Progress in Botany IFortschritte der Botanik 48

48 Progress in Botany Structural Botany Physiology Genetics Taxonomy Geobotany

Fortschritte der Botanik Struktur Physiologie Genetik Systematik Geobotanik

Editors

H.-Dietmar Behnke, Heidelberg Karl Esser, Bochum Klaus Kubitzki, Hamburg Michael Runge, Gottingen Hubert Ziegler, Munchen

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York London Paris Tokyo

With 20 Figures

ISBN-13 : 978-3-642-71670-6 e-ISBN-13 : 978-3-642-71668-3 001: 10.1007/978-3-642-71668-3

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically those of translation, reprinting, re-use of iUustrations, broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machine or similar means, and storage in data banks. Under § 54 of the German Copyright Law, where copies are made for other than private use, a fee is payable to "Verwertungsgesellschaft Wort", Munich.

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1986. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 33-15850. Softcover reprint of the hardcover I st edition 1986

The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

Offsetprinting and Bookbinding: Bruhlsche Universitiitsdruckerei, Giessen 2131 /3130-543210

Contents

A. STRUCTURAL BOTANY

I. General and Molecular Cytology: The Cytoskeleton: Microtubules By UDO KRISTEN •.•.•••••.•.•.•••.••.••.••..••••.•..•...•.

1. Introduction •• • ..•.•••••••••. • .••..••••.••.•••• •• .••• 1 2. Molecular Organization •..•.••••..•••..••••••••••.•••• 2 3. Assembly •.•.••••••.••••••••••.•••.••••••••.••••••.••• 3 4. Microtubule Organizing Centers (MTOC's) .•.••..••.•..• 4 5. Methods of Microtubule Visualization •.•.•••••••••.••• 5 6. Establishment and Maintenance of Cell Shape ..••.••••. 6 7. Microtubules and Intracellular Transport ••.•.••••.••. 8

a) Spindle Formation and Chromosomal Movements During Mitotic Prophase and Metaphase •.•••.••.•..• 8

b) Sister-Chromosome Separation and Movement During Anaphase.......................................... 8

c) Role of Microtubules in Organelle Movement and Positioning .•••••••••••..••••••••.•.•.•..•.••••••• 10

8. Microtubules in the Flagellar Apparatus •..••.••••.••• 11 a) Structural and Molecular Properties •••.•.••.•..•.• 11 b) Sliding Mechanism ••••.•••.••.••.•.•.••.•.•.•..••.• 14

9. Antimicrotubular Agents .•.••••.••••.•.•.••••.•••.•••. 14 References .•.••••.••....•..•.•.•..•..•••••••.•••••••.•.. 16

II. Cytology and Morphogenesis of the Prokaryotic Cell By GERHART DREWS ....••.• . •.•••..•..•.•.•••..•.....•.•.•. 23

1. Cell Shape, Cell Differentiation •......••.....•.••... 23 a) Myxobacterial Fruiting Bodies .•..••.•••.......•.•. 23 b) Cell Shape • ... ••• ••..••..•.•.•••.••.••••.•..•.•.•• 23

2. Cell Envelope ••.......•.••.•..•••...••.••..... • •..• • • 24 a) Surface Layers .•.•...•••.•..••..•.•.••••.••.•.•.•. 24 b) Cell Wall of Cyanobacteria •.•....••.•..•.••••••••. 24 c) Cell Wall of Eubacteria ••.••..•.•.•.•..•.•.•.•.•.• 25 d) Cell Wall Growth •••••..••..•••••.•. • ••.••••••••.•. 25

3. Cytoplasmic and Intracytoplasmic Membranes .•••••...•. 26 a) Membranes of Photosynthetic Bacteria •.•.•.•..••••• 26 b) Membranes of Other Bacteria •••.•....•.•.••••.••.•• 27 c) Bacterial Flagellum ••••.•.•....••••••••••••.•.•••• 27

References •.••.•••.•••..•••••••.• •• •.••...•.•.••.•••••.• 27

III. Cytosymbiosis. By PETER SITTE and PAUL HANSMANN •.••.••.• 30

1. Introductory Remarks .••.•....••...•.•...••••..••..••• 30 2. Prokaryotes as Cytosymbionts ..........••••...•..••... 31

VI contents

a) Agrobacterium and Rhizobium ..............••....... 31 b) Other Eubacteria, and Archaebacteria as

Cytosymbionts .•.........•.............••....•..•.. 34 c) Endocyanomes .•.••.................•.............•. 35

3. Eukaryotic Endocytosymbionts .•..........•.••.•....... 36 a) Eukaryotic Phototrophic Cytosymbionts ••........... 36 b) Eukaryotic Heterotrophic Cytosymbionts ...........• 45

4. Special Forms of Cytosymbiosis .........•..•........•. 46 a) Transfer of Nuclei by Parasitic Red Algae .......•. 46 b) Chloroplast Cytosymbiosis .............•....•...... 46

