UNIVERSITYOFBOTSWANA

MakingLandandHousingAccessibletotheUrbanLowIncomeinBotswana

ProfA.C.Mosha

PaperpresentedattheREGIONALSYMPOSIUMORGANISEDBYARDHIUNIVERSITYANDTHEROYALINSTITUTEOFCHARTEREDSURVEYORS(RICS)U.K.ONLANDREFORMSANDTHERIGHTSOFTHEURBAN

POORTOHOUSING(OWNERSHIP/RENTING)15th‐16thFebruary2010

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MakingLandandHousingAccessibletotheUrbanLowIncomeinBotswana

Prof.A.C.Mosha

DepartmentofArchitectureandPlanning

UniversityofBotswana

Abstract

Likemostdevelopingcountries,Botswana,amiddleincomecountry,hasexperiencedrapidurbangrowthwhichhasbroughtinitswakemanysocialandeconomicproblems.Oneofthekeychallengeshasbeenthelackofaccesstolandandhousingforthepoorwhohavemoved into the urban centres in large numbers in search of employment and economicsurvival.Manyprogrammesandstrategieshavebeenintroducedbybothcentralandlocalgovernmentstoaddressthisproblembutonlylimitedsuccesshasbeenachievedto­date.

Thepaper is structuredas follows:Part1providesa generaldiscussionofpolicies thathavehadan impactonaccessto landandhousing inBotswanaincluding:UrbanPolicy,HousingPolicyandLandpolicy;andPart2coversStrategiesandProgrammesthathavebeen adopted to provide land and housing for the low income. The paper concludes bychartingthewayforwardinsearchingforasolutionfortheaccessoflandandhousingfortheurbanpoorinBotswana.

1. BOTSWANA:ABRIEFBACKGROUNDBotswana is a semi‐arid, land‐locked country in Southern Africa with Zambia to thenorth,Zimbabwetotheeast,Namibiatothewestandnorth,andSouthAfricatotheeastandsouth.Itisarelativelyflatcountrywithalandareaof585370squarekilometres,making it larger than France. Though it is a large country, it has a small population.Botswana’spopulationisestimatedatabout1.7million.Accordingtothe2000UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgrammeReport,whichpredictsanaveragepopulationgrowthrateof1.3percentbetween1998and2015, thepopulation isexpectedtoreachthe2millionmarkby2015.Thepopulationgrowthratebetween1991and2001was2.38%comparedwith3.50%between1981and1991(CSO,2001).Thecountryhasoneoftheworld’s lowest average population densities,which is estimated at a little over threepeoplepersquarekilometre(CSO2001),with80%ofBatswana(peopleofBotswana)concentrated in themore fertile eastern regionswhere land andwater resources aremorefavourable.

Traditionally a pastoral society, with a predominantly rural population, an ever‐increasingnumbersofBatswanahavebeenmovingtourbanareasandlargevillagesinthelastthreedecades.Urbangrowthrateshavebeenestimatedatabout7%perannumcomparedtotheaveragenationalgrowthrateof3.4%(MinistryofLocalGovernment,Lands and Housing, 1996). Urbanization derives its greatest impetus from statutory reclassification-cum-re-designation of rural settlements, migration, and strategic location of settlements. Urbanization has occurred in phases. First, there has been concentration in the primate city (Gaborone). Secondly, there has been fission leading to the fast growth of

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intermediate settlements. Third, is the rapid infilling of interstitial zones between the capital and adjacent intermediate centres. Fourth, the remote resource frontier settlements appear to be now growing relatively rapidly (Gwebu 2004.). Table 1 depicts the national urbanization levels from 1971-2001.The urbanization trends have been closely associated with the nation’s economic development, modernization but, lately, urbanization diseconomies. Table 1: Growth of Population in Urban Settlements – 1971-2000 1971 1981 1991 2001 Number of Urban Places

5 8 25 34

Total Urban 54,300 166,400 600,100 909,800 Total National Population

596,900 941,000 1,326,800 1,680,900

Urban as a Percentage of Total Population

9.1 17.7 45.2 54.1

Total urban village as a percentage of total urban population

0.0 9.8 50.6 56.9

Gwebu2004The urbanization level nearly doubled from less than 10 percent in 1971 to 18 percent in 1981.Between 1981 and 1991,the percentage of the urban population more than doubled, from 18 percent at the base period to 45 percent, by the end of the review period. Although the broad upward urbanization trend has persisted since 1991,the 1991-2001 rate has receded. To date, just over 54 percent of the national population is urbanized. The exponential annual rate of increase of the urbanized national population increased from 11.3 percent between 1971 and 1981,peaked at 12.8 percent, during the 1981-1991 intercensal period, before reaching an all time low of 4.2 percent between 1991 and 2001. This is because there have been less and less eligible lower order settlements for urban redesignation, and the urbanization process has become increasingly migration-driven only.

Untilrecently,officialhousingpolicieshave focusedonurbanareasbecausetheseareareasofhighestpopulationconcentration(Mosha1993).

Despite this high rate of urbanization, Botswana did not institute a national urbandevelopmentstrategyupuntil1978andnonationalhousingpolicypromulgateduntil1982.Thegovernmentonlyprovidedhousingtoitsemployees.Theurbanpoorandthenewmigrants from the rural areaswere left to fend for themselves.Theprovisionofshelterwas not considered a top priority by the government then. Tomakemattersworse,therewasnoattemptbeforeindependencein1966toprepareeitheranational,regional or local physical plans; those that existed were usually where the whiteEuropean settlers lived. Fifteen years later, therewas realization that the problemofsquatter settlements thatweremushrooming in almost all Botswana’s urban centreswould require urgent attention. The needs of a rapidly urbanizing economy ledgovernmenttointroduceinnovativetenureregimessuchastheCertificateofRightstocurb squatter problems and the Fixed Period State Grant for the middle and highincomegroups.

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Botswana was one of the world’s poorest countries when it achieved independencefrom Britain in 1966. Fortuitously, the nation discovered large diamond reservesshortly after independence that have driven its economy ever since. The country haswitnessed one of the highest growth rates in the developing countries with a GDPgrowth rate of 4.7% in year 2007 estimates (CIA‐The World Fact Book‐Botswana,2008).

Throughfiscaldisciplineandsoundmanagement,Botswanahastransformeditselffromoneofthepoorestcountriesintheworldtoamiddle‐incomecountrywithapercapitaGDPofnearly$15,000 in2007.Twomajor investmentservicesrankBotswanaas thebest credit risk in Africa. Diamond mining has fuelled much of the expansion andcurrentlyaccountsformorethanone‐thirdofGDPandfor70‐80%ofexportearnings.Tourism,financialservices,subsistencefarming,andcattleraisingareotherkeysectors.On the downside, the government must deal with high rates of unemployment andpoverty.Unemploymentofficiallywas23.8% in2004,butunofficialestimatesplace itcloser to 40%. HIV/AIDS infection rates are the second highest in the world andthreatenBotswana's impressiveeconomicgains.Anexpected levellingoff indiamondmining production overshadows long‐term prospects (CIA‐The World Fact Book‐Botswana,2009).

Thepaperisstructuredasfollows:Part1providesageneraldiscussionofpoliciesthathavehadanimpactonaccesstolandandhousinginBotswanaincluding:UrbanPolicy,Housing Policy and Land policy; and Part 2 covers Strategies and Programmes thathave been adopted to provide land and housing for the low income. The paperconcludesbychartingthewayforwardinsearchingforasolutionfortheaccessoflandandhousingfortheurbanpoorinBotswana.

PART1: POLICIES THAT HAVE GUIDED THE DEVELOPMENT ANDMANAGEMENTOFSHELTERINURBANAREAS.

Throughout its history Botswana has long strived to provide adequate shelter for its urbandwellers,particularlythelowincome.Inthissection,wetracethesepoliciesandprogrammestoseehowtheyhaveenabledaccesstoshelterbyurbanresidents.

1. UrbanPolicyUrbandevelopmentinBotswanaisguidedbythegovernmentpaperon“UrbanDevelopmentandLandPolicyof1983”.Themainelementsofthispolicyare:‐

Thepolicyofnonsubsidy

Afundamentalplankofthispolicyisthaturbanareasshouldnotbesubsidizedbygovernment.Whileinvestmentisrequiredinurbaninfrastructure,allprovisionshouldbemadeonacost‐recoverybasis,whileanysubsidyfromtaxrevenueshouldbedirectedtowardtheruralareas.

Policyofsocialmix

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Anotheraspectoftheurbanpolicyisthatof“socialintegration”.Theintentionofthispolicyisthat urban areas should be planned in such away as to avoid polarization of social classes,races,andincomegroups.Thus,intheplanningofanewarea,provisionshouldbemadeforallincomegroups.Thisishailedas‘bestpractice’inthewholecontinentasthelowincomeenjoythesamebenefits(infrastructure,socialfacilitiesandamenities)astheotherincomeearners.In terms of access to land, there is cross subsidy in that development costs for low incomeindividualsaresubsidizedbythehighincome(Mosha2001).

Landservicing.

