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PJLMMod1(20X8) © CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE ISBN 0 948182 92 X

Cambridge International CollegeProfessional British Study and Training for Successful Careers

International HQ: Attique House Business Centre, Route de Quennevais, St Brelade, Jersey JE3 8FP, Britain.Tel: + 44 1534 485485 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cambridgecollege.co.uk

A Warm Welcome from the Executives,Staff and Tutors of

Cambridge International College - Britain

STUDY & TRAINING GUIDE FOR MODULE ONE ON

PROJECT LEADERSHIP & MANAGEMENT

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STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE ONEA full ‘Study & Training Guide’ will accompany the

Study or Training Manual(s) you will receive soon by airmail post or courier.

This Study Guide - like all our Study & Training Materials - has been written by professionals; experts in the Training of many hundreds of thousands of ambitious men and women in countries all over the world. It is therefore essential that you:-

Read this Study Guide carefully and thoroughly BEFORE you start to read and study Module One, which is the first ‘Study Section’ of a CIC Study & Training Manual you will receive for the Program for which you have been enrolled.

Follow the Study Guide exactly, stage by stage and step by step - if you fail to do so, you might not succeed in your Study & Training or pass the Examination for the CIC Diploma.

STAGE ONE

Learning how to really STUDY the College’s Study & Training Manual(s) provided - including THOROUGHLY READING this Study Guide, and the full ‘Study & Training Guide’ which you will soon receive by airmail post or courier.

STAGE TWO

Studying in accordance with the professional advice and instructions given

STAGE THREE

Answering Self-Assessment Test Questions/Exercises

STAGE FOUR

Assessing - or having someone assess for you - the standard of your answers to the Self-Assessment Test

STAGE FIVE

Preparing for your Final Examination

STAGE SIX

Sitting the Final Examination

Remember: your CIC Program has been planned by experts. To be certain of gaining the greatest benefit from the Program, it is essential that you follow precisely each one of the SIX stages in the Program, as described above.

STAGE ONE is your thorough reading of this ‘Study Guide’

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ABOUT CIC STUDY & TRAINING MANUALSA CIC Study & Training Manual (which comprises 6 Modules - the first Module of which follows) supplied by the College as part of your Program is NOT simply a text book. It must therefore not be read simply from cover to cover like a text book or another publication. It MUST be studied, Module by Module, exactly as explained in the following pages. Each CIC Study & Training Manual has been designed and written by specialists, with wide experience of teaching people in countries all over the world to become managers, administrators, supervisors, sales and accounting personnel, business-people, and professionals in many other fields.

Therefore, it is in your own best interests that you use the Study & Training Manuals in the way CIC’s experts recommend. By doing so, you should be able to learn easily and enjoyably, and master the contents of the Manuals in a relatively short period of time - and then sit the Final Examination with confidence. Every Study & Training Manual is written in clear and easy to understand English, and the meanings of any “uncommon” words, with which you might not be familiar, are fully explained; so you should not encounter any problems in your Studies and Training.

But should you fail to fully grasp anything - after making a thorough and genuine attempt to understand the text - you will be welcome to write to the College for assistance. You must state the exact page number(s) in the Study & Training Manual, the paragraph(s) and line(s) which you do not understand. If you do not give full details of a problem, our Tutors will be unable to assist you, and your Training will be delayed unnecessarily.

Start now by reading carefully the following pages about Stages Two, Three and Four. Do NOT, however, start studying the first Study & Training Manual until you are certain you understand how you are to do so.

STAGE TWO - STUDYING A CIC MODULESTEP 1

Once you have read page 1 of this document fully and carefully, turn to the first study section - called Module One - of Study or Training Manual One.

Read the whole of Module One at your normal reading pace, without trying to memorise every topic covered or fact stated, but trying to get “the feel” of what is dealt with in the Module as a whole.

STEP 2

Start reading the Module again from the beginning, this time reading more slowly, paragraph by paragraph and section by section. Make brief notes of any points, sentences, paragraphs or sections which you feel need your further study, consideration or thought. Try to absorb and memorise all the important topics covered in the Module.

STEP 3

Start reading the Module again from its start, this time paying particular attention to - and if necessary studying more thoroughly - those parts which were the subject of your earlier notes. Do not pass on to other parts or topics until you are certain you fully understand and remember those parts you earlier noted as requiring your special attention. Try to fix everything taught firmly in your mind.

Note: You might not wish to, or be able to, carry out Steps 1, 2 and 3 one after the other. You could, for instance, carry out Steps 1 and 2 and then take Step 3 after a break.

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STAGE THREE - ANSWERING SELF-ASSESSMENT TESTS

STEP 4

When you feel that you have fully understood and learned everything taught in the whole Module (and if necessary after a further careful read through it) turn to the Self-Assessment Test set at the end of it, and read the Questions/Exercises in it carefully. You do not have to attempt to answer any or all of the Questions/Exercises in the Test, but it is best that you do so, to the best of your abilities. The reasons for this are:-

By comparing your answers with the Recommended Answers printed in the Appendix at the end of the Module (or after the final Module in a Manual) you will be able to assess whether you really have mastered everything taught in the Module, or whether you need to study again any part or parts of it.

By answering Questions/Exercises and comparing your attempts with the Recommended Answers, you will gain experience - and confidence - in attempting Test and Final Examination Questions/Exercises in the future. Treat the Self-Assessment Tests as being ‘Past Examination Papers’.

Professional Advice on Answering Self-Assessment Test (and Examination) Questions and Exercises

1. You may answer the Questions/Exercises in a Self-Assessment Test in any order you like, but it is best that you attempt all of them.

2. Read very carefully the first Question/Exercise you select, to be quite certain that you really understand it and what it requires you to do, because:

some Questions/Exercises might require you to give full “written” answers;

some Questions/Exercises (called “multiple-choice questions”) might require you only to place ticks in boxes against correct/incorrect statements.

In your Final Examination you could lose marks if you attempt a Question/Exercise in the wrong way, or if you misread and/or misunderstand a Question/Exercise and write about something which is not relevant or required.

3. Try to answer the Question/Exercise under ‘true Test or Examination conditions’, that is, WITHOUT referring back to the relevant section or pages of the Module or to any notes you have made - and certainly WITHOUT referring to the Recommended Answers. Try to limit to about two hours the time you spend on answering a set of Questions/Exercises; in your Final Examination you will have only two hours.

4. Although you are going to check your Self-Assessment Test answers yourself (or have a friend, relative or colleague assess them for you) practise writing “written” answers:-

in clear, easy-to-read handwriting;

and

in good, grammatical language.

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STAGE FOUR - ASSESSING YOUR ANSWERSSTEP 5

When you have answered all the Questions/Exercises set in Self-Assessment Test One to the best of your ability, compare them (or ask a friend, relative or a colleague/senior at work to compare them) with the Recommended Answers to that Test, printed in the Appendix at the end of the Module (or the last Module in a Manual.) In any case, you should thoroughly study the Recommended Answers because:-

As we have already explained, they will help you to assess whether you have really understood everything taught in the Module;

and

They will teach you how the Questions/Exercises in subsequent Self-Assessment Tests, Progress Tests and in your Final Examination should be answered: clearly, accurately and factually (with suitable examples when necessary) showing your knowledge and understanding, with details and explanation, and how they should be planned and well-laid out for maximum effect and marks.

MARKS AND AWARDS

To assist in the assessment and grading of your answers, the maximum number of marks which can be earned for each answer to a Self-Assessment Test Question/Exercise is stated in brackets at the end of each one.

The maximum number of marks for any one Test is 100.

Your answers should be assessed fairly and critically. Marks should be awarded for facts included in your answer to a Question/Exercise, for details, explanations and descriptions, for presentation and for neatness. It is not, of course, to be expected that your answers will be identical to all those in the Appendix. However, your answers should contain the same facts, although they might be given in a different order or sequence - and any examples you give should be as appropriate to the Questions/Exercises as those given in the relevant “Recommended” Answers.

Add together the marks awarded for all your answers to the Questions/Exercises in a Self-Assessment Test, and enter the total (out of 100) in the “Award” column in the Progress Chart which you will find with the full ‘Study & Training Guide’ when you receive it. Also enter in the “Matters Requiring Further Study” column the number(s) of any Question(s)/Exercise(s) for which you did not achieve high marks.

GRADES

Here is a guide to the grade your Self-Assessment Test Work has achieved, based on the number of marks awarded for it:

50% to 59% PASS 60% to 64% HIGH PASS 65% to 74% MERIT 75% to 84% HIGH MERIT 85% to 94% DISTINCTION 95% to 100% HIGH DISTINCTION

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The Examiner who assesses your Final Examination answers will take into account that English might not be your national or main language. Nevertheless, to be able to assess whether you really have learned what we have taught you, he or she will need to be able to read and understand what you have written. You could lose marks if the Examiner cannot read or understand easily what you have written.

5. Pay particular attention to neatness and to layout, to spelling and to punctuation.

6. When “written” answers are required, make sure what you write is relevant to the Question/Exercise, and concentrate on quality - demonstrating your knowledge and understanding of facts, techniques, theories, etc. - rather than on quantity alone. Write fully and clearly, but to the point. If you write long, rambling Final Examination answers, you will waste time, and the Examiner will deduct marks; so practise the right way!

7. The Questions set in our Self-Assessment and Progress Tests should be treated as being “Past Examination Questions”. Therefore, you should read and study carefully the ‘recommended answers’ we provide because they form an integral and essential part of the Study & Training Program as a whole. Read the wording of each Question/Exercise carefully, and note, in particular, how our answer to each is presented and explained fully and clearly - not too briefly; whilst at the same time being detailed, but not over-long and rambling. To gain high marks, your own answers should certainly be no shorter or less detailed than our Recommended Answers.

