrsh, A.C. McFadden, and P. Barriejo, “Blended instruction: Adapting Conventional Instruction for Large Classen”, Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, vol. IV, number IV, winter 2003
[2] Heinze, A. and C. Procter, “Reflections on the Use of Blended Learning. Education in a Changing Environment” conference proceedings, University of Salford, Salford, Education Development Unit, 2004
[3] A. Bartolomé “Blended Learning. Conceptos básicos” Píxel-Bit. Revista de Medios y Educación, vol. 23, pp. 7-20, 2004
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Activities and Transnational Visits
IT Learning and Teaching:
A website for the project was developed and a social network
was implemented for communication amongst students and staff. Also, each learner received 9 hours trainning in IT with the following contents:
• Introduction to IT
• E-mail, forum and blogs
• NING social network
• Blog of the OC-OC European Workshop
• Website of the Learning Partnership OC-OC
• Exhibition of the essays: Power Point.
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Foreign Languages Training:
According to the objectives of the project, several sessions
during the two academic years were dedicated to the foreign language training:
• English conversation lessons (8 hours)
• Basic Italian language course (8 hours)
Transnational Visits
Coordinators Meeting “Our Continent – Our Culture” in Lousado (Portugal)
The first coordinators meeting was celebrated in Lousado, Portugal, from the 14th to the 20th of september, 2009, with the following agenda:
September, 17th: Arrival
September, 18th: Coordinators meeting: Revision of application form and partners roles
September, 19th: Coordinators meeting: Partnership Website, arrangements for Hannover, A.O.B.
September, 20th: Visit to the Serralves Foundation & Douro cruise
September 21th: Departure.
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International Meeting “Our Continent – Our Culture”, in Hannover (Alemania)
As part of the work planning of the project, there were three International Meetings with the learners and the staff of all the partners, where the essays of the students were exhibited. First of this meetings happened in Hannover (Germany) from the 11th to th 15th of march, 2010. 75 learners and members of the staff participated in the meeting, where the exhibition of the essays took place as well as some field visits and other cultural activities.
The International Meeting had the following agenda:
March, 11th Arrivals March, 12th 10:00
10:15
Welcome by VHS International, orientation in the school, final programme amendments ‘Europe comes to Hannover’: icebreaking activities, getting acquainted, finding common ground and interesting differences
12:45 Lunch at the town hall canteen 14:00
Presentation of the historical city models (17th century, 1939, 1945, today) in the Town Hall
15:00 15:30
Press call Workshops (host learner input) Parallel: Coordinators meeting
19:00 Linden: (Hi)story café with tales and reflections by Hannover Friends, questions and comparable stories from visitors.
March, 13th 10:30 Workshops : Visitor input 13:30 Lunch afternoon Visit to different places in Hannover:
Downtown, Town Hall, … evening Partnership Dinner at Loccumer Hof
March, 14th Trip to Berlin March, 15th Departure
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Coordinators Meeting “Our Continent – Our Culture” in A Coruña
The Senior University of the University of A Coruña hosted the second Coordinators Meeting “Our Continet – Our Culture”, which celebrated from the 17th to the 20th of May, 2010.
Agenda of the Meeting:
May 17th, Arrival to A Coruña. May 18th, 10,00 – 13,00 Coordinators Meeting 13,30
14,30 Reception by the Rector of Udc Lunch.
16,30 20,30
Exhibition of essays by students Dinner
May 19th, 10,00 14,00 16,00 18,00 19,00
Visit to “Fragas do Eume” Lunch in Betanzos Visit to Old Town of Betanzos ( medieval village) Official Reception at Town Hall Return to A Coruña
May 20th, Thursday Departure of delegations
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Coordinators Meeting “Our Continent – Our Culture” in Vaasa (Finland)
From the 17th to the 20th of September, 2010, it was celebrated the first coordinators meeting of the academic year 2010-2011, in Vaasa. The agenda was as follows:
September 17th Arrival to Vaasa September 18th 9.22-9.37
Arrival to Laihia Reception by Kyrönmaan Opisto’s staff
10.30- ca15.00 - 12.00 15.00 -
Coordinators’ meeting - Press call Visit to historical places around Kyrönmaa area by a bus
September 19th, 11.45
Visit to Terra Nova – Nature Centre in Vaasa A walk to Palosaari
September 20th Departure from Vaasa.
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International Meeting “Our Continent – Our Culture” in Scandiano (Italy)
From the 11th to the 15th of March, 2011, it was celebrated an International Meeting in Scandiano (Italy) with 75 learners and members of the staff. The agenda was as follows:
Final Meeting “Our Continent – Our Culture” in Belfast (United Kindgdom)
The last Meeting was hosted by Northern Ireland between the 12th and the 16th of May, 2011. Agenda as follows:
March 11th Arrival to Scandiano March 12th ‘Tour in the middle age’: study-visit to Fidenza,
Castellarquato and Chiaravalle Abbey Dinner at “Circolo Dei Colli S. Ruffino”, after dinner: presentation by Portuguese group.
March 14th Meeting with the Mayor Alessio Mammi Visit to the Agricultural Trade Fair S.Giuseppe Coordinators Meeting Discovering Scandiano: Art and History itinerary Closing dinner
March 15th Departure from Scandiano
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May, 12th Arrival to Belfast May, 13th 09:45
16:00 19:30
Coordinators’ Meeting / City Tour Exhibitions of the essays Dinner
May, 14th 09:30 10:15 13:00 15:30 18:30 19:30 22:00
Travel to Downpatrick (by coach) Tour of Cathedral, County Museum. Morning coffee Official welcome from Council Lunch in S. Patrick Centre Historical presentation on the Legacy of S. Patrick Coach tour to Saul, Castleward House and Strangford Downpatrick Cricket Club Dinner in Top Lounge Returno to hotel in Belfast
May 15th 09:30-10:30 14:30 15:15 19:30
Coordinators’ Meeting Visit Ulster Transport Museum or Ulster Folk Park Lunch in the grounds Return to Belfast Walking tour of University Area + Ulster Museum Closure Dinner
May, 16th Trip to Dublin May, 17th Departure from A Coruña
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Visit to the European Institutions in Brussels
Learners and staff visited some European Institutions from the 22nd to the 26th of February, 2010. The group was composed by 25 senior leaerners, 9 students of a Postgraduate Course on the European Union and 3 members of the staff.
The institutions visited were: the Parliament, the European Counsil, the European Commission, the Committee of the Regions and the Foundation Galicia-Europe.
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Fieldwork (visits and data collection):
Visit to the Exhibition: “Europa fue Camino”: Peregrinación a Santiago en la Edad Media. (Europe Marked the Way. The Pilgrimage to Santiago in the Middle Ages).
The 4rd. of March 2010, our students were involved in a guided visit to the Exhibition “Europe was a Way” in A Coruña, about the influence of the Saint Jacques’ Way in Europe. In European history, the Way to Santiago has been one of the earliest unifying elements of the old continent. The discovery of the sepulchre of St James, the first martyred apostle, in the 9th Century, proved to be a point of reference which helped to consolidate the territories conquered by the emergent Christian monarchies. It also opened different connecting routes linking it with Christian Europe and with the Islamic world of Al-Andalus.
Visito to the Exhibition “The Fingerprints of Justice”
On the 16th of November, 2010, there was a guided visit to the exhibition “The Fingerprints of Justice”, which commemorated the 80th annyversary of the Palace of Justice, where is based the Court of Justice. The exhibition shows the role of the Court in the evolution of the society and the Galician institutions.
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Visit to the Atlantic Dome at Mount San Pedro, A Coruña
On the 18th of February the learners visited the Dome at the Monte de San Pedro in the city of A Coruña.
Lectures:
The role of the media in the process of European construction
On the 5th of November, 2010, D. Cristóbal Ramírez, journalist and teacher at the University of A Coruña, gave a lecture on the role of the media in the process of the European Union construction.
Maria Casares and the places in her live: A Coruña, Madrid, Paris, Bretaña
On the 18th of March, 2011, Dr. María Lopo, researcher and visiting teacher at the university of Rennes, France, gave a lecture about the famous galician actress, María Casares and her live in Galicia and France.
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Seminars and Conferences:
European Culture, Identity and Citizenship
In cooperation with the Department of Public Law of the University of A Coruña and with the Master on the European Union, during december 2009 and January 2010, a Seminar about European Culture and Identity was celebrated with the following contents:
• Lecture on the Lisbon Treaty by Dr. Jorge Quindimil.
• Lecture on the European Citizenship by Dr. Gabriela Alexandra Oanta.
• Workshop about the European Union and citizens participation: Senior students and students of a Postgraduate Course on EU Studies collaborated in small groups
II International conference “Rosalía de Castro”
From the 19th to the 23rd of May, 2011, the European Worlshops of the Senior University organize an International Conference in which participated learners and staff coming from the Centre for Adult Education HET Perspectief, en Gent, Belgium.
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The program was:
On the Way to Equality
A Day with the theme On the Way to Equality was celebrated on the 27th of May, dealing with the political, economic and social changes that have transformed the women social role in the last 50 years. All the public institutions related to equality policies participated in the seminar: The Office for Gender Equality of the University of A Coruña, Coruña City Council, Diputación and Xunta de Galicia. There were presentations of the essays researched by learners related to equality.
May, 19th Arrival May, 20th 11:00
11:30 16:00 18:00
Opening Session. Exhibition of the essays “A Coruña, in the memory and the Arts” Guided Tour to A Coruña Visit to the Fine Arts Museum
May, 21th 11,00- 14.00
Maritime route in A Coruña Bay
May, 22th 11,00 11.30 18.30
Train to Cecebre Visit to the “Bosque Animado” and Museum of Wenceslao Fernández Flores
May, 23th Departure
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Presentation of the essays and closing ceremonies of the European Workshops (Pazo de Lóngora and Castle of Santa Cruz, Oleiros – A Coruña)
There was a closing ceremony for each academic year of the European Workshops. The students presented the research they had been working on for the previous months
Other activities:
Cine-Forum
Some films and documentaries were seeing and debated by the sutudents. The documentary The Transition in Galicia showed images and testimonies from that period that led to an interesting debate and exchange of ideas and experiences.
Other films were Sicko or Flowers from another World, about women and emigration.
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Essays
o 2009-2010
Salvador de Madariaga Validity of Salvador de Madariaga’s contribution
to the idea of Europe Maritime trade routes between A Coruña and
Flanders (I) Maritime trade routes between A Coruña and
Flanders (II) European Identity and Cititzenship Integration
Process. Camino de Santiago: A route of culture
o 2010-2011
Incorporation of women to work in Spain and its influence on the education of children
Women and migration: a view from the Spanish cinema
Changes in the roles of women since 1945 (I) Changes in the roles of women since 1945 (II) Spanish and Portuguese transition to democracy
and integration into the EU, through the perspective of singer-songwriters
Industrialization and de-industrialization in Ferrol European influence in the process of
modernization in Spain.
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Salvador de Madariaga
Carmen Cuesta
Salvador de Madariaga was born in A Coruña (Spain) in 1886 and died in Locarno, Switzerland, in 1978. He studied Engineering. In 1916 he was editor of the “Times” in London. He was professor of Spanish Literature in Oxford and Mexico. He worked in the Society of Nations in Geneva. The Government of the Spanish Republic named him Ambassador in Washington and Paris and Secretary of Public
Instruction and Justice. He was elected Member of the Royal Spanish Language Academy in 1916.
In 1921 he entered the Society of Nations in Geneva, and for six years he carried out the Section of Disarmament and had personal relationship with the most eminent political personalities and diplomats from all over the world. His opinions were welcome with great esteem.
In 1927 he abandoned the international organization because of his literary vocation and also for deception. Madariaga understood that the Society of Nations could not only be cooperative of national limitless sovereignties but rather should transform into a centre for resolved drive of the European unit.
The University of Oxford created at the end of 1927 the class of Spanish Language and Literature and offered it to Madariaga.
The proclamation of the Republic in 1931 surprised Madariaga in Mexico, in trip of conferences that also took him to Havana. In the Cuban capital he received news that the provisional republican government had designed him, without being consulted, ambassador in Washington.
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Madariaga didn´t like active politics. He was an occasional politician brought on by demands of the service that was required. He said “I am more a man of thought than a man of action” and as regards government’s forms he was defined as pragmatic.
During the Second World War, the BBC requested his collaboration dedicated to the listeners from South America. Once a week during nine years he spoke before the microphones of the British radio. The freedom and the man dignity were for him important values.
We must point out his participation in the Congress of the European Movement in The Hague, in 1948. In 1949 he was one of the co-founders of the College of Europe in Belgium.
Madariaga believed in the national characters and he attributed to the English prevalence of the action, to French of the thought and to Spanish, of the passion
He was a vital man and one of the main exponents of the European liberalism. The war took him to exile, living from then on in France and England
We must point out his participation in the Congress of the European Movement in The Hague, in 1948. In 1949 he was one of the co-founders of the College of Europe in Belgium.
Madariaga believed in the national characters and he attributed to the English prevalence of the action, to French of the thought and to Spanish, of the passion
He was a vital man and one of the main exponents of the European liberalism. The war took him to exile, living from then on in France and England.
Madariaga shows us in his book “Outlines of Europe” his concern for the European problems and he suggests solutions for the conflicts.
He writes about the tensions among the countries of the old continent. He says that Europe will live or it will perish as it arrives or not to take conscience of itself. It is necessary the moral solidarity so that an European new conscience of the peoples that compose Europe is born so that a new Europe is born.
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He points out, at the beginning of the book, that Europe is in human danger for two reasons: The historical countless wars and the danger of Moscow.
The only solution that suits Europe is to “look for the conscience of being European”, to conquer the traditional differences. That is to say, the question is in realizing the unit that beats in the diversity of the European countries.
Madariaga, as erudite, diplomat and politician coined the principle of the European integration. He analyzed his ideas in favour of the integration and their performance in some institutions in which then an intense debate existed between global integration or an integration at European level.
Europe is physically the smallest continent but the biggest for its history. The mixture of people and different bloods is maybe the true cause of the European unit.
He speaks to us of four fictitious big characters of the European literature: Hamlet, Don Quijote, Fausto and Don Juan, whom we can consider as symbols of the real or fictitious main characters that we find in the European culture
Europe is physically the smallest continent but the biggest for its history. The mixture of people and different bloods is maybe the true cause of the European unit.
He speaks to us of four fictitious big characters of the European literature: Hamlet, Don Quijote, Fausto and Don Juan, whom we can consider as symbols of the real or fictitious main characters that we find in the European culture
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The Europeans are of three types, basically: Nordic, Euro-Asian and Mediterranean; and are very blended. This, far from being an impediment is really a virtue, since one cannot talk of the supremacy of a race above another. The author tries to explain this to us with the visual example of a tree. In this supposed tree of the characters of the world, Africa would be located in the roots, to be there from where our ancestors come. The trunk, that is to say, the strong part of the tree, would be Europe, to possess a mind based on the individualism. And Asia would be the foliage, that is to say, the intuitive part in the air.
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Validity of Salvador de Madariaga’s contributions to the idea of “Europe”
Celia Quintana, Javier J. Rey, and Juan A. Rodríguez
Madariaga's Europe is not very distant of the future of Europe, particularly in its essence rather than its form. And the Europe of today is not more than the sum of efforts and events chained, so that the EU, name under which the process of European integration in its current phase is the result of a long and complex process of construction rooted in the history of our continent. Indeed, the idea or ideal of European unity, the history of European integration is lost in time and entered into this struggle that has seen Europe from early Mediterranean civilizations and the call is determined by contradictory sovereignty and partnership, autarky, cooperation, particularism and unity. To be reactivated on the European company, we have to wait at the end of World War II which destroyed the ideal of unity in this continent.
In this stage, Don Salvador de Madariaga promotes a contribution to the idea of Europe during those years, which is shaping his interest in European integration and European thought, as reflected in his writings and in his intense international life.
The Person
It is impossible to separate the idea of Europe that was designed and intellectually built by Madariaga from its own vital development as an European citizen and as a citizen of the world. Professor, political writer, rigorous and independent historian, biographer, journalist, diplomat, led to all his work the same passion for truth and freedom, as we have said to the very different banks. For he has said that he was
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European before Spanish and universal rather than European, but his way of being European and universal was Spanish. In Europe, Madariaga has not only been a prolific thinker and historian but also a man of the land, the protagonist of his story. No detailed biography of Mr. Salvador de Madariaga has been extensively exposed by another working Group.
Changes in Europe
The history of Europe and Madariaga's life from the thirties are interrelated, in the interwar period, he launched his cosmopolitanism proposals and he worked towards a better understanding of the people from Europe, but it was after World War II when Europe begins to take shape projects into reality, as a result of the division of Europe into two blocks, which were limited to the western part of our continent, and where his voice and his ideas captivated in the European forums.
There are many and varied ideas conceived by Madariaga over his works and his public speeches are now on European integration.
Europe is not a continent, it is an idea, it is a civilization moving. Madariaga saw in Europe a continent rather than by geography, by the will of the people who populate it. A wide Europe without edges or boundaries, since for him, Europe is a civilization in motion. Madariaga thought that respect for the person would be the common denominator of people who participate in this civilization in motion.
These ideals led him, as it is well known, to participate in the creation of the College of Europe in Bruges, cradle of many generations of Europeans, in this college he was Chairman and founder.
In those years, Salvador de Madariaga was witness and star of direct confrontation or buried to oppose these two tendencies, one particular unit and the other, which have always toured Europe.
This idea of Europe as consciousness appears in one of his main contributions in this matter, in his book Sketch of Europe, he said that “while the natural solidarity which is already a fact, we must seek the solution of European problems on a European basis, this search is sterile because there is no moral solidarity, and added "Europe is already a body
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and a soul, not yet a conscience." How to create, then, this consciousness?
