project developing game-based training for workforce ... · analysis and discussion a review of the...

Master’s Research (Capstone Project) University of Iowa, Strategic Communications Program

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Project – Developing Game-Based Training for Workforce Skills

Author: Sue Ward

Date: April 6, 2014

RESEARCH PAPER

Introduction

Due to inefficiencies in education and the ever-changing needs of the workplace, both

workers and employers can benefit from the continual improvement of workplace-relevant skills.

A highly-skilled workforce is a strategic differentiator, and companies are making substantial

investments in the development of employees. According to the American Society for Training

and Development (ASTD), spending on employee training in American organizations increased

from $126 billion in 2009 to $164 billion in 2012.

The goal of this project was to identify a model for game-based training that can be

applied to workforce training of cognitive skills (i.e., the ability to understand and remember

new information, such as applied mathematics) or soft skills (i.e., personal attributes that

enhance an individual’s interactions, such as leadership). Improvement in these areas can lead to

higher scores on readiness tests and better performance on the job. The target audience for this

type of training is the non-traditional adult learner who needs to sharpen workplace skills for

current or desired positions.

Effective workforce training transforms learners in ways that are desirable for both the

learner and their organization. Traditional knowledge-based training, whether delivered in the

classroom or online, may provide information that is irrelevant to the learner. The level of

difficulty may not progress in a way that promotes mastery. In addition, the information may be

communicated in a predetermined format in which the learner is a passive observer.


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In contrast, performance-based training provides information which is relevant to the

learner and structured in a meaningful way. Learners will have many opportunities to get

involved and receive feedback, while focusing on how to apply the information to their work.

This type of training responds to the learner’s needs and is based on the key adult learning

principles of readiness, experience, autonomy, and action.

Trainers can increase the benefits of performance-based training by delivering it in the

format of a game. Training which includes game elements becomes a formative assessment tool

which allows the learner to modify the learning process in order to maximize achievement.

Game elements include concepts such as challenge, curiosity, fantasy, and control. These

elements can be provided in a story scheme which provides a mental framework for complication

and resolution. For workforce training, the workplace becomes a natural setting.

There is evidence that games maximize attention and allow students to learn better.

Researchers have found that rewriting a lesson in a story context combined with a challenge for

the student to overcome (in other words, making it into a game) significantly improves learning

performance. A game situation also taps into a learner’s intrinsic motivation to focus and engage

until the game is over.

The ability to participate, respond, and receive feedback is key to effective learning

events. The challenge, narrative, and flow-state associated with game situations promote

concentration and optimism. By presenting training in an interactive format based on these

principles, we can optimize learning and retention. With the evolution of technology, we can

combine the benefits of performance-based training and gaming in a cost-effective way through

game-based training.

https://serc.carleton.edu/resources/1609.html


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Methodology

This project consists of two workforce training modules; one teaches a cognitive skill

(applied mathematics – quantity) and the other a soft skill (leadership – challenge the status quo).

I created each module using Articulate Storyline software, an e-learning authoring tool which

allows the user to create highly-interactive online courses. The following sections outline the key

findings, common themes, and recommended game-based training module.

Analysis and Discussion

A review of the key findings and common themes shows that cognitive learning theory

principles prescribe a logical sequence of information. This includes opportunities for practice,

the reliance on metacognition to achieve mastery of a skill, and transfer to increase retention.

Psychometric theory principles can help us to assess learning effectively through identifying the

level of proficiency and implementing feedback.

However, when we incorporate gaming principles such as narrative, challenge, and the

opportunity to create, we can take a solid learning activity to the next level. Research shows that

when information is presented as a game, the purpose becomes realistic and the learner becomes

more motivated to perform. Focus is optimized and the learner is an active problem solver.

The game-based training model presented in the subsequent section is based on sound

principles of cognitive learning theory and psychometric theory to structure content in a logical

progression that promotes mastery and transfer. The model is enhanced by principles of gaming

that drive the format and create a narrative for problem solving that increases motivation and

focus. With the combination, we can optimize comprehension and retention.


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A review of the literature related to gaming and training, cognitive learning theory, and psychometric theory produced the

following key findings and themes.

Literature Key Findings Common Themes/Implications

Gaming and

Training Games are historically important to learning.

Games are a universal part of human experience and present in all cultures.

(Ifenthaler, et al., 2012)

Games separate what you think you’re doing from what you’re really doing.

(University of Pennsylvania, 2014)

Playing a game successfully can require extensive critical thinking and

problem-solving skills. (Rieber, 1996)

Throughout history, the purpose of education was for people to be able to

assess their environment and then experiment with ways to improve it. Games

are completely consistent with this view. (Rieber, 1996)

“Flow” is the state of optimal focus in which someone is so involved in an

activity that nothing else seems to matter; flow derives from activities that

provide enjoyment. (Rieber, 1996)

A story provides a framework for resolving problems. (Rieber, 1996)

Knowledge must be meaningful and relevant to the individual to be useful.