It is important that your own answers to Test and (in due course) Examination Questions/Exercises are presented in a similar clear, detailed and easy to read style, to ensure that you receive the best possible marks and award in due course for your Examination Work. Brief, incomplete answers, or lists of unexplained “bullet points”, are not sufficient to gain good marks. It is better for you to write in more detail than too little, so long as your answers are clear and relevant. Include examples where helpful, and use wisely all the “time allowed” (usually two hours) in which to write full, well-explained answers. Plan your answers, and ensure that you answer all sections or parts of each question.

An Assessor needs to be shown by your answers that you really have understood what we have taught you in the Modules - and that you could implement and use the various subject-matters in practical work situations - so make sure your answers demonstrate that!

8. When you have finished writing your answer, read through what you have written to see whether you have left out anything, and whether you can spot - and correct - any errors or omissions you might have made.

Warning: some Questions/Exercises comprise two or more parts; make certain you have answered all parts.

9. Attempt the next Question/Exercise in the Self-Assessment Test in the same manner as we have explained in 1 to 7 above, and so on until all the Questions/Exercises in the Test have been attempted.

Note: There is no limit on how much time you spend on studying a Module before answering the Self-Assessment Test set on it, and some Modules are, of course, longer than others. You will, however, normally need to spend between twelve and fifteen hours on the thorough study of each Module - and that time may be spread over a number of days if necessary - plus approximately two hours on answering the Self-Assessment Test on each Module.

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STEP 6

Study again thoroughly the section(s) of the Module relating to the Question(s)/Exercise(s) to which your answers did not achieve high marks. It is important that you understand where or why you went wrong, so that you will not make the same mistake(s) again.

STEP 7

When you receive the complete Study or Training Manual One** from the College by airmail post, ‘revise’ - study again - Module One printed in it, and then turn to Module Two and proceed to study it thoroughly in exactly the same way as explained in Steps 1, 2 and 3 in this ‘Study Guide’.

When you have completed your thorough study, follow steps 4, 5 and 6 for the Self-Assessment Test on Module 2.

Continue in the same way with each of Modules 3, 4, 5 and 6 until you have attempted and assessed your work to Self-Assessment Test 6, and have completed the study of Study or Training Manual One. But - and this is important - study the Modules one by one; complete Steps 1 to 6 on each Module before you proceed to the next one (unless during the course of your reading you are referred to another Module).

**Note: When you receive Study or Training Manual One by airmail post or courier, it will be accompanied by a 24-page ‘Study & Training Guide’ (containing a ‘Progress Chart’) which you MUST read very carefully before starting your study of Module Two.

Above are scenes from a Graduation Ceremony held in Egypt attended by College Vice Principal, David Lawson, who presented awards to CIC Members from Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, Libya, Yemen (middle left) and Nigeria (bottom left)

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Cambridge International CollegeProfessional British Study and Training for Successful Careers

International HQ: Attique House Business Centre, Route de Quennevais, St Brelade, Jersey JE3 8FP, Britain.Tel: + 44 1534 485485 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cambridgecollege.co.uk

STUDY & TRAINING MANUAL ON

PROJECT LEADERSHIP & MANAGEMENT

Module oneCONTENTS

page

Principles & Practice of Project Leadership & Management 10

Project defined and explained: temporary, effort, unique, deliverables, stakeholders Types of projects: construction reengineering research procurement business implementation others - miscellaneous practical examples Features of projects: uniqueness defined timescale approved budget limited resources element of risk beneficial change Project parameters: project scope project time: on-time and over-time, penalties project quality: inputs, outputs, outcomes, processes project risks project costs: on-budget and over-budget practical examples Project objectives: outputs, outcomes, benefits, strategic objectives Project stakeholders: primary and secondary positive and negative stakeholder management descriptions of typical key stakeholders Project professionals: the project leader or manager personality and character skills and abilities needed: technical, communication, vision, positive attitude, integrity, competence, steadiness and calmness, problem-solving, team building, delegation, decision-making

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Improving communication skills: listening, body language/signals, clarity and conciseness, friendliness, confidence, empathy, open-mindedness, respect Need for feedback The decision-making process Time management

Recommended Answers to Self-Assessment Test One 27

You will find the Contents/Syllabus of what you will learn in Modules 2 to 12 of this Program starting on page 29

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PRINCIPLES & PRACTICE OF PROJECT LEADERSHIP and MANAGEMENT

Introduction

The widely accepted definition of a project is:

“A temporary endeavour undertaken to create, attain or achieve a unique product or service, result or benefit, or beneficial change for stakeholders.”

Let us look briefly at some of the words and terms in this definition (each of which we will consider in greater depth in later Sections):-

A project is “temporary” in that it has a defined beginning and end in time, and therefore it has a defined “scope” (extent) and “resources” (such as finance, materials, personnel).

A project requires “endeavour” - specific well-directed effort and resources to proceed.

A project is “unique” in that it is not a routine operation, but rather it is a specific set of operations and processes designed to accomplish a singular - one-off - goal.

A project creates (produces) a unique and verifiable product, result, or capability to perform a service, or a benefit or beneficial change which must be produced to complete a process, phase, or project; the unique project purpose or outcome is termed a “deliverable”.

A “stakeholder” is any person or organization who is affected or is likely to be affected in one way or another by a particular project, or might affect it in one way or another.

In project management a “deliverable” can be either a physical product or an intangible service or idea generated by a project which is given or delivered to the person or organization commissioning (initiating or ordering) a project. To put it another way, projects are created and undertaken to provide deliverables. There are many kinds of project deliverables, some of which are intended for internal stakeholders, and some for external stakeholders.

Some projects have many deliverables; others have just one. A deliverable usually has a due date for delivery, and is measurable and specific. A deliverable can be delivered either to an external client, or to an internal customer (such as a department of a business) and satisfies a “milestone” or due date which is specified in the project plan. A deliverable could be a software product, a design document, a training programme, or any other asset (a tangible or intangible benefit or possession) which is required by the project plan.

Just a very few - but very diverse - examples of project “deliverables” include the development of software for an improved business process, the construction of a building or a road bridge, the relief effort for victims after a natural disaster or warfare, the expansion of sales into a new geographic market. All of those projects and a multitude of others of many different scopes and sizes must be expertly managed to deliver the on-time, on-budget results, learning and integration which organizations need.

We can therefore see that “project management” requires the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet the project requirements. In order for the people of bygone ages to have achieved such massive constructions as the Pyramids of Egypt and the Great Wall of China, it is evident that the “management of projects” must have been practised for millennia. However, it was not until the mid-20th century (CE, Christian Era) that “project management” began to emerge as a distinct profession.

Module One

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Types of Projects

There are five major types of projects - creating different kinds of deliverables - although there are some projects which are difficult to classify within these five groupings:-

Construction projects, which produce artefacts, which are tangible objects.

Research projects, which produce knowledge.

Re-engineering projects, which produce change.

Procurement projects, which produce business relationships.

Business implementation projects, which produce working processes.

Each type of project yields different answers to the following questions:-

Where and when should a project start?

How will it be known when to stop the project?

When can (or should) the results of the project be evaluated?

Many standard processes are designed to support one type of project in particular.

Because each type of project yields different answers to the questions posed above, it follows that each type of project needs a somewhat different process and leadership/management style.

Construction projects

A project of this type produces deliverables which are artefacts - which might be any object from a tool to a satellite, and many others, and might be a complex system with human and mechanical components - and the “value” or “benefit” generated by the project is “embedded” (that is, fixed or inherent) in that particular artefact.

A few examples of construction projects include: the construction of a warship; an extension of an underground/metro/subway line; building a sports stadium/arena; establishing a customer call centre; creating and producing sales literature, producing an instruction or guidebook, creating an IT system.

Research projects

This type of project produces knowledge: such as answers, theories and solutions. That knowledge might be formally represented as models, patterns or patents; alternatively, the knowledge might be embedded in a working process or an artefact.

A few examples of research products include: business modelling; developing a model of a country’s economy; developing a new species of food crop; developing novel approaches to project management; military intelligence/codebreaking; the analysis, testing, or evaluation of portions of a larger project; quality assurance (QA) which is a way of preventing mistakes or defects in manufactured products, and avoiding problems when delivering solutions or services to customers. A solution is a deliverable which meets or solves a specific need, requirement or problem.

Re-engineering projects

A project of this type produces a desired change in some system or process. Two examples or re-engineering projects are: renumbering a telephone system; or implementing PRINCE project management practices (which is a process-based method for effective project management, which makes use of the best practices from a variety of industries; which we discuss in a later Module) into a large organization; or designing and installing an Intranet (a private network contained within an enterprise.)

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Procurement projects

This type of project normally entails a contractually based business relationship with a selected supplier to provide for a defined product or service, which is based on a fixed specification and/or a defined specification process. Some examples include: finding or locating new sources of supply, suppliers (see Module 6) components or resources; outsourcing a specific construction or research project; outsourcing a complete business function (such as IT); imposing new rules and measures on a regulated industry.

Business Implementation projects

A project of this type produces an operationally effective process, and the value generated by the project is embedded in (occurs because of) the process itself - that is, due to the new process being implemented or used, benefits arise. Examples include: developing a new business process to repackage or more efficiently use existing assets and resources; installing e-commerce processes or websites.