Its main track is, undoubtedly, the fight like others of his generation, freedom and respect for the rights of the individual. The main legacy of this struggle and this consciousness is the European convention on fundamental rights and freedoms, fundamental piece to understand the modern history of the European continent and, most recently Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.
Europe, a new "homeland" based on the harmonization of national peculiarities.
For Madariaga, the consequences of nationalism were evident in Europe throughout his life, he met the First World War, European totalitarianism, therefore in the end of the Second World War, Madariaga joined from the beginning the idea of United Europe, occupying positions of responsibility which allowed him to participate in the design of what later became the European construction, a new "homeland" of all Europeans, built on a voluntary, peaceful and democratic form.
Federalism, confederalism, functionality
In forums where in the postwar years the European model was discussed, Madariaga took an active role, although, ironically warned Brugmans, never knew what was really their choice, whether it was a federalist, confederal, functional or institutional.
He had the opportunity to expose this ideas in a work "L'Esprit de L'Europe", published in Brussels in 1952, which is manifested by a greater unity between European states without sacrificing national diversities. In this work he is declared federalist.
There will be no Europe without European citizens who can move freely throughout the continent.
Human being was always the main concern for Salvador de Madariaga.
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For Madariaga, being European was, in fact, his way of being Spanish, such as the manner of his being European and his passion were also Spanish, as he never ceased to repeat, it was the personal freedom, that made him involved, from the outset, in the project of European unity, and so, Salvador de Madariaga was Europeanism, advocate of a liberal and united Europe, a Europe at a time Socratic and Christian, and, therefore, a defender of man, of European citizens, of freedom of movement of ideas and thoughts.
An independent European identity in international relations
The continent that was guide to the world from 1200 to 1900 can´t resign itself to being a mere object of history, between engines market and slaves market. Europe has to re-take in their hands the destiny of the world. "In this line, he said that no European nation can take a foreign policy by itself, or that of Europe or the United States or the Soviet Union. And, mainly, for two reasons: because there is no such policy, and because if there, there is no European nation with sufficient military potential to make it effective.
This thought is none other than that stated in the Message to the Europeans coming out in the European Congress of The Hague in 1948.
The boundaries of Europe
Another issue that worried him was the limits or borders of Europe, that is, so far is Europe and which countries should include, very close subject to the current issue of enlargement. In this regard, Madariaga was always in favour of a big European house in which all nations would fit. To him it was common sense that only confederates, European nations would be able to avoid being dominated by the United States or the Soviet Union.
An economic Europe, but also political
To Madariaga Europe, the smallest of all continents in order to act as a champion of the world, as well did for centuries of its history,
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required not only trade and economic unity, but also a political body, a government, international personality that corresponds to that required and still requires the time and it own spirit, finally, its destiny.
The unity of Europe is no longer a dream or a theoretical ideal but a reality that, with natural fluctuations, will strengthen step by step. Reality, as Madariaga had wished, hopefully to be done in the most democratic, more transparently and effective as possible and this is possible in the future.
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Maritime Trade Routes between Corunna and Brugges (I)
Gonzalo Lomba, Concepción Martínez, Pilar Beceiro, Flor Castro, Mª Luisa Morado, Mª Carmen Varela
From XIII to XVI century:
Two Cities…
Two Cultures ….
The Sea
A Coruña was founded by Hercules, according to local beliefs, and it was known at the time as Brigantium. Due to its strategic position, the city soon became important for sea trade, as shows the building of the lighthouse on the 2nd century AD.
Brugges was founded in the ninth century by Vikings who settled in the river of Reie. In the fourteenth century it became the international financial and trading centre and the store of the Hanseatic cities of Northern Europe.
Maritime trade can be considered as one of the oldest manifestations of the humanity. This activity documented for thousands of years, was in parallel with development of man, following it in moments of crisis and expansion.
The city of Bruges shone itself in European trade in the late Middle Ages for its excellent connections with the sea through the port of L'Ecluse.
From s. XIII in Europe there are two traditions of ship building: the Mediterranean, with the galley, and the Nordic, with the cog. In the s. XV both traditions we fused and the Caravel ship and the Nao raised, technically suitable for Atlantic crossings.
- The Caravel is a small fishing or coasting trade boat of the XIV century
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- The Galley is a type of ship that has been used since antiquity to the eighteenth century. It is a warship or transport.
- The Cog is a merchant ship or passenger. It is of Nordic origin and appears in the Mediterranean by 1300.
- The Urca is a cargo ship, too wide for the centre and rounded stern, very heavy and slow.
- The galleon was the hero of the war armed s. XVI and its shape is quickly adopted by other countries.
The ships sailed the northern coast from Spain in early April to Flanders . They were returning from L'Ecluse on the month of August or early September.
In general, Spanish ship owners were both owners of the goods which composed the cargo of ships and came in Brugges to sell or exchange them for products of the country.
In the navigation, the most problematic courses were in the longitudinal routes, because to their calculation it is necessary to have precise tools
To follow the courses the sailors had, since ancient times, the quadrant and the astrolabe to measure the latitude and thus checking the advance of the ship.
Since the direct route to Flanders is basically north or south direction back, with the astrolabe could be known at all times the ship's progress through the calculation of the altitude of the sun or stars.
The compass entered the Western world around 1200, but the magnetic variation will not be known until the early fifteenth century. The compass is a vital tool to navigate in winter
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The charts are developed as an element of support for marine navigation in the moment itself, which is the esteem.
European trade experimented significant changes in the course of centuries XIV and XV. Perhaps the most important of all was the definitive translation of the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean due to Islam that forced the Christian merchants to fall back toward the West.
The Foreign trade was characterized by the export of raw materials (oil, wine, wool) and imports of manufactures, especially in the fifteenth century when the nobility became addicted to luxury (cloths and artwork).
Maritime trade route between Coruña and Flanders began in the thirteenth century and spread to the sixteenth century, when the trade boom fell as a result the black plague and the war for independence of Flanders in the reign of Charles I and Philip II.
A section that influenced heavily on the freight traffic was generated
for pilgrims to Compostela, especially, from the British Isles including the Hanseatic ports and Britain because Pilgrims also brought in and carried goods. This would generate exceptional contacts between Galicia and other countries
The old Camino de Santiago or Camino Francés Since the beginning of the thirteenth century the major port cities of the Cantabrian and the cities of the plateau definitely become the main commercial axis.
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However, there was no cohesion to commercial supply and demand in Galicia.
A product such as the wine began to esport from the middle of the fourteenth century after the crisis caused by the Black Death in the Gascon wine.
It is in the maritime sector of export and import where Coruña will develop its commercial maritime activity.
In the same way that the regular liners Genoese and Venetian, Florentine and Catalan calling at La Corunna who followed direct trip to England and Flanders
Galician Imported virtually everything. The imports were higher than exports, the result was a very unbalanced BOP.
Looking for ways to reduce this deficit partly, Galicia offers transportation services from their
own ships as one of the ways to cover their import costs.
They used another way, the Tramping and Cabotage that they practiced. The main points were in the export of fish-salting because they controlled the entire process. But they had weak points; they did not risk because they had no speculative and adventurous spirit.
It is possible that the cottage industry of flax, common to the families of Galicia, had its origin in Flanders. It is known, at least, the presence of tissues from Flanders in Coruña.
The development of marine insurance runs parallel to Commercial activity since ancient times, although it does not stabilize as an institution until much later.
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Spain and Flanders continued exchanging people, interests and ideas. The history of the region keeps brigantina archaeological evidence and documents that prove the presence of flamingos in Betanzos and Corunna.
Facing the sea, facing the wind as simbols of the time.
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Maritime Trade Routes between Corunna and Brugges (II)
Amelia M. Pardo, Eloy Palenzuelo, Elvira Albertino, Florentina Pagán, Francisca Garea
We cannot speak about The Maritime routes between A Coruña and Flanders as an isolated occurrence, it was closed linked to the rest of the Cantabrico sea and VizcayaGulf ports and the Galician Economy during the Ancien Regime.
Because of the orography that separates Galicia from the inner Spain, and the climate that prevent from growing basic foodstuffs like wheat and vine, Galician are forced to import these goods from Castilla and Leon, this is cheaper to transport by sea than by road, as the North territories were joined to the Castilla Crown, every port located between the rivers Miño and Bidasoa, were used to transport abroad goods, such as fish, wood, vine, wool and later, iron
The imports are higher than the exports and unbalance payments, the way to earn money to pay the domestic comsuption is to carry every kind of products from one place to another.
This is realized with a marine tradition named “gascona”, its technical and legal structures are used and, also, the charter cards, the only thing different is the language.
The ships were the Roman Atlantic ones, these survive during all the Medieval Age till the XII Century, when the big cargo boats are develop.
Among the Northen territories, there were three well distinguished: Basque-Galician, Astur-Galician-Cantabrian and Galician-Atlantic Portuguese
Coruña port was located in the Astur-Galician-Cantabrian in 1295, together with
Finisterre, Betanzos, Viveiro, Avilés, Colunga and Ribadesella ports
The most important for trade routes to the Gulf, Canal and NorthenSea, were Coruña, Viveiro y Ribadeo. In these ports wee founded both Ships and dealers ready to move quickly to get the best
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markets in short time, they went where transport any product were needed, since atlantic wine( because of the Bordeaux crisis) to fish from Catalonia when they noticed demand, they did not middle-men, change their wine for salt, marine tools and quality clothes.
The Black Pest converted Galicia in the export territory for products through markets formerly closed like Bordeaux or Flanders.
The relationship between Galicia and Flanders was achieved thanks to common artists and religious ideals.
In the XII Century and middle XIV, Galician Fleet joined with the
ships from Avilés, Laredo, San Sebastián and so on, took part in the commerce con Bruge-L’Ecluse port.
In the middle XIV Century, ships from Bretagne arrived to Coruña that moreover pilgrims to Santiago de Compostela, carried in and out goods.
Later on, galician gave up the gascogne coast and preferred the straight voyage from the Gulf to England-Normandie-Flanders
Galician were interested in the relation Castilian-Breton because they scarcely were in touch with the castilian from Nantes, except as transporters, but in The ports of Morbihan, Finistère and Leon found a complementary market of wine, salt and marine tools, with absolutely bilateral exchange. This was very important for Galicia helping to launch the salting and exporting fish and open business to other ports, providing gold and other goods.
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Galician spent many money in the Flanders commerce in the colonies of Amberes and L’Ecluse-Bruge. These exchanges kept stable until XVI Century.
In Parliament celebrated in Santiago de Compostela and Coruña in the early XVI Century was approved the economic support to named Carlos of Gent as Emperor and in 1522 was created in Corunna The Contract Spices House to sell from this town the spices from Orient to Flanders.
These activities stopped because of the Fleet breakdown, closing down the Contract Spices House in 1528, one of the common economic ideals between Spaniards and Flemish, had finished
Long after, Vasco Rodriguez de Gayoso, born in Corunna in the middle of XVI Century, became the owner of very big ships.
Ships related in the Ancien Kingdom of Galicia Record Office
1374.- Ship Saint Nicholas from Corunna to Northen Coast, transporting iron, honey, grease, leather, fur, pigs, salted fish and so on.
1402.- boat from Corunna to Bruge with olive oil, red wine, fur…..
1402.- Nao Saint Spiritu from Corunna to Harfleur-Flanders with smoked fish, roche-alum, verdure….
1414.- Ship from Corunna to Valencia-Flanders with wine.
1446.- Nao Santyona from Corunna to Bruge and return.
1484.- Nao from Flanders to Corunna with clothes and jewels.
1504.- Ship from Ambers to Corunna with weat.
1504.- Ship from Corunna to Ambers with 150 dozen of leather.
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Bibliography
Ferreira, E. (2009-2010). Galicia en la Marisma de Castilla. La Dinámica de los Intercambios Mercantiles. Anales de la Universidad de Alicante. Historia Medieval, 16, 39-61.
Ortega, A. (2003). Viajes a Flandes e Inglaterra ¿Cabotaje o recta vía? Espacio, Tiempo y Forma. Serie III, Hª Medieval, 16, 229-249.
Saavedra, M. C. (1996). Galicia en el camino de Flandes: actividad militar, economía y sociedad en la España norantlántica. Edicións do Castro.
Velo, I. (1992). La comarca brigantina en la relación España/Flandes durante la Edad Media. Anuario Brigantino, 2, 25-40-
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European Identity and Citizenship Integration Process
José R. Alvarez, Bernardo Bouza, Hermitas García, M. Luz Menéndez, Isabel Pallas, Gloria Pereira and Andrés Vellé
Is Identity and Integration a problem in Europe? We can´t believe it. We are different and we would like to reach a real integration.
Scope of the essay: Approximation to citizens integration process in European Union:
European Identitity, a concept:
- The features belonging to an individual or to a group.
- The features belonging to an individual or to a group.
- Conflicts among Identity.
European Diversity: The member States, the inhabitants, about wealth generated, religious practices, related with languages, nationalist and regionalist identities.
Critical aspects and states stance:
- Different economic interests of the States.
- Big differences among European States about the European idea, international relationship and placement of the European Union enlargement limits.
- The immigration policies
- The nationalist feelings flow in the member states.
Reflexions
- The migratory flows
- Occident allowed extreme situations due to their respect to cultural plurality.
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- Immigration appears to be as the second main problem after the economic problems, in all European surveys.
- The social debate about National Identity
Conclusions
- We, as Europeans, should reinforce ourselves on the idea of building in peace the “Real common identity”.
- Europe needs immigration
- Our model of leaving together with respect to the human rights and values must be taken as an unbreakable limit
- The territorial spread must be built within the perspective of the identities compatibles
- The common identity is created in the participating coexistence
- It is high time for us to overcome old and traditional identity concepts beyond beliefs and localism interests.
Migrations
The past: Galicia was a country of emigrants to Latin America, Europe, more industrialized regions of Spain
The present, Galicia is a country of immigrants from Latin America, Eastern Europe, Northern Africa.
‘Free’ migration means that immigrants were not selected by their profession or origin.
‘Limited’ migration: Political reforms whose aim is to select certain immigrants and reject others are being carried out.
The protagonists
We all know interesting stories of Galician returned emigrants. Let us listen to immigrants who live with us:
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From Cameroon:
- ‘I had to travel for two months, by car and foot, from Cameroon to Melilla’
- ‘I am focused on helping my family and studying. I hope to achieve my goals’
From Morocco:
- ‘People who were immigrants understand us better’.
- ‘It is time of crisis but immigrants need to work. It is hard not to have either work or family support’.
- ‘In my country I studied to become a teacher of young children.
From Dominican Republic
- ‘I am enterprising. In DR I opened a kindergarten in my house’
- ‘I wish my father were here’
- ‘I would like to do a degree in Business Management’
We can understand circumstances, problems and solutions can differ but the dignity of man is always the same.
Immigration in A Coruña
Introduction
We intend to study migration exclusively in the city of La Coruña, taking as reference planes the situation in the Galician Community and a greater horizon, as in the national scene.
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The figures provide migration regardless of the root causes and the extent of displacement, which may come from a city on the outskirts or any of the five continents.
Not covered, obviously, those illegal immigrants who are not documented to avoid the risk of extradition, although more and more people are registered to be able to demonstrate the 3-year residence , requirement for access permits.
Concept of migration
For migration we refer to the movement of people from their normal place of residence to a new one, temporary or permanent.
Although usually the term immigrant is associated with displaced by socio-economic reasons in search of a better quality of life, it is difficult to compute separately foreigners who flee their country for political or military causes to which could be applied specific adjectives as exiles, refugees or asylees.
Recently, it is taking another type of immigration which already exceeds policy; it is the called forced by the effects of climate change (drought or desertification).
We have defined the term migration on purpose, because this covers the binomial with emigration-immigration as, indissolubly, a person is an emigrant by the fact of leaving his country and, at the same time, immigrant to join the new destination.
Consequences of immigration
1. Causes.
The causes of immigration, in general, can be reduced to one: self-preservation or survival, not only individually but also extended to the family, finding new spaces with more resources and opportunities that will enable a better quality of life.
Nowadays this challenge is most simplified and widespread with the improvement of transport and communications.
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However, the point of view of emigrant can be very diverse. For example, the Hispanic can consider the new settlement for the whole family as final. Hence the percentages between men and women are very similar.
But the sub-Saharian does not think the same; the man moves alone with the idea of saving a few years to return to his country of origin. (In this case the percentage of men in La Coruña is 84 %).
2. Effects.
There is no doubt that migratory movements cause mismatches whit cultural, economic and social issues and controversy within the host countries.
For some people that means extra beneficial contribution of cheap labour and even experienced, as well as enrichment of the intercultural relations with languages and races.
For others, a heavy burden in the budgets for health, education, integration, etc, besides the risk of racial, cultural and religious conflits with the host population or between different immigrant groups.
3. Problems of immigrants.
Integration into an unknown country is not easy, especially if not provided a wealth of experience and knowledge, including proficiency in its language.
First of all, there are administrative obstacles to achieve his identification, rights to a Social Security, education and especially for regulating the work permit.
Then there is the degree of acceptance of the society, which may show signs of rejection by intrusion and unfair competition, especially in times of crisis.
The cases of xenophobia are not found in La Coruña because of the low representation of the immigrants. It is therefore welcome point for many illegal, many from other autonomous communities, because,
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although the chances of finding a job are lower, they feel safe from social pressure and facing a forced expatriation.
This precarious situation makes them easy prey for the mafia networks that operate with human traficking.
Some migrants even have difficulty returning their country, for some, such as Senegal, have no repatriation agreements. In others, such as certain Eastern countries, they are considered traitors. Therefore, before a removal order, they are forced to move to other cities.
Statistical analysis
Population in Spain Immigrants in Spain by age
Immigrants in Spain by groups and sex.
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Inmigrants in Spain by countries
Population in Galicia Immigrants in Galicia by age
Immigrants in Galicia by groups and sex
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Immigrants in Galicia by countries
Population in La Coruña Immigrants in A Coruña by age
Immigrants in A Coruña by groups and sex
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Immigrants in A Coruña by countries
Growth in Spain-Galicia-A Coruña
Growth of inmigrants by groups
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Associations and NGOs.