Inurbanareas,landfordevelopmentisavailableintwoforms:fullyservicedland(undertheAccelerated Land Servicing Programme that was started in 1987) for all land uses or un‐serviced land that is normally allocated to parastatals and private companies for their owndevelopment.Themeritsofthispolicyisthatnoonecancommencedevelopmentinanyurbanarea if it is not serviced, hence no informal settlements or squatter areas can develop asdevelopmentcontrolisverystrictandanyviolationsaredealtwithanironhand.Ontheotherhand, in ruralareas land ismostlyallocatedun‐servicedor in thecaseof themajorvillages,landisslowlybeingserviced.

To implement the urban development policy nationwide and to avoid an urban bias todevelopment,thegovernmentadoptedandimplementedtheNationalSettlementPolicy.

2. TheNationalSettlementPolicy

TheNationalSettlementPolicy(NSP)wasintroducedduringtheNationalDevelopmentPlan 5 (NDP5) (1979‐1985) to counteract the then prevailing bias of investmenttowards towns, especially Gaborone, the national capital. The main concern was theinordinategrowthofGaboronethreatenedthebalanceofdevelopmentinthecountrytothe detriment of othermajor centreswhich also needed to be stimulated to enhancetheirdevelopmentpotential.TheoverallgoaloftheNSPistoprovideaframeworkforguidingthedistributionofinvestmentinawaythatreflectssettlementsize,population,economic potential, level of infrastructure, and the role of settlements as servicecentres.TheNSPencouragesthedevelopmentofsettlementsintermsof:

• Provisionofadequateanduptostandardinfrastructureandservices;• Generationofemployment;and• Improvementofhousingconditions.

The thrustof theNSP is toencourage intermediate citydevelopmentand therefore ithasestablishedathreetiersettlementhierarchy:

• Primarycentreswhichhaveapopulationofover20,000andahighdevelopmentpotential(thisincludesthefourlargesttownsandeightlargesturbanvillages);

• Secondarycentreswithapopulationrangeofbetween10,000and19,999;and• Tertiary centres which constitute the remaining settlements with populations

rangingfrom500to9,999.

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Eachofthesecentreshasahierarchyofservicesaccordingtotheirlevelthusensuringthat appropriate services are available at the requisite level. To‐date, this policy isfollowedreligiouslybyalldevelopmentagentsandithasbeenhailedasasuccess.

3. HousingPolicy­ProvisionofAdequateShelterforAll.

Buildingon itsurbandevelopmentpolicy, thegovernmenthashada commitment toprovide adequate shelter for all. The objective being, to provide or enable access toshelter for the rapidly growing populations of the urban areas and for the currentlydeprivedurbanandruralpoor,throughshelterdevelopmentandimprovementthatisenvironmentallysound.VariousactivitieshavebeenundertakeninBotswanatoensurethatthemajorityofthepopulationhaveaccesstoshelterinlinewiththisobjective.TheGovernment published the National Policy on Housing in 1981. The long termobjectiveofthispolicyis"toensuresafeandsanitaryhousingforeveryone."Toachievethis,theGovernmenthasinstitutedanumberofprogrammestofacilitatetheprocessofshelterdeliveryandthesewillbedetailedlaterinthispaper.

HousingandHousingPolicysinceIndependence

AsMalprassandDumba(2000)haveobserved,housingwasnotthetoppriorityofthegovernment that assumed power in 1966, and it was not until 1982 that a formalstatementofhousingpolicywasproduced.ThispolicyelevatedthestatusofthehousingsectorandlaidthefoundationfortheformationofaDepartmentofHousing;anationaldepartmentthatoverseestheimplementationofthenationalpolicyonhousing.

TheNationalHousingPolicycoveredanumberofmajorissuesonboththedemandandsupply sides, including institutional capacity, roles of public and private sectors,subsidies,rentalpolicy,housingstandardsandruralhousing.Thepolicywasintendedtomeet both short and long term goals. The long term goal was to ensure safe andsanitaryhousingforeveryone.Thetwoshorttermgoalswere:

i) Toencouragethebuildingofnewurbanhousingforall incomelevelsatapacewhichaimedatensuringthatnocitizenofanurbanareaisforcedtoresideinanunauthorizedsettlement,

ii) Tobeginimprovingthequalityofhousinginruralareasbyofferinggovernmentassistance in the form of additional village and regional planning, and theintroductionofamodifiedversionoftheself‐helpsitesandservicesschemefollowingastudyofthatissue.

Thehousingstrategydesignedtoachievethesegoalsincluded:

i. Emphasizingtheroleofhousinginthenationaldevelopmentplans,includingthepreparation of a comprehensive housing plan and the creation of a housingdivisionwithingovernment,

ii. Gradual reduction of housing subsidies and redirecting them to middle andlowerincomehousing,totheruralareasandtohousinginvestments.Thiswouldallowrentstorisetoeconomiclevels.

iii. Withdrawal of government from the construction of higher cost housing bystrengthening the private sector to undertake this responsibility. Government

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wouldconcentrateonthelowercosthousingproblems,stressingtheadoptionoflowerstandards.

iv. Methodsofdeterminingrentalpoliciesshouldbeuniform.v. The commercial banks and the Botswana Building Society should lend to the

lowerincomeandruralhouseholds.vi. Minetownsshouldconformtourbanhousingpolicies.vii. TheNationalDevelopmentBank should be expected to play amore important

roleintheutilizationofdomesticfundsandmakinghousingloansinruralareaswhenithastheadministrativecapacitytodoso.

viii. Allowing thesaleofBotswanaHousingCorporation ‘pool’houses if theyare insurplus,andsaleofsurplusgovernmentownedhousesinruralareas.

Thishousingpolicywasreviewedin1997andthatreviewwasthebasisforthecurrenthousing policy adopted in 1999. The main goal of the National Policy on Housing(2000)istofacilitatetheprovisionofdecentandaffordablehousingforallwithinasafeandsanitaryenvironment.Thishousingpolicyseeksto:i. change the emphasis from government as a housing provider to housing

facilitatorinpartnershipwithotherstakeholders;ii. apply government resources towards low and lower middle income housing

delivery;iii. promote housing as an instrument for ecomic empowerment and poverty

alleviation;iv. foster a partnershipwith the private sector and all major employers in home

developmentandfacilitatinghomeownership.The policy provides direction for the housing sector in Botswana. In line with theNationalVision2016,thepolicyaimsattheprovisionofdecentandaffordablehousingwithin a safe and sanitary environment. The policy addresses key elements of thehousingsectorincludinginstitutionalcapacitybuilding,land,finance,subsidies,rentals,housing standards, building materials, housing legislation, Self Help Housing Agency(SHHA), District Housing, Botswana Housing Corporation (BHC) and private sectorparticipation.Asthecountry’spopulationgrowsandbecomesmoreurbanised,policymeasuresputinplace to guide the national housing efforts have become grossly inadequate. Low‐incomehouseholds particularly face a broad spectrumof housing challenges. DespitetheattemptsbythePolicyinfacilitatingaccesstohousingtoall, thehousingsector inBotswanaisstillfacedwiththefollowinggeneralchallenges:i. Unaffordability due to adaptation of ‘modern’ infrastructure and building

standardsii. Overcrowdingiii. Shortageofaffordablelandforhousingiv. Inaccessibilityofhousingfinanceespeciallyforlowincomehouseholdsv. Uncoordinatedhousingdeliverystrategies

ActorsinBotswanaShelterDeliveryandtheirRolesSinceitsimplementationin2000,thePolicyhasbroughtaboutsomepositivechangestothe housing sector. Government continues to facilitate the involvement of variousstakeholders in the housing sector. This is for the full utilisation of potential andresources from all Governmental and non‐governmental actors in the housing sector.

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ThefollowingarethemajorstakeholdersinthedeliveryofhousinginBotswana,withemphasisonlowincomehousing.DepartmentofHousing:ThisdepartmentisintheMinistryofLandsandHousing.Thedepartment’s overall responsibility is to facilitate housing delivery through theformulation of housing policies and programmes. The department also providesleadership and professional guidance on all matters pertaining to housing and isresponsible for securing funding for all low income housing programmes and alsoprovideguidelinesforimplementationoftheprogrammes.Other responsibilities of the Department of Housing include the coordination andmonitoringofthemanagementofpoolhousingforeligiblepublicofficers;servingasasource of information and advice to government and other stakeholders on housingmatters;andundertakingresearchonhousing.Local Authorities: These are mainly responsible for the implementation of all lowincomehousingprogrammesandprovidinghousingfortheirstaff.Theseincludeboththe Self Help Housing Agency programme and Integrated Poverty Alleviation andHousingProgramme–{Therolesoftheseagencieswillbedetailedlaterinthepaper}.Local Authorities are also responsible for development control in all the country’splanning areas and carry out such a responsibility through building inspectors whomakesurethatalldevelopmentscarriedoutare inconsonancewiththeDevelopmentControlCode,BuildingStandards,TownandCountryPlanningActandothers.BotswanaHousingCorporation (BHC):Thisparastatalwasestablishedasanationalagencytoprovidehousingbothforgovernment,localauthoritiesandthegeneralpublicatlarge.Moredetailswillbegivenwhenaddressingtheissueoflowcosthousing.NonGovernmental/CommunityBasedOrganisations:Anumberof thesehavebeenactively involved in low income housing delivery in the countrywithout any definedparameters on how they participate. These include among others: The Habitat forHumanity, Botswana Christian Council, The Red Cross etc. These institutions haveprovedtobemorecosteffectiveproducersandprovidersoflowincomehousing.Housing Policy Advisory Council: In line with recommendation 2.1.3 of the 2000National Policy on Housing, the Council was inaugurated in 2005. The Council isexpectedtoprovideguidanceandalsodrivetheimplementationoftheNationalPolicyonHousingthroughthecoordinationofthenumerousfunctionsthatcontributetoandinfluencehousingdelivery.However,thishasnotbeenachievedastheoperationsoftheCouncilceasedayearafteritsinaugurationandthereforethepolicyhascontinuedtobeimplementedinahaphazardmanner.PrivateSector:Whilstthecurrenthousingpolicyappreciatesthepivotalroleplayedbythe private sector in housing delivery, this role has not been fully defined and/orexploited. Contribution made by the private sector has thus been haphazard andtargetingonlythehigherincomecategoryofthepopulation.