5. The Endosymbiont Hypothesis: Present State •.......... 46 6. Conclusion ........•........•...•.......•••.....•..•.. 47 References ..•.....•..•..•..••......•..•.••...•.....•.... 48

B. PHYSIOLOGY

I. Plant Water Relations. By RAINER LOSCH ..•............•.. 56

1. Water Relations of Cells and Tissues ..•....••.....•.. 56 2. Root Water Uptake and Water Movement Through

the Plant ..••..•...•••..•..•...•.•••.•.•..•••••..•... 58 3. Stomatal Behavior and Transpirational Water Loss ..•.. 60 4. Effects of Water Relations on Germination and Growth. 64 5. Implications of Water Stress ......•..•.....•..••.•... 66

a) Drought Effects on Metabolism .........•..........• 66 <:1) Carbon Metabolism ..•.................••.•.•..•• 66 B) Nitrogen Metabolism ..........•••...•..........• 67 y) Phytohormones •.•••...•...................•...•. 67

b) Drought Resistance •..•••....................•..••. 67 6. Implications of Waterlogged Conditions .....••.••..••. 68 7. Aspects of Applied Water Biology ..................... 69 8. Habitat Water Relations and Plant Performance ..•..•.. 69 9. Water Relations of Poikilohydric Plants ••...••....... 71

a) Cyanobacter ia and Algae .••.......•..•.•.••..••.... 71 b) Mycophyta, Including Lichens ........•...•........• 71 c) Bryophyta and Cormophyta ....••.........••......... 71

References .•••.•..•..•.....•.....•.......••...•..•...... 72

II. Mineral Nutrition: Sources of Nutrients for Land Plants from Outside the Pedosphere By DAVID T. CLARKSON, PIETER J.C. KUIPER, and ULRICH LUTTGE ....•...........•....•....•....•...•..•.... 80

1. Introduction ...•....................•..•...•.......•. 80 2. The Atmosphere as a Source of Plant Nutrients ........ 80

a) Rainfall and Canopy Throughfall ......•..•..•...... 81 b) Distinction Between Wet and Dry Deposition and

Canopy Exchange ......••.......•.•....•.....•.•.... 83 c) Occult Precipitation .............•..•.....•....•.. 83 d) Pollutant Gases as Sources of Plant Nutrients •.•.. 83

<:1) S02 and H2S •.•...••..........•....•...•.....•.. 84 B) Oxides of Nitrogen .....................•.•..... 85 y) NH 3 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 86

3. Salt Spray by Sea Wind and Mineral Nutrition of Plants ...•............•••..•....•..•....••.•......... 87

4. Epiphytes .••............•..•.......•.•............... 88 5. Dinitrogen Fixation in the Phyllosphere ...•.......... 89

Contents VII

6. Animals as Sources of Nutrients •...•.. ••• • • •••••••••• 90 a) Ant Gardens •.••.•.•.•••••....•.••...••.••.•••...•. 90 b) The Carnivorous Habit ••••••••••.•..•.••.••••••••.• 90

References ..•...•.••••••••.•..•••..•..•....•.•..•.••.•.• 92

III. Photosynthesis. Carbon Metabolism: By Day and by Night By JOSEPH A.M. HOLTUM, GRAHAME J. KELLY, and ERWIN LATZKO With 5 Figures •••..•.•••••.•.•.•••••.••••.•..•..•.••••. 97

1. Introduction •• • •••••••.• • .•..••••••.•..••.••••••.•.• 97 2. Inorganic Carbon Uptake •.•••.•.•.•..••.••••. • •.•. • •• 97 3. A Pot-Pourri of Observations with Isolated Intact

Chloroplasts •••.•.••.•....••.•....•..•••..•.•••••••. 98 4. RuBP Carboxylase •••.•.•..••••.•...••••••••.•.•.••..• 99 5. Enzymes by Day and by Night .......•......•.•.•..••.• 101 6. Respiration by Night and by Day ••.••.••.•...•...••.• 102 7. Fructose-2,6-P2 Regulation of Cytosolic

Carbohydrate Metabolism • .. • ..••.•..• • .•..••..••.••.• 105 8. Starch Metabolism ••.•.••.••.••••.•••...•.•...•..•.•• 107 9. Lipid Biosynthesis ••.••••. • •••.•.••.•.•••.•.•• •• .••. 107

10. Nitrogen Assimilation •..•...•.....•.•.•••.••.•...••• 108 11. C4 Pathway ••••....•••••.•..•...••.•••••.•.•••••••.•. 108

a) PEP Carboxylase ••....••...•..•...••.•..•.••.•..•. 108 b) Pyruvate Orthophosphate Dikinase ...•.••••.••.•.•• 108 c) Other Enzymes .••...•...•..•....•..•.••••..•.••••. 109 d) Inter- and Intracellular Distinctions .•••..•..•.. 110