(Rieber, 1996)

Laura Holshouser's favorite video games include Halo, Tetris, and an online

training game developed by her employer. (Reena, J., 2006)

The military has used video games as a training tool since the 1980s. Now the

practice is catching on with companies, too, ranging from Cold Stone to Cisco

Systems Inc. to Canon, Inc. Corporate trainers are betting that games'

interactivity and fun will hook young, media-saavy employees and help them

grasp and retain sales, technical, and management skills. (Reena, J., 2006)

Workers who played the game showed a 5% to 8% improvement in their

training scores compared with older training techniques such as manuals.”

(Reena, J., 2006)

Don Field, director of certifications at Cisco, says games won’t entirely

replace traditional training methods such as videos and classes. But he said

Make it a game.

Set clear goals and rules.

Provide opportunities for competition and

interaction.

Use a “story” to provide a reason for active

participation; allow learners to build and create

within the environment.

Use realistic workplace scenarios.

Use games with challenge to keep learners in a

state of “flow.”

Build on play concepts of challenge, curiosity,

fantasy, and control.

Provide opportunities for the learner to explain

what they are doing and why.

The use of learning games can easily integrate

all of these ideas:

1. De-emphasize lecture, integrate technology

used by students every day into learning

activities;

2. Plan activities that rely heavily on trial and

error;

3. Promote mastery by presenting information

in small chunks, immediately prior to being

used;

4. Provide for risk taking in a safe

environment; and,

5. Allow students to develop skills that are

perceived as being of value.


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they should be part of the toolbox. Last year, Cisco rolled out six new training

games – some of them designed to teach technicians how to build a computer

network. “Our employees learn without realizing they are learning,” says

Field. (Reena, J., 2006)

Learning should be performance-based.

De-emphasizing lecture and making effective use of technology are major

steps toward refocusing education from the Instructor to the Millennial learner.

(Werth and Werth, 2011)

Learning on a continuum, through mastery, improves self-confidence,

decreases discomfort and frustration, and encourages productive learning

habits. (Knewton, 2014)

We are all alike in how we process, store, and retrieve information. Well-

designed and well-delivered instruction seems to have a broadly similar

impact. (Stolovitch, et al., 2011)

Good learners use metacognitive skills such as planning, selecting, tuning, and

monitoring. (Stolovitch, et al., 2011)

Learning should be interactive.

Research suggests that trainees should be active participants in the learning

process and that learning should occur in a meaningful or relevant context.

(Bell, et al., 2008)

In the context of this study, results indicate that today’s students feel an

interactive environment is important for their learning. (Saade, et al., 2012)

The design of learning contexts may involve principles such as… learner

control, with appropriate support, productive feedback on errors. (Boyle, 2012)

The essential message of “authentic learning” is to create contexts that are

meaningful and engaging for learners as opposed to the didactic, disembodied

teaching contexts that are so common in formal education. (Boyle, 2012)

Design affects learning, technology affects accessibility.

Media makes no difference to learning; learning is caused by the instructional

method imbedded in the media presentation. (Clark, 1994)

Instructors… need to move beyond using the internet to deliver standard

classroom models. (Omar, et al., 2011)

Focus on the desired performance, what the

learner needs to be able to do.

Five-Step Model for Structured Training

1. Rationale – why learners need this

2. Objective – what learners will be able to do

3. Activities – give learners things to do

4. Evaluation – check to see if have learned

5. OK? – confirming feedback or corrective

feedback

Present problems on a continuum from easy to

more difficult.

Ensure that learners are active participants.

Allow learners to be active respondents and

creators.

Allow the learner to decide what they need.

Provide learners with options for how they will

learn (level of detail, etc.).

Give control to the learner.

Provide experiences which allow learners to

practice, achieve mastery, and apply the

information to new situations.

Understand that design increases learning

while technology decreases costs.


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The instructor enhances online learning by implementing new forward in order

to redesign the delivery of online courses by creating effective presentations

with voice and animations… these encourage online students’ learning

outcomes through innovation, collaboration, and implementation of new ideas.

(Omar, et al., 2011)

Some of the key challenges surrounding simulations involve managing

development costs, leveraging higher levels of learner control, understanding

individual differences, and shaping the unique social environment inherent in

simulations. (Bell, et al., 2008)

Cognitive

Learning

Theory

Objectives should be clear and understandable.

The necessity of stating instructional objectives constitutes one of the most

pervasive assumptions underlying the field of instructional development.

(Lawson, 1974)

Instructional goals should be operationally stated and thus reflect real time life

experiences of learners. (Lawson, 1974)

Individuals vary in how they learn.