Given this climate of insecurity and helplessness, there are in La Coruña numerous Associations that seek to address the plight of immigrants by providing information, advice and material aid.
Apart from the official organizations such as the Secretaría Xeral de Emigración de la Xunta, the Secretaría de Estado de Inmigración y Emigración del Ministerio de Trabajo e Inmigración, the office of Información para Emigrantes, Retornados e Inmigrantes, etc, we can cite, among other associations Amespa, Equus Zebra, Abrente, Ecos do Sur, Renacer, Accem, Argentinos Residentes en A Coruña, Casa Argentina de A Coruña, CD Venezola-Coruñesa “Turpial”, Mediomundo Uruguayos A Coruña, Asoc. Uruguayos 25 de Agosto and Federación Galega de Asociaciones de Emigrantes Retornados.
Conclusion
As we have seen throughout the work, immigration has its detractors and defenders. From our point of view the results provide more positive than negative values.
From the historical perspective, migration has been a constant of humanity, so much so that the worl, as it is today, has been made based on such migrations.
Consider what the American continent would have been if it would not have stood to the ships of Columbus on his route to the Indies (someone, with good sense of humor not devoid of realism, would say that they would have been happier).
Mass movements, far from creating imbalances, provide young people of working age in countries in need due to low birth or industrial development and it is a relief for the overcrowded countries.
While it is true that in times of crisis may create some tension and suspicion, we should not blame the immigrants for our problems that, in any case, in Economics fortunatly had always been cyclical and punctual.
It is clear that, as in all areas, must be a rewiew and a regulatory basis of our rules of conduct and migration will not be an exception.
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Information Sources
• Statistics from EU
• Special publications.
• Information from EU public servants
• Interviews to foreigner people
• Our own point of view
Thanks to:
• Our foreign friends.
• Arteixo Council Social Services.
• NGO Equus Zebra.
• Our OC.OC project teachers.
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Camino de Santiago: From the tower of “Saint Jacques” in Paris (France) to the Cathedral of “Santiago de Compostela” (Spain), a route of Culture
Isabel Cainzos, Teresa Cela, Isabel Granullaque, and Alberto Langtry
The Way of St James´ was the most important route of pilgrimage in medieval Europe. After the discovery of the tomb of the Apostle Santiago on the second half of the 8th century, the legend of Saint James’ the Great spreads along the Northwest of Spain. People start to pay worship to the Apostle and pilgrimages from Spain and throughout Christian Europe start to flow like streams towards the city of Santiago de Compostela, where the relics of the Apostle Santiago Zebedee were venerated.
Santiago was one of the twelve Apostles of Jesus, He was a fisherman till he heard the Word of God and tradition identifies him as the Apostle who evangelized Spain.
The flow of pilgrims who were heading to Compostela, moved by their faith, was the starting point of the artistic, social and economic development that forged the so-called “Art of the Camino de Santiago”.
The coming and going of teachers and artistic workshops by pilgrimage routes allowed the building of bridges, hospitals, churches and monasteries, and new cities and new settlements of Frank emigrants that create unprecedented cultural exchanges.
Welfare institutions were founded to meet all kinds of needs for the pilgrims.
At the end of the 10th century Compostela was already considered as a Religious pilgrimage centre of international prestige and in 1075 the building of the Romanesque cathedral began.
The pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela reached its "golden age" in the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries.
The Camino de Santiago has been declared "World Heritage" by UNESCO, "European Cultural Itinerary" by the Council of Europe and
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was also given the honorific title of "Calle Mayor de Europa". (Europe’s Main Street).
There are different reasons why people make the Way: spiritual, social, geographical, economic, cultural, artistic.
The Way is nowadays a combination of a sporting challenge and religious fervour, with a search for genuineness and need of finding oneself, in a surrounding of Romanesque and Gothic styles, among Knights Templar and Benedictine monks, among beech trees and wheat fields, chestnut trees and Oaks, legends and miracles, all this make the Way of St. James an outstanding experience.
The French Way, that, through the years was confirmed to be the essential entry in Spain, is the best known and the busiest of all the routes to Santiago. Three of the four historical main routes of pilgrimage coming from inside Europe joined either in "Puente la Reina" or "Burgos"
There are other roads with great significance. They are the so called secondary ways, not for being less important but just for being less frequented.
The idea is the same, the devotion is identical, the only goal ahead is: Santiago de Compostela.
Four are the routes or ways the pilgrims from different countries in Europe have to go along, when crossing France towards Spain:
• Via Turonensis
• Via Lemovicensis
• Via Podiensis
• Via Tolosana
Via Turonensis
It was the longest way pilgrims used to reach Santiago when coming from England and Northern Europe. It was named after the town of Tours.
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When they entered Paris they used to go to "Saint Jacques" Church, passing by the Cathedral of "Notre Dame" and then left the city along the Apostle Street.
Later they crossed the city of Orleans. In its Cathedral the relics of the Holy Cross were kept.
In the town of Tours, the reference site to go to, was the Basilica of Saint Martin. The basilica was destroyed during the French Revolution and rebuilt after the remains of the ancient tomb of San Martin were found
The pilgrims crossed the Spanish border through Roncesvalles, where The Navarro Road begins.
We shall start the "Via Turonensis" route in the “Tower of Saint Jacques” in Paris, and we shall end it in Santiago de Compostela.
"Saint Jacques Tower” was the meeting and departure point of pilgrims taking the Turonensis Route to Santiago de Compostela.
"Saint Jacques Tower”, was a detached building in the gardens of the square of the same name, in Paris. The style of the belfry was flamboyant Gothic and was erected between 1509 and 1523. The Tower of Saint Jacques is the only trace of the Church of Saint Jacques of the Boucherie, built in the 16th century and destroyed in 1797.
Next to the base of the tower is a statue of Blaise Pascal. In the Northwest corner, there is a statue of Saint James the Great; and in the corners you can see the symbols of the Four Evangelists (the lion, the ox, the Eagle and man), carved in stone.
These statues, the gargoyles and also eighteen images of Saints which decorate the walls of the tower were restored in the 20th century.
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Orleans is the capital of the Loiret Department. It is located on the Loire River banks in the North of Central France. The most representative buildings in Orleans are:
The Gothic Cathedral of Orleans is the most important building of the city. It is situated in the Centre of Orleans, East of the Du Martroi square. It was built in the 7th century and it was refurbished several times.
The present Cathedral of the Holy Cross was built on a place where other churches, chapels and cathedrals of Romanic or Gothic styles, had been previously built and later destroyed either for historical events or religious wars.
The Western façade of the building has five gates and an astonishing fine Baroque decoration. It is flanked by twin towers over 80 metres high. It is a work of art of the architect Mr. Trouard.
The interior of the Cathedral is 136 metres long. The nine chapels located behind the main altar were built at the end of the 13th century. The organ was carved in wood in the 17th century. The remains of three previous temples from the 4th, 10th and 11th centuries can still be seen in the crypt.
In the 19th century, several items were added to the Cathedral. The stained glass windows, in the lower part of the aisle which show us the history of St. Joan of Arc. St Joan, who freed the city of Orleans, and later she was sentenced to be burned at the stake, in the main square of the city of Rouen.
Tours. In a strategic location on the route linking Paris to Bordeaux, in the Loire Valley is the city of Tours which is very important for its economy and culture, but mainly for its past and its many works of art.
The city is closely related to the history of French Christianity as it was a key point in one of the Camino de Santiago routes crossing the French Gaul. Precisely that way which came straight from Paris was named after the town of Tours: The Via Turonensis.
The city of Tours first came into history during the Roman era. It was a strategic enclave, a crossroads in the Centre of the country, near the Loire and the Cher.
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Tours is closely related to French religious History. In the 3rd century the Roman city was an Episcopal See, with Saint Gatien as the first bishop.
Tours is also the Centre of a part of France that had attracted the attention of Kings, nobles, poets and artists who have left an interesting cultural legacy and is linked to history through important personages.
The city of Tours has several attractions for the visitors in two basic centres close to the Loire.
One of them is the environment of the Gothic Cathedral of Saint Gatien, together with the old Castle and the Museum of Fine Arts.
The other is the area of Plaza Plumereau. Close to the ruins of the medieval Basilical-church of Saint Martin.
Towards the South there is a large area where The Congress Centre, the Town Hall and other significant buildings are located. Tours is, in short, an attractive city for relaxing and also a main Centre for a trip to the lands of the Loire.
Castle of Tours- The present building is only a part of the old Great Fortress, dating back to the Carolingian period. The castle was enlarged in the 11th century with a building supported by the gallic-roman wall, where a great Hall and a square Tower can still be found.
In the 13th century it took a quadrilateral shape with a cylindrical tower on each of its four corners.
In general, there are items dating from the 4th to the 19th centuries, but they are not of any spectacular relevance.
San Martin de Tours.- Only two towers remain of what it was once one of the largest religious complexes in France. It was practically destroyed during the French Revolution.
The Romanesque towers give us an idea of how important it was the old sanctuary of Saint Martin. Even the Kings of France usually made pilgrimages to the place.
The first basilica was built in the year 482. It was rebuilt several times during the middle Ages, after being damaged by several fires in its history. It stood up till the French Revolution.
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The old basilica was one of the most impressive of Christianity. It was 110 metres long and 30 m wide, with five wide naves. It had two towers at the West entrance and the transept had two huge towers at each end. One of them still exists today.
The new Basilica of Saint Martin, is close to the ruins of the old one.
In 1860 the remains of the ancient tomb of Saint Martin were found. In 1885 they started to build a new Basilica which was smaller than the previous one. It was completed in 1924.
The church is of fairly good roman-byzantine style, with a crypt, in which, you can see a reconstruction of the tomb of Saint Martin.
Two sturdy polished granite columns and the excellent lighting that comes in through the row of Windows on which lies a powerful Dome, topped by a statue of the Saint, are outstanding
Plumereau Square- One of the most attractive areas in Tours is the square and its surroundings. Around the square there are many buildings from the 15th century.
The Plumereau Square buildings stand out for its characteristic wooden structures and their medieval typical eaves. Plumereau Square is the most outstanding rectangular square, full of old buildings.
In Tours there are some other old churches like San Julian, a former Abbey of the 6th century, with Romanesque and Gothic styles, St. Sinforiano and St. Radegunda churches, The Marmoutier Abbey and many other medieval buildings.
Poitiers: The University was founded in 1431, and Poitiers became a major intellectual centre. The religious wars left Poitiers in absolute chaos and until the end of the 19th century there was not any other relevant development.
We must point out as the most important monuments:
- Notre -Dame - the Great- Despite its name it is not a large church. It is one of the temples the pilgrims visited. Its fine statuary façade is considered a masterpiece of Romanesque art of the 12th century. In the choir one can see Romanesque frescos of
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Christ in his Majesty and the Virgin and Child. Most of the chapels were added in the Renaissance period.
- The Cathedral of St-Pierre- The finely carved stalls of the choir date back to the 13th century and it is the oldest in France. The choir and the transept stained-glass windows are from the 12th century. The organ (1787-1791) is one of the most prestigious in Europe.
- St. Hilary the Great Church.- After some fires and later reconstructions being made, the church has become like a “patchwork” of different styles. It was built in the 6th century and rebuilt in 1870. The church still holds XI century bell tower and a nave of the twelfth century.
- St. Jean Baptister- The polygonal baptistery of St. Jean is of the fourth Century. It is one of the oldest Christian buildings in France. Nowadays it is a museum and contains Roman frescoes of Christ and the Emperor Constantine and some Merovingian sarcophagi.
Bordeaux: King Henry II of England married Eleanor of Aquitaine to control the French region of Bordeaux. With this marriage he took control of the area and started the Bourdeaux wine boom in the rest of the world.Bordeaux was an important Roman colony where a Roman amphitheatre of the 3rd century a.d can still be admired. During that period Bordeaux was known as The Little Rome.It is interesting to go along Victoire Square to Aquitaine Gate where the Way to Santiago goes through.
Throughout history Bordeaux was three times the capital of France. One during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871, the second at the beginning of the first World War (1914) and the third in 1940 (for a brief period).
Religious buildings:
- Cathedral of Saint-André- The nave of this Church was begun in the 11th century and restructured 200 years later. The Gothic arch and cruise were added in the 14th and 15th centuries. The
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medieval sculptures of the Porte Royale include scenes from the Last Judgment.
- Saint-Seurin Church –The most interesting items are the Gallo-Roman sarcophagi of the 16th century crypt and a beautiful Episcopal Throne of the 14th century.
- St - Michel Basilica - It was started in 1350 but it took a long time to be finished. It is a three nave Basilica and its BellTower was built between 1472 and 1492. It is 114 meters high and the highest in the South of France.
- Church of Notre - Dame- It is a huge Gothic church. Its construction began in 1163 and it was not finished till 1345. Throughout the years, the Cathedral has witnessed countless historical events such as the coronation of Napoleon and Henry VI of England, and the beatification of Joan of Arc.
Civilian buildings:
- The Great Theatre (1773-1780), it is a masterpiece of classical style, crowned by twelve statues of muses.
- The Bourse Square –The Square is flanked by two Majestic buildings of the 18th century: the Palace de la Bourse and the Hotel des Donaues.
- The monument to the Girondins - Vital and emblematic place in Bordeaux, built at the end of the 19th century. It has a large central column and two excellent bronze Fountains, dedicated to the Republic and to Concorde.
French Way : Roncesvalles - Santiago de Compostela, Galicia, Spain.
Distance: 760 km.
Roncesvalles: Its strategic location in the middle of the Pyrenees made it develop as a focal point for travellers crossing the Pyrenees from the very beginning. The fact that all kinds of people travelled along the same route brought different cultures together.
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Although at the beginning of the 9th century the cult to Santiago and the veneration of his remains begins to develop, it is not exactly known when the pilgrimages began. It is known though, that in the early 10th Century the transit of pilgrims becomes more intense.
It is then and there, where the first hospital complex for pilgrims is built, at the Entrance to the Peninsula by the Navarro way from France.
In 1127 the Bishop of Pamplona Sancho Larrosa founded a hospital and a hostelry in Ibañeta and in 1132 it was moved to its current location. It reached an international character and it even received donations as a charity institution
The Prior of Roncesvalles was the second ecclesiastical dignity of the Kingdom of Navarra after the Bishop of Pamplona, who was representative at the courts.
The conflicts for the control of the running of this place between the years 1145 and 1148, due to their incomes and possessions, ended up in the closure and the fire of the hospital complex.
Important artistic examples of medieval architecture to be mentioned: the Royal Collegiate Church of Saint Mary, the Chapel of Sancti Spiritus, the Chapel of Santiago (or, Chapel of the Pilgrims), and the Royal Collegiate of Saint Mary-
The Collegiate building is Gothic style of the 13th century, It was built over a previous Romanesque church by order of Alfonso I the Battler, King of Aragon and Navarra, in the first half of the 12th century, being Sancho Larrosa Bishop of Pamplona.
The medieval carved image of Sta. Maria of Roncesvalles is still venerated in this Church
Chapel of the Holy Spirit – Square plant Chapel with a cross vault with thick prismatic ribs. It houses in its interior a crypt made of rubble stone with a barrel vault. It is one of the oldest buildings in Roncesvalles, since the 13th century it was the burial place of pilgrims and poor people who died in the hospital.
The portico is formed by semicircle arches and was built at the beginning of the 17th century.
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Chapel of St James or Pilgrims-Chapel It is a very simple building of the 13th century which consists of a nave with two sections covered with cross vaults.
On leaving Roncesvalles to Pamplona, before getting to Zubiri, which is 18 km away by road, we can see the gothic "Pilgrims’ Cross" which was moved there in 1880.
Once in Zubiri, that is “Pueblo del Puente” in Spanish. The medieval bridge is known as Rabies Bridge, since, according to tradition, the relics of Saint Quiteria, (which are kept in the river pillar) protected all the animals that gave three turns round the pillar.
Following the original path between forests of beech and always close to the River Arga one gets to Pamplona. It is a short stage with amazing landscapes. We enter the medieval city of Pamplona through the Gate of France.
On entering Villava we find the Basilica of the Trinidad de Arre, Which we reach through a medieval bridge of six arches, over the Ultzama river.
In Pamplona we should mention: The old city including the city walls, the Metropolitan Cathedral- That was originally Romanesque and it was later rebuilt in Gothic style.
It is also worth seeing. The façade of the City Hall, The Church of San Cernin where the Virgen del Camino, Patron Saint of Pamplona, is venerated. The Church of San Lorenzo, where is located the bust of San Fermin can be seen.
On reaching Puente de la Reina, a "crossroads", medieval village, where the two main ways of the Camino de Santiago, (French and aragonés) merge. It is because of this that is an important milestone for the pilgrims coming from either side and for being one of the most meaningful Compostela enclaves, in Navarra and a continuous passage of pilgrims.
Walking along its main street becomes an unending discovery of its architectural treasures, like the churches of the Crucifix and Santiago, and beautiful buildings sprinkled with details of Jacobean influence. But the Romanesque bridge over the River Arga is one of the most beautiful
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and splendid Romanesque examples of the Jacobean route, from which the town gets its name.
The Jacobean Route leaves the town by the Romanesque bridge over the river Arga, where from the town gets its name, and continues towards the monumental city of Estella, that is halfway between Pamplona and Logroño. It is a Romanesque town that treasures palaces, stately homes, churches, convents, bridges and other beautiful buildings.
There are many interesting monuments in the city of Estella, most of them date from the Middle Ages, among which are: Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Convent of Santo Domingo, the Romanesque churches of Saint-Jean-Baptiste and Saint Michael, San Pedro of Lizarra, San Pedro de la Rúa., The Palace of the Kings of Navarra.