12. C3-C4 Intermediates ..•• • ..•••••...••.•.•..•.• • .•.• • . 112 13. Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) ..••..•••. •• ..• •• . 113

a) PEP Carboxylase ...•.•••.....•..••.•••.•... •. .•... 113 b) Malate Fluctuations ...•.•.. • .••.•.••. • ....••••••. 114 c) Other Enzymes ••..••.•.•.•.••..•.......•.••.•.•••• 114 d) Phases and Rhythms •••.•••••..•..••••.••.•..••...• 115 e) CAM in Rainforests, Bogs and Under Water •..•••.•• 116

References ••...•......•••••.••..•....•..••.••..••.•.•.• 117

IV. Metabolism of Organic N-Compounds By THOMAS HARTMANN and ADELHEID EHMKE 124

1. Photorespiratory Nitrogen Metabolism •••••.•...•..•.. 124 2. Asparagine ..•.....•.•..•..••.•.......•.••....•.••••• 125

a) Biosynthesis ..••.•.••..•..•.••••.•..•..•.•••....• 125 b) Metabolism ....•.•••.•..•••.••.••...•....•.•.••.•. 126

3. Ureides •.•.•..•..••..•...•..•.•..•...•.•••.•.••••••. 126 a) Biosynthesis •.•..•..•..•.......•••....•.•....•... 127 b) Breakdown ...•.•...••..•.••.••.••..••.••.•.•..•.•. 127

4. Amino Acids .....•.••...•....•...•.•.••.•...•..•..•.• 128 a) Methionine .•••..•••.•••.•••....•••.••..•.•.••...• 128 b) Aromatic Amino Acids ••...•••.••.•.•..•••••...•.•. 129 c) Branched Chain Amino Acids .•.••••.•...•...•.••••. 129 d) D-Amino Acids •.• • ...•.•• ~ . • .••....•.•...•••.•••• " 130

References .•••..••. • .. •• ...••.••..•.••...••.•..•.•.•••• 130

V. Regulation of Sulfur Metabolism in Plants By AHLERT SCHMIDT ......•.•..•......•.•....••.••. • .•.. •. 133

1. Introduction •..•••..••.•.•..•......•..•. . •.•..•.•... 133 2. Regulation of Sulfate Uptake ..•.•..••.••••••.....•.. 133 3. Regulation of Enzymes Involved in Sulfate

Assimilation • • ••••••••...•••.••• • •••••.••••••.••.•.• 134

VIII contents

a) ATP-Sulfurylase •••...•.••.•••••...••••••••.•••••• 134 b) APS-Sulfotransferase ••.•••..•.••.•.•••••••••..••• 135 c) APS-Kinase •.••..•.....•••.••••.•.••••.•••••••••.. 135 d) PAPS-Sulfotransferases .••••.•.•••.••••••.•.•••.•. 136 e) Sulfonucleotide Degradation •••••..••..••.••.••••. 136 f) Reduction of Carrier-Bound Sulfide •••.••••••••••. 136 g) Sulfite Reductase •••••••••.• • •••••••••••••.•••••. 136 h) Cysteine Synthase •••••.•.••••••.••••••••.•••••••. 137 i) Serine Transacetylase •..•.••••..•.••..••.•. •••••• 137

4. Localization of Enzymes for Assimilatory Sulfate Reduction ..•...•••.• • ...••••.•.•...•.• • ••••.••••.•.• 138

5. Regulation of Enzymes Involved in Cysteine Metabolism •.•.•.•••.••..•.•.••••••••.••.•.••••.••••• 139 a) Methionine Formation •••••••.•.•.••••••..•.••••••. 139 b) Cysteine Oxidation to Cystine .•..•••••...••.••.•• 139 c) Reduction of Cystine to Cysteine ••••.••.••••.•••• 140 d) Cystine Lyase •••.•.•.•••••.••..•..••.••.•....•••• 140 e) L-Cysteine Lyases .•••••.•.•••••....•.•••.•.•.••.• 140 f) D-Oysteine Desulfhydrase Activity ••••.••••..••.• • 141 g) B-Cyanoalanin Synthetase .•••••••.••••.••••••••••• 141 h) B-Mercaptopyruvate-Sulfotransferase •••...•.•••... 142 i) Thiosulfate Reductase Activity .••••••••.••••. • ..• 142 j) Cysteine-Activated Prot~inases •.••••.•••.•..••••• 143

6. Glutathione Metabolism •.•.•.•••.•.•••.•.••.••••••.• • • 143 7. Metabolism of Methionine •.•••••..•.•••.•••.•••••.••. 143 8. Emission of Reduced Sulfur Compounds .••.•.••.••.•.•• 144 9. Oxidation of Reduced Sulfur Compounds .•. • .••.••••.•. 144