4. AccesstoHousingFinanceforall.

BotswanaGovernmenthasalsorecognizedtheimportantroleof financeinhousinginnationaldevelopmentandhence ithasensuredthat in itshousingpolicy the financialagencies have to be involved in providing credit(lending) to all income categories.Theseagenciesare:theNationalDevelopmentBank,BuildingSocietiesandCommercialbanks. In order to enhance the effective involvement of the above institutions,governmentprovidesmortgageloanguaranteestoeligibleborrowers.Toillustratethis

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we shall examine in the following paragraphs both conventional and other housingfinancemechanismsavailabletoenableaccesstohousinginBotswanaConventionalHousingFinance

The commercial banks and the Botswana Building Society (BBS) are the onlyconventional housing finance providers in Botswana. These institutions finance allforms of property development, commercial, industrial and residential. While thecommercial banks have largelymixed portfolios, BBS concentrates on the residentialsector,and80%ofBBSmortgagesareforresidentialproperties(LexvonRudloff).

The commercial banks are answerable to their shareholders and consequently thegrantingofloansissubjecttostrictbusinessriskmitigationprinciples.Althoughthereissomevariationbetweenthebanks,andallloanconditionsareoftennegotiablewithincertainlimits,typicalconditionsinclude:Minimumhousing loans formostbanksareP100000($16260), thoughStanbicnowoffers a minimum loan of P 50 000 ($8 130). Standard Charterd and Barclays BankoffersaminimumloanofP75000($12195).EvenaP100000($16260) loanwouldsufficetoerectaonlyverybasicstructurewithminimalfinishesandonlythemostbasicfittings and amenities. BBS differs from the commercial banks in that there is nominimumvalue specified forproperty loans. Currently, 10%ofmortgages in theBBSportfolioarebelowP50000($8130),and30%arebelowP100000($16260)(Lex:ibid).GovernmentFacilitationThegovernmentguaranteesbankloansforgovernmentemployeestothetuneof80%through theGovernment EmployeeMotor VehicleAdvance Scheme (GEMVAS) that isavailable topermanent andpensionable civil servants for realpropertydevelopment.To be eligible for this scheme, employeesmust have at least P1 200 ($195) net takehomepayafter loanrepaymentsanddeductions.However,onlyapproximately7%ofthe loans taken out under this scheme in the last 5 years were used for propertydevelopment, confirming that many Batswana place a higher premium on the statusachievedthroughmorepubliclyvisibleassetssuchasexpensivecars,thanonlong‐terminvestments. Government also assists all Botswana citizens to purchase or developproperties by guaranteeing 25% of all loans secured through the Botswana BuildingSociety(BBS).TheSelfHelpHousingAgency(SHHA)–{discussedbelowandingreaterdetail in the Strategies and Programmes section of this paper}­ and the BotswanaHousingCorporationare further initiativesbygovernment toaddress the low‐incomehousing issue.However,asignificantnumberofgovernmentemployeesfallbelowtheminimumearningrequirementforGEMVASfinance,aslow‐endgovernmentemployeesearnbetweenP800–P1200($130 ‐$195)permonth (BPOHFFeasibilityStudyFinalReport). Default rates for the two government loan guarantee schemes mentionedaboveareunavailable.AccesstoFinancebytheurbanpoor/LowIncomeSelf­HelpHousingAgency(SHHA)The Self‐HelpHousingAgency (SHHA)programmehas operated in theurban centresand someurban villages since the early 1970’s tomeet theneeds of the low income.Initial funding was from foreign donors (particularly USAID) until responsibility for

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SHHAwasgiventotheHousingDepartmentsofthevariousTownCouncilsin1978fromwhichdategovernmenthasfundedthescheme.The SHHA programme is not confined only to urban centres and the larger villages:rural SHHAprogrammesoperate throughoutBotswana, but in all rural SHHA, land isprovidedbytheapplicant(throughthenormalTribalLandGrantprocess).TheurbanSHHA programme provides both land and housing finance to low‐income urbandwellers.TheSHHA landallocationprocedureapproximates the tribal landallocationprocess for tribe’s people in the tribal land areas, formerly executed by the chief orheadmanandlatterlybytheLandBoards.SHHAapplicants,whomustbecitizens,andbe formally employed or legitimately self‐employed in the town or city where theapplicationislodged,mustearnbetweenP4400–P24300($715‐$3950)perannumtoqualifyforlow‐incomeplots,andbetweenP24301–P36400($3951‐$5200)formiddle lower incomeplots.Self‐employedapplicants,usuallyhawkersorvendors,arerequiredtofurnishproofofincome,eitherthroughbankstatementsorswornaffidavit.Until recently, themaximum SHHA loanwas P20 000 ($3 250) at an interest rate of10%(wellbelowprime)repayableover15years,buttodayitisP45,000($7,500).Iftheapplicantsqualifyforaplot,theyautomaticallyqualifyforabuildingloan.In Gaborone, some12,000plots have been allocated since the inception of the SHHAschemein1973,andapproximately6,000applicantshavereceivedloans.Theprojecteddemand countrywide for SHHA loans is about 54,000 on the basis of maximumentitlementofP20000($3250).Itisestimatedthat1in5householdsrequiresaloan(1in3inurbanareas).{GoB2003:NationalDevelopmentPlan9:2003/04–2008/09}Default rates have been high, partly due to poor debtor management by councils.CurrentlyinGaborone,serviceleviesaresomeP3m($487800),andSHHAloansP2.2m($357725)inarrears.Since2003/4most collectionof loanshasbeenundertakenby theprivate sectorandtheresultshavebeenencouraging.While the SHHA scheme fills a vital role in providing land and housing finance to asegment of the low‐incomemarket, SHHA is not affordable to many urban dwellers.ThoseearningbelowP4400 ($715)paorP366.67 ($60)pmarenot coveredby thescheme.Thisgroupincludesdomesticworkers,gardeners,casuallabourersandothersearningbelow theminimumwage, aswell ashawkers andnewarrivals of the rural–urbanmigrationcomponent.Formostofthesepersons,rentedaccommodationinSHHAareasortheinformalsettlementssuchasGaborone’sOldNalediistheonlyalternative.Urban rentals in Botswana are comparatively high, and most in the lowest incomegroupspendappreciablymorethantheUNstandardof30%ofincomeontheirhousing.Otherbasicneedslikefood,schooling,transport,utilities/energy,clothing,etc.consumealloftheremainingcash,resultinginlittleornodisposableincome.TheSHHAmiddle lower incomeceilingofP36400($5920)pa ‐P3033($493)pm‐falls below theminimum income requirement for housing finance of the commercialbanks,whichisgenerallyP4000–P4800($650‐$780).However,itshouldbepointedoutthatBarclaysBank’snewminimumloanrepayment(over20years)ofP1335.30pmwiththerecentlyintroduced45%debtratiorequirementisjustaboutaccessibletothisgroup,subjecttolevelsofpersonalindebtednessandotherfactors.A largenumberofplotsremainundevelopedyearsafterallocation. ‐CentralStatisticsOffice35Therepaymentrateontheservicelevyandconstructionloansislowandinadequatelymanaged,resultingintheloanschemenotbeingself‐sustaining.