Examples of projects which are difficult to classify into any of the five types include:-

National project programmes, examples of which include putting a new weather-monitoring or telecommunications satellite into orbit; or establishing a new political party.

Large medical programmes, which might have specific aims, such as creating an artificial heart, or mass inoculation programmes.

Other “hybrid” or inter-disciplinary projects, such as relocating offices; a pilot project or a pilot study, or a pilot experiment (which in each case is a small-scale preliminary study conducted in order to evaluate the feasibility, time, cost, possible adverse events and likely effects or statistical data, in an attempt to predict an appropriate sample size and improve upon the study design prior to undertaking a full-scale research product).

In most cases, the difficulty in classifying a project type arises from ambiguity (lack of clarity) about the primary purpose of the particular project. For example, whether a pilot scheme is launched to achieve a benefit, or merely as an experiment. Similarly, whether a drug trial is intended to benefit current patients, or to create knowledge which will benefit future patients. Project leaders and managers must be able to handle such “hybrid” projects, and might need to resolve any underlying ambiguity as to their specific purposes.

Each type of project yields different answers to the questions - Where to start? How to know when to stop? When can (or should) the results be evaluated? - and that implies that each type of project needs a somewhat different process and management style. These are illustrated in the chart in Fig.1/1. Features of Projects

In practice, a project is a means to achieve a “goal” and “beneficial change” by utilising or applying a certain amount of “resources”. Such resources might be any combination of time, funds, talent, knowledge, services, personnel, space, facilities, equipment, materials, and so on, and the combination of them will depend on the features of each particular project. However, one constant is that the resources available or which can be made available to a project will inevitably be limited. The description “scope” refers to what is included within the project and what is excluded.

During or at the conclusion of a project there is a need to undertake an “evaluation” to ascertain whether the project will be or has been successful, and whether the resources have been applied beneficially and to full effect - or not, as the case might be.

Because projects are unique undertakings, they typically involve a degree of uncertainty and an “element of risk”. Uncertainty characterises situations in which the actual outcome of a particular event or activity might or might not deviate (to various extents) from the estimate or forecast outcome or value or benefit. Decision-making becomes more difficult as uncertainty grows; but the availability of relevant information increases predictability and reduces uncertainty and risk from the decision-maker’s point of view.

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Fig.1/2. features of projects

Project Parameters or Constraints

Project “parameters” are certain characteristics and features which can define a project or its aspects. These parameters - “project characteristics” - can be expressed in different ways, including in “qualitative” (measured by the quality) and “quantitative” (measured by quantity or amount) terms: figures, technical wording, graphs, statistics, etc. The following are the classic (usual, standard) set of project parameters:-

Project scope: actual working content (the activities and efforts) which a project embraces.

Project time: duration of a project, and life-span of its results.

Project integration: the variety and types of participation and collaboration which a project demands from different concerned groups: stakeholders, project team members, consultants, freelancers, and others.

Project quality: specifications on project efficiency, capabilities and effectiveness of its results.

Project risks: the severity and probability of harmful influences which existing and/or future negative factors could place on the successful completion or “execution” of a project.

Project costs: a determination in advance of the amount of money - or “budget” - which a project is estimated to expend from when it commences until its completion.

Every project can be fully and completely defined with the help of those six parameters, and all of them should be determined before the start of any project. That is because if even one of these parameters stays undefined by the time it is decided to commence a project, there is a severe risk of the failure of that project; for example, if the budget is not approved, or if a completion date is not set, there will be no “direction” or constraints.

The project parameters or “constraints” which are placed on many projects are: time, cost, quality - which are commonly referred to as the “triple constraint” - and/or quantity, which all relate to the scope of a particular project. It is vital right from the start of project planning, for the project manager or leader to define the way in which each of those four factors - scope, time, cost, quality and/or quantity - will affect the particular project, and therefore it is necessary to be aware of the influence which each factor might have.

What is called the “scope” of a project is the clear identification of the work which is required to successfully complete or deliver that project. One of a project leader’s or manager’s responsibilities is to ensure that only the required work - the scope - will be performed, and that each of the deliverables can be completed in the allotted time and within budget (that is, within the finances allocated to that project).

As a general rule any type of project is “time-constrained”, which means that it is required to be completed within a specified time-frame agreed in advance, and it is important for a project to be kept a “on-time”, because there might be “penalties” for running “over-time”. However, if circumstances warrant, the end date for a project might be changed, delayed or even “put on hold”. There are some projects which can be delivered in stages or phases;

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that is, some parts of a project might be brought to completion whilst other parts of it are on-going and continue to be worked on.

Typically, any project is likely to be constrained by funding or finances available or by the “budget” allocated - that is, the amount of money available to spend which is based on a plan made in advance for how and/or on what it will be spent. Every effort needs to be made:

To keep a project “on-budget” - that is, within the allocated or anticipated costs;and

not to allow it to run “over-budget” - that is, costing or spending more than the amount allocated or budgeted.

In most cases the allocated budget is fixed, although with some projects the financial and other resources available might be varied or flexible if and when circumstances change.

Some projects have no quantity parameters at all; although other projects might be focused on quantity. For example, if the aim of a particular project is to design a sales leaflet or flyer informing people about services available, the quantity of leaflets to be produced is not one of the most important parameters. Sufficient copies will need to be produced to meet needs, but the main factors to be monitored will be the quality of the information given, its appropriateness for the audience, its attractiveness to the eyes of intended readers, the cost involved, and the print deadline, if applicable.

In contrast, if a particular project involves providing employment training for young people, both quantity and quality are key factors. Funders and other stakeholders will set in advance clear standards and goals for (1) the number of young people who are to receive the training; (2) the numbers who are successfully placed in work after completing the training; and (3) the types of jobs they secure, which will depend on the quality of the training provided.

Frequently there are quality parameters relating to a project. Quality standards might be imposed from outside the organization (for example, by legal/regulatory bodies or other stakeholders) such as for a project for the establishment of a residential care home, or quality standards might need to be devised internally within the organization and developed in the planning stage of a particular project. In doing this, the project leader or manager will need to be able to answer the question “Is this good enough?”

Quality factors apply to:- Inputs which are the resources to be used for the project. Outputs which refer to what the project is intended to produce, the

deliverables. Outcomes which are the actual results of the project. Processes which are the means or methods which are or will be used to

achieve the outputs.

Fig.1/3. project parameters - the “triple constraints”

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In the example of the youth employment training project, there will be quality factors in the training materials (the inputs), in the delivery of the training (the process), in the number of young people successfully “passing” the training (the outputs), and in the kind of work which the young people achieve at the end of the project (the outcomes).

The different project parameters are sometimes shown in diagrams - as in Fig.1/3 - as four perfectly balanced forces. Unfortunately, in practice such a situation rarely, if ever, exists! There will almost always be one or two parameters which carry more weight (importance) than the others. To take an extreme example, in brain surgery the quality of the process and the outcomes matters far more than the cost and deadline. It is very important for the project leader or manager to establish - as appropriate, with management, with the client and with other stakeholders - what the most important parameters are for the particular project.

For instance, in the production of an annual company report, the management of one organization might require a full-colour glossy report to support its fundraising and publicity. Quality will be a key feature, quantity will be important and budget will be less important, so long as there is a good end result. In contrast, the management of another, perhaps smaller, organization might be happy with a few computer generated or photocopied and stapled sheets of paper in black and white which meet the statutory requirements, and which do not give stakeholders the impression that money is being “wasted” on non-essentials.

Project Objectives

As we have made clear, projects are different from “business-as-usual activities”, because they require people to come together temporarily to focus on specific project objectives. As a result, effective teamwork is central to successful projects. Project management is concerned with managing separate or distinct “work packages” (often abbreviated to “WP”) to achieve specific objectives. The way in which the work needs to be managed depends upon a wide variety of factors. The scale, significance and complexity of the work are obvious factors; for example, projects to relocate a small office and organising a national sporting competition share many basic principles, but offer very different managerial challenges.

Objectives may be expressed in terms of:-

Outputs: such as the planning and construction of a new HQ building for an organization.

Outcomes: such as staff being relocated from multiple locations to the new HQ.

Benefits: such as reduced travel and facilities, overheads, running or management costs.

Strategic objectives:

such as reducing or being able to increase the overall size of the workforce within a certain number of years.

Project Stakeholders

Stakeholders are the people and/or organizations with any interest in a project’s processes and/or outcome; they can be any individual, group, or organization, who might affect, will be affected by, or perceive itself to be affected by a decision, activity, or outcome of a project. Typically stakeholders include the members of a project team, project managers, executives, project sponsors, customers/clients, and users. Stakeholders are people who are - in one way or another - “invested” in the project and who will be affected by the project at any point along the way, and their input can impact directly on the outcome of the project.

Good “stakeholder management” needs to be practised, and the project leader or manager needs to regularly communicate with stakeholders to encourage them to collaborate on the project; after all, they have a “stake” in how the project turns out. Good and regular communication with stakeholders ensures they are kept up to date with information and progress, and are appraised in a timely manner about actual or potential problems or delays or financial difficulties encountered; that avoids unexpected “surprises”, which stakeholders do not like, and reassures them that their investments in the project are safe and well-managed.

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Project stakeholders in general can be single individuals or entire organizations who are affected by the execution or outcome of a project. It does not matter whether the project affects them negatively or positively (as explained below); if they are or will be affected, they are regarded as stakeholders.