Los Arcos is a beautiful town on the way of St. James, on the banks of the River Odrón in the province of Navarra and before arriving to Logroño. It has been declared "National Historic-Artistic Site" for its monumental buildings and the good preservation of its old town.
We should mention: the Church of Saint Mary, the Hermitage of San Blas, the Hermitage of San Sebastian, the Hermitage of San Vicente.
We continue towards Viana which is the last Navarra town in the Jacobean Route, 3.5 kilometres from Logroño. In its historic old town, several medieval buildings stand out, such as, the Gothic church of St. Mary of the Assumption, the ruins of the Gothic church of St. Peter, the Pilgrims Hospital of our Lady of Grace and the Romanesque Hermitage of San Martin. As for modern buildings we can mention the Church of the convent of San Francisco as well as many palaces and mansions.
Logroño is an important city on the French way. We enter the city by crossing the river Ebro through a bridge that was built in the 11th century.
Museums and monuments: Museum of la Rioja, Baroque building of the 18th century; Cathedral of Sta. Maria de la Redonda, built over an ancient Romanesque temple of the 12th century; St. Bartholomew's Church, built in the 13th century and refurbished in the 15th century; and the Church of Santa María del Palacio - The temple was founded in
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the 11th century and was refurbished in the 12th century and enlarged In the 16th century.
We reach Navarrete, a town 12 km past Logroño. The Way crosses the town from one end to the other. In it we find the Hospital of San Juan of Acre, that in the 12th century gave shelter the pilgrims. We also find the Church of the Assumption of the 16th century, with an altarpiece of the 17th century.
We continue till the village of Azofra of Arab origin which has a small population and an extension of 12 square km.
Azofra has some buildings of cultural interest, related to the Christian cults and others also related to cults that take the form of routes and roads.As the Way to Santiago goes through Azofra, the pilgrims can stop there for a rest. In the village we can point out: the church of our Lady of the Angels, of the 18th century. Some elements of the building are older, such as the Tower, dating from the 16th century. From its old mansions we can learn much of the history inherited by Azofra.
Santo Domingo de la Calzada is a borough in La Rioja and was linked to the Camino de Santiago from its origins in the 11th century. It is located on a vast plain on the banks of the River Oja. It is in the western end of La Rioja and owes its existence to the pilgrimages. Before the town and the Way were founded, the pilgrimages were already established. In memory of the miracle that occurred in Santo Domingo de la Calzada, where a hen crowed after being roasted, a cock and a hen are kept alive in the Cathedral all the year-round. They are always white and come from donations from devotees of the Saint. The couples are changed every month.
It was named after its founder Domingo García, who built a bridge and a hospital to give shelter to the pilgrims passing through this town. Several miracles are attributed to him.
Important monuments: The Cathedral- They started to build it in 1158, so as to give shelter to the relics of the best known and venerated saint on the Camino de Santiago, Santo Domingo de la Calzada who died in 1109. The choir of the Cathedral is a great plateresque piece of art, built in the 1520s by Andrés de Nájera and Guillén de Holanda
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among others. The cloister is in Gothic-Mudejar style, in which the Chapterhouse with beautiful 17th century ashlar masonry and its mudéjar panelled ceiling. There is an exhibition of valuable works of art as Flemish triptychs, jewellery, and important sculptural pieces. The Tower of the Cathedral is detached from the building and was built between 1767 and 1769. It is a Great Baroque work seventy meters high.
Plaza de España- it is the Main square in the city. The square was built on the 14th century when they were building the town walls and it was for centuries the site of the market and the bullring. On the Square it is The Town Hall, The building of the Council of La Rioja on the east side and was built in 1763.On the ground floor was the Royal prison, which had been moved there from the Plaza del Santo. The building of the Alhóndiga, ancient place for selling and storing grain, where are now the council offices.
Plaza del Santo: it is located opposite the Cathedral, in the very heart of the old town. It was in this square where, initially, the most important institutions were allocated: The Pilgrims Hospital, the Cathedral and the former Council offices with its prison.
The Convent of San Francisco- In Herreriano style. In The Church of San Francis the space of “the Crossing” dominates the composition. It is everybody’s centre of attraction and it is precisely there that the founder’s tomb was placed. It is a work of high artistic quality. Next to the convent there is a monument to The Pilgrim.
The House of Trastamara: In this house Henry II of Castile of the Trastamara dynasty lived and died. It is the oldest civil building in the city and one of the few examples of Gothic architecture in the Rioja.
Santo Domingo Bridge: Santo Domingo built this bridge in mid-eleventh century for the pilgrims to pass through.
The walls: It is the largest walled enclosure to be found in La Rioja. It was built under the rule of Pedro I of Castilla, towards 1367 and was completed in 1369. This monumental ashlar wall was 1670 meterslong, and 2.5 meters wide. It has 38 towers, twelve meters high and 7 gates with Gothic arches.
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We continue the Way through San Juan de la Vega and we arrive at: Burgos. The province of Burgos plays the main role in the layout of the Camino de Santiago. Because of its strategic geographical location millions of European pilgrims were compelled to pass through it when, from their countries of origin were heading to the tomb of the Apostle Santiago.
Along the 114 km that cross its territory, we can enjoy an impressive series of heritage monuments that were declared “Patrimonial Heritage of Mankind”. it has over 500 Romanesque monuments, which is one of the largest collections of medieval art throughout Europe, making it one of the most important Spanish provinces from the architectural and sculptural point of view that makes it a great Romanesque core.
In Burgos There were many Romanesque parish churches, including the Cathedral, but the Gothic thrust from the 13th century onwards, practically erased all traces of it.
In these lands of Burgos we shall be able to visit many parish churches and humble hermitages full of the charm of the rural Romanesque, along with great legendary monasteries.
Monuments in Burgos: the Cathedral is a masterpiece of Spanish Gothic. This temple replaced the Romanesque church of three naves that was there previously and was promoted by Alfonso VI at the end of the 11th century.
It is probable that this Romanesque temple was considered too small as compared to the buildings on fashion at the time in great part of Europe, and especially in France, so, they soon started a new project in 1221.
Nowadays, in the Gothic Cathedral of Burgos you can easily notice two clearly identifiable phases: The pure Gothic style (13th and 14th centuries) and the flamboyant Gothic style.
Monastery of Santa María la Real de las Huelgas – It is one of the most beautiful examples of architecture belonging to the National Trust together with the Pantheon of the Kings of Castilla. The Church is of Cistercian style.
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La Cartuja of Santa María de Miraflores- It was built by Henry III, even though it was later enlarged by Elizabeth I, so as to house the tomb of her parents.
The monastery of San Pedro of Cardeña – It is located not far from Burgos and it is closely related to the history of El Cid and his wife, Doña Jimena, since it was here that she stayed with her daughters when el Cid went into exile.
Finally we shall mention: The monastery of Santo Domingo de Silos- It is located some 60 km. from Burgos. It treasures one of the greatest masterpieces of the Romanesque Art. As far back as the Visigoth period, a monastery dedicated to San Sebastian was already there, which at the time of count Fernán González was restored and expanded. But later, in 1042, the building went through a substantial renovation under the initiative of a monk named Domingo. The monk went through San Millán and ended up encouraging the Community of this place, following the orders of King Fernando I, He started a magnificent Romanesque building of which only remain the cloisters and the gate of the Virgin. Everything else is from the 18th and 19th centuries, in neoclassical style.
Castrojeriz is a small but a remarkably monumental town in the Compostela Route in the province of Burgos. It was originally a fortress, a Roman “Castro” (fortified hillock), expanded and rebuilt several times where from the surrounding walls of the town started. It is one of the towns that has more architectural pieces.
Itero de la Vega is the last town before crossing the Fitero Bridge over the Pisuerga River to enter Palencia. The bridge is Romanesque. The Hermitage of St. Nicholas, on the left hand side of the Way are the ruins of a 13th century hospital. This town was formerly fortified and it has a 14th century castle.
Fromista was formerly known as Frómista del Camino though the origin of its people is unknown. It became important when the Monastery of San Martín was founded, in 1066. It was a hospital from that period up to 1453 when it was destroyed by a fire.
Carrión de los Condes was a feudal settlement and had a prominent role in the founding of Castile, being a prosperous medieval town. We
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should mention the Church of Santa Maria del Camino with its Romanesque Portico and the Monastery of San Zoilo with a magnificent Renaissance Cloister, nowadays a luxury hostel.
Sahagún is a historical town in the province of León and one of the most important stages on the Camino de Santiago. Outstanding churches: San Tirso, (12th century), San Lorenzo(13th century), La Peregrina (13th century) and San Pedro de Dueñas.
El Burgo – Ranero is a town located in the tourist route of the Camino de Santiago declared Historic Heritage. In this municipality there are two ways, one is The French Camino Real coming from Sahagún, Calzada del Coto and Bercianos del Real Camino, crossing the town along the main street, called Calle Real, towards Mansilla de las Mulas. The other way is La Calzada Romana or Via Trajana that from Calzada del Coto branches off the main Way and goes through the town of Calzadilla de los Hermanillos through its Main street towards Mansilla de las Mulas where it joins the main Way.
Mansilla de las Mulas is part of the Camino de Santiago and the first mention of it dates from the 12th century. We know that because a pilgrim of medieval times wrote the first Guidebook and as said before the two ways of the town, La Calzada Romana on the right and The Royal French Way on the left merge here.
We cross the bridge over the River Esla towards León which has a special significance in this province. For 200 km. along Leon lands we can enjoy a valuable historical-artistic heritage
Town of Roman origin, León was the capital of an ancient Kingdom with a great history. It has the most beautiful gothic cathedral in Spain and it is one of the focal points of the Camino de Santiago.
Monuments: the Cathedral of San Marcos, the Colegiate of San Isidro with its Royal Pantheon, Palaces of Los Guzmanes, Casa de Guzmán,
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Casa de los Botines, designed by Gaudí, Palace of Conde de Luna, Puerta del Castillo, Church of San Martín and many others
Its Roman walls, built between the 1st and 4th centuries, surrounded the city. It was declared a Historic-Artistic Monument in 1931 and so it is protected by the Spanish Heritage Laws.
On leaving Leon we headed to Hospital de Órbigo which is a must on the Leon Way. It is here that the road to Astorga starts, which is the next most important place in this route, crossing the medieval “Puente del Paso Honroso”. This a medieval bridge of the 13th century, built over the river Orbigo, with 19 arches and well preserved, due to its having been restored several times. A national monument since 1939 and located on the old Roman road that goes from León to Astorga which was the capital of the province in Roman times. The town began on the site of an ancient Pre-Roman fortified “Castro” which was named after the Roman Emperor Augustus. It has a magnificent location at the confluence of the Camino of Santiago and The Route of the Silver.
Important buildings in Astorga: City Hall, the Cathedral of Santa Maria, the Walls, the Episcopal Palace.
On approaching Ponferrada we pass through the following towns:
Rabanal del Camino is a very small, quiet town with very few inhabitants and excellent stone houses and closely connected with the Camino de Santiago.
In Foncenadón, we can still find an iron cross which is believed to have been used as a sign of the Camino de Santiago, when heavy snow covered the road.
Molinaseca: the pilgrims on their way to Santiago de Compostela enter this peaceful and beautiful town after crossing the River through a Romanesque bridge. Its Manor Houses with Coats of Arms and its streets prove it is a town with a great deal of history. We shall highlight the Royal Street, also known as the “Pilgrims’ Street” since The Camino de Santiago passes along it. We can also highlight the Parish church of St. Nicholas.
Ponferrada is the greatest importance lies in its being the geographical centre of an area of remarkable artistic, scenic and
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gastronomic interest. There are many interesting places to visit nearby, such as: Villafranca del Bierzo, Cacabelos etc... and above all the Médulas or Santiago de Peñalba. The passing of the pilgrimages bound to the tomb of the Apostle meant an increase of urban life in the area in which an active number of craftsmen and even a small Jewish enclave settled.
In the 11th century the Bishop of Astorga ordered the construction of a bridge with metal reinforcements to facilitate the transit (Pons-Ferrata). In the second half of the 12th century the Templars developed the fortress, which originally was a Pre-Roman Castro and as it was located on one of the hills made Ponferrada a stronghold, with increasing pilgrimages. In 1312 the Castle had different owners. Royalty and prominent noble families, improved it, but later it fell into neglect. The 19th and 20th centuries were disastrous.
Another typical area of Ponferrada is the Calle del Reloj, with the tower that was left of the walls, the old Convent of Concepcionistas and the old jail that nowadays is the Museo del Bierzo. There you can review the history of the area with elements of different eras, from Prehistory to the present day.
In the old quarter of the town we find The Plaza de la Encina with its 16th century Basilica and its subsequent Tower, where the image of the Virgen de la Encina, popular Patron Saint of the region is located together with many other images of medieval origin and it has its own legend. In the outskirts of Ponferrada we find a church with a Romanesque portico of the 12th century and has an Altar piece of the 10th century, characterized of Mozarabic influence.
O Cebreiro (177 km from Santiago and 1.293 metres altitude) is the first stage for the pilgrims when they arrive in Galicia when coming along the French way.
When in the midst of the stone setting of O Cebreiro time seems to have stopped. It was built well before the arrival of the Romans, although it is from the beginning of the pilgrimages when O Cebreiro becomes an important enclave of the way.
En O Cebreiro we find the Church of Santa Maria del Real which is a real jewel of the pre-Romanesque art, dating back to the 9th century. A
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miracle was performed here called Eucharistic Miracle, also known as the Miracle of the Holy Grail in Galicia.
When the Catholic Monarchs heard of the miracle in 1486 they went on a pilgrimage to the church of Santa Maria and donated a Relics safe that together with the Chalice is exposed for the congregation and pilgrims who attend St Mary's Church to admire.
There we find several “pallozas” or huts, name for ancient homes, prior to the arrival of the Romans and probably of Celtic origin. Some of them were inhabited until well into the 20th century. Nowadays with a special permit, you are allowed to spend the night in one of them.
One of these local cottages has become an Ethnographic Museum where you can see the household and traditional farming tools, as well as the bedroom of the inhabitants of the area, the “lareira”, (an open fireplace ) and the stables.
We leave O Cebreiro, one of the jewels of the way, and continue to Liñares where a figure in bronze honours the Pilgrims. We reach the Hospital de la Condesa, where there is a church and a hospital for pilgrims and then the Alto do Poio. We go on towards Padornelo, Fonfría, Viduedo, Ramil, Filoval, as Pasantes and Triacastela, then San Cristóbal and Renche and after crossing the River Ouribio arrive at
Samos stands on the shadow of the Monastery of San Julián one of the largest and most important in the Camino de Santiago in Galicia.
The Monastery of St Julian is still run by Benedictine monks. It was founded by San Martín Dumiense in the 6th century. From the old medieval buildings we can only find a gate from the old church of the end of the 12th or early 13th centuries, the chapel of the Salvador, and a column and a fragment of a marble plaque of a 9th century. The Church, the two cloisters and the rest of the monastic quarters are modern.
In contrast with the large size of the monastery is the Chapel of the Cypress that is nearby. It is a small pre-Romanesque building listed as Mozarabic of the end of the 9th century or the beginning of the 10th with a huge Cypress tree close to it. Besides those two monuments we can find some others like: the Municipal Stage Stand, the Clock Tower and the Public Fountain in the Centre of the village.
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We pass along small towns such as Sarria, Portomarín Palas de Rey, Melide, Arzúa and we arrive at Santiago de Compostela.
Santiago de Compostela is located in the Northwest of Spain, in the Celtic and green Galicia, the Romans called it "Finis Terrae", for it being the most western end of the known world at the time.
Fantastic and wonderful legends and stories tell us of this city, the Capital of Galicia, where the longest and most interesting medieval roads led to. Santiago is a jewel in Spain, with an old town of great beauty and a long Way that, for centuries, pilgrims and adventurers made on foot.
The Cathedral of Santiago- It was begun in the hey-days of Santiago, in 1075. In it you can see the Capilla del Salvador of pre-Romanesque influence in its rectangular exterior plant. The second stage of its construction begins after the marriage of Doña Urraca to Raymond of Burgundy, which gave the Temple a French Romanesque influence, resulting in a unique style: Compostela Romanesque. The Obradoiro façade is from this period, and although they respected its Romanesque structure, Baroque decorative elements were added as we can see today in Torre de las Campanas and the Torre of the Carraca.
Through the gate of the Obradoiro we enter to the so-called old cathedral which is really the crypt, a Romanesque Church of Latin cross plant that introduced the first Cross Vaults in Spain.
The portico de la Gloria It is so exceptional, that it is considered to be the most perfect iconographic medieval monument of Romanesque sculpture.
The Square of Obradoiro. This square is of exceptional beauty and is the heart of the Museum that the whole city of Santiago is.
The Palace of Gelmírez. As a counterpoint to the cloister of the Cathedral, this is one of the greatest examples of the civil Romanesque architecture in Spain. Its cross vaults, which cover an extensive area without any other central support than the Arco of Palacio are outstanding.
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The Royal Hospital - "Hostal de los Reyes Católicos". This formerly hospital is the oldest and most important of any other built by the Catholic Monarchs Isabella and Ferdinand, in 1499, and was dedicated to host the pilgrims that came to Santiago. It is a Gothic building. One of the most remarkable elements is its beautiful Plateresque façade with barred windows, dating from the 16th century. Two medallions bearing the effigies of the Catholic Monarchs can be seen on both side of the entrance. There are four inside courtyards and the Chapel of Enrique Egas is most outstanding. Its façade opens to the Obradoiro Square and is located in the Centre of the old city, which is one of the most important monumental sites in Spain.
Palacio of Rajoy -A huge and elegant neoclassical building opposite the Cathedral, built in the 18th century.
The Colegio of St. Jerome. It was founded by Archbishop Alonso III of Fonseca in the 16th century for poor students. The Romanesque façade belonged to the former Hospital of Azabachería.