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The SHHA scheme has primarily been a government investment in low‐cost housing,andwhilecompleteself‐sustainabilitymaywellnothavebeenfeasible(giventhehighlysubsidised interest rateand liberal approval criteria, the financialperformanceof theschemehasneverthelessbeenbelowexpectations.FuturedevelopmentsmaywellseetheSHHAschemebeingre‐structuredasacost‐recoveryentity.Ad­HocHousingFinanceClearlytheverypoor(thosewithhouseholdincomesbelowP367permonth–9.3%ofthepopulation)areexcludedfromall formsof formalhousingfinance.SimilarlythoseearningbetweenP3033andP4200permonth(7.2%ofthepopulation)areeffectivelyexcluded from all forms of formal housing finance (other than a BBS loan, whereapplicable)earningtoomuchtoqualifyfortheSHHAprogrammeyetfallingbelowthegenerallyappliedminimumforacommercialbankloan.Furthermore,SHHAeligibilityislargelyrhetorical,asitappliesonlytourbanapplicantsandhaswaitingperiodsofupto 15 years, effectively making it unavailable in the immediate sense.(GoB: H.I.E.S ‐CentralStatisticsOffice).MicrofinanceMicrofinance is a developing phenomenon in Botswana and there is relatively littleinformationavailableonbothsupplyanddemandforsuchservices(referto“AccesstoFinancialServicesinBotswana”,FinMarkTrustResearchPaperNo.1,GenesisAnalytics;March 2003, for data on the supply of financial services to low‐income clients inBotswana).Unlike in South Africa, in Botswana there currently is no micro lending specificallygeared towards housing. Although individuals do borrow frommicro‐lenders (eithercash or termborrowing) to develop their properties, this practice is notwidespread.Furthermore,inviewofthefactthatalmostallmicrolendingrequirestheborrowertobeformallyemployedandtohaveabankaccount,theverypoorareexcludedevenfromthissourceofhousingfinance.These‘excluded’groupsthereforefindthemselvesinapositionwheread‐hocsolutionstohousing finance are thenorm. Incremental building,where thehomeowner adds aroom at intervals, as finances permit, is probably the most common form of houseconstruction inBotswana.Manyof thosewho fail to qualify for conventional housingfinancedueeithertoinsufficientincometomeetminimumrequirementsorlandtenureissueswheretheplotisnotproperlyregisteredanddoesnotqualifyascollateral(e.g.CertificateofRights (COR)orFixedPeriod tribal landgrantedunderCustomaryLandGrant–seebelow)findthemselvesdevelopingtheirhomeinanad‐hocfashion.Afairlycommon scenario is when a person is able to obtain small loans in the form ofunsecuredshort‐termpersonalbankloans,motshelo/savingsclubloansortoraisecashthroughthesaleofcattleetc.,buildingmaterialswillbepurchasedpiecemeal,and,afteratime,whensufficientforamodestextensiontotheexistingstructure,abuilderwillbeengagedtoconstructanadditionalroom.Afewyearslater,thehomeownerwillrepeattheprocess,eventuallycreatingamulti‐roomeddwelling.PlanningissuesandBuildingControlRegulationsarechieflyignoredinthisprocess,butwerethesetobeappliedtothelettertheywouldconstituteaseriousobstacletothisformofhousingprovision.ConstraintsAccess to affordable land in urban areas for low‐incomepersons ismajor obstacle tohome Ownership, as discussed in the paragraph below. Land values have risendramaticallyoverrecentyearsandunsubsidisedlandwithinthemajortownsandcitiesisbeyondthereachofthelowerincomegroups.

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The implementation of housing standards in Botswana has had the effect of furtherincreasing housing costs. Many of the urban villages have been designated PlanningAreasandintheseareashouseshavetocomplywiththeDevelopmentControlCodeandtheBuildingControlRegulations.Traditional construction using locally available materials is therefore no longerpossible. In SHHA areas, SHHA inspectors have been known to impose requirementseven more stringent than required by the legislation, thereby further increasingbuildingcosts.Property transaction costs pose yet another obstacle to the low‐income prospectivehomeowner.Transfer, bond and notarial fees are disproportionately high at the lower end of thepropertymarket,rangingfrom13.6%orP2450($400)forapropertyvaluedunderP20000($3250)‐asignificantdisincentivetothepooreraspirant‐toonly7.3%orP14600($2375)forapropertyofP200000(32520)(Finmarkibid).Challenges:LandTenure

5. LandPolicy:TheNationalPolicyonLandTenure1985andtheLandPolicy2000:

Since independence in 1966, the Government of Botswana has been appointingcommissions and carrying out studies to facilitate land administration anddevelopment.ManypolicieshaveresultedfromthesecommissionsincludingtheTribalGrazing Policy, Agricultural Policy, Tourism Policy, and the National Policy on LandTenure (1985). The later, the NPLT, addressed issues pertaining to improvement todeliveryoflandfordevelopmentandmanagementofland.Themajorconcernsweretoremoveobstaclesthatmadebothstateandtriballanddifficulttoacquireanddevelop.Through the policy it has become possible to mortgage tribal land to facilitateencouragementoffinancial institutionstoextendcreditstopeopleorinvestorsandtodirecturbanlandallocationanddevelopment.

In 2002, consultants were appointed by government to conduct a comprehensivereview of land policy and prepare the groundwork for a government paper on thesubject.Stakeholdersfromalloverthecountryenergeticallydebatedtheconclusionsoftwo draft reports by the consultants in the last quarter of 2002. The review coveredbothlandadministrationandlandmanagement.ThereviewconcludedthatBotswana’soverall land policy and institutional framework are fundamentally sound and that,despitetheprofoundchangeswitnessedbyBotswanainthelasttwodecades,the1983strategy of careful change, responding to particular needs with specific tenureinnovationsremainsvalid.Nonetheless,someimportantadjustments to thepolicyarecalledfor.

AccesstoLandforAll:LandlawsandTenureCategoriesinBotswana

Land is owned by the State in Botswana and every citizen has an equal right to beallocated land, protected by the Constitution. Unlike in some countries, there is nogender discrimination. Land laws in Botswana, fall into three categories. Moderncustomary law draws its inspiration from African culture. While its origins areindigenous,manymodifications have taken place during the past one hundred years.The customary law of Botswana is described in two seminal works (Schapera 1938,1943). Broadly speaking, the common law of Anglophone southernAfrica constitutesthemodern common lawofBotswana. Since independence in1966, therehasbeena

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considerableamountofstatutorylawapplicabletoland;themostimportantlawsare:theConstitutionofBotswana,Cap1;theStateLandAct,Cap32,01;theTribalLandAct,Cap.32:02andtheTownandCountryPlanningAct,Cap.32.09.(Kalabamu2006)

There are three categories of land tenure: tribal land, state land (crown land beforeindependence)andfreeholdlandi.

(i) TriballandorCustomaryLandAtindependence,about49%ofthenationallandareawastriballand,lessthan4%wasfreeholdandthebalancestateland.Betweenindependencein1966and1972,afurther15,000 square kilometres of state land were alienated and sold as freehold both toEuropeansandBatswana(White1999).By1980,theconversionofstatelandtotriballandandthepurchaseandconversionoffreeholdlandincongestedareas,hadcausedtriballandtoincreaseto69%,freeholdlandtofallto5.7%andstatelandtofallto25%.Today,triballandcomprises71%ofthelandarea;freeholdabout4.2%andstatelandtheremainder.Thus,thepolicyinBotswanahasbeentoincreasetheareaoftriballandat the expense of both state and freehold ownership. Table 1 below illustrates thechanges.

Table2:LandTenureCategoriesinBotswana,1966­1998Year Triballand Stateland Freeholdland

Area% Area% Area%

1966 278,53548.8 270,76147.4 21,3563.7

1979 403,73069.4 145,04024.9 32,9605.7

1998 411,34970.9 144,58824.9 24,5724.2

(White1999)

Thetenureissecure,landrightsareperpetualandinheritableandthelandisallocatedfree of charge and hence the land is not treated as a commodity. This is howeverchangingaslandclosetourbanareasisgraduallybeingsoldontheopenmarket.Chiefsused to oversee administration of land before Land Boards were established. (LandBoardsaremoderndayinstitutionsthatadministertriballand).Thechiefadministeredland allocation through his representatives known as ward heads. The land wasallocatedaccordingtozonesforthreemainusesi.e.residential,ploughingandgrazing(NkwaeandDumba2008).

Thecharacteristicsofthecustomarytenurecanbesummarisedas:

• Generallynotcoded,largelyunwritten• Basedontraditionandcustom• Easilyaccessiblebygroupmembers• Verysecureandinheritable• Inalienable rights by individual members of the group i.e. land is not a

commodity• Cannotbemortgaged• Cannotbetransferredtonon‐citizens

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• Flexibleanddynamic,notstaticDecentralisedlandboardsadministertriballandintermsoftheTribalLandAct.Triballandiseitherheldbythelandboarditselforbyeligibleapplicantsascustomarygrantsor common law leases. Although a land board has the statutory right to refuse toallocateland,anapplicationbygovernmentwillnormallybeaccommodated.

(ii) StateLandAsthetermdenotes,Statelandisownedbygovernmentandisfoundinruralandurbanareas. In urban areas, the land is allocated to individuals and organizations forresidential, industrial and commercial purposes. State Land in rural areas is used asgamereservesandnationalparksandsomeisleasedtofarmersforgrazingpurposes.Inthe urban areas, the land ownership patterns are influenced by the statutory landtenure system with approximately 95% of the land being State land. State land isadministeredundertheStateLandAct(Cap32:01).ThelandallocationisdonebytheAttorneyGeneralwithassistancefromtheDepartmentofLands.Landinurbanareasasopposed to rural areas is serviced before allocation. The government policy is toallocate landon thebasisof full cost recovery incaseofa first timebuyer, ifnotonepaysfullmarketprice.AllocationscanbeintheformofeitherFixedPeriodStateGrant(FPSG)oraCertificateofRights (COR).COR isadministeredby theSelf‐HelpHousingAgency (SHHA)undereach townor city council anda low interestbuildingmaterialsloanorSHHAloanisprovided(seemoreDetailslaterinthepaper).