Primary stakeholder groups are deemed essential to a project because without them the project would not be commenced or reach fruition or fulfillment; without the direct support of these stakeholders the project would not be viable, and could not achieve its objectives or goal(s). Essential primary stakeholders might be “internal”, such as a department of an organization, or its management and employees. Other essential primary stakeholders might be “external” to the organization, and might include clients and customers, funders, freelancers and providers of support services, and suppliers.

Secondary stakeholders are usually “external” and can also be important to the success of a project, but they do not always have the same direct impact on a project as do the primary stakeholders. Secondary stakeholders might include local and/or central government agencies; the community in which the proposed project will be located or take place; emergency services; local residents and business people; and others, depending on a particular project.

In some projects - such as the redesign of a workplace or work processes - the personnel affected will be “internal” stakeholders; those directly affected would be classed as primary stakeholders, whilst personnel of other departments might be secondary stakeholders.

You will appreciate that not all stakeholders are “equal” - in terms of input or influence - and most, if not all, stakeholders are likely to have different requirements and expectations. Project managers need to treat each and every stakeholder carefully according to their requirements and expectations; a failure to do so could jeopardise the success of a project due to lack of co-operation or outright hostility and obstructiveness.

Stakeholders might exert either a positive or a negative influence:-

A “positive” stakeholder sees and acknowledges the project’s positive and desirable outcome, and might also benefit from its occurrence and success in one way or another (for example, local residents might benefit from a new road or an improved water supply.) These stakeholders can assist a project leader or manager in various “positive” ways (such as explaining the benefits to others in the community) to successfully implement and conclude a project.

On the other hand, a “negative” stakeholder sees and anticipates undesirable outcomes from the project, and might be unfavourably impacted by the project or its outcome; for example, the building of a new road might affect residents or those living nearby due to noise, dust, litter, traffic congestion, etc, whilst others might be worried about its effect on nature and wildlife. This type of stakeholder is less likely to help the project to be successful, and might actively attempt to obstruct or delay or prevent it happening.

Reverting to our example of internal staff stakeholders and workplace and/or work process changes, some personnel might be supportive of the changes to come, and be happy to be involved; they have a “positive” attitude towards the project. However, some personnel might be “resistant to change”, and because of their “negative” attitude they might seek to hinder or halt the project and/or derail the progress of the project.

In some cases a section of the public - which might be the “host community” in which the project is to take place and on which it will impact - or the general public at large can be a stakeholder. In this situation it would be impractical to engage with the whole community or population, and therefore the project leader or manager will consult their public figures or local or national leaders to better understand their requirements and expectations.

An important consideration might be the local or national media, which might report on the proposed project favourably/positively or negatively, and in doing so might influence the thinking and behaviour of other stakeholders.

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Those stakeholders who have the influence and authority to dictate whether a project is a success or not, are the “key” stakeholders. These are the people and groups whose objectives must be satisfied. They can “make or break” the project. Even if all deliverables are achieved and the budget is met, if these people are not satisfied the project could still be considered by them to be a failure.

To summarise, the typical key project stakeholders who will be found in relation to many projects will include some or all of the following:-

Customers or clients: they are the direct “users” or “utilisers” or “beneficiaries” of a product or service, and might be internal and/or external to the organization executing the project.

The Project Manager: the project’s leader.Project team members: the group executing the project under the project manager’s

leadership.The Project Sponsor: the project’s financier or funder - source of money - which could be

the employing organization itself, an external customer or client.Steering Committee: an advisory group which will provide guidance on key decisions;

the committee might include representatives of the customer or client, executives, and key stakeholders from within the organization.

Executives: the top management of the organization commissioning and/or executing the project; those who direct the organization’s strategy.

Resource managers: other managers who control resources needed for executing the project, such as human resource (HR), engineering, procurement, stores, accounts, etc.

There might be many more depending on the particular project, some of whom might include: sellers/suppliers, contractors, owners, government agencies, media outlets, even the community or society at large.

Project Professionals

A project is not only a unique, “transient” (time-defined) endeavour, which is undertaken to achieve planned objectives, but it must also be capable of being defined - as explained earlier - in terms of outputs, outcomes or benefits. A project is usually deemed to be a success if it achieves the objectives according to their “acceptance criteria” (conditions which deliverables must satisfy) within an agreed timescale and budget. A key factor which distinguishes project management from “management” in general, is that a project has a final deliverable and a finite timespan, whilst management is an ongoing process. Because of those features, a “project professional” needs a wide range of skills; often technical skills, and certainly interpersonal, people management skills, and good business awareness.

The person(s) who lead, manage or who are in charge of projects might bear many different “titles”: project leader, project manager, project co-ordinator, and others. For simplicity in these Manuals, we often refer to them collectively as being “project professionals”.

Effective project management is entirely dependent on an individual with proficient leadership skills, because without a good leader a project is unlikely to be completed successfully. The successful completion of a project is the primary responsibility and goal of a project professional, who might carry a considerable burden and weight of responsibility when it comes to making the right decisions. Whilst some people possess natural leadership qualities, other leadership skills must be learned, adapted and developed to ensure each individual’s approach to leadership is tailored to suit their own individual style and personality.

The fundamental qualities of a good project leader or manager include: excellent communication and interpersonal skills, the ability to share a clear vision and to inspire other people; a positive attitude and enthusiasm; integrity; competence; a cool, calm disposition;

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problem-solving ability; team building and leadership skill; willingness to delegate; decision-making ability. Let us consider these “qualities” or traits one by one:-

Communication: Good communication is one of the most important factors affecting project success. Many problems can be avoided if there is open, honest communication between everyone involved on a project; oral (spoken) and written, formal and informal. Excellent communication skills are vital to enable a project manager to communicate effectively with a broad spectrum of people at different levels within an organization and external to it. In order to lead a project, the professional must be able to clearly communicate his or her vision, goals, guidelines and expectations to other people.

The ability to deliver and receive constructive “feedback” and to listen to and consider other peoples’ views, opinions and suggestions is another important part of leading a team of individuals. Essentially, being a proficient communicator is a key element to working well with colleagues and team members in any work environment. We provide advice on improving communications skills in a later Section, and in Module 7.

Sharing a vision: The ability to see the “bigger picture” behind a project and to effectively convey that vision to other people is an incredibly valuable and important quality in a project professional. Successfully articulating the vision of a project ensures that the team members can “visualise” it in their minds, which helps them to understand more clearly what is involved and the project’s goal, and their role(s) in achieving it.

Positive attitude: A leader with an eternally positive outlook and mental attitude is a pleasure to engage with and his or her enthusiasm automatically transfers to other people. Being committed to a project and displaying confidence in it impacts positively on the members of the project team, and forms the basis of a happy, productive work environment.

Integrity: An important part of being a proficient team leader is the ability to gain the trust of the members of the team. By demonstrating that he/she is committed to adhering to both his/her values and ethical practices in general, team members will soon recognise that he/she is an honest leader in whom they can confidently put their trust and faith.

Competence: If a leader is unable to demonstrate that he is competent and capable, he will be unable to gain the respect and trust of the team members and colleagues. A team must always feel confident that their leader is in control and knows exactly what he is doing. Training and knowledge - such as from this Program - is therefore of great value.

Keeping cool, calm and collected: Regardless of how well a project is planned, there will always be problems or obstacles of some sort to be overcome along the way. A good project leader or manager will never panic or lose his head when things go wrong; instead, he will remain calm, consider and assess the problem and find the best way to resolve it, in order to put the project back on the right track.

Problem-solving: A good project leader needs to possess excellent problem-solving skills and to be resourceful and creative in his general approach to problems. On many occasions when working on a project, this might be as simple a matter as identifying the right person(s) within the team to help to resolve the problem quickly and effectively. Sometimes, the real skill here is in truly grasping the issues behind the problem, because that is always a fundamental element of the problem-solving process. We consider this matter more fully in a later Section.

Team building: A strong, cohesive and happy team is a productive one, and for the project to reach a successful conclusion the team needs to be working well together for a common purpose. Within any team of individuals there will be found a variety of personalities which will need to be melded together to form a positive “team dynamic”. An important role in successfully leading a team involves learning about each individual’s skills and personality in order to get the best out each person and out of the team as a whole. Spotting areas of conflict within the team early on and managing conflict are crucial. We consider team building and management more fully in Module 2.

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Delegation: In this context, “delegation” (which we return to in a later Section) means passing over responsibility for performing certain acts or making certain decisions, to subordinates. Having a good understanding of team members’ characters, skills and attributes allows the leader to “delegate” tasks to the right individuals for the best possible results. Team members will respond well to a leader who delegates appropriate tasks which are well suited to their skill sets, and subsequently trusts them to get on with it. The leader should encourage team members to discuss any queries or difficulties, rather than undermining them by constantly checking up on them, and they will feel more valued.

Decision-making: The personal decisions made by a project professional have a direct impact on the success of a project, and ultimately on the success of the organization or client commissioning the project. In order to be strong in this area it is essential for the leader to obtain all relevant information, data and views concerning the decision to be made from the outset, so that when the time comes informed decisions can be made quickly.

However, it is inevitable that from time to time mistakes or misjudgements will be made; after all, it is impossible to make the best or right decisions every time! If and when the wrong decision is made, a good leader will admit responsibility. There is nothing worse than a leader who blames other people when things go wrong, instead of taking responsibility for their own decisions. We return to decision-making in a later Section.

Improving Communication Skills

Good communication skills are essential for any project manager or leader. Communication by various “mediums” (or “media”) or “channels”: face to face, telephone, email, letter, memo, etc - is likely to be necessary with a wide range of people and organizations: colleagues, team members, clients, funders, stakeholders, government agencies, suppliers, service providers, media, and many others. Poor communication can cause many problems, and decrease the chances of the success of a project.