10. Sulfolipid Formation and Metabolism ••...••.•••.••••. 145 11. Generalized Scheme for a Dual Regulation of Sulfur

Metabolism •....•••.••••..•.••....•••••.•.••.••.••.•• 145 References .•....•.•.••.•...••....•••••..••.•....••.•.••• 146

VI. Secondary Plant Substances: Monoterpenoid Indole Alkaloids By HORST-ROBERT SCHUTTE . With 7 Figures • • ••••..••.•.••.• 151

1 • Introduction ••.•.•••••••••..•.•.•••...•.....••••••••• 1 51 2. Production of Indole Alkaloids by Cell Cultures •.•.•• 151 3. Compartmentation and Accumulation of Indole

Alkaloids ..... • .......•.......•.••.•• • .••.•..••••..•• 154 4. Biosynthesis of the Terpenoid Precursor Portion •....• 156 5. Biosynthesis of Monoterpenoid Indole Alkaloids .•.••.• 157 6. Bisindole Alkaloids .•••.••.•...•......•••....•.•••.•. 161 7. Quinine and Related Bases •......•.•..•••..•..•••.•••• 163 References .•.•.••..•..•.••••..••••.•••.••••••.•.....•... 163

VII. Growth. By KARL D6RFFLING. With 3 Figures ..•.•••.••••••• 167

1. Auxins •..•.•..•.•••••..•.•••••••••••..•.••••.•••••..• 167 a) Reviews .•....•••••••••• • ••••.••.•.••••..•••••••••• 167 b) Methods of Determination, Occurrence •••.••.•..•••• 167 c) Biosynthesis ••.••.•••.••.•••••••...••.•.••.••••••• 168 d) Catabolism ....•....•..••.•••.••.•••••.•••..••••••• 170 e) Transport .••••••.••••••.•..••. ••••• .••••.•.•.•.••• 171 f) Mode of Action •..•.• ••• •...••••••••.••.•..••.•••.• 172

a) Acid Growth Hypothesis .•....•••••.•.•..••••.•.• 172 B) RNA- and Protein Synthesis •.••••••••••••••••..• 173 y) Binding Sites •••..•.•••..•.••..••...••••.•.•.•• 173

2. Ethylene ••••••.••.•..•..•..•••••...••.••••••••.•••••• 173 a) Reviews ....•.•••..•...•••.. • •••...•...•.•••.••.••• 173

contents IX

b) Biosynthesis and Its Regulation •.••..•..•.•...••. 174 c) Molecular and Physiological Aspects ...••••.•...•• 176

Ref erences •••....••••••..•.•••..•••..•.•••.••••.••••.•. 178

VIII. Developmental Physiology. By BERTOLD HOCK With 3 Figures ••.• ••• .•...•••••••....••.•.•••••.•• • .•.. 183

1. Phytochrome .•.•...•.••.••.•.•..•.•••...•.••.••••..•. 183 a) Molecular Properties ••.....••.••.•.••...••..•••.• 183 b) Phototransformation .•......•..••.. •••. •...•.••••• 184 c) Primary Reactions • • .•..••.•• ••. ...•..••..••• • .•.• 185 d) Phytochrome Synthesis ..•..••••••.••..•.••.•...•.. 186 e) Gene Expression ••.•.••.••.•••..••••..•.••.••••.•• 186 f) Interactions Between Phytochrome and Phytohormones 188

2. Blue Light Photoreceptor •..••.•.••••. ~ •..•••.••••..• 189 a) Higher Plants ..••..•....•.•.. • ..•.•.. •• .•.•..•••• 189 b) Fungi •..•••....••.•.••••.•.•..••.•..•..••...••••. 189 c) Pr imary Action ...•..•.•..•.•..•.•••.•••.•.•....•• 191

a) Activation of a Mixed-Function Oxidase .••..••• 191 B) Proton Extrusion .•. • .....••..•...••..•...•.••. 191 y) E/Z Hypothesis ..•....••.•. •.• .••. ••• . • .•..•.•• 192

d) Gene Expression ••.•.•.•.•.•••••••••.••••..••.•.•. 192 e) Co-Action of Blue Light Receptor and Phytochrome. 193

3. UV-B Photoreceptor •..•..•...•••..•••.•..•.....•••.•• 193 4. Calcium, Calmodulin •.•.•..•...•.•..••..••.••... • .••• 194

a) Change of Cytosolic Ca2+ Concentrations by Environmental Stimuli ..•.•.•• •• ••.•.....•.•.••..• 194

b) Calmodulin •••.•••..•..•.•.•.•.•..•.•..•..•.•.••.. 195 cl Calmodulin-Regulated Proteins ....••...••..•••.•.• 196 d) Calmodulin-Mediated Physiological Responses •..•.• 196 el Conclusion .••.. • ... • .• • .•..••.. • .•• • ...•• • .•.. • .. 198