There are five major categories of learning: verbal, intellectual, cognitive,

motor, and attitudes. Different internal and external conditions are necessary

for each type of learning. (Gagne, 1996)

Learner participation promotes transfer to future situations. (Gagne, 1996)

Four features generally characterize insightful learning: 1) the learner grasps

the solution, 2) the learner performs without error, 3) the learner retains the

solution, and 4) the learner can apply the principle to other similar problems.

(Driscoll, 2004)

Adult learners are self-directed and ready to learn, they have more experiences

to draw upon, and can apply new knowledge immediately. (Brookfield, 1991)

State the objectives directly.

Use both general and specific objectives.

Intersperse objectives throughout learning to

facilitate attending behavior; which enhances

comprehension and retention.

Address the individual needs of learners.

Create instruction based on cognitive processes:

1. Gain attention

2. Provide an objective

3. Connect to prior knowledge

4. Present the stimulus

5. Provide learning guidance

6. Elicit performance

7. Provide feedback

8. Assess performance

9. Enhance retention/transfer

Include activities that draw on different senses

(e.g., visual, auditory, etc.).

Remediate deficiencies in metacognitive skills

by simplifying information and providing

examples, building connections to prior

knowledge, and motivating.


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Workforce training is important to employee and company success.

The most important factors in job success and training performance are general

mental ability, integrity, and performance in an interview. (Schmidt and

Hunter, 1998)

WorkKeys assessments are professionally defensible, content-valid measures

of verbal, quantitative and technical/problem-solving skills and abilities that

are necessary prerequisites to successfully acquiring skills and performing

tasks in the workplace. (Schmidt and Sharf, 2010)

Effective training to improve skills in the workplace is important. (Schmidt

and Sharf, 2010)

Due to growth in technology across many business segments, workers require

more post-secondary development for success in today’s workforce. They

define post-secondary education as two- and four-year education institutions,

employer-provided formal training, and employer-provided informal training.

(ASTD, 2012)

Support learners before, during, and after

training.

Learners who are motivated, prepared, and

supported are more likely to succeed in

e-learning.

Training can lead to higher scores on tests and

better performance on the job.

Adults care more about learning; self-paced

learner is a good fit for this group.

Psychometric

Theory Testing improves motivation and learning.

It has long been known that testing promotes long-term retention, and it is

generally agreed that it does so by strengthening the retrieved correct

responses. (Smith and Kimball, 2010)

Advances in technology enable more complex assessment settings, such as

simulation, collaboration, and constructed response (Lukas, 2003).

There are key differences between procedural knowledge and declarative

knowledge (Eyres, 1999).

Feedback leads to improved performance (Eyres, 1999).

Feedback promotes motivation by informing students of their capabilities and

progress in learning, thus increasing self-efficacy or belief that one can learn

(Wigfield and Eccles (2002).

For motivation to affect learning, learners must engage in achievement

behaviors that lead to positive outcomes (Wigfield and Eccles (2002).

In the context of workplaces, extrinsic motivators are not as effective as

intrinsic motivators (Yoo, et al., 2012).

Include test situations with feedback.

Think about the standard of competence when

testing; identify level of proficiency.

Focus assessment on behaviors; what the learner

needs to be able to do.

Evolving technology improves our ability to

teach and assess more efficiently.

Provide feedback for both correct and incorrect

responses.

Use immediate feedback for new concepts and

delayed feedback to reinforce known concepts.

Specific feedback can create cognitive overload.

For simple and neutral tasks, the use of

immediate feedback appears to offer beneficial

effects. For complex tasks, however, delayed feedback appears to offer superior results.


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Conclusions and Recommendations

Based on the literature review findings and themes, I propose the following model for

creating game-based training. This model uses creative workplace scenarios as the narrative with

challenge situations to promote mastery of cognitive or soft skills.

Game-Based Training Model Benefits

1. Rationale: Introduce scenario and goal

(visual/auditory)

Provides a realistic

purpose for learning

2. Objective: Describe what you need to do to achieve the goal

(desired performance and level of proficiency)

Enhances attention,

“flow”

3. Prepare: Provide options that help the learner build on prior

knowledge and review the skill as needed

(steps and examples)

Places learner in control

4. Challenge: Present the activity and problem; provide feedback,

repeat instruction as needed

(simple to complex)

Creates motivation to

focus and comprehend

5. Advance: Ask the learner to create a new example – bonus

(transfer)

Note: Manager should discuss training and review application to

current position upon next one-on-one meeting.

Builds confidence,

increases retention

References

See Annotated Bibliography


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TRAINING MODULE 1 APPLIED MATHEMATICS

See Module on CD

Overview: This example involves a worker who needs to analyze data for a

report. The challenge is to submit an accurate report to management within a short

timeframe. The worker must use addition, subtraction, multiplication, and

division skills to pass the challenge. The worker is supported with additional

instruction as needed until the challenge is surpassed. The worker then faces a

bonus situation.