Colegio de Fonseca- It was also founded by Alonso III of Fonseca and was devoted to the study of Theology. The Portico is of Renaissance style with jonic columns. In the Sala de Grados there is an admirable mudéjar coffered ceiling and its beautiful patio combines different artistic styles. This building houses the University Library and the priceless Mozarabic manuscript, “Book of hours” of Fernando I, of 11th century.
The Plaza de Platerías – its name is due to the many shops of silversmiths that exist under the arcades on the ground floor of the cloister of the Cathedral. One enters this square through the Gothic doorway of the Cathedral and a staircase of the 18th century. In the Centre there is la Fuente de los Caballos, of J.Pernas built in 1825. The façade of The Casa del Cabildo designed by Fernández Sarela in 1758 to embellish the square, with its typical Galician Baroque style plates and The Casa de los Canonigos, Colonnade palace designed by Andrade in 1709, separates the Plaza de Platerías from the Plaza de la Quintana.
La Plaza de la Quintana- This square communicates the Royal portico where the popular "Berenguela " or Torre del Reloj is located, it was begun in 1316 and refurbished in the 17th century, being an
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exceptional Baroque Tower and the La Puerta del Perdón or Puerta Santa that is opened only when the festivity of the Apostle coincides with its being Holy Year.
The Monastery of San Pelayo de Antealtares- It is one of the oldest monasteries in the town, it was founded in the 11th century by Alfonso II to house the tomb of the Apostle when it was found. The façade is of 17th and 18th centuries, we must highlight the lattice window covers of the 17th century, the dome and the Museum of Sacred Art of the Monastery.
The baroque Casa de la Parra with its carved climbing plants, fruit ornaments, gargoyles and fireplace, is a beautiful brooch that closes the square.
Also worth of a special mention:
The Plaza of the Azabachería- Here one finds the original Romanesque gate, called the Paradise Gate.
The monastery of San Martín Pinario. It’s the most monumental of Santiago. The Romanesque building disappeared at the beginning of the 16th century when the actual convent was built. Its Church is made in Compostela Baroque style, highlighting the exuberant Baroque richness of the major altarpiece
Nearby stands the Convent of San Francisco, that reminds us of the pilgrimage of San Francisco of Assisi to Compostela in the years 1213-1215. From the old Gothic building we can only find five arches in the courtyard of the Chapterhouse. The present convent and two cloisters are of the 17th century and the Church is from the 18th century. Opposite the Church is a statue of San Francisco.
"The Camino de Santiago represents the European consciousness, the identity of Europe and it has the responsibility to upgrade its powerful training capacity, caring for its rich historical and artistic heritage, pamper one’s ecological potential and foster its spirit of hospitality and solidarity" .
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Women’s massive entry into the job market in Spain and its influence in children’s education
Anselmo Castro and Eugenio Pardo
Contents
o The Spanish schedule and the working time
o The women’s entry into the labour market in Spain
o The school system in Spain – PISA Report
o Collateral effects of women’s participation in the Spanish labour market
o Work-life balance. An overview of the EU countries and the Spanish Status
o Key findings and recommendations
o Finland: A model to follow
Work-flow
1.1 Starting Point
o PISA Report: Bad results for the Spanish school system.
1.2 Key Factors:
o Spanish time-table
o Increasing participation of Spanish women in the labour force and its collateral effects.
o The life-work balance in Spain.
1.3 Study Goals
Evaluating these key factors and their influence on the children's education.
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1. Key Findings
1.1 The work and family life balance is a pending subject in Spain. The lack of solutions penalizes the lives of thousands of women in our country, forcing them to resign to maternity (or to have less children than wished), to have children at older ages and/or to resign to higher education.
1.2 The Spanish delay in women’s participation in the labour force has meant that the measures to arrange the conciliation between work and family have less time to develop than other countries
1.3 Nordic countries, particularly Finland and Sweden, have put in place aids to the families from companies, institutions and governments towards the work-life balance. Among other factors beyond the scope of this study, this situation certainly contributes to the success of Finnish and Swedish students, who invariably obtain good results in the PISA evaluations. This institutionalized support greatly differs from the situation in Spain.
1.4 However, we think there is a crucial factor that makes it difficult for Spain to adopt effective conciliation measures: the Spanish Schedule!.
2. Spanish Schedule
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3. Inclusion of women to work in Spain 3.1 Evolution of the population in Spain
More women than men: 23.3 million women compared to 22.8 million men in 2008.
The rate of incorporation of women into the world of work is only 4 points in the Euro area average. In 2008 was 54.8%.
2002 2008
UE-15 55,6 60,4
UE-17 54,7 59,4
UE-27 54,4 59,1
Euro-zone 53,1 58,8
Spain 44,4 54,9
The occupancy rate for women stood at 44% in 2009 with a high percentage of part-time work.
Level of higher education in graduate or doctorate more than men, 88.3% in women, 83.3% for men in 2009.
Men
Women
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4. Education in Spain. PISA report
4.1 Reading Comprehension
Countries Media Standard
Error Ext..
Lower Ext.
Higher Finland 536 2,25 531 540 Spain 481 2,02 477 485 Average OCDE 493 0,48 492 494
4.2 Mathematical Competence
Countries Media Standard
Error Ext..
Lower Ext.
Higher Finland 541 2,17 536 545 Spain 483 2,11 479 488 Average OCDE 496 0,49 495 497
4.3 Scientific Competence
Countries Media Standard
Error Ext..
Lower Ext.
Higher Finland 554 2,34 550 559 Spain 488 2,05 484 492 Average OCDE 501 0,49 500 502
5. Side effects of the inclusion of women to work in Spain 5.1 Low birth rate
Spain has gone from a birth rate of 2.9 in the 70's, a birthrate of 1.48 in 2008, with a low of 1.16 in 1998
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5.2 Shortage of women in management positions
The presence of women in managerial positions is still very scarce in the private sector and limited the public sector, whether it is instead equal in companies without employees
5.3 Education of children. It's a proven fact the influence of parental involvement in education of children
5.3.1 With the presence of parents: Improving self-esteem and better parental attitudes toward school and teachers. Contribution to the performance of the house, either through care, communication and setting rules and limits positions (especially for teenagers) and especially become a listener for their children.
5.3.2 With the absence and instability is reduced communication, reduces help in homework and reduces parental participation in school and on the other hand, in the absence of a stable family environment children grow up alone and develop conduct disorders.
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6. Reconciliation of family life and work. (Report 2011-Survey Family Watch IESE)
6.1 Flexible working hours
6.2 Parental leaves
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6.3 Problems
6.3.1 Flexible hours. 70% of respondents felt that no flexible schedule.
6.3.2 Equality in family work: Considerable imbalance between men and women in the division of housework and childcare.
6.4 Challenges
6.4.1 Consider the relationship between work and family as a source of mutual benefits and not conflict.
6.4.2 Encourage businesses to assess the loss of human capital and other associated benefits, when they have flexible policies.
6.4.3 Reconsider the current concept of time at work, with long working days that discriminates against women.
6.4.4 Articles of Incorporation to harmonize work schedules, school, business and family.
7. Conclusions and recommendations
7.1.1 Reconciliation of work and family life is a signature pending in Spain, whose lack of solutions severely penalizes the lives of thousands of women in our country, either forcing them to renounce motherhood (or have fewer children than desired ), having children at older ages, and even not properly attend to their training
7.1.2 The Spanish lag in incorporating women into the labor market has also contributed to the measures taken to facilitate the reconciliation has been slower than other countries.
7.1.3 In the Nordic countries, as already seen in the development of this work, such as Finland and Sweden, aid to families by companies, institutions and government to allow reconciling work and family issues are much greater than those in Spain. Most likely, this contributes greatly (along with other factors not covered by this study) to the excellent results for Finnish
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students and to a lesser extent, Swedish, invariably obtained in the PISA assessments.
7.1.4 However, we believe that there are other factors that make Spain extraordinarily effective measures for reconciliation, which are none other than the Spanish time Central European Time and force in our country.
7.2 Recommendations
7.2.1 Time Shift Paso a Western European Time
7.2.2 Changing the European Day: 8x8x8 Day
7.2.3 Changing the mindset in the family and society
Awareness campaigns that put value on domestic work and responsibility in connection therewith.
Encouraging the use of parental rights, care and dependent care.
Promoting education in the values of domestic work and responsibility in school.
Socio-educational intervention aimed specifically at men to change gender roles.
Surveillance and control of sexist stereotyping of players role in the media
7.2.4 Action by government
Improved Reconciliation Act, Act 39/99. There are currently no enforcement in the event of breach of the law.
Expanding the supply of public services for the care of dependents. (Child Care and nursing homes)
Extension of time in public kindergartens.
Development of a training and employment in services for the care of dependents.
Grants for the creation of jobs and services for dependent care.
Aid for the creation of services for the care of dependent people in the workplace or in the vicinity.
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7.2.5 Action by the companies
Policy lights off.
Use inclusive language.
Set reconciliation measures that exceed the terms of the status of workers and to involve men in responsibility.
Learn time management and stress prevention.
Department of diversity and equality.
Monitoring Committee of the reconciliation measures.
Study of the impact of measures implemented.
8. Final summary. Finland, a model to follow
• Finland is in the proper time zone and its schedule is adapted to the solar time
• Finland has a rational working time.
• In Finland people believe in the gender equality at the home
• The Finnish State implements policies towards work and family conciliation
• The Finnish companies have a good support to the family – work balance
9. Bibliography
Anca, C. y Aragón, S. (2006): La mujer Directiva en España: Catalizadores e Inhibidores en las decisiones de trayectoria profesional. Academia. Revista latinoamericana de Administración. Primer semestre, 038, 45-63.
ARHOE. Asociación para la Racionalización de los Horarios Españoles.
Ballantine, J. H. (1999): Getting Involved in our Children‟s Education” [Abstract]. ERIC_N0: EJ582368. Disponible en: http://ericir.syr.edu/plweb.
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Brown, P. C. (1989): Involving Parents in the Education of their Children. Disponible en:
http://www.ed.gov/ databases/ ERIC_Digests/ ed308988.html.
Chinchilla, N. y León, C. Estudios sobre la Familia - The Family Watch, Informe “Diez años de conciliación en España (1999-2009)”.
http://www.thefamilywatch.org/act-2inf-es.php
Collin, J. Una Hora Menos. Grupo de Facebook y Blogspot. 07-04-2011 34 de 34
Diario El País. 14/02/2011. Sección vida & artes, Lo tienen todo, excepto a sus padres.
Eurofound. European Foundations for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions: Working time flexibility in European Countries.
ESWT 2004-2005
http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/pubdocs/2007/39/en/1/ef0739en.pdf
Eurofound. European Foundations for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions: Working time and work-life balance in European Companies.
ESWT 2004-2005
http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/pubdocs/2006/27/en/1/ef0627en.pdf
Georgiou, S. (1996). Parental Involvement in Cyprus. International Journal of Educational Research, 25, 33-43.
Gómez, S. (2003). La incorporación de la mujer al mercado laboral: Implicaciones personales, familiares y profesionales, y medidas estructurales de conciliación trabajo-familia. IESE, Universidad de Navarra. Cátedra SEAT –IESE de Relaciones Laborales
Huso Horario. (n.d.). en Wikipedia. Consultada en Enero de 2011, desde
es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huso_horario. Instituto Nacional de Estadística: Mujeres y Hombres en España 2010 www.ine.es/prodyser/pubweb/myh/myh10.pdf
Instituto Nacional de Estadística: Mujeres y Hombres en España 2001
http://www.ine.es/prodyser/pubweb/indisoc03/hombre_mujer.pdf
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Morales, A. M., Arcos, P., Ariza, E., Cabello, M. A., López, M. C., Pacheco, J., Palomino, A., Sánchez, J. y Venzalá, M. C. (1999). El entorno familiar y el rendimiento escolar. Proyecto de Investigación Educativa subvencionado por la Consejería de Educación y Ciencia de la Junta de Andalucía.
Nord, C. W. (1998). Factors Associated with Fathers and Mothers ‟Involvement in their Children‟s Schools [Abstract]. Disponible en: http://ericir.syr.edu/plweb.
Nord, C.W. (1999). Father Involvement in Schools. Disponible en: http://ericir.syr.edu/plweb.
PISA (2009). Programa para la Evaluación Internacional de alumnos. OCDE. Informe Español.
Rivero, A., del Corral, A., Cabrero, B., Martínez-Pantoja, I., Pescador, G., Antolínez, P. y Rodríguez, A. (2005). Conciliación de la vida familiar y la vida laboral: situación actual, necesidades y demandas. Instituto de la Mujer.
Rivero, A., Caunedo, P. y Rodríguez, A. (2008). De la conciliación a la corresponsabilidad: buenas prácticas y recomendaciones. Instituto de la Mujer.
Sánchez, P. (2006). Discapacidad, familia y logro escolar. Revista Iberoamericana de Educación. Nº 40/2.
Zellmana, G., y Waterman, J. M. (1998). Understanding the Impact of Parent School Involvement on Children’s Educational Outcomes [Abstract]. ERIC_NO: EJ571135. Disponible en http://ericir.syr.edu/plweb.
Wikipedia.
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Women and migration: A view from the Spanish cinema
Hermitas García, Mª Luz Méndez, Gloria Pereiro, Yrma Prado
Scope
Recognise and analyse the role of the women in the Spanish migratory flows of 1945-1973 and 1975-2009, through the Spanish cinema
Cinema was aessential fount for understanding the migration realities, distinguishing different reasoning powers and explicating reasons and facts what are hidden and forgotten.
1945-1973: Migration: Postwar and dictatorship
1.945 a 1.960: Migration to América
Domestic Migration
1.960 a 1.973: Migration to Europe
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Women and Migration in Spain In January 2010, 1.574.123 spanish people were living in other
countries. By gender, 51,1% were women and 48,9% were men:
Spanish Migration by continents
women 51%
men 49%
Spanish Migration by gender
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In January 2010, 5.708.940 foreigners were living in Spain. By gender, 52,53% were women and 47,47% were men:
Migration in Spain by continents of procedence
Women 47,47%
Men 52,53%
Foreigners in Spain by gender
Rest of the world: 5,64%
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Analysis of the following films
1951 1970 2007
o Emigrate as men’s partners or single
o Their education is sexist
o Are restricted to the private space
o Do not have legal capacity
o Are punished for what is excused to the men.
1973-2009: Immigration: Transition and Democracy
1.973: Return from Europe
1.980: Migration to Spain
Analysis of the following films
1951 1970
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o Have children and dependents
o Migrate first than their husbands. Illegal
o Can not practice their job
o Are looking for a stable life
o Are or were prostitutes
o Bear physical violence and xenophobia
In both periods
o Otherness
o Migrate from necessity
o Have no the papers
o Work as servants
o Bear social discrimination and gender violence
Conclusions
People migrate because they have no place in their country
From Spanish cinema we can see that women, emigrant and inmmigrant have an added handicap, the inferiority of gender.
The social rejection is caused by the ignorance of other cultures and produces stereotypes.
Power is the base of well-being and migration a path for women’s empowerment.
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The changing role of women in Spain since 1945
Carlos Piñeiro, Luz Calderón, Mª Luisa Morado, Carmen Varela
Introduction
A long process of change
First stage of Franco 1945-1960
Second stage of Franco 1960-1975
The transition
The last 30 years
Introduction
Never before throughout History has there been, nor will there possibly be, such an extraordinary time of change for women, as the twentieth century.
From the perspective of these first decades of the twenty first century, any balance we propose to do about the changing women´s role in recent years-be these, twenty five, fifty or a hundred- has to start recognizing that the change has been spectacular, a major change the longer the period of time to be analyzed. To the extent that it has been said that women´s revolution has been one of the most important phenomena of the twentieth century. What has happened in our country in recent decades that besides has coincided with the transition to Democracy, does nothing else to corroborate this process of change, heightened by the fact that the delay we suffered was greater than in other European countries
The reason for this delay does not arise only in the forty years of Franco´s dictatorship, but has persisted since long before, if we compare with other industrialized countries where women had achieved levels of freedom impossible to get in our country.
The two world wars, from 1914 to 1919 and especially 1940 to 1945 promoted the massive incorporation of women to work, replacing men
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who were at the front. This was the beginning of a female revolution to achieve social and labour equality with men that continues nowadays.
In Spain, for historical reasons already mentioned, this incorporation occurs later, slowly and with a lot of difficulties. However, despite all the obstacles, Spanish women today are at the same level as those of neighbouring countries. We can´t forget that there are more women than men studying, not only at University but also in other kind of studies so as to be able to work in jobs that some time ago were reserved exclusively for men, for example, fire-fighters, soldiers, welders etc.
Gradually, they already occupy key positions in very diverse areas such as Medicine, Science, Law, Engineering, Architecture, Politics, Literature, Business, Music, and in many other areas impossible to enumerate.
This was possible on establishing a democratic system, since the Spanish Constitution of 1978 set up the principle of equality and non-discrimination.
Despite all these excellent results, there is still a long way to go to achieve full integration and full equality with men. There are things looming ahead, such as wage differentials, for the same work, more female than male unemployment, child care and elderly people who are just a few examples.
In general, we can even see some social barriers that impede the full realization of women in the triple field- family, social and professional.
A long process of change
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century’s, that is, only a century ago, there were about five million families, of which 85% were workers and peasants. In four million of these, the women performed household chores exclusively. The other million was devoted
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to hard work and badly paid, for example, laundresses, babysitters, ironers, market sellers or in workshops and factories, as cigar makers, dressmakers, potters etc.
The illiteracy rate was much higher than men, more than 50%, which made them be in inferior conditions to get better jobs, in the case of working women.
The situation of rural women was much worse, their living conditions were almost of slavery, worked from dawn to dusk, in the field, at home, caring for her husband, her children and seniors with a minimum income, living with great difficulties.