The following are important communication skills which can be learned and practised in order to increase effectiveness in leading and managing teams.

Listening: Being a good listener is one of the best ways of becoming a good communicator. Nobody likes communicating with someone who only cares about talking, and does not take the time to listen to another person. It is valuable to practise “active listening”, which involves paying close attention to what another person (or more than one) is saying, and not being distracted. This is particularly important if the person who is speaking is not very good at conveying or explaining what he or she means.

Asking sensible questions at appropriate times for clarification, and “rephrasing” (using different words) what the person says to ensure full understanding and confirmation of what is meant, is a good technique for avoiding miscommunication. Active listening leads to better understanding of what another person is saying, means and intends to convey, and then the response can be worded appropriately.

Unspoken communication: Some face to face communications might not be oral, or might not be just oral alone; they are “non-verbal”. Thoughts and feelings can be conveyed, both consciously and unconsciously, by facial expressions - such as smiles, yawns, grins, grimaces, frowns, raised eyebrows, nods or shakes of the head, etc - and by gestures or hand movements of a variety of kinds. Even the movement of the eyes can convey an impression; for instance, looking at a speaker implies interest, whilst looking away from might imply disinterest, or a moment of contemplation or thought.

All these “unspoken” forms of communication - which are sometimes called “signals” or “body language” - can emphasise or contribute to what is actually being spoken, give “shades” or “tones” of meaning, or even in some cases can replace speech. And a wrong facial expression, gesture or movement - or at the wrong time - can cause offence or annoyance. For example, failure to look a person to whom one is speaking “in the eye” - to make “eye contact” - might give the impression of being “shifty” or dishonest or hiding the truth, or making excuses, or indecision.

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Body language, eye contact, hand gestures, and tone all “colour” the message a person is trying to convey. A relaxed, open stance (arms open, legs relaxed) and a friendly tone will help a project leader or manager to appear approachable, and will encourage other people to speak openly with him or her. Eye contact is also important; looking a person in the eye demonstrates that the listener is focused on the speaker and the conversation - but it is necessary to avoid staring at the person, because doing so might make him or her feel uncomfortable.

Whilst speaking, attention should be paid to the listener’s unspoken signals or body language, because those signals might convey how the person is really feeling - for example: interested, disinterested, confused, lacking understanding (such as by frowning), disagreement, upset, embarrassment or worried about talking, and so on.

Clarity and conciseness: It is always best to try to convey a message in as few words as are really needed to make its meaning clear. Whether speaking to someone in person, on the telephone or via another electronic method such as skype or hand-held radio or an intercom system, or via email, or any other means, the wording should be clear, logical and direct. If a speaker or writer rambles on, listeners will either “switch off” - that is, consciously or unconsciously stop listening fully - or will be unsure of exactly what is wanted - or will be frustrated with the speaker’s lack of clarity. When possible, it is best to decide what needs to be said before starting to talk (or write); that will help to avoid talking excessively and/or confusing the other party. If appropriate, a brief introduction to the matter(s) can be made, then each point talked about in turn in more depth; and if useful a closing summary can be given. A basic plan or idea of what is to be said or discussed will help ensure no important matters are accidentally forgotten or overlooked.

A speaker should speak clearly and not mumble, and should speak at a steady, even pace; speaking too quickly can give a listener the impression that the speaker is worried or even panicky; speaking too slowly might give the impression that the speaker is uncertain or hesitant about what is being said. Raising or lowering the volume or stressing or emphasising key words can indicate the most important points to remember.

Friendliness: A friendly tone, a personal question, or simply a smile, will encourage team members or others to engage in open and honest communication. That is important in both face-to-face and in written communications. When possible, it is beneficial to personalise speech, emails, and any other communications to team members and others (co-workers, clients, stakeholders, sponsors, etc); for example, a brief “I hope you all had a successful visit” or “Peter, I hope you had a successful visit” at the start of a conversation or an email can “personalise” a message and make the recipient feel more comfortable, valued and receptive.

Confidence: It is important for a project manager or leader to be confident in all interactions with other people. That confidence will show team members, co-workers and others that he or she believes in and will follow through with what is being said. Showing confidence can be as simple as making eye contact or using a firm but friendly tone; for example, avoiding making statements sound like they are questions.

However, care should be taken not to sound arrogant or aggressive, and the speaker should make clear that he or she is always listening to and empathising (see below) with the other person, and is willing to listen consider good ideas, suggestions and feedback.

Empathy: This means the ability to understand and share the feelings of other people. Even when disagreeing with a team member or co-worker, it is important to understand and respect their point of view. The use of phrases which are appropriate to the conversation - for example, “I understand where you are coming from” - demonstrate that the speaker has been listening to the other person, and respects his or her opinions.

This encourages a sense of “team-orientation”, and better allows each person to explain his or her views, which can in turn lead to better understanding of the final decision made, even if there is not complete agreement.

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Open-mindedness: A good communicator is one who enters into any conversation with a flexible, open mind. A project leader or manager should be willing - open - to listening to and be understanding of another person’s point of view, rather than simply getting his or her own message across. It is important to show a willingness to enter into a “dialogue” - that is, an exchange of ideas or opinions on a particular issue with a view to reaching an amicable agreement or settlement - even with people with whom he or she disagrees.

By being “open minded” a project leader or manager will be able to have more honest and productive conversations. It is important to realise that the other person might in fact have a valid point of view or concern, or even a better idea or solution to a problem.

Respect: People will be more open to communicating with a project leader or manager who conveys respect for them and their ideas. Simple actions - such as using a person’s name, making eye contact, and actively listening when another person is speaking - will help that person to feel appreciated. Showing respect is more likely to result in respect being returned and given back to the speaker if the speaker shows respect and courtesy to the listener, and vice versa.

Respect can also be conveyed when writing letters and emails by taking the time to check or edit messages before despatch or transmission. If, for example, a poorly worded, confusing email - with incorrect spelling or unusual abbreviations - is sent, the recipients will think the writer does not respect them enough to think through communications with them, which will have a negative impact, and they will lose respect for the writer. When speaking by telephone, it is important to avoid distractions and to stay focused on the conversation.

Feedback: Being willing and able to appropriately give and receive feedback - responses, information, reactions - is an important communication skill. In the fast moving project environment, leaders and managers should continuously look for ways to provide team members and co-workers with constructive feedback, whether in face to face conversations, through email, telephone/mobile/cell calls, or in regular reports and briefings. Giving feedback also involves giving praise when it is deserved - saying something as simple as “good job” or “that was well done” to a team member - can greatly increase motivation.

Similarly, a project leader or manager must not be aloof; he or she should be approachable, and should be able to accept, and even to encourage, feedback from other people. He or she must listen to or read carefully the feedback received, ask clarifying questions if he or she is unsure of the issue, and make efforts to implement (make use of) the feedback. Very often decisions will be made based on feedback from other people; if a project manager does not know what is happening, or what problems have arisen, or what various possible solutions have been suggested, he or she cannot take appropriate action or make decisions to resolve or overcome the difficulties.

An appropriate response is vital; for instance, feedback lets the other person know that an instruction, information, view, idea or suggestion has been received - or acted upon or that it will be acted upon if appropriate - or that more information, explanation or detail is required.

Fig.1/2. interpersonal communication

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We return to a more in-depth study of communication in project leadership and management in Module 7. Decision-Making

Some of the main reasons why managers as leaders are needed, is firstly to “identify” problems; and secondly to find “solutions” and to make plans to overcome or to solve the problems. We have mentioned a number of times that an important function of a project manager or leader involves making “decisions”. By this we mean that he (or she) needs to think about a matter, and then “make up his mind” - or decide - what action is to be taken, or is not to be taken, as the case might be.

As the result of training and/or experience, a project leader or manager should be able to approach each situation and problem positively and objectively. He should not prejudge the situation or be distracted by minor matters. He needs to think in a clear and orderly fashion, and to gather and arrange logically in his mind all the facts and information which are available to him.

With training and experience, the decision-making process becomes largely automatic, and it is often performed unconsciously, so that a sensible decision is reached in a short time. Particularly in organising and managing projects, “on the spot” decisions are often called for; there might be very little time in which to think matters through or to gather information.

Nevertheless, a project manager should not make “snap decisions” based on inadequate information, thought or consideration, and complex or unusual problems will require more thorough consideration and examination. However, he should not be hesitant in reaching a decision. A project leader or manager also needs self-confidence; that is, a belief in his or her own ability to succeed in solving problems in the right way, and in his/her ability to deal effectively with different situations and sets of circumstances as and when they arise.

In practice, the decision-making process might be continuous, automatic, and - with experience - is often carried out without conscious thought. However, we can break down the process of decision-making so that it can more clearly be understood. The stages are:-

1. Understanding as far as possible the real ‘problem’ or issue or situation which needs to be solved (or for which a solution is required). It might take time and patience to find out what a problem really is. The visible “result” of a problem might not be the same as the cause of it. For example, the cause of a team member’s poor performance or distraction might not turn out to be a work-related problem - it might be a “personal” or “domestic” problem.

2. Gathering relevant information about the problem or issue which might have a bearing on it, or on the solution to be found. Some information might already be available - memories, from data, or based on previous experience with similar or identical problems, and their solutions. The leader or manager needs to know how, from where, and perhaps from whom, he can obtain any additional information he needs. For example, he might have to contact the financial controller if it is a “financial problem”, or contact the manager of the organization which supplies equipment or materials, and so on, depending on the actual problem.