TRAINING MODULE 2 LEADERSHIP

See Module on CD

Overview: This example involves a supervisor who must use leadership skills to

solve a problem at work. The challenge is to help staff submit their quality reports

on time. The worker must use key principles of leadership to pass the challenge.

The worker is supported with additional instruction as needed until the challenge

is surpassed. The worker then faces a bonus situation.


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ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following resources were chosen from three categories: Gaming and Training,

Cognitive Learning Theory, and Psychometric Theory. The key findings and themes from these

resources influenced the design of the example training modules.

Gaming and Training

American Society for Training Development (ASTD), (2012). Bridging the Skills Gap.

Alexandria, VA.: ASTD Public Policy Council.

ASTD defines a skills gap as a significant gap between an organization’s current

capabilities and the skills it needs to achieve its goals. It is the point at which an organization can

no longer grow or remain competitive because it cannot fill critical jobs with employees who

have the right knowledge, skills, and abilities. A recent survey of ASTD members supports this

trend: 84 percent of respondents indicate that there is a skills gap in their organization now, up

from 79 percent in 2009 when ASTD conducted the same survey.

Data from ASTD’s member survey shows that leadership and executive skills,

managerial and supervisory skills, and profession- or industry-specific skills are ranked as the

highest areas for skills gaps. The impact of the skills gap is far reaching and varied, with effects

on global economics, human capital development, and business performance.

Anthony Carnevale, Nicole Smith, and Jeff Strohl of Georgetown University’s Center on

Education and the Workforce believe that, due to growth in technology across many business

segments, workers require more post-secondary development for success in today’s workforce.

They define post-secondary education as two- and four-year education institutions, employer-

provided formal training, and employer-provided informal training.


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Bell, B., Kanar, A., Kozlowski, S., (2008). Current issues and future directions in simulation-

based training in North America. The International Journal of Human Resource

management, 19 (8): 1416-1434.

The authors of this article explain that emerging challenges including globalization,

economic pressures, and the changing nature of work have combined to create a business

environment that demands innovative, flexible training solutions. They argue that simulations are

a promising tool for creating more realistic, experiential learning environments to meet these

challenges. The focus is on simulations, which like self-paced learning, can occur almost

anywhere and anytime and reduce the costs associated with traditional training.

When we create workforce training, we can use workplace realistic scenarios to frame

performance tasks. Instructional features which can enhance the value of “content” include

video-game quality graphics; voice, music, and special effects. A second category of value is

“immersion” in real-world settings, such as simulations, which enhance trainee’s feelings of

presence and can also be used to expose trainees to situations that occur infrequently or may be

too dangerous in the real world. “Interactivity” and “communication” are other value factors.

The cost to create this type of training may be too high for small companies; which presents an

opportunity to market to this group.

Boyle, T., and Ravenscroft, A., (2012). Context and deep learning design. Computers &

Education, 59. Retrieved March 4, 2014, from journal homepage:

www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu

The article explores the nature of ‘deep learning design’ where the aim is to shape the

possibilities of the technology to most effectively enhance learning. These design insights need

to be applied to a unit of organization that is not dependent on any particular technology. They

should interact with and shape technology possibilities rather than be narrowly defined by them.

http://www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu


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Cheng, B., Wang, M., and Hang, S., (2011). Acceptancy of competency-based workplace e-

learning systems: Effects of individual and peer learning support. Computers &



The ultimate purpose of work-integrated learning is to drive business results and to bring

about positive changes in workplace behaviors and job performance. With respect to

competency-based e-learning in the workplace, it is recognized that supporting a personalized

learning process and facilitating peer communication and collaboration are two key elements in

the instructional design of such type of learning system.

Clark, R.E. (1994). Media Will Never Influence Learning. Educational Technology Research

and Development, 47 (2): 21-29.

This paper attempts to summarize arguments about media effects on learning;

characterizing the many reactions to the controversial claim that media do not influence learning

or motivation. The author asserts that the method, rather than the media, influences learning and

achievement. The media influences cost and access; and should deliver the method at the least

expensive rate and in the speediest fashion. This paper supports the use of online media as a less

expensive yet equally effective way to deliver workforce training.

Engle, R.A. (2006). Framing Interactions to Foster Generative Learning: A Situative Explanation

of Transfer in a Community of Learners Classroom. The Journal of the Learning

Sciences, 15 (4): 451-498.

This article develops a situative approach to explaining the transfer of learning,

illustrating it using a challenging-to-explain case from a Fostering Communities of Learners

(FCL) classroom. In other words, learning should be framed to promote transfer, or connections,

to the past and the future. With online training, learners need a chance to participate and create.



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Ifenthaler, D., Eseryel, D., and Ge, X. (2012). Assessment in Game-Based Learning. New York,

New York: Springer.