The women of the bourgeoisie had a different position, though no less limited. The economy and education were much better but they were kept within the four walls of the home to look after her husband, to monitor the education of children and perpetuate the reproduction of the species.
Despite the many factors influencing against their intellectual development, the active population gradually increased, as the process of industrialization was emerging.
Throughout this time, though rare, great female personalities arise. All in their respective fields defending their rights and raised their voices against the role society forced, upon them.
Concepción Arenal: Lawyer. She dressed up as a man to attend the University. She was a great advocate for women's rights, especially education. When she was appointed. Director General of Prisons she carried out a major reform in the way of life of women prisoners.
Rosalía de Castro: Romantic Poetess and Novelist who wrote both in Spanish and Galician. She is considered along with Gustavo Adolfo Becquer the forerunner of modern Spanish poetry.
Emilia Pardo Bazán: Essayist, Novelist, Journalist and Literary Critic, all her life was a constant struggle for women's rights.
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Clara Campoamor: Lawyer. Member of the Parliament. She participated in the Constitution Project of the Second Republic. She defended the women's vote without any limitations.
Victoria Kent: Lawyer. Member of Parliament During the Republic was Director General of Prisons. She was the first woman in the world to act before the Supreme Tribunal of War and Navy.
Federica Montseny: Writer and Trade Unionist. She became the first female Minister of Spain. She has several texts referring especially to the defence of women.
María Goyri: First Spanish female become university student in the contemporary era. If she had been told that within a century, the majority of students would be female, she would not have believed it. Her works were always related to the world of education. The last years of her life were devoted to philological research.
With the advent of the Second Republic, 1931-1936, a short period of progress began and achieved, among other things, something as important as divorce or the right to vote.
The legislation of the Republic represented great progress in recognizing the rights of women and their integration into politics. These early successes were not achieved entirely by the continuing efforts of the first Spanish suffragettes, were achieved mainly by the ideologies already carried by the democratic political parties. This forced them to reform discriminatory laws, the concession of the vote for women, equal rights for both sexes and the possibility of access to public posts.
In 1936, the Army under the command of General Franco rose up against the government, the Civil War broke out which took place from 1936 to 1939.
The Republican side lost and a long dictatorship began which will cover nearly half a century and where the situation of women will suffer a great setback. The hard-won achievements are cancelled, the church is allied with the new powers, establishing a National Catholicism that by means of divine and human laws, influence or attempt to influence the lives of several generations.
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First stage of Franco 1945-1960
In this long period that left behind nearly a million dead, Franco´s Government launched a plan in order to increase the country demographics. The family was the basis of the population. Political measures were taken to:
o Family and women
o Divorce law is abolished
o Marriage among young is encouraged
o Abortion and contraception are penalized
o Protection to large families is established
o Female adultery is penalized
Married women had to ask for their husband´s permission to sign an employment contract, to open a bank account or to dispose of an inheritance.
Education: Coeducation is deleted. Compulsory women's Social Service: Compulsory Home exam is required to obtain a college degree. A mandatory subject of domestic science is created, trusting its teaching to Feminine Section.
The Feminine Section was formed as the female branch of the Spanish Falange political party and was disbanded in 1977 after General Franco´s death and the subsequent liquidation of his regime.
In the early years of Franco´s regime its institutional role was consolidated by giving it the exclusive control of women´s education so as to be good patriots, good Christians and good wives.
A patriarchal model was imposed while in other countries had already been outdated.
What the Feminine Section intended, was to install a model of woman that chose obedience and service for her necessary biological reproductive role. To create this stereotype they counted on strong
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support from the Catholic Church that through their speeches tried to convince people that having sex without a procreation goal was a great sin and that sex between men and women had been created only to breed.
For the Church the revolution of women's clothing which was carried out by the great couturier Coco Chanel who freed the woman from previous ties. It dictated its own fashion, simple and modest. Prohibiting tight dresses, necklines, transparencies and the girls had to wear socks as soon as they were in their teens.
But not only did the system try to brainwash from education but also by the media. Comics for young people presented the man as a brave hero and the woman
sweet and feeble, always in danger and, that would be saved by the great hero.
There were magazines aimed specifically at women trying to install all these ideas, sending certain messages.
“Women never discover anything, they lack the creative talent reserved by God for men”.
“Every woman's life is nothing but an eternal desire to find someone whom to submit. Voluntary dependence is the most beautiful situation because love releases her of selfishness, vanity and frivolity”.
“Throughout her life, her mission is to serve as a wife and mother”.
“When she is doing the housework she has the opportunity to do as much gymnastics as if she worked outside home. Dusting high places, cleaning the floors, windows, glasses, etc. she will perform so many physical movements that although they do not have as purpose the aesthetics of the body they are equally effective”
“Sport should not be taken as a pretext for outrageous costumes, make indecent exhibition or to become independent of the family”.
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“Married life must be harmonious. When the husband comes home dinner must be ready. He should be spoken in a low and relaxed voice and listen to him carefully if he has something to say”.
“With respect to intimate relationships, it is very important to remember the obligations of marriage, if he wants to sleep, don´t pressure him, if the union is suggested, agree humbly, always bearing in mind that his satisfaction is the most important. When he reaches the climax, a small moan will be enough. If your husband asked you unusual sexual practices, be obedient and do not complain”.
Despite all the restrictions of this stage that could be (quoting, the writer Martin Santos) from his book known as “Time of Silence “, great personalities will emerge. After the war, most intellectuals were killed or in exile. Scientists, writers, philosophers, poets etc. had to flee and those who were able to stay, had to fight against the terrible censorship that National Catholicism had imposed.
But despite that darkness, the twentieth-century Spanish narrative, over all, which is known as the fifties generation, will be marked by important writers, that will narrate the life during the post war. We can cite:
Carmen Laforet, Dolores Medio, Rosa Chacel, Elena Soriano, Carmen Martin Gaite, Josefina Aldecoa, Mercedes Salisachas and Ana Maria Matute among others.
The latter is thought as the best novelist of the Spanish post war period. She is a member of the Royal Spanish Academy, National Literature Prize, and since 2010 she is the third woman who won the Cervantes Prize.
All these women published their books when they were hardly twenty years old. In their books there is an autobiographical tendency and the characters show a critical attitude and challenge to the acceptance of traditional norms.
Contrary to the Government´s expectations, these restrictions will produce a different effect and during the decade from the fifties to the sixties the women´s presence in the world of work and the University gradually increase.
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Second stage of Franco 1960-1975
In the sixties, Spain discovered tourism under the strict gaze of Franco´s moral. Juan Carlos was preparing to be king and the opposition to the dictator was fighting in the shade while a select group of handsome and beautiful people enjoyed the sun in the newly discovered Marbella.
Economic development improved remarkably, though unequal, the standard of living of the majority of the population, which formed the middle class, which was until then, almost nonexistent.
The opening to Europe with migration and tourism came to join to the economic and religious changes. A wave of liberality undermined the uses of a fossilized moral. Sexuality begins to be assumed. Couples decide the number of children they want and a strong movement of secularizing in society starts which distance women from the ecclesiastical influence.
Mary Quant invents the miniskirt, which takes the demure fashion ahead of previous years. Ives St. Laurent popularizes trousers from shorts to unisex suits. Fashion imposes the bikini at the beaches and pools.
The hairstyle and makeup change. Backcombing and false eyelashes arise. Accessories become exaggerated, big glasses and platform shoes that somehow symbolize the great transformation that slowly moves toward completion.
For Spain, the women´s emancipation is the key for the family structure and has been the main conveyor of the changes in our country. The entrance of women into the workforce and their increasing access to higher education was one of the causes of these changes.
The first signs of change are seen shortly before the sixties. In 1955 a Cabinet reshuffle is carried out which takes a group of technocrats to
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power. A Stabilization Plan is created in 1959, followed by several Development Plans. July 15 1961 the law on political, professional and working rights for women is put into action.
The economic strangulation and the international gap that for the country meant that it had to take certain measures, among them, the prohibition of the access of women to high-level professional bodies and mainly having excluded married women from the world of work, made this law necessary, which came into force on January 1st 1962. It was very important because it eliminated discrimination based on sex and declared equal pay.
A big step was taken but with severe restrictions. Marital authorization was necessary and the access to military careers, judicial magistrate or prosecutor was vetoed.
Surrounding the lawyer Maria Telo the Association of Women Lawyers emerged in 1971 which influenced decisively in the reforms that were made in the Civil Code, Penal and labour law. The marital license and obedience to the husband were removed. Since then women freely could dispose of their own property, accept or reject inheritance, to be executor, guardian, legal proceedings to defend their interests, open bank accounts, apply for passports, and not lose their nationality by marriage and be able to trade among other things.
Since the late sixties, important groups of women were organized as feminist movements and oppose the regime. The Women's Democratic Movement (MDM), was established in1965, it was one of the most prominent for the great quantity of independent women it brought together. It was linked to the Communist Party of Spain. The MDM objective was to impulse the Spanish women´s organization so that they would become interested in the general problems of the country, the demand for Democracy and
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specific women´s problems. Its work focused mainly on raising awareness among housewives in poor neighbourhoods, discrimination in education, work, lack of services etc.
All this, plus the social and economic changes of the second period of the regime, combined with the impact of tourism, revolutionized ideas and customs and in 1975 when Franco died, Spain was very different. At that time a young generation existed at that time with progressive ideas who aspired to major social changes and that contributed to the fact that the Franco regime could not survive the dictator and the transition to democracy began.
The transition
In 1977 the Union of the Democratic Center (UCD) won the first democratic elections. In the Chamber of Deputies they were discussing the laws that should be amended and the legal rights that women claimed to be incorporated into the Constitution that was being drafted at the time. Although the Constitution did not collect all claims, the existence of women's movement had many effects on institutions. Study groups were created on women in trade unions, universities, media etc.
The transition period was a policy framework favourable to the Spanish feminist movement since the interest that the issue of woman wakes makes political parties create women's organizations. This movement was similar to the European ones.
In the following years it experimented a tremendous growth and groups grew in all regions, bars, bookstores, publishers were opened, discussions were promoted in trade unions, neighbourhood associations, universities, cultural centres and other civic organizations, important media, playwrights, filmmakers, musicians etc. also contributed to the feminist cause.
At this time, besides countless pop music groups, the protest song emerged powerfully. It was linked to anti Franco activism, to the popular cultural claim, to the rescue of poets, languages and dialects buried by the regime under the idea of a united Spain.
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In their songs they do not forget the most disadvantaged groups and denounce the situation of farmers, workers, migrants, women etc.
Although the number of men is much greater, Paco Ibañez, Carlos Cano, Serrat, Raimon, Mikel Laboa, Labordeta, Krahe etc. We can quote some female figures such as Ana Belén, Rosa León, Elisa Serna and Cecilia.
Finally the State Women's Coordinator was created, based on the analysis of inequality of women, and asked the government to take political measures in favour of equality.
A year before the adoption of the Constitution, the government decided to establish a Subdirection for Feminine Condition depending on Ministry of Culture to promote the advance of women.
The Constitution approval in December 1978 was the most important contribution in this phase. In order to draft it, the forces involved, reached agreements that were above the differences. An example of this was the Moncloa Pacts. They approved, among other many things, a divorce law, equality of spouses in marriage and equal rights between boys and girls within and outside marriage, gender equality and elimination of all forms of discrimination.
While changes were slowly produced, the coup in February 1981, was attempted, in which sectors of the armed forces occupied the Congress of Deputies during the ceremony of the new President of the Government´s investiture. Citizen mobilization and the king´s participation caused the failure and objective of the coup that was to end the democratization process.
The following year, the Spanish Socialist Party (PSOE) won the elections with absolute majority, allowing alternation of government that ended the Spanish political transition
The last thirty years
It is clear that during the last twenty five or thirty years, great strides have been given in order to balance the women's rights situation, but it is also clear that there are many things to solve.
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With the advent of democracy seemed that everything was done and problems would disappear quickly. Reality has shown that the struggle was not over and had to continue, but from other angles.
It is true that the enactment of the Spanish Constitution marked the recognition of equality in the face of law for men and women as one of the principles of the Spanish juridical organization, but to make possible the access of women to equality, legislative changes aren´t enough, it is necessary to remount and overcome obstacles to allow them to participate in culture, work and in political, economic and social development.
Political parties: Although the two major left-wing parties PCE and PSOE had demonstrated sensitivity to these needs, after the first elections there was an ostentatious rejection of the feminist issue, which led, in the case of PCE that many militants left the party. In the PSOE, the opposite happened. Although socialist women were marginalized of the centres of decision, they did not leave their organization.
And they came to the conclusion that instead of making a frontal opposition, the best thing would be to establish a strategy so as to win battles from inside. In 1982 the Socialist Party won the elections and the following year 16/1983 by law of 24 October the Women's Institute was created. A far-reaching measure that institutionalized policies of equality.
It became a reference to know women´s reality and their claims.
The launch was conducted by Carlota Bustelo, a leading socialist activist, who was its first director, accompanied by other feminist from the women´s movement who occupied the management level.
The creation of the Institute through a law, gave it stability because its removal or amendment requires the approval of a new law.
Currently the Institute is an independent organization whose purpose and objectives are to promote and coordinate policies aimed at women from the Administration. It is the Central Government agency that promotes equality. It is currently working hard to create policies in order to eradicate domestic violence.
In 1988 another very prominent fact took place in the Socialist Party. Due to constant pressures, a quota of female representation of 25% was
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established. In the following years it continued increasing to reach parity democracy which has enabled that the number of ministers and other high posts in the Government to be the highest in Europe.
In the case of the right-wing party, Popular Party (PP), the process that led to increase female representation was different. At the beginning of the democratic transition it had a very conservative speech and although curiously it was the party that had the largest number of politically active women, in general they were not feminists.
This changed with the electoral victory of 1996, rising in the party the issue of equal opportunities, and although participation fees were not established, women inclusion on electoral lists was unstoppable.
With the rise to power, the Popular Party took the decision to retain the Women's Institute and implemented the policy of equal opportunities. In 1999, for the first time, the PP held on March 8, the Day of the Working Woman with a large public event.
The alternation of government did not change the policy regarding to women and assumed that discrimination should not exist and had to help to eliminate it. This confirmed that gender policies were already part of the State policy.
The two major parties that have governed Spain in recent decades, have established strategies for change, for example, employment promotion and unemployment protection. Steps were also taken with respect to the family and in the field of sexuality. Among them:
1985, abortion rights.
1989, extension to six weeks, maternity/paternity permission.
1989, measures to reconcile work and family life.
1989, tax reform that allows spouses to declare their earnings independently.
1995, approval of legislation that criminalizes sexual harassment within crimes against sexual freedom.
1999, Plan of Action against domestic violence was approved and the criminal code to protect against abuse was modified.
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For the development of all these policies, the invaluable support of the Commission and European Parliament must be stressed, after Spain had joined the European Community.
Education: The educational landscape expands in an extraordinary way. From the 80's the University took on more feminine students to the extent of training a larger number of female graduates than male graduates.
Professional Training experiments a great change. The curriculum
level goes up and become more attractive, contributing to a growing number of girls being attracted to this type of study. They are trained to develop all sorts of jobs, even those which until recently were considered exclusively for men, such as welders, policemen, soldiers etc.
Today both, at the University and another kind of formation the number of women is equal or greater than that of men, and generally with very good results.
With international exchange programs, they have the opportunity to improve and contrast their formation with other countries and learn or improve languages.
When they finish their careers, a lot of girls get some very high marks, which puts them in a good position to get scholarships in order to pursue postgraduate studies.
Throughout the years where the borders with the rest of Europe and nearly the rest of the world have disappeared, Spanish students can be found everywhere.
All this, has produced a family and social change of such magnitude that the differences between generations are abysmal.
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Work: By increasing training it also increases women´s presence in the world of work. There is a change in mentality with regard to the financial contribution to improve the family´s economic situation.
Since the 80's, economic activity rate of women has continued to grow, despite the current crisis, it will continue growing.
The labor force participation is concentrated in the services sector where they occupy 45% of all jobs.
Equality policies that have been developed over these years, have ended with the prohibitions of entering the profession you want, but other sorts of problems have arisen, which are difficult to solve at the moment.
Women have taken an important step to join the workforce, but far from being a bed of roses, they faces an obstacle race that must be overcome day by day.
No doubt that steps have been climbed but a lot remains to reach the top of the ladder, because:
Of all employed women, one in two has a temporary contract and part-time work.
o Unemployment is three times higher. It is the highest in the European Union.
o They receive a salary of 26% less than men.
o They suffer maternal mobbing.
o They have fewer opportunities for promotion
o Despite giving priority to her career than her personal life, the best positions in companies, senior officials of the administration or the judiciary are held by men.
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Culture: With the advent of the eighties, the Spanish cultural scene suffered a huge seizure. It's the end of an era where censorship, so prevalent in previous decades, at last disappeared.
These are the years of excess. In Madrid, a cultural movement emerged, called the "Movida Madrilena" formed by artists, singers, actresses etc. One of its most known members was the film director Pedro Almodovar.
Fashion becomes daring, shoulder pads come into fashion, so does curly hair and the fashion designer Adolfo Dominguez invented the slogan "Creases are beautiful", breaking the stereotypes that worked so far.
Female literary production grows and grows to reach and exceed, at present, the male production. Opera composers, orchestra conductors, film and theatre directors, politics and business woman have arisen but the real cultural transformation is being done by ordinary women who are incorporating into an active social life, trying to improve their neighbourhoods from neighbourhood associations Participating in local politics, working with Charities, theatre groups, music and in sporting and intellectual activities.
Family: There has been no other institution in Spain that has had such a deep transformation, in the last twenty five years, as the family.
That widely held view that only women could feel fulfilled by being a wife and mother, until the late seventies, had been shattered at the end of the eighties.
The use of contraceptives, legalization of abortion or divorce helped women to be able to choose the number of children and the kind of family that they wanted.