3. Breaking down the problem into parts, especially if the problem or issue is a complex one. Often the solution to one part is obvious and leads, logically, to the solving of other parts, or to solving the whole problem.

4. Comparing and judging the probability of success of any different solutions to the same problem, and their possible consequences on other areas, risks, etc.

5. Selecting the most attractive solution - actually making the decision - within the bounds of authority, safety and legal compliance.

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Once a decision has been reached, it must be implemented; that is, be put into practice. Hesitancy at this stage would show lack of self-confidence by the project manager in his own judgement. Any such uncertainty will be noted by his team members. They will think:

“If our manager or leader doesn’t have confidence in himself, how can he really expect us to have confidence in him or in his decisions?”

and “If he/she isn’t really convinced this is the right or best thing to do, how much effort

should we actually put in to implementing it?”

Once the manager has decided on a “course of action”, he must act decisively and with confidence. The more complex and important are the decisions which he is likely to have to make, the more serious will be the consequences if he does not reach the right decision. He must also take action - the right action - when it is needed. He must not fail to act when action is needed - inaction can be as harmful as taking the wrong action. So you can see that the decision-making process is very important at all levels of management, leadership and supervision.

Time Management

The project environment is often busy, noisy and stressful. Before a project commences and during its activities and processes the executives, clients and other stakeholders will all expect: (i) to be kept up to date with progress; and (ii) that everything will run smoothly and on schedule according to the project plan. For that to happen, project leaders and managers need excellent time management skills. Time management can be defined as:

“A systematic prioritisation of tasks and competing demands to complete the most important tasks within a target timeframe.”

When mapping out how to allocate and spend time, it is necessary to pay attention to the project plan, and in particular to specific milestone dates, ordering and confirmation deadlines, and timetables. In the same way that a calendar is built up over the course of days, months and in some cases years, it is also necessary to pay attention to how time is scheduled within any given working day.

Every project manager needs to develop time management skills, both for individual performance and as a means of supervising and controlling their respective teams. In practice, time management is the act or process of planning and exercising control over the amount of time which is spent on specific activities, as a way to increase effectiveness, efficiency or productivity. Ordering or ranking tasks in order of importance, and by when they need completing, is a key step. A goal of time management is to reduce the distractions which lower the number of tasks a person can complete in a given period, in order to:-

Maximise what can be accomplished during a working day.

Maximise the use of the available resources - which are inevitably limited.

Identify critical areas for special attention, that is, set priorities and reduce time spent on non-priorities.

Track progress toward achieving set goals.

Identify tasks which can be delegated to team members.

Avoid “bottlenecks” as these prevent or slow down other tasks being completed (for example, equipment cannot be set up and technical engineers cannot do their work because a construction site has not been cleared and/or readied).

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Some practical tips for improving time management in leadership and management:-

Make lists - they really do work if they are used. Having made a list it is essential to actually use it; “reminders” on a cellphone or computer device can help. One of the most important factors is to make sure a list of tasks is realistic and attainable; it is important to prioritise tasks and plan accordingly. There is no value in producing, for example, a 30-item “to-do list” and at the end of the day finding that 20 of the tasks did not get done.

Set deadlines which are achievable, and try to stick to them. A deadline might be set a few days before a task absolutely has to be done, because that allows for the possibility that other things will get in the way, but also allows for the task still to get done.

Reduce multi-tasking - although people who are “multi-taskers” might think that they get

more accomplished, it is not always the most productive or efficient route. In practice, it is often more effective to focus and concentrate on one task and get it done well, rather than trying to do a number of tasks poorly, or quite possibly not completing any of them.

Delegate responsibility - which involves transferring responsibility for performing certain tasks or taking decisions to other people, that is, to team members. Some people take on more than they can handle. Too many project managers like to be “in control” and become anxious at the thought of “letting go” to other people. But the truth of the matter is that regardless of how capable one person is, he or she simply cannot do everything. Delegation is not a sign of weakness, but a sign of intelligence; it is best to find or train competent, reliable people with whom to share some of the responsibilities and workload. Doing so allows project managers to be less stressed and more productive, yet still be able to oversee and review delegated work if needed.

Relax and unwind outside working hours - often referred to as “downtime”. That is not always easy for a project manager, in particular, but relaxation can help to reduce stress, and “refresh the mind” for the following working day.

Take notes - taking notes about why a certain decision was made or why a particular choice was made can help at a later date, especially if the factors which influenced a decision or a choice made need to be explained to stakeholders, or be reviewed, later.

Components of Project Management

The core components of project leadership and management which we will be covering in the Modules in this Program are:-

Defining the reason why a project is necessary; this is often called “the vision”.

Capturing project requirements, specifying quality of the deliverables, estimating resources and timescales.

Preparing a business case to justify the investment (why a project should be undertaken).

Securing corporate agreement and funding (approval and backing, finance and resources).

Developing and implementing a management plan for the project.

Leading and motivating the project delivery team.

Managing the risks, issues and potential changes to the project, or aspects of it.

Monitoring progress against the project schedule and plan.

Managing the project budget.

Maintaining communication with stakeholders and the project organization/team.

Liaising with and managing suppliers and providers.

Handing over the deliverable(s) and closing the project in a controlled process.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST ONEYou will find Recommended Answers to these Questions, with which you may compare your answers, in the Appendix which starts on the next page. The maximum mark which may be awarded for each Question appears in brackets at the end of the Question. Do NOT send your answers to these Questions to the College.

No.1. Describe what you consider to be the unique features of projects, and the constraints which are commonly placed on projects. (maximum 30 marks)

No.2. With examples, explain who the stakeholders of a project might be, and what distinguishes primary from secondary stakeholders. (maximum 30 marks)

No.3. Outline ways in which effective and skilful communication can help a project team leader or manager to motivate his or her team members. Describe skills which can be developed and practised to improve communication on projects. (maximum 30 marks)

No.4. Place a tick in the box against the one correct statement in each set.

(a) A positive project stakeholder: 1 has enjoyed it and encourages the organisers to undertake it again in the future. 2 might be unfavourably affected by it and might try to delay it or prevent it occurring. 3 sees a desirable outcome and/or might benefit from its occurrence and success. 4 can influence peoples’ opinions favourably or unfavourably towards the event.

(b) By “feedback” in communications we mean: 1 employees are offered very good canteen facilities in the workplace. 2 the sender of a message receives a response so he or she knows that the message

was received and, if necessary, acted upon. 3 a period in the working day during which employees may take refreshments. 4 the return of employees to work after a holiday/vacation or period of leave.

(c) In the context of projects, a deliverable is: 1 a unique and verifiable product, result, or capability to perform a service, or a

benefit or beneficial change as the result of a successfully completed project. 2 a consignment of materials or resources which is expected to arrive at a project

site from their supplier. 3 the measure of the quality of a project’s outcome. 4 a project which has been completed on time and on budget.

(d) Re-engineering projects are commissioned to: 1 repair factory equipment which has broken down and is causing production delays. 2 research and report on new machinery and equipment to replace the ones already

being used. 3 produce a desired change in some system or process. 4 research, design and develop new products for a organization.

(e) Time management is used by a project leader or manager to: 1 ensure that his team members arrive at work on time and do not leave work early. 2 reach a decision quickly without wasting time on trivialities. 3 find time during a busy working day for meal and comfort breaks. 4 prioritise tasks and competing demands so the most important tasks are completed.

(2 marks for a statement correctly ticked - maximum 10 marks)

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RECOMMENDED ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST ONE

No.1. A project is a temporary, unique and progressive attempt or endeavour which is made to produce a certain tangible or intangible result, such as a unique product, a service, a benefit, or a competitive advantage. It usually includes a series of interrelated tasks which are planned to be performed over a fixed period of time and within certain requirements and limitations, such as cost (budget), time, quality, and performance.

Temporary is a key project characteristic because every project has a finite start and a finite end. The start is the time when the project is initiated and its concept is developed. The end is reached when the objective(s) or deliverable(s) of the project has been met (or not met if it becomes obvious that the project cannot be completed; in which case it is terminated).

Any project aims to produce some unique deliverable(s) which can be a product, service, or some another beneficial result. Deliverables should address a problem or fulfil a need which has been analysed before the project start date. A project is purposeful because it has a rational and measurable purpose; it is logical because it has a certain life-cycle; it is structured because it has interdependencies between its tasks and activities; it is limited or constrained by available resources; and it involves an element of risk.

A constraint, in project management, is any restriction which defines a project’s limitations or parameters; the scope, for example, is the limit of what the project is expected to accomplish. The three most significant project constraints - schedule, cost and scope - are sometimes known as the “triple constraint” (alongside quality concerns). A project’s scope involves the specific goals, deliverables and tasks which define the boundaries of the project. The schedule - sometimes stated more broadly as time - specifies the timeline according to which those components will be delivered, including the final deadline for completion. Cost - sometimes stated more broadly as resources - involves the financial limitation of resources input to the project and also the overall limit for the total amount that can be spent.No.2. A project stakeholder is any individual, group, or organization who might affect, be affected by, or perceive itself to be affected by a decision, activity, or outcome of a project. Stakeholders might be inside or outside an organization which commissions or executes a project, and/or might have an interest in the successful completion of a project; and might have either a positive or a negative influence on the project completion.

Primary stakeholders are those deemed to be essential to a project’s success because without them the project would not be started or reach its conclusion. In fact, without the direct support of primary stakeholders the project would not be viable, and could not achieve its objective(s) or goal(s). Primary stakeholders might be “internal”, for example, a department of an organization, or its management and personnel. Some primary stakeholders might be “external” to the organization, and might include clients and customers, funders, freelancers and providers of support services, and suppliers.