A historical synopsis of games show that the concept of game and play changed during

the centuries. The authors of this book assert that we need to systematically study which

instructional design strategies work in game-based learning environments to take full advantage

of what these emerging technologies can offer.

The implementation of assessment features into game-based learning environments is

only in its early stages because it adds a very time-consuming step to the design process.

Additionally, the impact on learning and quality criteria of technology-based assessment systems

is still being questioned.

Jana, R., (2006). On-The-Job Video Gaming: Interactive Training Tools are Captivating

Employees and Saving Companies Money. Business Week, March: 43.

This article describes the rise of interactive training among leading companies; citing this

as a cost-effective way to teach job skills in a way that leads to higher retention. Leaders from

several companies were interviewed, including Cold Stone Creamery, Cisco Systems, Inc., and

Canon, Inc.

Knewton. (2014). Education’s Most Powerful Data Infrastructure Platform. knewton.com.

Retrieved February 1, 2014, from http://www.knewton.com/assets-

v2/downloads/knewton-adaptive-learning-intro.pdf

This company asserts that student performance should drive instruction. For example, the

student’s performance should determine the scope and sequence of the learning content.

Knewton has developed a tool which can deliver adaptive learning. When we design training, it

should be developed on a continuum to promote learner self-confidence, decrease discomfort and

frustration, and encourage productive learning habits.

http://www.knewton.com/assets-v2/downloads/knewton-adaptive-learning-intro.pdf

http://www.knewton.com/assets-v2/downloads/knewton-adaptive-learning-intro.pdf


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Marczewski, A. (2014). Effective Game Design Needs to Focus on Questions of Motivation.

gamesandlearning.org. Retrieved January 27, 2014, from

http://www.gamesandlearning.org/2014/01/16/effective-game-design-needs-to-focus-on-

questions-of-motivation/

In this article, the author emphasizes that intrinsic motivation is always better than

extrinsic rewards; recommending that the balanced use of intrinsic motivation and extrinsic

rewards will yield the best results. He introduces the concept of RAMP – Relatedness,

Autonomy, Mastery, and Purpose – as central to intrinsic motivation. When we provide

workforce training, we must begin by understanding what people need.

Omar, A., Kalulu, D., and Alijani, G. (2011). Management of Innovative E-Learning

Environments. Academy of Educational Leadership Journal 15: 37-64.

The authors of this study looked at the use of online learning for freshman students at

Southern University of New Orleans (SUNO), finding that grade point averages increased but

student retention dropped. This study primarily focused on online courses led by an instructor,

rather than self-paced learning. However, it did list self-paced training as a mode of online

learning and acknowledge the potential of the internet to revolutionize learning. The proposed

model included many aspects of interactive training.

Rieber, L.P. (1996). Seriously Considering Play: Designing Interactive Learning Environments

Based on the Blending of Microworlds, Simulations, and Games. Educational

Technology Research and Development 44 (2): 43-58.

The author asserts that extensive research on play with children and adults in

anthropology, psychology, and education indicates that play is an important mediator for

learning and socialization throughout life. The purpose of education was for man to be able to

assess his environment and then experiment with ways to improve it." Play is completely

http://www.gamesandlearning.org/2014/01/16/effective-game-design-needs-to-focus-on-questions-of-motivation/

http://www.gamesandlearning.org/2014/01/16/effective-game-design-needs-to-focus-on-questions-of-motivation/


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consistent given this view. When we design workforce training, we must build on the concept of

challenge, curiosity, fantasy, and control.

Saade, R., Morin, D., and Thomas, J., (2012). Critical thinking in E-learning environments.

Computers & Education, 28. Retrieved March 4, 2014, from journal homepage:


This article presents the work and results of critical thinking in a virtual learning

environment. Critical thinking was measured subjectively using the ART scale. Results indicate

the significance of ‘‘interactivity” in what students perceived to be critical-thinking-oriented

versus online material as a resource. In the context of this study, results indicate that today’s

students feel an interactive environment is very important for their learning.

Stolovitch, H. and Keeps, E. (2011). Telling Ain’t Training. East Peoria, Illinois: Versa Press,

Inc.

The authors provide an approach to transforming knowledge-based training into

performance-based training that results in long-term retention and improved performance on the

job. The authors deliver interactive, practical strategies that can be implemented immediately to

improve training programs, such as a 5-step model for effective training sessions. When we

design workforce training, we must remediate any deficiencies in metacognitive skills.

University of Pennsylvania. (2014). Gamification Theory Training. coursera.org. Retrieved

February 1, 2014, from https://www.coursera.org/course/gamification

Gamification is the application of digital game design techniques to non-game problems,

such as business and social impact challenges. Gamification as a business practice has exploded

over the past two years. Organizations are applying it in areas such as marketing, human

resources, productivity enhancement, sustainability, training, health and wellness, innovation,


https://www.coursera.org/course/gamification


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and customer engagement. This course examines the mechanisms of gamification and provides

an understanding of its effective use.