(iii) FreeholdlandFreeholdlandwascreatedduringthecolonialerabythestatepermanentlyalienatingitstitletoindividualsandorganizations.FreeholdlandisfoundinsomeofBotswana’sprimeagriculturalbeltssuchas theeasternTuliBlockof thecountryaswellassomedesignatedblocksintheGhanziDistrict.FreeholdwasalsocreatedafterindependenceintownssuchasGaboroneasanincentiveforindividualstoparticipateintheeconomicdevelopmentofthecountry(Mathuba,1992),asakindofanempowermentapproach.

Privatedevelopershavealsopurchased farmsat theurbanperipheryand subdividedthelandandsolditonafreeholdbasis.PhakalaneEstatesinGaboroneisacaseinpoint.Thefreeholdtitleisinheritable,freelytransferable,andregistrableanddoesnotlapsewithtime.

LandAllocationProcedureinUrbanAreas.TheStateLandAllocationPolicyaims toprovide for the rightof avail inurbanareas.Thepolicycurrentlyinforcestatesthatallcitizens,regardlessofwheretheylive,willbeeligible for two residential, commercial and industrial plots in the urban areas ofBotswana,provided thata firstplothasbeendeveloped(MLGL1990).Landservicing(i.e. provision of roads, drains, water and power supplies) is a precondition for landallocation on urban state land for residential, commercial and industrial purposes.Residentialplotsaretransferredatapricebasedoncostrecoveryforfirsttimebuyers,affordableprices for lowincomegroupsandmarketprices for thoseseekingplots forinvestment. Commercial and industrial land is allocated at market prices. However,pricesfallbelowmarketvalue,hencethelongwaitinglistsandtheassociatedproblemsoflandfronting(Kalabamu2006).

TheprocedureofallocatingStateLandResidential.

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TheseplotsareallocatedundertheStateLandIntegratedManagementSystem(SLIMS)onwaitinglistbasisasfollows:‐

•TheDepartmentofLands(MLH)receivesapplicationforms;

•Application forms are captured in the computerized Botswana Land InformationSystems(BLIS)pltform;

•BLISvetstheapplicationsandassignsawaitinglistnumber;

•Onceplotsareavailable,theyareloadedintoBLIS;

•BLIS runs a provisional allocation to State Land Allocation Advisory Committee(SLAAC)forconsideration;

•Successful applicants are communicated to Legal Services Division for formalallocation.Priorityforallocationisgiventothosewithoutplotsinstateland.

Figure1:Extension48Neighbourhood,Gaborone:LandServicedBeforeAllocation

AdministrativeStructures

The State LandAct (CAP32:01)whichwas enacted in 1966 vested state land on thePresident and provided for soundmanagement of such land. State landmanagementand distribution falls under the Ministry of Lands and Housing (MLH) while land

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allocation for lowandmiddle income low residential plots is delegated toTown/CityCouncils under the SHHA programme. Such land allocations are made through StateLandAllocationAdvisoryCommittees (SLAACs) toensure transparencyandequitabledistributionofland.

Government has instituted amechanism to provide/allocate land for the low incomethrough its SHHA Programme. TheMinistry of Lands and Housing is responsible foroverseeing the administration of urban state land and for co‐ordinating thedevelopmentandallocationofnon‐SHHAservicedland.TheMinistryisalsoresponsiblefor overseeing the survey of all layouts and plots for which titles are allocated andregistered by the Deeds Registry. The private sector, which has so far played only amodestrole,isinvolvedinlandservicinginhigh‐incomeresidentialestatesonfreeholdlandandonalimitedscalethroughgovernmentcontractsonblocksofstateland.Attheotherendoftheincomescale,NGOshavebeenactiveinlow‐incomeshelterprovision.

The Accelerated Land Servicing Programme (ALSP), instituted by the government in1992,aimed tomeet thedemand forurban landand respond to the ‘rightof avail’ ofcitizens. Upon an application being lodged with the Ministry or SHHA office, theapplicant’s detailswere entered into a computer. Prioritywas given to thosewithnourbanplot.Whenplotsbecameavailable,acommitteeapprovedtheallocations,whichweretonotbe transferredunless theyhadbeendevelopedfor thepurpose forwhichtheywereallocatedanda10‐yearperiodhadelapsedsinceallocation.Inacasewhereaplothadtochangehandsbeforetheprescribeddate,ithadtobedevelopedfirstandthetransfereehad topay togovernment thedifferencebetween thesalepriceof theplotandtheinitialpricepaidbytheallottee(Kalabamu,ibid).

A reviewof theALSP found that, of themiddle andupper incomeplots inGaborone,13%had tobe repossessedas comparedwith55%of theSHHAplots (MLH2001).Asimilar pattern emerged in the other centres. The number of residential plots thatremained undeveloped and unpaid for between 1992 and 2001 was substantial.Allotteeswerenot able todevelop the land, even though itwasoffered at subsidisedprices. As a result, the infrastructure provideddeteriorated. Some22000plotsweredelivered under the programme between 1992 and 2002, but no new major land‐servicingprojectisplanned.

The National Policy on Housing (GoB 2000) portends a fundamental change to landpolicy in urban areas. It states that government’s role in the provision of land forhousinghashadtochangefromthatoffinancieranddirectproducerofplots,tothatoffacilitator.Theallocationofsubsidisedplotstourbanhouseholds,whatevertheirlevelof income, has to come to an end. The government paper states that in future scarcebudgetary resources will be channelled to low income housing as an instrument ofeconomicempowermentandpovertyalleviation.

SecurityTenureforthelowIncome

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Toenablethelowincomeinsquatterupgradingandsiteandserviceareas,governmenthasadoptedapolicyofprovidingsecuretenurethroughtheintroductionofCertificateofRightsandtheFixedPeriodStateGrant(FPSG).

CertificateofRights

TheCertificateofRights(COR)asanurbanlandtenureinnovationwasdevelopedintheearly1970stocaterfortheurbanpoorasalandtenurealternativetocurbsquattinginBotswana’surbancentres.Itsotherobjectivewastoprovideasecureandinexpensiveformof tenure tosupport thesiteandserviceschemes for theurbanpoor.Toreducecosts the demarcation of boundaries for COR plotswas done on the basis of generalplans or block diagrams (Nkwae&Dumba2008). In Site and Service areas,minimumservices were provided including earth roads, communal water stand pipes and pitlatrines.Neitherelectricitynorstreet lightingwasprovideduntil1992when thenewUrbanDevelopmentStandardswereintroduced.

Theplotholdermaintains theusufructof theplotandtheStatemaintainsownership.Thetenureissecure,perpetual,inheritableandcanbeassigned,pledgedandbecededwith the consentof theCouncil. It is also convertible toa99year lease, i.e. theFixedPeriod State Grant after carrying out a cadastral survey and a title registration.Technically speaking, COR can be mortgaged, pledged and hypothecated. FinancialinstitutionsarehoweverwaryaboutacceptingCORtitleascollateralsince,

• ThelandbelongstotheStateandplotholdersareprohibitedfromtransferringor ceding the property without prior written consent of town/city council. Amajor concern is the involvement of a third party, the Town Council whoseconsent is required for sale in execution of the COR. If property is to be goodsecurity for loans, the lender must be able to sell to recover loans in case ofdefault.

• Landisnotsurveyedtocadastralstandardandtitlesarenotlegallyregistered.• Costs to convert COR titles to FPSG are prohibitive (e.g. Maendeleo, 1992;

GeoSolutions,2007).In the original proposals for the issuing of COR, three categories of applicants werecontemplated:

• Type I COR. Thiswasmainly designed to curtail themushroomingof squattersettlements in theurban centres. Itwas supposed tobe an annual tenancy forbasichousingstructuresofnon‐paymentnature.

• TypeIICOR.Thiswastobegrantedtothelowerincomegroupswhoseincomedid not exceed P1, 500. The group was expected to meet the minimumdevelopmentstandardsandalsoqualifyforasubsidizedmonthlyservicechargefromthemunicipalauthority.TechnicalassistancefromtheSHHAprogramandabuildingmaterialsloanaccompaniedthislanddevelopmentinitiative.

• TypeIIICOR.Thisproposalaimedatthemiddle‐incomegroup,whocouldaffordthehighlandservicingstandardsclosertothehigh‐incomeneighbourhoods.

With this approach, it was envisaged that it would lead to innovative investment inhousingandothercommercialactivitieswithFPSGreservedforthehighincomegroup.However,duringitsimplementation,onlytypeIICORwasissuedasitwasfoundtobe

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more appropriate for the low and middle income. However, this approach excludesthoseurbanpoorwithoutanysourceofincome.

The strength of this tenure option lies in having averted the squatter problem inBotswana’surbancentresofSelibe‐PhikweandGaborone.Dueto itssuccess, theCORwasextendedtoothertownslikeFrancistown,Jwaneng,KasaneandGhanzi.Thesameconcept has now been extended into the rural and peri‐urban areas to improve thehousingconditions. In theory, theCORcanbehypothecated if registeredat theDeedsRegistryOffice.