The family structure that prevails in this country is the nuclear or conjugal. The homes of a couple with their children, remains the most common. Although it is adapting to the growing diversity of personal situations, typical of a complex society and it is constantly acquiring new forms.
Family diversity is extending and new ways of cohabitance are being more naturally accepted.
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o Family households (single women, widowed or divorced).
o Single parents (single mother, raising own children or adopted children).
o Couples without children.
o Couples who live together without being married.
o Cohabiting couples.
o Same sex couples (with children or adopted).
o Multiracial families.
The possibility of divorce has also contributed to the traditional family has changed. It is quite common for divorced couples to find new partners, where both have children and decide to have their own. This situation, out of necessity, requires the new type of family to seek other forms of cohabitation.
In summary, the Spanish family is in a transition phase. It has changed very rapidly and needs a lot of social support to cope with these changes.
Unsolved issues
In the recent history of our country, many women have been faced with the dilemma of deciding their lifestyles around the profession or the children. With the advent of computer and internet, some have been able to reconcile both, but most have a lot of difficulties.
While access to education, the workforce, politics, etc. can be considered a breakthrough and a success of the policy of equal opportunities there are still many problems to be solved both within work and family.
o Higher unemployment.
o Lower salary.
o Worse status.
o Less permanent contracts.
o More temporary work.
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o Inequality in household responsibility.
o Support for children and elderly care.
o Paternity permission similar to maternity.
o Lack of social services for family support.
o Development of family and social policies to help reconcile work and family.
o Eradicate domestic violence.
o Women of the XXI century
During the twentieth century woman emancipated. Since the beginning of history, men dominated gender relationships because of their physical strength. The man was the provider who supplied the food for the family. The woman, much of her life pregnant or nursing, focused on the care of offspring. On depending on the man, she accepted the patriarchal culture. So it took ages, until it began the period of women's liberation which obtained its best results in the last century.
There are still goals to achieve and discrimination to be solved. However, women were able to study, to vote, to obtain equal rights, to work, speak, think, decide their destiny, love, enjoy their sexuality, to think and make decisions about her life. Today's women have the same rights as men and equal responsibilities and obligations. All this changed the socio-cultural order, which in turn assigned her new responsibilities. This has made to develop her personality. They are present in all fields, Science, Art, Technology, running the home, making decisions, in the sexual initiative and in all things in life without losing her femininity and maternal functions.
The changes have also caused psychological transformations. From submissive, obedient and dependent females, women became free, independent and autonomous. The woman took over power in her home, work, politics and society, with the commitment, the burden and the requirement that it implies.
These changes have caused disruptions in her partner, the man, who has had to adapt. He has had to yield power, share the pleasure and accept tasks such as parenting or the housework.
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Therefore, both women and men of the twenty-first century must make a deep reflection to understand that they are parts of a single unit, if they want to live together.
Bibliography
Aguado, A. M. (1994). Textos para la historia de las mujeres en España. Madrid: Cátedra.
Alberdi, C. (1999). La Nueva Familia Española. Madrid: Taurus.
Alonso, M. y Furió, E. (2007). El papel de la mujer en la sociedad española.
Astelarra, J. (2005). Veinte años de políticas de igualdad. Madrid: Cátedra.
Borreguero, C. (1986). La mujer española: de la transición a la modernidad. Madrid: Tecnos.
González, J. J. y Requena, M. (2005). Tres décadas de cambio social en España. Madrid: Alianza.
IES Parque de Lisboa (2001). Historia de la Mujer en España. Madrid.
INE, Instituto de la mujer (2006). Mujeres y hombres en España 2.006. INE- Instituto de la Mujer, Madrid.
Martínez, J. (2008). Las Santas Rojas, Flor del Viento Barcelona.
Pastor, G. (2002). La familia en España. Sociología de un cambio. Sígueme.
Secretaría General de Empleo-Ministerio de Trabajo e Inmigración: Mujer y Mercado Laboral (2009).
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Changes in the women’s role since 1945 (II)
Amelia Pardo Rama, Eloy Palenzuela Herrero, Flori Pagán Saura, Francisca Garea Martinez, Elvira Albertino López
From the early years of civilization, women suffered all kind of discrimination, until the late nineteenth century women had few legal rights in all spheres of life.
Although the situation improved in the first half of the twentieth century, women still had to win rights from men and their role and status in society was decided by men.
The XXth century was the beginning of the equal access to the women to education, paid work and political life. After the end of the Second World War in 1945, it became clear that women would play a more important role, in 1945 they were given the right to vote in France; in Italy obtained the right to be elected to the parliament and other political changes.
Women in Spain had already had these rights in 1931, but were lost after the Civil War in 1936, and recovered in 1978 after Franco’s dead.
94%
6%
Women in Parliament (1978)
98%
2%
Women in Senate (1978)
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The role of women was supposed to be important only in family affairs; they should be very good housekeepers or housewives, daughters or sisters. (Law named “Moyano” in force since 1857 until 1970)
Catholic church contributed very much to set women in that role
1945 Professional Institute of women instruction
1950 Feminine attendance increased in Industry
1969 73% of women working in agriculture, without salary helping the family.
1971 Women earn 75/pts/ day , and men 125/pts/day
1975 Working women increased to 50% in the total of feminine population, mainly in Teaching, Health, Trade and Office. and a few in Public Administration.
Until 1976 women needed the marital permission to accept any job, legal or economical act.
In 1984 one million women incorporated to work
In 1994 four millions
In 1995 in the Fourth World Conference in Pekín about women, was adopted to assure the equal participation of the women in the responsibilities, power and rights of every country Governments.
85%
15%
Women as industrial workers
90%
10%
Women as executive workers
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However, the most difficult task was to change the men’s mentality and even some women’s as well.
But, there were two events that dramatically helped to reconfigure how women were seen and how they saw themselves: The scientific developments like the birth control pill in 1960 (in Spain 1978) and the abolition of the 416 article of the CC referred to the “marital permission” and laws against adultery.
This two events helped to cast women’s roles in more assertive model, in a way that allowed them greater autonomy and to be the owners of their lives, choosing, in spite of Nature, their roles.
As a result of every change, at present women are active in any fields of Science, Business, Politics, University and carry out all kind of responsibilities successfully.
And thousands of anonyms women that go out to work every morning after doing, furthermore, the housework.
1945 1969 1975 2005
13%
30% 38%
55%
Women in University
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Political transition to democracy and integration in EU in Spain and Portugal through the view of singer songwriters
Manuela Corral Villar, Aida García López, Helena López Prado, Francisco Morales Rey, Celia Quintana Martínez, Javier Rey Mancebo.
Singer songwriters for freedom are a large group of singers who have left their mark on the music scene, social and political of our country, mainly in the final period of the dictatorship of Franco and the first years of democratic transition.
Through their compositions, not only protest and demand, but also love and solidarity, they collaborated with the weapons of their voices and guitars to convert these times of repression and shame in times of strength and hope.
We are speaking about Raimon, Serrat, Luís Llach, Paco Ibañez, Labordeta, Victor Manuel y Ana Belén, Amancio Prada, Voces Ceibes, Fuxan os Ventos, …
And also we are speaking about our brothers songwriters from across the Atlantic ocean, like Victor Jara, Silvio Rodríguez, Pablo Milanés, Quilapayún, Violeta Parra,..We are talking about the songwriters for freedom.
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Portuguese songwriters from the late 60’s shared with the Spanish, the "same political and social experience" against the dictatorships of Francisco Franco and Oliveira Salazar, which generated among them a stream of mutual sympathy, understanding and solidarity.
Luis Cília, Zeca Afonso, Paulo de Carvalho,... were key pieces to make the Portuguese people aware of their fight for freedom.
In Portugal there was a revolution, on April 25th, 1974. "A Revolução dos Cravos" (Carnation Revolution): a military insurrection against the dictatorial regime.
Several songs like "Grândola Vila Morena" served as the signal for the uprising in the barracks
Spain: The 60's. Brief historical situation
o Seat car factory is born with a daily production of 15 cars.
o End of international isolation.
o The economic stability is achieved
o Tourism becomes an important economical sector.
o As a result of this situation there is a more permissive policy and weakens the censorship.
At this time songwriters emerge: 200 artists and 3000 songs.
All cultural activities in other languages than Spanish are repressed; it was a threat
This situation continued for two decades until the arrival of the Constitution in 1976
Many songwriters recovered the poems of poets who had been banned and repressed by the regime. So ,J.M.Serrat recovered Machado and Miguel Hernandez.
Francisco Ibañez sings poems of poets such as Blas de Otero, Rafael Alberti, Quevedo, Gabriel Celaya, and Miguel Hernández. Raimon adds
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music to the poetry of Ausías March and Salvador Espriu. “Fuxan os ventos” sings poems of C.E. Ferreiro
Spain: The 70´s Brief historical situation
In September 1975, the regime sentenced to death and executed 3 members of FRAP and 2 of ETA
In March 1976 five workers were killed and 150 wounded by armed police in a church in Vitoria.
Luis Llach composed for this occasion, “Campanadas a muerte" and "L‘Estaca" songs that became emblematic of this time.
From the decade of the 60’s different media fight for freedom of expression; In 1976, join “El País" and "Diario 16“.
Portugal: The 60´s and 70´s. Brief historical situation
Colonial wars in Angola, Guinea and Mozambique produced conflicts between civil society and the military one.
With the economic model that the dictatorship implanted, the country became impoverished and a strong emigration was generated.
Singer songwriters exiled like: José Mário Branco, Sérgio Godinho, Luis Cília,...denounced the colonial wars and the lack of freedom in Portugal
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Industrialization and deindustrialization By Mª Isabel Cainzos Teijido, Mª Teresa Cela Milia, Isabel
Granullaque Dapena, Alberto Langtry Grandal, and Rafael López Miranda
Industrialization and deindustrialization in Spain: Industrial Revolution and Industrial Activities
The Industrial Revolution was the biggest technological, socioeconomic and cultural change that took place at the end of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. It started in the UK and later spread to the rest of the world.
The Industrial activities are of great importance in the global and national economy, since they become the engine that drags the economic development.
At that time the economy based on manual labour was replaced by industry and machinery and the trade expansion was due to the improvement of roads and railways.
The Industrialization in other countries like France, Germany and Belgium took place mainly between 1850 and 1914.
The industrialization of Italy, Spain or Russia was different, and took place later. It started in the last decades of the nineteenth century, ending after 1914.
From the point of view of industrialization, Spain can be considered as belonging to the second generation of industrialized countries in Europe. It started later, almost a century after the first Industrial Revolution.
Industry from 1940 to 1973
After the civil war, the country is left without any means, jobless and without economic resources. In addition to that, means of transport are almost 50% destroyed.
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The Industrial prices fall as well as the consumption capacity of the population. During the early years they tried to be self-sufficient, but Spain lacks almost everything.
To overcome this situation, the Government takes control of the sectors considered to be strategic. ENSIDESA is created in 1950, HUNOSA in 1954, SNIACE in 1939, others like INI, RENFE and so on…
In 1959, a plan to stabilize the economy is set up. In 1964 the first development plan is put into effect. (there will be three of them).
In 1973, the crude oil crisis started, which would affect the whole of Europe and unemployment begins to increase enormously.
Industrial Restructuring
The economic crisis lasts until 1984. In this year the Spanish industry starts a reconversion process that aims at modernizing the oldest factories so that by adopting new technologies became more productive, and went through a very tense situation because of the redundancies.
The most affected sectors by the industrial restructuring were: mining, the steel industry and shipbuilding. Investment programs were started in the industrial areas involved.
The Government sought to attract investors by means of creating industrial sites where they could get some advantages for being installed there, creating technological parks to encourage high-tech industry.
Deindustrialization
The previous stage to deindustrialization was the industrial restructuring, which ended up in loss of employment but not in deindustrialization, as the same productive structure remained and improved by technological know-how.
We shall mention the "Shipbuilding Restructuring", which took place in the 80’s, in the twentieth century. In the years prior to the conversion, technology had improved so much, that an oil tanker could be built in much less time than a small vessel used to take years before.
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There was a clear difference between the reconversion with adoption of new technologies on the one hand and deindustrialization on the other.
The first affected all countries in the same way and generally did not involve any loss of productive plants.
On the contrary, deindustrialization was typified by the relocation of industries from one country to another. For every factory that closes in Europe another one is opened in Southeast Asia, or in some other less developed country. This is done through taking European capital, European technology and some times, even providing technical advice and the help of European technicians and experts to put factories into operation, in those countries after training the native personnel to handle them.
The abolition of customs and duties, allows the manufactured products from abroad to be sold in Europe without any problems.
In short, manpower getting wages around 1000 Euros per month, has been replaced by another manpower that earns less than 300 Euros. This has a positive side; it enables countries with poor living standards to get out of poverty, but the speed and intensity of this phenomenon involves a counterbalance of deindustrialization in Europe, significant increase in unemployment, and stagnant or even lower wages.
One wonders when will this process end and when will Spain start to reindustrialize again?. The answer has to be pessimistic for as long as there are significant differences in wages between the different countries.
It is convenient to bear in mind the Spanish economic situation of 15 or 20 years ago, when one had the feeling of living in a welfare state. Everybody talked of a civilization of leisure, because in the following “near future” working hours would be reduced while obtaining the same production, thanks to the technological advances, finding a job would be easy and an era of prosperity was ahead.
Some politicians said that 0.7% of GDP that Spain had assigned as a help to the third world was not enough and had to upload it to 3%. What had happened?. What decisions have been taken to ensure that everything has gone backwards?. The answer is: globalization. The free
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circulation of capital, goods, people, that was hailed as a cry of freedom, as progress breaking barriers towards a new era for mankind. Though part of the population received the news with enthusiasm, others predicted the dangers and showed with noisy political protests in the cities where the political leaders met to back globalization. Which was finally adopted and it meant the biggest transformation of all-time industrial production and therefore in the global economy.
European history shows us that other political systems in the past seemed they were going to bring about prosperity and to solve the economic problems of society. So we should not lose hope, because someday globalizing revolution will come to an end, before the damage becomes irreversible.
Globalization has swept away all types of regulation, controls and duties at a frenetic pace.
We often hear that we are in a global crisis, but that is not true, because while the economy of some countries is stagnant or in recession, some other economies are on the rise; China has a 11% annual growth, India more or less 12% and other countries have similar percentages. They achieved all that through their hard work, their wish to improve and the invaluable cooperation of European and American capital.
The balance of growth, stagnation and recession is positive, so there is no global crisis, only a stream of wealth running in one direction and one of poverty in the opposite. This was mainly due to the way it was done, since, had it been well arranged and gradually done, the third world countries would have been allowed to grow and catch up with, or even improve the system of life in the most advanced countries. History just before the 90’s proves that both were compatible of both developments.
It is not true either, that the states’ debts with the international investors is the cause that prevents to devote enough resources to productive investments as they are obliged to honour the debt or refinance it.
Unemployment really is what prevents the states to collect what is necessary through income tax.
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Take into account the difference, from the point of view of the states collecting tax money, between an employed person earning 1000 Euros per month and an unemployed person. The employer has to pay into Social Security 360 Euros as his share for having an employee and the employee himself 60 Euros as his direct income tax. To this we must add income and corporation tax plus the VAT the employer has to pay. When the employee loses his post, The Inland Revenue not only loses the taxes they were getting but they have to pay benefits. Among the actual different situations of unemployment, we can say that the Inland Revenue loss per unemployed person can be some 20,000 Euros a year. If the country only had two million unemployed persons less, the states would get some 40,000 million Euros a year, which would entirely change its economical circumstances to deal with debt.
According to data compiled in the year 2007 the number of engineering students in China at that time was much higher than that of all countries around the world together.
The technological advantage of some European nations, obviously Germany, seems that it will not be sustainable in the long run, and therefore the reason why they still keep bearable levels of unemployment will not be either. When all that applied science is fully operational, it will be impossible for Europe to maintain a certain primacy and will eventually be overtaken by the flood of innovative products of adequate quality and more than competitive price, and without duty barriers, even Germany will have to face a serious unemployment problem, never mind the other countries.
The global negotiations in which the U.S. and Europe representatives have pressed China to revalue its currency, the Yuan, in order to allow the West to sell more products in China, and also to avoid Chinese products being so competitive here, have not been at all successful.
Experts estimate that the Yuan is kept artificially undervalued by 40%. China refused stubbornly despite U.S. and Europe insistence on their demand of a fairer share of the world trade.
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A Chinese leader stated that they are unable to accept their demand because they need to spread industrialization across the country. It is well known that of its 1100 million people, only some 400 million are involved, so far, in industrial activity and the rest of the people are devoted to agriculture, in similar conditions as they were many years ago with a very low standard of living. Thus, the authorities fear that if the spread of industrialization stops, there may be unstoppable social uprisings, so they are forced to maintain the Yuan’s parity very low, because they are determined not to have a prosperous China and a retarded second one; but only one with a high level of industrialization. We know then what awaits us. If we add that India with its 1,300 million inhabitants, is only a few years behind in its process of modernization, what it lays ahead of us is a tsunami that can destroy everything, and only a protectionist system will allow the West to maintain a standard of living and employment that comes up to the level of development achieved, and to the agricultural resources, services and industrial they have, that will be compatible with the rise of the Third World.
Ferrol
Ferrol is located in the northwest of Galicia, in the province of La Coruña (Spain).
Galicia is the Spanish Autonomous Community situated in the northwest corner of the Iberian Peninsula. Spain is a member of the UE.
Deindustrialization affects the whole of Europe but not equally in all the areas. We shall refer to the deindustrialization in the town of FERROL as a place best known for us, and a place greatly affected because its economy was especially based on industry.
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Population in Ferrol (thousands of inhabitants)
In 1726 Felipe V decided to strengthen the Navy and to build a huge Arsenal and Royal Shipyard, for which he chose the town of Ferrol and its enclosed and secure harbour.