Vidal-Salazar, M., Hurtado-Torres, N., and Matias-Reche, F., (2012). Training as a generator of

employee capabilities. The International Journal of Human Resource Management: 23

(13), 2680-2697.

This study analyzed the influence of professional training on the achievement and

development of a series of distinctive competences leading to competitive sustainable

advantages. This study found that professional training led to increased knowledge and

motivation, but did not lead to the development of a collective mind.

Wang, M., Vogel, D., and Ran, W., (2011). Context and deep learning design. Computers &



The authors of this article have developed a performance-oriented training approach

using design science research methods. It uses performance measurement to clarify

organizational goals and individual learning needs and links them to e-learning applications. The

key concept lies in a Key Performance Indicator model, where organizational mission and vision

are translated into a set of targets that drive learning towards a goal of improving work

performance.

Werth, E., and Werth, L. (2011). Effective Training for Millenial Students. Adult Learning, 22

(3) 12-19.

The authors of this article claim that Millennials are a challenging group to recruit and

manage. This group is also referred to as Generation Y, Nexters, the Net Generation, and

Gamers. The purpose of the article is to provide training administrators and educators with

concrete suggestions on how to effectively facilitate the learning of Millennials.



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While Gen X/Boomers are described as idealistic and self-absorbed workaholics who are

conservative when it comes to technology, competitive, and wary of authority; Millennials

possess a higher degree of loyalty to their personal lives, are apt to challenge rules, expect instant

gratification, and value a fun, flexible work environment. With Gen X/Boomers decreasing in the

workforce, and Millennials entering in large numbers, the concern is how to effectively integrate

the younger generation into the culture of work and prepare them for future leadership roles. It

has been suggested that training is a means to this end.

Suggested changes are to de-emphasize lecture, integrate technology used by students

every day into class activities, plan activities that rely heavily on trial and error, design a

curriculum intended to be mastered by students in small chunks, immediately prior to being used,

provide for risk taking in a safe environment, and allow students to develop skills that are

perceived as being of value. The use of learning games can easily integrate all of these ideas.

Yoo, S., Han, S., and Huang, W., (2012). The roles of intrinsic motivators and extrinsic

motivators in promoting e-learning in the workplace: A case from South Korea.

Computers & Education, 28. Retrieved March 4, 2014, from journal homepage:


The authors of this article assert that organizations often overestimate the effects of

extrinsic motivators in promoting e-learning while ignoring employees’ intrinsic motivation. To

examine the effect difference between the two motivational factors, this study surveyed 261

employees in a food service company and found that intrinsic motivators (effort expectancy,

attitudes, and anxiety) affected employees’ intention to use e-learning in the workplace more

strongly than did the extrinsic motivators (performance expectancy, social influence, and

facilitating conditions).



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Cognitive Learning Theory

Brookfield, S.D. (1991). Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning; A Comprehensive

Analysis of Principles and Effective Practices. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

This book explores the theory-practice disjunctions between pedagogy and andragogy. In

the pedagogical model, the teacher has full responsibility for making decisions about what will

be learned, how it will be learned, when it will be learned, and if the material has been learned.

Pedagogy, or teacher-directed instruction as it is commonly known, places the student in a

submissive role requiring obedience to the teacher's instructions.

The andragogical model is predicated on four basic assumptions about learners as they

grow, all of which have some relationship to our notions about a learner's ability, need, and

desire to take responsibility for learning: 1) their self-concept moves from dependency to

independency or self-directedness, 2) they accumulate a reservoir of experiences that can be used

as a basis on which to build learning, 3) their readiness to learn becomes increasingly associated

with the developmental tasks of social roles, 4) their need for application is immediate.

In designing workforce training for adults in the workplace, we can recognize that adults

are generally receptive to learning activities. We can optimize this readiness by creating training

that uses a variety of instruction strategies based on the six principles of effective adult learning:

voluntary participation, mutual respect, collaborative spirit, praxis (practice vs theory), critical

reflection, and self-direction.

Driscoll, M.P. (2004). Psychology of Learning for Instruction, 3rd

edition. Needham Heights,

MA; Allyn & Bacon.

In this book, Driscoll describes a learning theory as a set of constructs linking observed

changes in performance with what is thought to bring about those changes. He explains that


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theorists take opposition positions on many questions related to learning. Some believe that

knowledge is primarily acquired through experience; others argue that knowledge is a matter of

interpretation and that learners actively construct information about the world around them.

Driscoll outlines four features that generally characterize insightful learning, 1) after a

period of trial and error, the learner suddenly and completely grasps the solution, 2) the learner

performs the solution in a smooth and errorless fashion, 3) the learner retains the solution for a

very long time, and 4) the learner can easily apply a principle gained through insight to other,

similar problems. When we train, we must provide experiences which allow learners to practice,

achieve mastery, optimize retention, and apply the information to new situations.