Allocationofcertificateofrights

ThedemandforCORhasalwaysexceededthesupplyofCORplotsasdemonstratedbythe long waiting lists in the SHHA offices throughout the country. Standardisedallocationproceduresareusedinthesesiteandserviceareas.AnapplicantfortheCORneededtosatisfythefollowingconditions:

• MustbeacitizenofBotswana;• Mustbeatleast18yearsold;• Musthavebeenaresidentofatownforatleastsixmonths;• Mustnotownanyotherhouseorplotinanyurbanarea;• Mustnotfallbelowthestipulatedannualincomethreshold;• Mustagreetopayaservicelevy;• Mustcomplywiththeminimumdevelopmentstandards;and• Ultimateownershiprestswiththestate

ConversionofCORtoFPSG

“ThetenurialsecurityformostoldSHHAplotbeneficiariesstillremainstheCertificateof Rights, although a change to the Fixed Period State Grant (FPSG) was approvedfollowingthereviewoftheSHHAprogramme”in1992(NDP9,2003,p.334).InordertoconvertaCORtitletoFPSG,plotholdersmustsatisfythefollowingconditions:

• CommissionacadastralsurveycostingaboutP2000.• Arrangeawaterconnection,whichcostsaboutP600,equivalenttoaonemonth’s

wages.• RegisterthenewtitleattheDeedsRegistryOffice;thereisnoregistrationfeeif

thevalueoftheplotisbelowP20,000.• PaythetitleconversionfeeattheDeedsRegistryOffice.

As of December 1991, ‘roughly 1,000 plots had been converted, of which two‐thirdshave been in Gaborone’ (Ministry if Local Government, Land & Housing, 1992, p.62)representing slightly less than 4% of the total COR plots in the country. It has beenobserved that most of these converted COR titles are later sold in the open market(MinistryifLocalGovernment,Land&Housing,1992;GeoSolutions,2007).

ConclusionAll said, however, the land policy of Botswana has been hailed as a model in thecontinentasitmakeslandaccessibletoallsegmentsofthesocietyincludingtheurbanpoor. Everyone is entitled for land in an open system with waiting lists that are

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computerisedandavailabletowouldbeapplicants.Landisalsodistributedfairlywiththelowincomebeingsubsidizedwhilstthemiddleincomepaycostrecoverypricesandthewelltodopaymarketpriceforland.

PARTTWO

STRATEGIES AND PROGRAMMES ADOPTED TO MAKE LAND AND HOUSINGACCESSIBLEANDAFFORDABLEFORTHELOWINCOME.

In order to provide adequate, safe and sanitary shelter for all, the Government ofBotswana has embarked on some strategies and programmes with the main thrustbeing forthe lowincomesegmentof thepopulation.Themainsignificantof thesearethefollowing:‐I) PublicHousingProgrammeII) SiteandServiceandSelfHelpprogrammesIII) AcceleratedLandServicingProgrammeIV) IntegratedPovertyandHousingProgrammeV) InvolvementofthePrivateSectorthroughPPP.Thesearenowexaminedbelow.

I. PublicHousingProgramme–TheBHC.In order to meet the nations’ need for housing the government established theBotswanaHousing Corporation (BHC) in 1970, and the adoption in 1973 of self‐helpsolutionsmanagedbySelf‐HelpHousingAgencies(SHHA).TheBHCwasestablishedasa parastatal organisation,mainly to provide housing for rent or sale for government,localauthoritiesandforindividuals.Atfirst,itsmainmandatewastocaterforthelowsegmentofurbanhouseholds,butwithtimethiswasslowlyneglectedfollowingmarketchanges.

Altogether theBHC has built 17,000 houses in urban areas, in three categories, high,mediumand lowrent.Of the threecategories, the low incomehousing is thegreatestand suchunits dot everymajor urban area inBotswana.Units range from50m2(lowincome)to120m2(Highincome).

The Botswana Housing Corporation’s mandate of providing affordable housing toBatswana,initiallyassubsidisedrentalandlaterthroughtenantpurchaseschemeshaslonggivenwaytomainstreamcommercialdevelopment.TheCorporationisveryactivein the middle‐income housing market, but although ‘low‐cost’ units dating from the1960’s and 1970’s still exist and accommodate a limited number of low‐incomehouseholds,thedevelopmentsofthelastdecadehaveallbeenbeyondtheaffordabilityofthelowerincomegroups.ThattheCorporationhasmovedfurtherandfurtherfromitscapacitytohousethelow‐incomegroup,isillustratedinsomeofthelatest“TurnkeyHousing Scheme” projects originally intended to fall under the SHHAprogrammebuttaken over by BHC: A recent BHC tender for 88 ‘low‐cost’ units came in at P 6.7m($1.09m), averaging P76 316 ($12 410) per unit. Even at a subsidised (hypothetical)interest rateof10%(as inSHHA), thecost is toohigh foreven theupper limitSHHA

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applicants.Suchprojectswillbenefitthemiddleincomegroups,butwillarebeyondthereachoflow‐incomegroups.

Since1997BHChassoldabout1,200propertiesunderthetermsofitstenantpurchasescheme.Inurbanareasthereisasmallprivatesector,amountingtoabout10percentofthestock,establishedbythesaleofleasesandfreeholds,invariablyservingthewelloffelite (Harvey and Lewis, 1990: 261‐2),while at the opposite end of the income scalethereisasmallamountofinformalsettlement(squatting).

RecentlyanewroleforBHChasbeenintroduced.In2009theGovernmentannounceda new scheme to make housing and home‐ownership affordable, especially for theyouth. President Ian Khama in his State of the Nation Address (2009) said that thegovernmentwillputinplaceanewInstallmentPurchaseSchemetobeimplementedby the Botswana Housing Corporation (BHC) to make rental and purchasing housescheaper.Hesaidthegovernmentwillprovidehighdensityandmulti‐residentialhousesfor the youth and bachelor flats for first time home‐owners and employees."Consequently,inallurbanandmajorvillageswheredevelopmentandlayoutplansareprepared, land is identified and zoned for high density residential use where thesehouseswillbeconstructed,"Khamaannounced.

ThePresidentstatedthattheBHCwillbeturnedintoasingleauthoritythroughwhichall public housing delivery initiatives will be coordinated. "Consultations are at anadvancedstagewithingovernmenttotransformBHCintosuchanauthority.Oncetheauthorityisinplace,therewillbeclarityontherolesofthemajorplayers,includingtheprivate sector, in policy formulation, planning and monitoring of housing delivery,"Khamasaid.

II. SiteandServices/SquatterUpgrading/TheSelfHelpHousingProgramme.With fasturbanisation, emerged squattingby the low incomeworkerswhomoved tothe urban areas soon after independence to access shelter. Most of this was inGaborone(OldNaledi),Francistown(SomersetNorthandSouth,Monarchetc)andSelebiPhikwe.GovernmentwasquicktoactbyadoptingtheWorldBankmodelandintroducea site and services and squatter upgrading programme based on self help basis andtoday,Botswanaboastsofhavinglittleincidenceofsquattingasanynewemergenceofsquatting is quickly dealt with by demolitions and stiff penalties for defaulters.Currently, this is the largest housing sector, representing about 60% of the urbanhousing stock administered by the SHHA, which, as indicated earlier are themselvesundertheaegisofthetowncouncils.Figure2:OldNalediUpgradedSquatterArea,Gaborone–SeePlanBelow

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The Self Help Housing Agency(SHHA) programme was introduced in 1973 and itsobjectivewas to assist low incomeurban householdswith access to serviced land aswell as develop their own houses. The scheme was financed by the InternationalDevelopmentAgencyofCanadaandtheNetherlandsInterdenominationalCoordinationCommunityforDevelopmentProjectsandtheBotswanaCouncilofChurches.

This schemewas responsible for (i) upgrading ‘unauthorised’ settlements in varioustowns,includingOldNalediinGaborone;and(ii)allocating,atnocosttothebeneficiary,minimally serviced land to the ‘poor’. To qualify for land under this scheme, theapplicant had to be a citizen of Botswana aged 21 years and abovewith a verifiable,regularincome.Furthermore,theapplicantwasrequiredtohavelivedintherespectivetownshipforatleastsixmonthspriortosubmittinghisorherapplication.Thesecriteriadiscriminatedagainst new arrivals (rural‐urban migrants), casual and self‐employed workers, andyouthswhowereparentsandworkersbutagedunder21.(Kalabamu,1998;Musyoki,1998).By then, the low income groups included householdswith incomes ranging betweenP1800andP30,000perannum.Thishas since changed to coverhouseholdswithanincomeintherangeofP4400.00toP36400.00perannum.FromthetimeSHHAwas

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introduceduptotheearly1990sservicingstandardsforSHHAplotswererudimentaryandlowcost.Thesewere;

• Communalwaterstandpipesservicinganaverageof20householdsperpipe.• Pitlatrines:Governmentconstructedthesub‐structure,theindividualthesuper

structure.• Earthroadsprovidingaccesstoallplots.• Electricitywasnotprovided.

Thesehavesincechangedaselectricityandtarmacroadsareprovidedinallareasandpit latrines are now replaced by central sewerage systems to avoid watercontamination.Councils around the countryarephasingoutpublicwater standpipesandindividualyardconnectionsaswellashouseconnectionsareencouraged.