Fernando VI and Carlos III continued the works. Ferrol became the capital of the Maritime Department.
The Shipyards founded under Felipe V, have been for many years the engine of Ferrol and its area. Nowadays it is an area in crisis, but it still remains being a place of the most industrial capacity in Galicia.
Ferrol is an example of the City of Enlightenment built in the eighteenth century. It was born by and for the Navy and was equipped with an Arsenal and the best Shipyards.
It was in Ferrol where the launching of the first Spanish steam ship took place in 1858, as well as the first iron-hulled ship in 1881 and in 1912 King Alfonso XIII attended the launching of the first battleship.
In 1945 the shipbuilding yard was converted into a public factory under the name of BAZÁN. Many years later it was renamed as IZAR and since January 2005 its name is: NAVANTIA.
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Industry in Ferrol went on expanding till it reached its peak when BAZÁN Factory had about 10,000 workers, the Factory of ASTANO some 6,000. And there were other smaller companies such as FENYA, PYSBE, LA MADERERA FERROLANA, HISPANIA... and many workshops that emerged up around the large firms.
Regarding the main one, E.N. BAZAN, we have to say that it began as "Spanish Society of Shipbuilding (SECN) or THE NAVAL, or as it was colloquially called "La Constructora”, (the Builder), which monopolized the shipbuilding in Spain from 1909 till the Spanish Civil War.
It consisted of several Spanish businessmen linked to some British firms like "Vickers", "Armstrong" and "John Brown & Co”, that provided capital, technology and organizational and technical expertise with the English technicians and operators they sent to Ferrol.
During the war it was confiscated by the state for its great importance as a war industry, and its activity was nonstop, day and night, repairing ships and other Navy equipment. In 1938 the ApprenticeSchool was opened. In 1942 the Yard signed a major contract for technical assistance with two French industries for the construction of turbines in the factory. In 1947 it was named as CNM BAZÁN NATIONAL COMPANY SA and was integrated into the I.N.I. (Instituto Nacional de Industria), devoted to the military and merchant shipbuilding. During this stage they built, among many others, the following ships: - In 1970 the frigates "Baleares", "Andalucía", "Cataluña ", “Asturias” and ·Extremadura”.
- In 1971 the tanker "Alvaro de Bazán", with its 169,000 deadweight tons was launched, that was at the time, the largest vessel launched in Spain.
The Turbine Factory was expanded at the same time and they built the turbines for nuclear power stations as Almaraz (Cáceres), Ascó (Tarragona), Vandellós (Tarragona) and also turbines for coal fired power stations in Spain.
Another important milestone was the launching of the air carrier "Prince of Asturias, in 1982. It was the first aircraft carrier built in Spain,
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and involved the complete change of engineering building techniques and data management implemented.
This was followed by the delivery of four frigates “FFG" from 1986 to 1990.
During the 90’s fewer ships were built, but it is worth mentioning: The modern frigates FFG: "Navarra" and “Canarias ". Four ocean patrol crafts: "Serviola P71", "Centinela P72”," Vigia P73" and "Atalaya P74”. The Replenishment ship (AOR) "Patiño". The aircraft carrier “Chakri Naruebet" for the Thailand Navy. Built between 1994 and 1996 and delivered in 1997.
The building of merchant ships was gradually decreasing due to the crisis. Adjustment efforts and technological development have been crowned with success in 2000 with the awarding of a building contract of five frigates for the Norwegian Navy.
IZAR: In 2000 a new factory group under the name of IZAR was created through the merge of BAZAN and ASTILLEROS ESPAÑOLES (EASA) as a result of the government's negotiations with the European Commission, leading to a cluster of twelve production facilities, becoming the tenth naval group in the world.
In 2002 the building of five Norwegian frigates began. One of them was named “Roald Amundsen” after the first human who set foot on the South Pole.
The shipbuilding yard ceased production as E.N. C.N.M. Bazán, Inc. in 2000 and it became “IZAR”. Izar ceased production under this name in 2004.
NAVANTIA: the new name for the Shipbuilding Yard since 2005. It
is the leading Spanish company in the field of military shipbuilding. Because of its size and its technological capability occupies a prominent place in the European and world agreement on shipbuilding.
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NAVANTIA is an international leader in the design and building of military ships with high added value, through its continuing commitment to innovation and technology.
“ASTANO”: North West Shipyard And Workshops. In 1941 a small shipyard is created in Ferrol, with a capital of two million pesetas and started its career with some thirty workers.A Shipyard that from a small carpentry shed in the banks of Ferrol estuary, became, a few years later, one of the most important shipbuilding yards in the world. This initiative represents a major advance in all the Spanish shipbuilding industries in general, that decisively impacted the Ferrolterra area, raising their living standards and employing many people.The first ship launched was the “Comandante Lobo”, a 23 meters fishing boat.
The impressive growth in the size of vessels built in this Yard, went from this small fishing boat to the giant oil tanker “Arteaga”, of 325,795 tons, dead weight. It was the first in a series of oil giant tankers that were built until the first oil crisis in 1973, when giant cargo ships were no longer demanded and the shipyard began the study of diversification and specialization projects, in chemicals (such as chemical carriers and oil rigs).
In 1979 INI (National Industry Institute) became the sole shareholder, the stage that ran in parallel with a long and complex process of restructuring during a tough crisis.From 1945 to 2000 a total number of 206 ships were built in the shipyard (coastal fishing, tuna and cod boats, oil tankers and drilling platforms).
In 1984, a major restructuring took place and as a result of these studies five major mobile platforms (offshore) were built. Five high-tech units, that add to the extraction of the oil a large storage capacity and this was the last major activity of Astano.
Late in the twentieth century ASTANO disappears as a name, to be finally integrated in NAVANTIA group, in 2004, which also includes the former BAZAN and Astilleros Españoles, SA. In this way the two major shipyards in the estuary of Ferrol-Fene, become members of the same Ship Building Yard, employing some 3,000 people altogether.
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Workers in Naval Companies in Ferrol
Until the mid-70’s of last century, a network of businesses occupied the entire shore of the port of Ferrol: the Cod Factory “PYSBE”, the Pencil Factory “HISPANIA”, the modern processing wooden doors plant “PENINSULAR MADERERA”, and there were many other small workshops that altogether employed as many people as BAZÁN itself.
Every morning, a symphony of hooters, calling the workers, broke the silence of Ferrol estuary.
The port of Ferrol turned into a real swarm of people from the nearby villages of Mugardos, San Felipe, O Seixo, A Graña ... arriving in passenger boats.
The economic crisis that went with the transition and the commercial opening of the frontiers put an end to a protective production model and a captive market.
A brief description of each factory follows:
Factory “Pysbe”, S.A.: This factory was founded in Pasajes, in 1919, to trade in dried cod. In this way they could deliver the cod throughout inner Spain without requiring a cold chain. But the Factory of Ferrol was not opened until 1945, after the one in Pasajes, when they got a port
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concession of 15,000 square meters. They had over 300 offshore staff, mostly women. It was a rational designed plant with artificial cooling systems and huge drying tunnels. Some 9,000 tons of cod were landed each year in the docks of Ferrol.
The PYSBE boats used to go fishing to Newfoundland, where the Portuguese Russian, Canadian ships did too; that is why it was not surprising that after 1955 there were problems of overexploitation of those fishing grounds, so, from 1965, an international convention started to impose regulatory measures. PYSBE failed in an attempt to diversify their catches by adding modern tuna freezer vessels when other fishing groups where already winning the battle in this field and although the Cod Basque- Ferrol Company built two steel-hulled tuna boats, it did not work.
In 1973, the Board resigned and it was the prelude of the eventual closing down. The company made a redundancy plan due to lack of work. The factory closed shortly after 1975.
Hispania “The Pencil Factory” was founded in 1934, with a capital of 145,000 pesetas. During the earlier years they were able to produce approximately 36,000 pencils a day. In 1937 the company had tripled its initial capital and its activity was not affected during the Civil War. In the postwar years, Hispania was able to make pencils of outstanding quality, far superior to those made in the rest of Spain.
Its familiar logo consisting of two human figures holding hands also became its trademark. Under this identification symbol, they manufactured graphite and colour pencils, steel pens and rubber combs.
Their star product was the pencils of the brand “Johan Sindel”, They were very appreciated for the quality of American cedar and its graphite lead. Sindel worked as foreman in the 30’s and supervised the manufacture process. A machine shop was created within the factory where the German technology was imitated, with that, they overcame the typical sleepy Spanish industry in the post-civil war. Another reason for the success of Hispania was its exquisite presentation in the market.
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The company experienced its golden age between 1945 and 1959. World War II caused a shortage across the globe of German pencils, the best quality and the same market that made Hispania, which in 1946 had a capital of five million pesetas.
In the late 50’s, the company had more than 400 employees and its very wide range of products, had a remarkable acceptance in the market. During this period the company could produce about 180,000 units per day of pencils, make “Johan Sindel“. Thanks to the good management of the company, revenues continued to grow. About 60 or 70% of their production went to the home market and its main competitors were Catalan pencil producers, make “Marsat” and “Jovi”. 30 to 40% went to Europe and USA, where German products enjoyed wide acceptance.
In the 50’s, the factory witnessed a small technological revolution, the advent of the ball pen, that shifted the fountain pen as a universal tool for writing (with BIC). Hispania soon began to manufacture ball pens. At the end of the 50’s, the factory reached its peak. The approval of the Stabilization Plan that led to a growing openness of the Spanish economy, struck down the factory due to the import of pencils from other countries.
To meet the new situation a complete technological renovation was required but they decided not to carry it out in view of the low growth expectations.
In the year 1986 the company came to an end, liquidation was approved, and the factory was sold, and the emblematic installations faced ruin. And that is the state it is at present.
Peninsular Wood Factory: Founded in 1953, it was located in the Malata
(Ferrol).They built up to 50,000 plywood doors a year, from the timber shipped from Guinea to Ferrol. These huge logs were conveyed, in large rafts from the commercial dock to the bottom of the estuary in la Malata. Had a staff of 480 workers, of whom 28 were women.
The high quality wood came from Guinea at low cost, but with the decolonization of this country, the sending of the raw material stopped which resulted in the closure of the factory.
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In February 24, 1977 the application for the closure of this company was made public and its 150 workers became redundant under unemployment insurance.
Naval and Artillery Manufacturers: The important shipbuilding yard in
Ferrol required an ample supply of electrical equipment, at a time when Spain was hardly industrialized. To meet these requirements “Fenya” was created in 1941. They became experts in the manufacturing of electrical equipment (engine, generators, switchboards ....). The factory started with as small number of workers and reached a labour force of 600.It was closed in 1997.
Despite the difficulties of the shipbuilding industry due to the competition of companies based in Southeast Asia, with lower production costs, many small firms still remain 99% dependant on the most important factory in town: Navantia. This provokes a total collapse on small economies in the area.
Some government schemes have been designed to find other sectors of development to draw the city from its agony, Sectors that opt for alternative energy as the manufacture of parts for wind turbines and the production of biodiesel.
However, the crisis is bringing serious problems for these small firms, also recently installed, that are being forced to go to job layoffs to survive.
The start of the new millennium, however, has generally been a time of relative expansion of small businesses and the improvement of infrastructures with the building of a new highway and an external harbour, but still awaiting the completion of the rail link that will make the port and harbour of Ferrol “Europe’s West Gate”.
It is said that when you reach the bottom there is no other way to go than upwards.
Ferrol in this new millennium, has a big challenge ahead: to regain the splendour of the past with the most innovative tools and competitiveness.
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Genesis of the European influence in the Spanish modernization process
Ramón Álvarez and Bernardo Bouza
Objective
In this paper, we make an approach to the process of modernization in Spain through the European Community influence, since the end of the civil war until our integration into the EU. We analyze the most important events that have influenced in it. We are going to see how these ones have determined adaptations and changes that marked the path to a democratic and modern state.
Modernization, a sociological phenomenon
This work has been based on the study and analysis of the following bibliography:
• Sociology Academic documents about the processes of modernization.
• Historical volumes wrote by different reputable authors. • Volume wrote about sociological phenomena, called
"collective intelligence". • Different statistical information obtained directly from data
bases.
Before diving into the development of the issue, we will approach from the science of Sociology, the various stages and rhythms, which are identified in any modernization process.
Phases
• A new legal structure • The transformation of economic structure • The democratization of political regimes • The universalization of education
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• Secularization • State organization
Rhythms
• Moreover, the pace of events is explained in the theory of the Three Clocks, (Dahrendorf ,1960):
• The creation of standards • The economic model • The acceptance of cultural / ideological
The Spain of the Post-war, 1948
After three years of a very bloody civil war, Spain was subjected to a dictatorial regime which abolished democracy. We should remark the following Spanish features:
• Fascism • It was an autarchy • No industrialization • Economically polarized society • Human losses
The international context of Franco’s Spain
The world was coming out of the Second World War. The great nations were polarized and aligned into two big blocs: The Atlantic Alliance and the Warsaw Pact.
Franco's regime wanted to join into the Atlantic block, but it was rejected.
Of the many circumstances that defined this period, we would highlight the following:
• Potsdam 1943 and the UN • The U.S. political repositioning • The Munich Congress
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Early opening of international integration of Spain
Here we see how the strength of Europe in its economic development, had a significant influence on the implementation of liberalization measures in Spain, which would eventually become the germ of a whole social process for the modernization of the country.
In this way, almost as a logical consequence, we will present the first steps in the process of opening up to Spain in the field of the democratic world.
• In the multilateral agency • In the approach to the EEC
The epilogue of Franco (1967-1975)
After Franco´s death, there was a period of political struggle for the succession. Spain had to face great tensions and difficulties:
• Concerns about the political capacity and loyalty to the regime of the Crown Prince, Juan Carlos de Borbón
• The increasingly strong social pressure calling for "political freedom“
• The worldwide rejection of the death sentences in trials held without a trial.
• The assassination of president of government and the appointment of a successor who was more of the same.
Political Transition
The socio-political analysis of this period, has been for us the most interesting part of the project. It was the most substantive of the modernization of Spain because of its consequences. This process of democratization, although it develops from top to bottom, is accompanied by a strong pressure from the civil society and international communities, especially from Western European countries.
In chronological order, the most significant milestones of political change:
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• The death of the dictator (1975) • The speech of the King of Spain • The conditions of the EEC • Legalization of political parties and trade unions • An extensive amnesty for prisoners and political reprisals • Democratic elections • The EEC is open to Spain
The democratic Spain
Having overcome the barriers imposed by the lack of political freedom, we had to deal with other big difficulties: adjustment measures in the productive and economic model that produced social and political tensions:
• European Economic Community negotiations. Europe yes, but not at any price
• The Spanish consensus cracks
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The consolidation of the change and the modernization of the state
In a context of great social problems, ETA terrorism, with multiple economic failures and scandals, in 1982, for the first time in the young democracy, wins the election the Spanish Socialist Workers Party with absolute majority to govern alone.
The dilemma before the demands of the EU to join, it was not the right thing to do, eliminate protectionism; it was how we had to do it.
The country's structural adaptations included the following facts:
• The Communist and Socialist parties refocused his own political vision.
• The UGT union took the convenience of adjustment. • The essential transformation of corporate culture, moving
from a reactive position to another proactive. • The behaviour of Spanish society, its capacity to reinvent
itself through a collective intelligence. • Spain becomes a member of EEC
Modernization of Spain in figures
To support the analysis of this phenomenon, we chose a set of statistical variables that represent the progress that have occurred:
SECULAR PROCESSA: Practicing Catholics
B: No practicing and non believers
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EDUCATION LEVELS(men and women, over 15)
RATE OF INFANT MORTALITY(Deaths of infants – one year of age or younger- per 1000 live births)
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GDP(Gross Domestic Product, million Euro)
RAILWAYS (KM)
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2008No electr. 9820 8083 7578 6717 6559 6537 6434Electric. 5904 6721 6994 7591 7788 8478 9116
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
HIGHWAYS (KM)
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A vision of the European perception
In this section we discuss the results of a field study, conducted amongst 45 people, workers, teachers, junior and senior students of the University of A Coruña, aged 23 to 75 years old.
The best experience was not only to have had the opportunity to share with other colleagues our objectives but to be in contact with them working together.
Results
Political View
They are Spanish and European citizens at the same time, 43%.
They are not well represented in Europe by any political party (students under 25 years 100%), 57%.
The last word on important decisions should be held by the national government, 64%.
Belonging to Europe has benefits, 80%. The influence of Spain in Europe is low, 77%.
POLITICAL VIEWCITIZENSHIP
POLITICAL VIEWEvaluation of Spanish incorporation to UE for Spain
14
21
7
57
POLITICAL VIEW Best representative in Europe
PSOE PP
BNG IU
UPD None
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Economic View
CONCLUSION
POLITICAL VIEWEvaluation of Spanish incorporation of EU for Europe
POLITICAL VIEWSpanish influence on EU decissions
ECONOMICAL VIEWEuropean influences on public infrastructures
73
7
713
BeneficialIndifferentDetrimentalNS/NC
ECONOMICAL VIEWEuropean influences on public protection
ECONOMICAL VIEWEUROPEAN INFLUENCES IN WORKING MATTERS
ECONOMICAL VIEWEUROPEAN INFLUENCE IN UNIVERSITY EDUCATION
ECONOMICAL VIEWEuropean influences on public safety
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At this end of the work, we are going to see some of the reflections made about the sociological phenomenon of modernization of a country, that was consolidated following carefully the steps and rhythms that identify modern sociology.
We should stress the following ones:
• Integrating social awareness had born. • The process was led by the elites. • The process was accompanied by external forces. • The process was assimilated and materialized within society
itself. Long time has been taken, fifty years.
The freedom conquered magnificies the people
Our Continent – Our Culture A Grundtvig Learning Partnership
2009-1-GB2-GRU06-01739-1
UNIVERSIDADE SÉNIOR DA UNIVERSIDADE DA CORUÑA