Gagne, R., and Medsker, K.L. (1996). The Conditions of Learning: Training Applications.

Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace and Company.

In this book, the authors explain that that there are several different types or levels of

learning. The significance of these classifications is that each different type requires different

types of instruction. The book outlines nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive

processes: 1) Gaining attention (reception), 2) Informing learners of the objective (expectancy),

3) Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval), 4) Presenting the stimulus (selective

perception), 5) Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding), 6) Eliciting performance

(responding), 7) Providing feedback (reinforcement), 8) Assessing performance (retrieval), and

9) Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).

The authors conclude that these events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions

for learning and serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media. I

find the concepts of eliciting response and enhancing retention and transfer to be key focus areas

of workforce training. We want the learner to have opportunities to understand and apply each


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new concept. Of particular interest is the chance to use the concept to create accurate examples.

KeyTrain. (2014). KeyTrain Solutions: Building Skills Across the Nation. keytrain.com.

Retrieved February 1, 2014, from http://www.keytrain.com/KeyTrain_Solutions.htm

KeyTrain™ is a comprehensive, yet easy-to-use system for improving the basic skills

measured by the WorkKeys® Assessment System. The KeyTrain system includes targeted,

self-paced instruction, pre- and post-assessments, a complete learning management system and

an occupational job profiles database. These components can be used to help individuals learn,

practice and demonstrate the skills they need to succeed in the jobs and careers they desire.

Reviews of the KeyTrain system reflect a solid tool, with a basic and conventional

presentation. The program is also viewed as expensive depending upon the location of the

audience. We have an opportunity to identify a model for creative, highly-interactive, and

technologically advanced training. But, we must balance creativity with cost, for efficiency.

Lawson, T. (1974). Effects of Instructional Objectives on Learning and Retention. Instructional

Science 3 (1): 1-22.

This book provides a synthesis of the various factors which predict the influence of

instructional objectives on learning and retention. One of the essential dimensions in any type of

instructional development involves the nature and characterization of the objectives to which

instruction is addressed. These instructional goals should be operationally stated and thus reflect

real time life experiences of learners. In stating objectives, it is important to note that general and

specific objectives work equally well, and when we intersperse objective statements throughout

the learning experience we enhance attending behavior and thus comprehension and retention.

http://www.keytrain.com/KeyTrain_Solutions.htm


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Schmidt, F. and Hunter, J. (1998). The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel

psychology: Practical and Theoretical Implications of 85 years of research findings.

Psychological Bulletin, 124(2), 262-274.

This article summarizes the practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research

in personnel selection. Overall, the most important factors in job success and training

performance are general mental ability, integrity, and performance in an interview. However,

when we provide training we must compensate for any deficiencies in general mental ability. We

can achieve this goal by using strategies to remediate any deficiencies in metacognitive skills.

For example, we can simplify information, build connections to prior knowledge, and motivate.

Schmidt, F. and Sharf, J. (2010). Review of ACT’s WorkKeys Program Relative to the Uniform

Guidelines and Current Professional Standards. Review of CT’s WorkKeys Program

Relative to the Uniform Guidelines and More Current Professional Standards. Property of

ACT, Inc.

The authors evaluated ACT’s WorkKeys program based on (1) the 1978 Uniform

Guidelines; (2) the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (the “APA Standards”),

jointly promulgated by the American Psychological Association (“APA”), the American

Education Research Association, and the National Council on Measurement in Education; and/or

(3) the Principles for the Validation and Use of Personnel Selection Procedures (“SIOP

Principles”), published by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (“SIOP”).

The authors found that WorkKeys assessments are professionally defensible, content-

valid measures of verbal, quantitative and technical/problem-solving skills and abilities that are

necessary prerequisites to successfully acquiring skills and performing tasks in the workplace.

This conclusion is supported by validity generalization principles, which are now well

documented by research in the field and well accepted within contemporary industrial

psychology. This supports the need for effective training to improve any skills gaps.


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Smith, T.A., and Kimball, D.R. (2010). Learning from Feedback: Spacing and the Delay-

Retention Effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and

Cognition, 36 (1): 80-95.

The authors of this article explain that modern research on the effects of feedback during

learning assumes that feedback is an error correction mechanism. However, recent studies of

feedback timing effects suggest that feedback might also strengthen initially correct responses. In

addition, delaying feedback after an initial test generally resulted in an improvement in

performance on a subsequent, delayed test. This finding is known as the delay-retention effect.

When designing workforce training, we should provide feedback for both correct and

incorrect responses. When new information is presented, we should provide immediate feedback.

But when we are reinforcing concepts, delayed feedback may promote retention.