5 . Oligosaccharins .••.•.. . .••.•...•.•.....••..•.....•.. 199 References .......••• • .•.•..... • ..•. •••• ..•...••.••..•.. 199

IX. Gravi- and Phototropism of Higher Plants By WOLFGANG HENSEL ... • ... • .•.••..•...................•. 205

1 . Gravi tropism .•....• • ..••.••....•..•..•• • .••••.••••.. 205 a) Roots .••. • ••.••. • •.•••.••.••••• • ••.•••••••.....•. 205

al Structural Aspects ... •. .............. • .. . ..... 205 BI Susception, Perception and Transmission •..•... 206 y I Graviresponse ...•..•...... • .....•..•• •. ..•..•. 207

bl Shoots ......•••..•...•.•.• • ..••...••.....•• • .•.•. 208 a I Graviperception ..•....••.............•..•.•... 208 B I Graviresponse •.•...•.....•.....•.•....•....•.. 209

2. Phototropism .•..•.•... .. .•.......• •..• ..•• • ... • ..... 210 al Site of Perception .•...••......••..... • .•. •• ... • . 210 bl Blue Light (BLI Perception and Response ••....•... 210 c) Red Light (RL) Effects and Interactions with BL

Responses •..•........•....••.........•.••......•. 211 dl Growth Regulation During Phototropic Response •..• 211

References .• •• ..•.... •.•• .... • .•...•..••.••.•.......•. • 212

X Contents

C. GENETICS

I. Replication. By RUDOLF EICHENLAUB. With 1 Figure ......• 215

1. Introduction .......•.•...•.••.•..................... 215 2. Regulation of the Initiation of DNA Replication ..... 215 3. Partitioning of Genomes ..••.....•...•.............•. 218 4. Plasmid Incompatibility ....•.........•....•....... • . 219 5. Coordination of Replication and Cell Division ....... 220 6. Outlook .........•...•......••........•...•.•..•..... 221 References ........•........•.••.....•.................. 221

II. Recombination: Recombination in Cyanobacteria and Lower Plants After Vector Mediated DNA Transfer By HEINZ D. OSIEWACZ ...•......•..•.... • ... • ...•••...... 224

1. Introduction •...•.........•...............•......•.. 224 2. Vectors for DNA Transformation ....•.........•.•...... 224 3. Transformation Systems .•.......•..............•..... 225

a) Cyanobacteria ....••.....•........................ 225 b) Algae ..•...•...................................•. 230 c) Fungi .•............•..•.......................... 231

4. Conclusion .........•........................•..•.... 237 References ................•...•...•...•...........•.... 238

III. Function of the Genetic Material: Structure and Function of Elements Controlling Transcription in Lower Eukaryotes. By MICHAEL CIRIACY .................... 241

1. Introduction ..................•.....•............... 241 2. DNA Segments Controlling Transcription Initiation ... 241 3. Promoter Elements Regulating Transcription .•...••.•. 242 4. Negative Control of Transcription ................... 245 5. Transcriptional Control by Insertion of Repetitive

Elements in Yeast ••....•........................•... 246 6. Conclusions .••.............•..•...•................. 247 References ...••.....•..•...••••..•......•....•......... 247

IV. Extrakaryotic Inheritance: Mitochondrial Genetics By PAUL TUDZYNSKI, PETRA ROGMANN, and HElKE NEUHAUS 249

1. Introduction .......•....•............•.............. 249 2. Cytoplasmic Male Sterility ..•...........•........... 249 3. Mitochondrial Plasmids ......•..•.........•.•........ 254 References .....•....•••................•.......•....... 257

V. Phytopathology.

=a~)-7H~o~s~t~-~p~a~r~a~s=i~t~e~I~n~t~e~r~a~c~t~l~·o~n~s~. By FRIEDHELM MEINHARDT. With 1 Figure ....................................... 260

1. Introduction ...•.•........•...••.................... 260 2. Definition of Terms .•..........•...... • .. . .......... 260 3. Genetics of Phythogenicity .....•....•..•....•....... 261

a) Gene-for-Gene Concept .........•...•......•....... 261 b) Molecular Genetics ............•..•..•............ 262

4. Conclusion .............•....•.•.••.......••.......•. 264 References .........•.....••...........•....•...•....... 264

Contents XI

D. TAXONOMY

I. Systematics and Evolution of the Algae By MICHAEL MELKONIAN •.••••.••••••••••••••••.••. • ••••.•. 266

1. General Aspects •...•.•...•.......• • .•..•.•.•.•..•... 266 2. Cyanobacteria .••••••••.•..•.••.•••.••••.••••...•.•.• 267

a) Reviews •..••.••..••...•••.•..•....•••.••••••••••• 267 b) Molecular Evolution ••..••..••••..•.•••..•.•.•.... 267 c) Taxonomy ...•..••••......••..••••••.•••••.•.•.••.•. 268 d) PY'ochloY'on ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 269