Plots were provided for free with the individual paying a service charge whichembodiedanegligibleelementofinfrastructurecostrecovery.ABuildingMaterialloanwas provided, whosemaximum ceiling was increased from P400 at the inception ofSHHAin1973toP1200in1984.TheceilingwasfurtherincreasedtoP3600atthetimeof the SHHA Review in 1992. Beneficiaries were providedwith a basic Certificate ofRights Tenure (COR) which entitled them to construct houses but not to own theland(asdetailedearlier).

PlotholderswhoareunabletodeveloparerequiredtogivebacktheirplotstothelocalSHHA,andinreturntheyreceivearefundofthepurchasepricelesspenaltyfees.SHHAplotholderswhoselldevelopedplotswithintenyearsofallocationarenotallowedtoregisteron thewaiting list for aperiodof five years.Theyare also required topay apenalty(lien)amountingtothedifferencebetweenthemarketpriceoftheplotandtheinitialpurchaseprice.

Theschemewassosuccessfulinmeetingtheneedsoftheurbanpoorthatin2005,thegovernmentcascadedit totheruralareas,at firststartingwiththemajorvillagesandlatertoallothersettlementsthatneedthescheme.

Figure3:SiteandService/SHHAResidentialDevelopmentinGaborone,Botswana

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NewSHHAProgramme.

BeingmindfulofthosewhoseincomesthatcouldnotqualifythemtogetSHHAloans,in2009,underPresidentialdirective,thegovernmenthasintroducedtwomoreinitiativesto help the low income access housing, these are theNew SHHA and the TurnKeyHousingProgrammewith increasedSHHAloans–uptoP45,000andthere isazerointerestontheloansexceptfordefaulterswhowillbecharged10%ontheloans.TheschemeisonlyapplicabletolowincomeearnersfallingwithintheP4,400‐P36,400perannumcategory.Underthenewprogramme,beneficiariesareexpectedtostartuptheirownhousingprojectsusingtheirresourcesandthecouncilwouldfinishtheprojecttocurbincidencesofincompletestructuresashasbeenthecasewiththeinitialP20,000loans.

Councils are expected to carry out inspections to see the conditions of the housingprojects that should be completed through the loans and to verify the level ofdevelopment.Thenewhousingschemeforthelow‐incomeclassissettodeliveratleast1166readyhousesduringthe2009/10financialyear.TheTurnkeydevelopmententailsconstructionofhousesataunitcostofP60000forbeneficiarieswhooptforcompletedhouses.Therepaymentperiodfortheloansunderthetwoschemeswasalsoincreasedfrom15to20yearsat0percentinterest,with10percentinterestonthosewhodefaultin repayment. To‐date, a total of P19,380,850 was disbursed for 697 beneficiaries,accordingtotheMolefhi(Mmegi2009)

SHHATurnkey

This programme was started in 2003 in an effort to establish the possibility ofgovernment providing structures to eligible SHHA applicants. This is applicable topeoplewhoqualify for SHHA (due to their income levels) but do not have their ownplots.BeneficiariesaredrawnfromSHHAwaitinglistsandapplicationsfromruralareasare made to councils. Under this programme no village is prioritised and even

24

settlements are entitled and funds are disbursed from the ministry based on therequests from councils. A pilot project was carried out in Francistown and neverrealised its objectives. Problemsexperienced in thatprojectwill help thedepartmentreviewandbetterfocustheproject.

EvaluationoftheSHHAProgramme:SuccessesandChallenges

(a) SuccessoftheProgramme.

TheSHHAhasbeenthemostsuccessfullowincomehousingprogrammeundertakeninBotswana and accounts for about 52%of total housing provision and accommodates62%ofhouseholds inurban areas.Therehasbeenno significant squatter settlementsincetheprogrammewasinstituted.Theprogrammehassincebeenrolledouttoruralareaswitheffectfrom2000andtheloanamountincreasedtoP45,000.00.

(b) CriticsoftheSHHAProgramme

In spite of this success, the SHHA programme has come under criticism from manyquartersrangingfromthebeneficiariesthemselvesaswellasresearchers.Datta(1996:241)saysthat‘Onthefaceofit,self‐helphousingprojectshavebeenhugelysuccessfulinBotswanaespeciallywhencomparedtotheperformanceofotherAfricancountries’,buthethengoesontolistanumberofreservations.First,accordingtoDatta,SHHAhasbeen heavily subsidised, in that initially plotswere allocated free of charge, buildingmaterialsloanswereatsubsidisedratesofinterestandservicelevieswerewellbelowcostrecoverylevels.Itcanberespondedthatsincepeoplewereaccustomedtofreelandin rural areas itwas a necessary expedient to provide free plots in town in order tosecure acceptance of the SHHA idea. Second, there is the problem that SHHA fails toreachthepoorest,becausesomanypeoplehaveincomesbelowthethreshold.However,thiscanbecounteredbythenewschemesrecentlyintroduced.Third,Dattareferstothephenomenonknownas‘fronting’,wherebypoorhouseholdsobtainaplotwhichislatersoldbytheplotholdertoabetterofffamilywhoseincomewoulddisqualifythemfromanewlymarkedoutplot.However,Frontingwasmorelikelytohaveoccurredinthedaysbeforetheintroductionoftransferabletitle.Fourth,intheearlyyears,andespeciallyinthe1980s,therewasashortageofservicedplotsandthereforeverylongwaitinglistsarose. However, fifth, the accelerated land servicing programme, which wasaccompaniedby the introductionof higher standardsof servicing andmarket pricingfornewplots,resultedinitiallyinasupplyofservicedplotsthatwerenotreadilytakenup.Finally,thereisthelongestablishedproblemofpoorcostrecoveryperformancebytheSHHAauthorities,withhighlevelsofarrearsintermsofbothserviceleviesandloanrepayments.

ThesecriticismsarelargelyechoedbytheGaboroneHousingNeedsAssessment(GHKInternational, 1999: 22‐25). For example, ‘In effect, the SHHA programme has beenincreasinglyremovedfromitsobjectiveofaddressingtheneedsoflowincomegroups.Instead,theSHHAnowacts,toalargeextent,asadeliverymechanismforhousingthe‘rich poor’ and the lower‐middle income groups’. This is supported byDatta’s (1996:240) statement that the value of a self‐help house increased by six times the rate ofgeneralinflationduring1982‐87.TheprogressiveexclusionoftheleastwellofftendstoforcethemintorentingroomsorhutsonSHHAplots,anditisgenerallyacceptedthata

25

majorityofhouseholdslivinginSHHAareasarenotplotholdersbuttenantsandsub‐tenants.Datta(1996:241)saysthat58percentofSHHAoccupantsarenotplotholders,buthealsosaysthat3outof5householdstaketenants.

If every plot holder took one tenant then clearly 50 per cent of occupantswould betenants,soDatta’sfigurescanbetakentoimplythatsomepeoplearetakingmorethanone tenant.Thisconclusion issupportedby thehousingneedsreport,whichsuggeststhat there are on average12people per plot,which it translates as 2.5‐3households(GHKInternational,1999:23).ALargeamountofrentinginsitesandservicesareashasalsobeenobservedinZimbabwe(RakodiandWithers,1995:383).

TheGaboronehousingneedsreportisalsocriticalofthepolicyofmaintainingwhatitseesashighbuilding standards,whicharenotaffordableby thepoor, andwhichare,apparently, ‘well above the minimum needed to ensure satisfactory environmentalhealthandsafety’.ThereportgoesontocriticisethecostsofsecurityoftenureinSHHAareas. The poorest plot holders, it is argued, cannot afford the cost of the surveyrequiredtoobtaintheFPSG.RaisingtheincomethresholdforaccesstoSHHAobviouslyhastheeffectofexcludingmorepeopleonlowincomes,anditisestimatedthat30‐40per centof thepoor inGaboronearenowunable toaffordaplot (GHK International,1999:25).Increasingthesizeofthebuildingmaterialsloanclearlyisofnobenefittotheleastwelloff,yetitremainswellbelowthecostofconstructingabasicdwellingtotherequired standard. It is interesting that the report is also critical of the tendency toresorttosubsidyasameansoftacklingtheseproblems,ratherthancuttingstandards.However,inacountrywithsuchbuoyantstaterevenuesandsuchalargegroupofpoorpeoplewithsuchlimitedaccesstoformalemployment,surelythereisacaseforusingsubsidisedhousingasavalidmeansofredistribution!

On the question of renting, Datta (1996: 242‐3) refers to the insecurity of tenants ofsubsistence landlords, the lack of formal tenancy agreements, the inferior quality oftheir accommodation and their vulnerability to exploitation. Not surprisingly, hisevidencesuggestedthatalargemajorityoftenantsinSHHAareasaspiredtoowntheirplotsomeday.

All said, however, government has always taken heed of these criticisms and it hascontinually takensteps to improve the schemeasalreadyalluded toearlier (theNewSHHAandtheTurnkeyProject).