Psychometric Theory

Cohen, A.S., and Wollock, J.A. Handbook on Test Development: Helpful Tips for Creating

Reliable and Valid Classroom Tests, available at

http://testing.wisc.edu/Handbook%20on%20Test%20Construction.pdf.

This resource defines terminology commonly used in testing; such as blueprint, item

development, item format, multiple choice, etc. General rules for writing items are also provided,

for example with multiple choice format the item should be as short and verbally uncomplicated

as possible, items should be independent, all distractors should be parallel and plausible and

attractive, avoid use of “all of the above” as a last option, and avoid humor. This information

should be kept in mind when designing training quizzes.

http://testing.wisc.edu/Handbook%20on%20Test%20Construction.pdf


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Eilertson, T.V., and Valdermo, O. (2000). Open-Book Assessment: A Contribution to Improved

Learning. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 26(2): 91-103.

The authors of this article provide evidence for the advantages of open book assessment

strategies in promoting higher-level thinking skills. The authors assert that many schools have

been accused of concentrating on the mere recall of knowledge when testing student ability

levels.

However, this study found that open book assessment encouraged students to be more

attentive and efficient during lessons, knowing they will not be asked to simply recall

information, but to use it in novel problem solving situations. In designing workforce training,

we can provide terminology that will serve as a prompt for problem solving.

Eyres, P.S. (1999). Legal Implications of Human Performance Technology. In H.D. Stolovitch

and E.J. Keeps, eds., Handbook of Human Performance Technology: Improving

Individual and Organizations Performance Worldwide. San Francisco: Jossey-

Bass/Pfeiffer.

This article builds from the issues that have been raised by those focused on ensuring that

Human Performance Technology practices are clearly founded on sound theoretical constructs,

scientifically derived evidence, and respectable, well-documented professional precedent.

Feedback theories must account for variables in cues, tasks, and situations. The authors also

explain the key differences between procedural knowledge (what we are able to do) with

declarative knowledge (what we are able to talk about).

With workforce training, we should use immediate feedback with simple/neutral tasks

and delayed feedback with complex tasks. In addition, we should favor general feedback at all

levels of tasks, and provide periodic references to goals. The authors also recommend having

learners explain what they are doing (and why) during the learning process.


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Mislevy, R., Almond, R., and Lukas, J. (2003). A Brief Introduction to Evidence-centered

Design. Property of Educational Testing Service.

The authors of this paper explain that evidence-centered assessment design (ECD) is an

approach to constructing educational assessments in terms of evidentiary arguments; providing

an introduction to the basic ideas of ECD, as well as some of the terminology and models that

have been developed to implement the approach. The paper also explores the uses of task-level

and summary feedback. Advances in technology make it possible to capture more complex

performances in assessment settings by including, for example, simulation, interactivity,

collaboration, and constructed response.

Nunnally, J.C., and Bernstein, I.H. (1994). Psychometric Theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-

Hill.

This book provides a resource for evaluating tests according to “classical” methods and

theories. For example, develop reliability and then validity. These classical approaches to

assessment generally involve the administration of a single form of a test to a heterogeneous

sample of subjects. The large majority of tests used in school and clinical settings are still

constructed according to the methods and models of classical measurement theory.

Osterlind, S.J. (1998). Constructing Test Items: Multiple-Choice, Constructed Response,

Performance, and Other Formats (Evaluation in Education and Human Services, 47).

New York: Kluger Academic Publishers.

Constructing test items for standardized tests of achievement, ability, and aptitude is a

task of enormous importance. The interpretability of a test's scores flows directly from the

quality of its items and exercises. There are four major topics, 1) characteristics (multiple choice,

true-fase, etc.), 2) writing guidelines, 3) quality (reliability and validity), and 4) test issues.


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Shrock, S.A., and Coscarelli, W.C. (2007). Criterion-Referenced Test Development: Technical

and Legal Guidelines for Corporate Training. San Francisco: Preiffer-Wiley.

This resource helps training professionals understand how to develop and use

criterion-referenced tests (CRTs). These are tests which compare persons against a standard of

competence, rather than against other persons (norm-referenced). Today’s business and

technological environment has increased the need for assessment of human competence. Any

competitive advantage in the global economy requires that the most competent workers be

identified and retained. With performance-based training, the criterion is the desired behavior.

Wigfield, A., and Eccles, J.S. (2002). Development of Achievement Motivation. San Diego, CA:

Academic Press.

This book discusses research and theory on how motivation changes as learners progress

through school, gender differences in motivation, and motivational differences as an aspect of

ethnicity. Motivation is discussed within the context of school achievement as well as athletic

and musical performance. Social cognitive theory postulates that human achievement depends on

interactions between one’s behaviors, one’s personal thoughts and beliefs, and environmental

conditions. We can promote self-efficacy, or the belief that one can learn, through various

strategies, including positive feedback and rewards.

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