3. Rhodophyceae ••.••.•••••.•••.•.••..•...•..•••.•..•••• 270 a) Books, Reviews •...••••........••..••.•.....••.... 270 b) Taxonomy •..••.•..•••.••.•..•••••••.••.••••...•.•• 270 c) Life History ..••••••••••.•....•.••••.•....••.•..• 271 d) Cellular Organization ••..••.•..•..••..•...••.•.•• 271

4. Dinophyceae ••.••••.••.•. • .••••....•••••.•.•.••.••••• 272 a) Books, Reviews ..•.........••.••••••••.•••...••.•. 272 b) Cellular Organization ••••...•••••..•..•.•.•••.•.• 272 c) Life History •.•••.•••.••...•.••.•....•.•.••.•.•.• 274 d) Taxonomy •• .••..• •• •••..••....•.•...•..•.•......•• 274

5. Cryptophyceae .•..•••.•.....••...•.••...••..•••. • .•.• 275 6. Prymnesiophyceae • •.••.•.•.•.•.•.••.••..••.••..•.•.•. 276 7. Eustigmatophyceae •.•....•••..•••..••...•.•.•••..••.. 277 8. Tribophyceae .•..•.....•.•.......•.•.•.••.•••.•....•• 277 9. Raphidophyceae .•.•.••••.••••..•.•.....•.••••...••••• 277

10. Chrysophyceae .••.•••.•...•.•..•.•.••..••.•..•••.••.. 278 11. Diatomophyceae ...••.•••..•...••..•....•.••.•..•.•••. 279

a) Books, Reviews ..•...• • •.•••••...•...•..•.•.•••..• 279 b) Cellular Organization and Life Histories • •• •••••• 279 c) Taxonomy ...•.•..••.•.•..•.......•... • .••.•..•.•.. 280

12. Fucophyceae ..••..•.•.•.••.•.•.•...••..•••••.•••.••.• 280 13. Chlorarachniophyceae •.•. • ••••.•.•...••.••.•..•••.••• 282 14. Euglenophyceae •...•...•.•••••..•...•.•. • .••.••••••.• 283 15. Glaucocystophyceae .••.•....•.••.•.••••.••••.•...••.• 283 16. Green Algae .•.•.••..••...••.•.......•.•......•..•••. 284

a) Books, Reviews ...•.•.••.••.••.•...•.••••..•.•.•.• 284 b) "Prasinophyceae" •..•.•...••.•..••.••.••.••••.•••• 284 c) "Charophyceae" .••.•••.••..•.•.•.•.•.••.••••••.••• 285 d) "Ulvophyceae" .................•..•••.••.••••.•.•• 285 e) "Chlorophyceae" .••........•...•..•.. •• .•......••• 286 f) Taxa of Uncertain Affinities •.••••••••...••.•.••• 286

References .....•....•••.... ••• ..•.....••.•••..••....•.• 287

II. Taxonomy and Phylogeny of Fungi By WALTER GAMS and WALTER JULICH 294

1. General Considerations, Phylogeny and Ecology .•...•. 294 a) Development of Fruit-bodies •.•.••......•..•.••••. 294 b) Chemotaxonomy •..•...•.......•. • ••••..•.•.•...•.•• 294 c) Fossil Fungi ...•...•.•.•.••..............•.•.••.. 295

Fungis-Like Protoctista •.••••..•••.•.•••••.•.••••••••.• 295 2. Myxomycota ..•....•.••...•....•• • .•.•.••.•.•...••.••. 295 3. Oomycota ..••..•. • ..•.....•...•..•...•.•..•.•...•.•.• 295 4. Chytridiomycota ...•.....•..•.....•...•..•....•.•.•.• 296 Fungi sensa stricto •..•.••.••..••••••••••..••..••• • .••• 296 5. Zygomycota • ..........•.......•.. • ....•.• • ........•.. 296

a) Zygomycetes ....•.•........•..•...•.•.•.•..•...•.• 296 b) Trichomycetes .••.•...•.. • .••..••.•..........•.•.• 297

XII Contents

6. Ascomycota .••......•.•••.•••...•.•.•.....•.•••....•. 297 a) Hemiascomycetes .•.............•..•......••.•.•.•• 298 b) Euascomycetes •....................•...••.•.•..•.. 298

7. Fungi Imperfecti (Deuteromycota) ••..•...•..........• 302 a) Coelomycetes .•.•.......•.•..•.................... 302 b) Hyphomycetes ........................••....•....•. 302

8. Basidiomycota ......................................• 303 a) General Aspects ..•..........•.•.•....•........... 303 b) Phragmobasidiomycotina (Heterobasidiomycetes) •... 304 c) Holobasidiomycetes ...•..••.....•....•.....•....•. 306