III:IntegratedPovertyAlleviationandHousingSchemes

ThisschemeismeanttocaterforthosenotcoveredundertheSelfHelpHousingAgency(SHHA)arrangementandwastobe implementedinruralareasonly.WhentheWhitePaper on the National Housing Policy came out in 2000, it recommended that theschemehas tobe implemented inboth rural andurbanareas. Implementationof thisscheme inbothsettings ismeant toaddress thepovertyproblemsexperienced in thecountry and to give poverty policies and programmes a national focus. The scheme’smainthrustisontheintegrationofskillsacquisition,employmentcreationandincomegenerationwithshelterprovision.

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Thefirststageoftheprojectinvolvestheidentificationofbeneficiariesthroughthehelpof the Social and Community Development Division of the local Council where theproject is being implemented. Once they have been identified they are trained in theproductionandmarketingof standardbuildingmaterials suchas stockbricks,blocks,pavement slabs andkerbstones for sale at competitivepriceson the localmarket.Anallowanceisofferedtothebeneficiariesdependentontheprofitmadefromthesaleofthe project’s products. Production of building materials run concurrently with thetraining of beneficiaries in basic construction skills. Skills acquired are meant toencourage the beneficiaries to build their own houses without having to employsomeonetodoitforthem.

Theprojectshave torepayGovernment the initial capital investedso thatarevolvingfund can be created for replication purposes. Once the project has reached fullproduction,withtheneededresourcesinplace,theGovernmentisexpectedtopulloutand hand the project’smanagement to the beneficiaries. This scheme has since beenpiloted in three urban areas of Francistown, Mahalapye and Ghanzi. The ‘success’ ofthese projects has led theGovernment into replicating the project toTsabong,KanyeandMaun.MaunandTsabong,have since startedproductionwithKanye still to startproduction.OtherprojectshavealsobeenstartedinMasunga,Mochudi.

IV: AcceleratedLandServicingProgramme

Asindicatedearlier,Governmentpolicytowardsurbanresidentiallandisthatithastobe serviced before allocation. Though noval and avoids the pitfalls of manymunicipalities’problemsintheAfricancontinent.Itisamajorchallengetomeetsuchanobjective.Formostgovernmentsprovidingadequatesupplyofresidentialplotshasalwaysbeenachallenge. This has also been the case in Botswana since Independence. In 1987, theBotswanagovernmentidentifiedtheshortageofservicedlandasamajorconstrainttourbanhousingdevelopment,as thewaiting list forhouseshadmushroomedtonearly10,000.Accordingly, a major land servicing programme –The Accelerated Land ServicingProgramme(ALSP)was introducedat an estimated cost ofP500mil (US$167mil) fortheservicingofresidential,commercialandindustrialplotsintheurbancentres.At completion, about 30,225 serviced residential plots were developed for variousincome groups. Of these 10,210 plots were in Gaborone. All ALSP plots are titlesurveyed and fully serviced with tarred roads and provisions for private water andsewerconnectionsbut lackprovisionforcommunalstandpipesanddonotpermitpitlatrines. The plot allocation process is computerised under a system called theBotswanaLandInformationSystem(BLIS).With the introduction of the ALSP, income became themost important criterion forallocatingstateland.Underthisprogramme,landisallocatedat‘affordablecost’tolow‐incomeearners,at ‘cost recovery’ tomiddle‐incomeearners,andat ‘marketprices’ tohigh‐incomeearners. ‘Affordablecost’ isdefinedasbeingnomorethan25percentoftotalearningsforalow‐incomehousehold,while‘costrecovery’isdefinedasthepricethatwill enable the government to recoup all of the cost of servicing the land (GOB,1985;MLGL,1990).Theminimumagelimitwasreducedto18.Inaddition,applicantsmustbeformallyemployedorlegitimatelyself‐employed.

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The applicant’s name is retained on the waiting list if he or she is transferred to aworkplaceoutsidewheretheapplicationwasmade.Onlyoneapplicationpercoupleisentertained.Anindividualwhomarriesapersonwhoalreadyownsaplotonstatelandisrequiredtowithdrawhisorhernamefromthelist.The above criteria tend to disadvantage some. First, they exclude people who areunemployedbutcapableofbuildinghousesusingtheirownlabourandfundsfromthesale of other household resources such as cattle and rural produce. Secondly, theyexclude people (notably women) with partners working outside Gaborone or thecountry(e.g.inSouthAfrica).Thirdly,the‘affordableprice’excludesthemostneedyandvulnerable households. Fourthly, by restricting land holdings to one plot per couple,marriedwomenaredisadvantagedbecausetraditionalnormsandpracticesdictatethatlandbelongstohusbands,whoareassumedtobehouseholdheads.Fifthly,giventhatmorewomen thanmen are unemployed orwork as housewives, the criteria tend todisadvantagemorewomenthanmen.CONCLUSIONANDTHEWAYFORWARD.

Fromtheabove,itcansafelybesaidthatthegovernmentofBotswanahasdonealotinensuringprovision and access tourbanhousing throughappropriateurban, land andhousing policiesandprogrammes. Positivestepstoo,havebeentakentoensurethatthelowincomesegmentsoftheurbanpopulationcanaccesslandandhousesthroughthe site and services/squatterupgradingprogramme, statemasshousing through theBHCandtheAcceleratedLandservicingProgrammethathasprovidedlandacrosstheurbanareas.However,asurbanisationkeepsrising,thehousingcrisiswillintensifyandthedemandforhousingwillbeevengreater(Mosha2007).

To thisend, it is imperative thatanumberof interventionsarerequiredtokeeppacewithneedsandaspirations.Thehousingcrisiscanonlybesolvedandresidentshelpedtoowntheirownhomesif thegovernmentcommits itselftoasetofprinciplesuchasthe right to housing by every citizen, equitable distribution of housing, and thediversification of the institutions providing housing. A restructured BHC, empoweredcouncils, housing cooperatives, and the state are also necessary. The private sectorshouldbemobilizedandencouragedtoplayagreaterroleinlandservicingandhousingprovisionespeciallyatthelowerendofthehousingmarketwhereprofitsmightbelow.Decentandaffordablehousingforeverycitizenwouldstimulateproductionofcement(lime and clay soil), production of timber, building tiles, pipe manufacturing, andelectricalwiring.

A number of interventions from government are needed to facilitate the provision ofhousing to thepoor.Key amongst these is the relaxationof regulatory standards andbuildingcodesfortheurbanpoor.Simpler,moreaffordableandappropriatehealthandsafetyregulationsarerequired,and‘firstworld’buildingstandardsmustberecognisedascounter‐productiveforprovidingaffordablehousingtotheurbanpoor.Inconsistencies between the various land tenure regimes need the attention ofgovernment. Inmany cases low‐incomepersons are ignorant of the value of the landtheypossess,andareoftenexploitedbylandspeculatorsforthisreason.Theyarealsounawareofthebenefitsofconvertingtothemorecommerciallyvaluabletenuresystemandtheconsequentaccesstofinancethiscanprovide.

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TheSHHAmodelforurbanlow‐costhousingfinancehasallthenecessaryelementsforsuccess,asitaddressespreciselytherelevantsocialstratum.However,theschemeinitspresent form is besetwith problems, and outside intervention is needed to revitaliseandreenergisetheprogramme.Thefollowingareasneedattention:

• Urgent consideration needs to be given to the identification and allocation ofsuitablelandinatimelymanner.(Currentlytherearebacklogsofupto15years)

• The plots need adequate services, including water‐borne sewerage where theprogrammeshavenotbeencommenced.

• Managementissuespertainingtoallaspectsoftheprogramme:selectioncriteria,material supply, loan disbursement, building inspections, services, recordkeeping and defaulter management need urgent intervention. With adequatemanagementtheloanschemecouldbemadetobeself‐sustaining.

• Themaximum loan amount should be realistic and related to current buildingcosts.

• Adequateprotectionofbeneficiariesagainstaggressivespeculatorsmustbeputinplace.

• Tenureproceduresmustbesuitableforapplicantstobeabletoeasilymigratetocommercialloanprovidersforsecondarydevelopmentoftheirplots.

• Potentialbeneficiariesshouldbeincludedintheconsultativephaseofplanning,andtheyshouldparticipateintheproposal:“Planningshouldbewith,notforthebeneficiaries. They know what they need and they know and understand theconstraints”.

• Interestratesubsidizationcouldbereducedinthelongterm.• A study into the informal credit sector is needed to explore the potential of

unconventionalmethods of housing finance, e.g.metshelo/ credit clubs,microlendersetc(Lex‐Fimark2007).

Finally,asrevealedinthepaper,themajorityofpeoplelivinginSHHAareasarenotplotholdersbut tenantsandsub‐tenants.This calls foraneed to lookatways to improverentaltenureasaviablealternativetoowner‐occupation.Sincethereisshortageoflandin urban areas it means that some people will never have access to housing landmeaningtheywillneverbeowner‐occupiers.Somepeopleinacertainstageintheirlifecyclemight not be aspiring to own a house butmay prefer to rent. There is need tointroducevarioustenureoptionsapartfromowneroccupation.Inaddition,themajorityof people in Botswana are very poor and theywill never afford a basic urban housewithout a heavy government subsidy. Those people can only access decentaccommodationthroughtheimprovedrentaltenureoption.

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