In contrast, secondary stakeholders are usually “external” and although they can also be important to the success of a project, they do not always have the same direct impact on a project as do the primary stakeholders. They might include local and/or central government agencies; the community in which the proposed project is to take place, emergency services; local residents and business people; and others, depending on a particular project.

Not all stakeholders have the same input or exert the same influence, and most, if not all, stakeholders are likely to have different requirements and expectations. With some projects

Appendix

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such as the design or upgrading of an enterprise’s computer system - the personnel affected will be stakeholders; the staff directly affected would be classed as primary stakeholders, whilst staff of other departments might be considered to be secondary stakeholders.

No.3. Effective and skilful communication by a project leader or manager gives team members confidence. That is because with the clear information, guidance and instructions they receive, and the training which they are given, they will know what work they are supposed to do, how they are to perform that work, when and why it is to be performed, and what “outcome” in terms of quantity and quality of work is expected from them. They will also know to whom and for what they are responsible. The confidence they gain from knowing what, how and when they are expected to work, and the purpose of their efforts, is an excellent motivation for them to give of their best.

Skills which can be developed and practised by project leaders and managers to improve communication with team members and others involved in a project, include:-

* Being a good and attentive listener to what other people have to say, as opposed to being interested only in talking and stating one’s own point of view.

* Paying attention to one’s own body language, hand gestures and eye contact, and those which are displayed by people with whom one is holding a conversation.

* Giving information and instructions clearly to avoid misunderstandings, and concisely so that people will give their full attention to what is being said.

* Using a friendly and encouraging tone, so that team members and others will be prepared to engage in honest and open conversations.

* Speaking with confidence, which will encourage team members and others to accept and believe in what is spoken.

* Empathising with team members and others by showing respect for and understanding of their points of view and feelings.

* Being open minded by listening to and appreciating other people’s opinions and points of view, and being flexible by being willing to adapt one’s views in the light of new or different information.

* Being respectful of other people and their views, by listening attentively, and taking care in communications not to offend others.

* Being prepared both to give and to receive feedback.

* Selecting the most appropriate channel for messages to be conveyed.

No.4. The right statement from each of the sets selected and ticked:

(a) 3 (b) 2 (c) 1 (d) 3 (e) 4

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WHAT YOU WILL LEARN ABOUT PROJECT LEADERSHIP & MANAGEMENT

IN MODULES 2 TO 12 OF CIC’s TRAINING PROGRAM

Module 2 - Project Personnel

Key project personnel: project leader or manager: duties and responsibilities Project team members: roles they may play on their teams Project sponsor: championing the project typical duties and responsibilities Project board: high-level managers typical responsibilities Executive sponsor: visible champion of the project typical responsibilities Project administrator/co-ordinator: role on cross-functional teams typical duties and responsibilities Business analyst: reasons for appointment typical duties and responsibilities Key responsibilities of project leaders/managers: activity resource planning organising and motivating a project team controlling time management cost estimating and developing the budget ensuring customer/client satisfaction analysing and managing project risk monitoring progress managing reports and documentation Functions of management: planning, organising, co-ordinating, commanding, controlling standards checklists Teams and teamwork how and why teams are formed factors influencing size and composition of teams types of project teams: functional teams: members performing similar functions or tasks baton passing matrix teams: crossing functional boundaries avoiding the “two-boss” problem contract teams: members from outside the organization comparison of strengths and weaknesses Advantages of long-term teams: unity and cohesion of team members

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Diversity of project team members: brainstorming problems with short-term teams Team objectives Motivation of teams Developing trust in teams Delegation: what is involved, delegating in the right way Team meetings Briefings and de-briefings Contingency plans Training, coaching, mentoring Conflict resolution: positive and negative conflict causes of conflicts in teams methods of resolving conflict

Module 3 - Project Planning

Project life-cycle: activities in the: initiation phase planning phase execution/implementation phase closure phase The project charter: setting out project goal, participants, stakeholders, requirements, constraints, milestones, communication, deliverables authority for the project leader/manager Planning as routes to objectives what it seeks to determine: goals, strategies, means, implementation Project documentation: the master plan comprising multiple documents covering: scope, high-level business requirements, budget, schedule, roles and responsibilities, governance, communications, risk assessment, contingencies The preliminary or “kick-off” meeting: agenda: topics to be discussed the chair: controlling the meeting minutes: records of the meeting future meetings Project organisational structure (POS): selecting the best structure for each project reducing uncertainty organisation charts: hierarchy: lines of authority and responsibility value to project management co-ordinating the project team and others Project schedule and budget: identifying tasks charging or billing rates estimations for the budget Project scope statement: establishing the boundaries of the project: scope description: progressive elaboration acceptance criteria: key attributes to be met deliverables: meeting expectations

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prototypes ancillary deliverables project exclusions: issues outside the scope project constraints: limiting factors: time, budget, quality project assumptions: facts considered to be true without proof Human resources management plan: recruiting, managing, controlling, releasing identifying work activities assigning resources: role, authority, responsibility Stages of project team formation The work breakdown structure (WBS): organising work into manageable sections: levels and components of project work division into work packages (WP): list of tasks to produce units of work levels of work and tasks benefits or establishing work packages benefits of work breakdown structures: controlling costs and sequence of work Contractors and sub-contractors

Module 4 - Cost Estimating and Budgeting

Project cost management Cost estimating: rough estimates and “ballpark figures” increasing cost estimation accuracy variances in estimates basing estimates on previous projects practical example illustrating need for: research, investigation, information gathering Direct costs: materials and labour fixed and variable direct costs Indirect costs/overheads: examples Hidden costs: examples of how they can arise Project cost planning: cost plan as the guideline for the project cost baselines advance or early payments in the life-cycle practical example purchasing on credit Project financial planning: determining costs and budget development cost estimates: top-down cost estimating bottom-up cost estimating Creating a project budget: stages in budget creation: listing the expenses: obvious and hidden quantifying expenses expenses schedule Quality management planning: traditional and contemporary concepts of quality specifications and standards aims of quality management activities acceptable level of quality quality assurance planning: preventing errors or defects

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level of desired quality zero defects and lower levels of acceptance of defects quality control planning: focus on active testing positive and negative tests destructive testing advantages of planned testing Risk management planning: hazard, probability and risk high, medium and low risks definition of project risk components of risk management planning: methodology, roles and responsibilities, budget response, timing types of risks: technical, financial, external risk assessment: identifying potential risks analysing risks for likelihood and impact prioritising risks developing risk response strategy probabilities, risk rating and impact rating responses to risks: avoidance, acceptance, mitigation, transfer Acceptance planning: acceptance test activities Defining success criteria Types of acceptance testing: user acceptance, operational acceptance contract acceptance, compliance acceptance Key performance indicators (KPIs)

Module 5 - The Project Schedule

Transforming the vision into a time-based plan Predecessor and successor tasks Scheduling relationships/dependencies: finish to start, finish to finish, start to start, start to finish Planning dependencies: logical, resource-based, preference Developing the schedule: integrating information about the project Defining activities: using the work breakdown structure and work packages producing the activity list Sequencing activities: network diagrams Estimating activity durations Critical path method: preventing bottlenecks focus on key tasks determining critical activities advantages of the critical path method Critical path analysis: determining the sequence of activities with the longest duration practical example with diagrams Float determination: slippage negative, positive and zero floats critical path activity floats calculations of floats with diagram Early start & early finish

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the forward pass: calculation of early start and early finish with diagram Late start & late finish: the backward pass calculation of late start and late finish with diagram Assigning resources The master schedule and sub-schedules Project milestones: visual project timeline key milestones Timeline elements Gantt charts: major uses and value advantages of their use description with diagram automated Gantt charts PERT charts: graphical representation of a project schedule precedence diagrams explanations of terms used using PERT charts before and during the project Differences between Gantt and PERT charts

Module 6 - Procurement

Differences between sourcing and purchasing Reasons why project procurement is necessary Different methods or sources of procurement Effective procurement management Procurement planning: producing the procurement list Procurement definition and specification: requirements, design and product specifications test specifications Ranges of procurement items Sourcing suppliers: factors to ascertain and consider Discounts: trade and quantity Credit terms Researching potential new suppliers Quotations, estimates and tendering: differences and documentation Supplier appraisal: existing and potential new suppliers Supplier selection criteria: quality, delivery, after-sale service, price, terms problems caused by supplier “failings” Contracting: what a contract is types of contracts: fixed-price, cost reimbursement, time & materials, turnkey Purchase orders: importance of documentation information which they should contain terms and conditions of purchase/sale Expediting: what is involved Monitoring and measuring: key performance indicators

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Module 7 - Project Communication Management

What communication involves: importance on projects parties to communications clarity in wording accurate interpretation The communication loop Encoding messages Medium or channels of communication Reasons why people do not reply to messages Importance of feedback: what is involved dangers of the lack of response methods of encouraging feedback reacting to feedback Vertical communication: two-way flow upwards and downwards Horizontal communication: concerned with information only Project management communications planning: analysing communication requirements establishing suitable channels ensuring regular communication: who is to communicate with whom and when The communication matrix: layouts and contents Project reports: why and when they are produced: the brief principles to observe in report writing Project status reporting comparison of progress against plan objectives of status reports recipients of reports preparation by a roll-up process best practice for status reporting