References ......................•.•.•.•..•...••.....•.• 308

III. Systematics of Lichenized Fungi. By JOSEF HAFELLNER •.•. 316

1. Morphology of the Mycobiont •.•....•...•...........•. 316 2. Morphology of the Phycobiont .•...•....•.•.........•• 317 3. Ontogenetic Studies ..•.•..•...................•..... 318 4. Chemistry .•.................•......•..•.....•.•..... 318 5. Taxonomy •....•...•.•••.........•....•.•.•.•••......• 31 9 6. Floristics ..•....•........•........•..•............. 323 7. Phytosociology and Ecology .......•.•..•..........•.. 325 8. Chorology ....••..•..••....••..••••.•..•.•.•••..•.•.. 326 9. Herbaria and Bibliographies •.............•........•• 327 References ...................•..•.....•.•.•.........•.. 327

IV. Systematics of the Pteridophytes By KARL U. KRAMER ......•......•...•..........•.•..•..•. 334

1. Systematics ...•••.......•.......•.••...•..•.••••.... 334 2. Bibliography, Collections, Nomenclature ...•....•.••. 336 3. Floristics .....•.•...•..•.•.•....•.•...•...•••.•..•. 337 4. Geography and Ecology .....••.•.•.•••.•..••...••...•. 338 5. Morpho logy and Anatomy •.•....•. ~ . . . • . . • . . . . . . • . • • . •• 339 6. Chemotaxonomy •.............•...•....••••.••..••..... 340 7. Cytotaxonomy, Biosystematics, Hybridization .....•••. 341 8. Folklore, Uses .............•.•.•........•.....•..... 343 9. Fern Allies ..........................•.....•.•...•.. 343 Ref erences ........•..•.....•.•.••••.....••.•..••...•••. 344

E. GEOBOTANY

I. The History of F~ora and Vegetation During the Quaternary. By BURKHARD FRENZEL ..•....•.•....•..... 347

1. Paleoclimatology •......•...............•.•.......... 347 2. History of Distribution Areas .......•.•....•........ 350 3. Formation and Development of Peat Bogs ............•. 351 4. Paleoecology ................•.•...•...........••.... 352

a) General Problems ......•....•......•..•........... 352 b) River Activity ..•......................••...•.... 353 c) The Impact of Man ...............•............•... 354

5. Paleoethnobotany ...................•........•....... 354 References ............•.................•....•.•...•... 358

Contents XIII

II. Vegetation Science (Sociobiological Geobotany) By KLAUS DIERSSEN •.•...••••••.••.•.•.•...•••••.•.•.•.•• 362

1. General Trends ••..•......•••••.••••••.•••••••.•••••• 362 2. Monographs and Bibliographies •...•••..•.••.•••.•••.• 362 3. General Results and Methods ...•••••••••.•••.•••.••.• 363

a) Vegetation Dynamics •......•......•.•••..•••••.••• 363 b) Vegetation Mapping .••.•.•.••..•••...•.•.••••••.•. 364 c) Numerical Methods •.•.••.•••.••••.••••..••. ••• .•.• 364

4. Application for Nature Protection, Nature Conservation, and Landscape Ecology •.•.••..••.•••••• 365

5. Vegetation of the Boreal Zone •••••.•.•.••.•...••.••• 366 6. Vegetation of the Temperature and Adjacent Regions ••• 367

a) Generalia .•.•.••.••••.••.•.••••••••••.•••.•.•.•. • 367 b) Temperate European Forests •..•.•.••..•..•.•••..•• 367 c) Aquatic and Littoral Vegetation, Mires ••••.•••••• 368 d) Coastal Vegetation in Europe and North America ••• 368 e) Semi-Natural Grasslands and Dwarf Shrub Heaths ••• 369 f) Ruderal and Urban Vegetation ..•••.••.•.••.•••.• • . 369

7. Vegetation of the Meridional Zone and Adjacent Regions ••••..••••.••..•••••......•.••••.•.•..•.••••. 369 a) Forest Vegetation in Europe and Eastern Asia ••.•• 369 b) Steppe and Garigues Vegetation in Europe and Asia 370

8. Vegetation of Subtropical and Tropical Areas •.•.••.• 370 a) Semi-Arid Areas in Arabia and Afr~ca •..•••..•.•.• 370

References ..•••..•.•..•.•..•••...•.•.••••••.••••.••••.• 370

III. Ecological Geobotany/Autecology By S.-W. BRECKLE and K. PIECZONKA 374

1. General ..•••••••••.••••••.•.••..•.•..•••••.••.••.•.• 374 2. Relations to Environmental Factors .•••••.••.•••••.•• 374

a) Climate ••••.••.••••.•••••••.•••.••••••.••.•..•••• 374 b) Temperature •.•••..•.•••.•••••...••••. • •.••••.•.•. 375 c) Light (Radiation) .•.•.••••••.••..•.•••••••.•••••• 375 d) Carbon Dioxide •.•••.•.•.•..•.•.•••.•.•••••.•••••• 375 e) Water ••.....•...••.•.••••••..••••• • •••••.•.•••••• 376 f) Soil (Mainly Mineral Nutrients) •••• ••• .•••. •• •••. 377 g) Other Chemical Factors and Factor Combinations .,. 378

u) Gaseous Pollutants, Wet and Dry Depositions ••• 378 8) Heavy Metals .•••••.•••• • ...................•.. 379 y) Salinity .........•..•...•.•.••••••••••••••••.• 380 0) Mechanical Factors .•.•••.•...•..••••...•.••••• 383

References ..•....•••••...•.•••.••••.•.•.•..•..••••.•••• 383

F. SPECIAL TOPICS

I. Xylem: Structure and Function. By J6RG J. SAUTER ••••••• 388

1. General ..••....••••.••.••..•.••.....•..•.•.••.•.•.•. 388 2. Structure and Differentiation •••••••...•..•••••••••• 388

a) Tracheary Element Differentiation ••••••••••.•••.• 388 u) Cell Wall Formation, Pits •.•..••••••••••••..•• 388 8) Cell Wall Enzymes and Lignin Biosynthesis .•••• 389 y) Hormonal Control .•.•..•.••.•••••.••••.••.•.•.• 390

b) Xylem Formation in the Plant .•.•..•....•.•.•••••• 391 c) Vascularization of Various Organs •.•••.••••...... 392

XIV Contents

d) Variations in Xylem Anatomy .............••...•... 393 et) Systematic Anatomy ..................•......... 393 13) Ecological Anatomy ..•..•••.....•.............. 394 y) Variations Within Species ....•.•....•....•.... 395 <5) Length of Vessels ........•.........••.•.....•. 395 E) Anomalous Structures, Vestures, Trabeculae ..•. 395

3. Functional Aspects ........•....•....•............... 396 a) Xylem Structure in Relation to Water Conduction •. 396

et) Hydraulic Conductivity, Leaf Specific Conductivity (=LSC) .........•.........•....... 396

13) Embolism of Tracheary Elements ..•..•.........• 397 b) Xylem Sap Pressure and Spring Sap Flow ........... 398 c) Translocation in Tracheary Elements ......•.•..... 399

References •..................•...........•..•.......... 401

II. Syrnbiosen: Mykorrhiza a) Ektomykorrhiza. Von FRANZ H. MEYER ....•...........•. 406

1. Syrnbiosepartner •.....•..•....•••........•••......... 406 2. Anatomie •...........•.•...•.....•..•....••........•• 406 3. ~hysio~ogie ............•........•.•••.•.........•... 408 4. Okologl.e .......•.•.....•..•...•.••........•......... 410 5. Ektomykorrhiza und Waldschaden ................•..••. 411 Literatur .•...................•.......•.••........•.... 412

b) Endomycorrhizae. By FRITZ SCHONBECK ....•............ 415

1. VA-Mycorrhizae .............••.•••...•............... 415 a) Taxonomy of Endophytes ..•....••••••.............. 415 b) Histology •...........•.•..•..............•..•.... 416 c) Physiology and Effects on Plants ......•......•... 417 d) Ecology ...•.................•..•.•............... 419 e) Use in Plant Production ...........••..•....•..... 421

2. Ericales - Mycorrhizae ....••........................ 421 3. Orchidaceae - Mycorrhizae •.....••....•...........•.. 422 References .............•...........••...............•.. 422

Plant Name Index ................................................ 425

Subject Index •............•......•.....................•.......• 437

List of Editors

Section A Professor Dr. H. -D. BEHNKE, Zellenlehre, Universitat Heidelberg, 1m Neuenheimer Feld 230, D 6900 Heidelberg

Section B Professor Dr. H. ZIEGLER, Institut fur Botanik und Mikro­biologie, Technische Universitat Munchen, Arcisstr. 21, D 8000 Munchen 2

Section C Professor Dr . Dr. h . c. K. ESSER, Lehrstuhl fur Allgemeine Botanik, Ruhr-Universitat, Postfach 10 21 48, D 4630 Bochum 1

Section D Professor Dr. K. KUBITZKI, Institut fur Allgemeine Botanik und Botanischer Garten, Universitat Hamburg, Ohnhorststr. 18, D 2000 Hamburg 52

Section E Professor Dr . M. RUNGE, Lehrstuhl fur Geobotanik, Systematisch-Geobotanisches Institut der Universitat, Untere Karspule 2, D 3400 G6ttingen

Section F FI: Professor Dr. H.-D. BEHNKE, Zellenlehre, Universitat Heidelberg, 1m Neuenheimer Feld 230, D 6900 Heidelberg

FII a,b: Professor Dr. M. RUNGE, Lehrstuhl fur Geobotanik, Systematisch-Geobotanisches Institut der Universitat, Untere Karspule 2, D 3400 G6ttingen