Module 8 - Project Implementation

The responsibility matrix: accountability levels: responsible accountable consulted informed producing an RACI matrix chart Variances and changes: keeping the project on track Change management: the changes policy change control board common reasons for change requirements effects of changes types of changes, categorised by levels causes of problems on projects detailed changes due to problems encountered change request form: contents, design and completion schedule compression: crashing

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fast tracking changes resulting from requests elements of a change control process: documentation initial review detailed assessment impact analysis evaluation recommendation decision or disposition change management tools change management activities checklist monitoring and reviewing changes made helping a team through the change process

Module 9 - Project Monitoring and Control

The feedback loop: plan, monitor, review, control Influential and critical project success factors: substantial, large, medium, small and negligible influencing factors in chart format Critical success factors (CSFs): key parts of an activity which must be performed well need for knowledge, and understanding them The project control process: activities which might be involved comparing actual performance against planned performance considerations of changes made tracking and assessing new risks data gathering and analysis for status reports Metrics: quantifiable or measurable values of current performance common project control metrics: schedule variance cost variance resource utilisation setting metrics for a project reviewing and/or changing metrics: factors to consider Key performance indicators: relationship with and differences from metrics: quantifiable measurables of progressive performance tracking and managing progress towards project goals need for KPIs to be SMART: specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, time-scaled considerations in selecting KPIs standards of: cost, accuracy, completeness, speed Project cost management: resource planning cost estimating cost budgeting cost control Controlling project costs: positive and negative effects of cost performance relating costs to schedule Earned value management: schedule performance index cost performance index Forecasting: using current status to predict performance

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To-complete performance index Practical earned value management: baseline schedule and budget formulae for calculations of: cost performance index cost variance schedule variance cost performance index to-complete performance index variance at completion Contingency and management reserves

Module 10 - Project Closure

Final phase in the life-cycle Closure on completion of implementation phase Termination of projects before completion: common reasons for project terminations Importance of proficient handling of the closure phase Determining the degree of success of the project Project closure report: for whom it is prepared issues to be included Closure checklist or punch list: contents - what it should list actions taken based on the list Preventing expenditure after closure Acceptance management: acceptance of deliverable(s) by customer/client phased acceptance during implementation project acceptance forms: contents, signatures, date Post-project customer/client evaluation survey: tailoring/customising survey forms when and how evaluation surveys are used to whom the survey form should be sent contents of survey forms: project information customer/client information directions for use the questionnaire: types of questions, rating Team disbandment: disbandment process final group meeting with team members Post-project implementation review: information a review will seek meetings and questionnaires gaining feedback - positive and negative ensuring lessons are learned Final project cost records Dealing with surplus material and components Module 11 - Project Logistics

Historical backgrounds of projects and logistics: early construction projects military campaigns gatherings, meetings and events Relationship between projects and logistics: projects which use logistics logistics making use of projects

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Practical example Transportation: on projects and in logistics modes of transport: road, rail, water, air Traffic management on project sites: building and construction sites: protecting workers and visitors keeping pedestrians and vehicles apart limiting traffic on site training and control of drivers of vehicles and moving equipment accident prevention when manoeuvring and reversing event sites or venues: venue layout and positioning safe access for vehicles and pedestrians access, egress and flow restricting vehicle access to specified times keeping vehicles and pedestrians apart prevention of accidents during vehicle manoeuvring and reversing the traffic management plan

Development Projects Aims and objectives Need for project management skills Involving the stakeholders/beneficiaries

Rural Development Projects/Programs

Focus outside a country’s urban economic system Reducing hunger and poverty Security, management of natural resources Organizations undertaking development projects/programs Previous emphasis on agriculture and forestry: diversification into tourism, niche manufacturing, recreational pursuits Necessity for stakeholder/beneficiaries involvement Raising productivity and incomes Integration of rural and urban economies Sustainable rural development Projecting vulnerable households, disabled persons

Humanitarian Missions

Natural and man-made disasters Donors and international donors Humanitarian relief organizations Stakeholders in humanitarian projects and logistics Relief operations as projects or missions: planning at short notice mobilisation of resources Humanitarian logistics: essential role in relief aid problems causes by: unpredictability of emergencies high employee turnover destruction of infrastructure transportation and accommodation important considerations: operations planning, mobilisation, in-country operations,

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co-ordination with other HROs, reporting Subsidiary project management and logistics applications during and after emergencies

Module 12 - Project Concepts

Ideas and concepts for projects: converting ideas into reality and deliverables The project business case: getting a project “off the ground” justifying the project concept return on investment (ROI) report on research undertaken justifying the investment contents of the business case documentation: executive summary benefits which will accrue description of the proposed project estimations of costs risk assessments adverse scenarios of not commissioning the project recommendations The project feasibility study: determining whether the project can be successful describing the project and intended benefits market feasibility: whether deliverables are wanted technical feasibility: whether deliverables can be created financial/economic feasibility: whether funds are available types and quantities of resources needed organizational feasibility: whether the right people are available

Outsourcing or Contracting-out Projects

Shifting tasks, operations, jobs, processes, projects to third-parties On-site and off-site execution Temporary and permanent arrangements Operational functions commonly outsourced Typical reasons why functions and projects are outsourced: low staffing levels shortage of appropriately skilled or experienced staff cash flow constraints objectivity and clarity of focus of outsourcing partners typical advantages to organizations of outsourcing: significant cost savings the organization can focus on its core business improved quality and operational efficiency possible disadvantages of contracting-out considerations by management before outsourcing: clarity on what it is hoped to achieve factors which can contribute to beneficial outsourcing checks/audits on potential outsourcing partners: business and financial standing: bank references trade references security for shared information skill, expertise, knowledge of partner’s staff quality standards of partner risk identification and assessment

Establishing a Project Outsourcing Business

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Assessing prospects for business success and profitability Considering one’s skills and experience Undertaking research to determine: organizations already outsourcing to third-parties types of work or projects being outsourced businesses already taking on outsourced work Deciding types of work/projects to take on The business plan: matters to be covered: details of proposed venture estimated costs finances available profits forecast What business capital is and why it is necessary Possible benefits of working from home potential disadvantages Finding potential clients through: family and friends, emails, texts, phone calls using social media designing and building a website, blogs Importance of referrals from satisfied clients Project outsourcing fee structures: flat rate percentage of expenses hourly rate Contracting with clients Billing and ensuring prompt payments Developing goodwill Accounting records Project business insurance cover and policies

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Diploma in Logistics, Materials & Supply Chain Management (including Transport)

This Program teaches and explains about the wide range of activities involved in modern logistics, materials handling and supply chain management, including: physical distribution, materials management, transportation, customer service, procurement & purchasing, order processing, warehousing, inventory control, order picking and marshalling, packing and despatch, logistics project management, and reverse logistics. It is ideal for any managers or personnel who are involved in logistics activities or in ensuring that products and services are made available to customers at the time and place, and in the condition and form desired, in a profitable and cost-effective way.

Major Topics Covered in this Diploma Program include:

Modern logistics and supply chains; supply partners, networks. Value and value chains. Understanding supply and demand. Corporate, business and supply chain strategy.

Cost and risk factors affecting supply chains. Economies of scale. Marketing and logistics. Order cycle time and stages. Customer service. Classification of stock/inventory items.

Product life cycles; logistics strategies for each stage. Product characteristics: dimensions, weight, volume, value. Product packaging. Product pricing. Industrial and consumer products.

Resourcing and procurement. Supplier appraisal. Economic order quantity. Receiving incoming consignments, documentation, quality inspections. Control of stock/inventory.

Order processing, fulfilment. Order picking, packing, despatching. Transport selection. Vehicle fleet operation. Freight forwarders. Unit loads, containerisation, bulk freight.

Operations management. Product design, development, ranges. Methods of production. Inspections and quality control. Lean principles. Reducing waste. Just-in-time, kanban.

Facility, factory, plant and warehouse location, layout, design, equipment. Distribution centres. Reverse logistics, defective products, product liability laws. Product recall.

eCommerce. Insurance. Project management and team-work. Quality/cost relationships. Emergency planning and disaster/emergency management. Incidents and rapid action.

Diploma in Leadership & Team ManagementThis unique Program iteaches the important roles played by teams in organizations of all sizes, and the contributions they make to successful operations, together with the duties and responsibilities of the people who lead and manage teams to achieve the desired results. It provides essential training in the theoretical and practical development of cohesive and productive teams, communication, coaching and training, guiding and controlling both traditional and virtual teams.

Major Topics Covered in this Diploma Program include:

Why people work, types of work, types of employers. Work and rewards: rates of pay: time rates, piece rates, commission, employment benefits and packages.

The team leader or manager as part of the team; goals and objectives. Duties of leaders and managers. Motivation of individuals and groups; goals and expectations, extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Job satisfaction: factors contributing to a good work climate.

Responsibility and rewards. Delegation, authority and answerability. Delegating in the right way. Allocating and arranging workloads. Benefits of proficient team leadership.

Factors affecting the behaviour of workgroups, group and team norms, cohesiveness. Rules of conduct. Stages in team formation and life-cycles. Team values. Core values.

Task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders; characteristics and behavioural patterns of each. Task needs and relationship needs. Causes of conflict and conflict resolution.

Common leadership styles: need for adaptability and flexibility. Situational leadership. Types of teams: functional, matrix, contract, operational, cross-functional.

Roles in teams: technical, functional, support. Allocating roles. Specialisation of roles and functions. Modern motivational theories. Communication and motivation.

Benefits of effective communication. Interpreting messages. The need for feedback. Vertical and horizontal communication. Body language. Induction, training, coaching.

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