project report on buildings

8/8/2019 Project Report on Buildings

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INDEX

1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT2. INTRODUCTIONS

3.

REPORTS ON BUILD

ING MATER

IALS

i. Cementii. Bricksiii. Crushed stonesiv.

Sandv. TMT saria


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all I am thankful to GOD almighty for the

Strength and blessings.I am thankful to my teachers

for the support and cooperation during the assignment.

I am also thankful to my family and friends for

their unconditional support and believe on me.


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y Type MH: Moderate Heat of Hydrationy Type LH: Low Heat of Hydration

Portland cement is a particular type of hydraulic cement. Portland cement contains hydraulic

calcium silicates. There are eight specific types of Portland cement that fall into categories

ranging from Type I to Type V. Type I and Type IA are general purpose cements. Type II and

Type IIA contain tricalcium aluminate, but no more than 8%. To compare to the hydraulic cement

types, some of the Type II cements meeting the standard for the moderate heat of hydration

type.

Type III and Type IIIA are similar to Type I cements. However, they have higher early strengths

because they are ground finer. Type IV cements are used in special types of structures that

require a small amount of heat to be generated from hydration. Type IV cements develop their

strength over a longer period of time when compared to other types. Finally, Type V cement has

a high sulfate resistance which means it contains no more than 5% tricalcium aluminate.The third type of cement is blended cement. Blended cement is also hydraulic cement and is

made by mixing two or more materials. Usually the primary materials used in blended cement

are Portland cement and slag cement. Fly ash, slica fume, calcined clay, pozzolan, and hydrated

lime are also used. There are two main types of blended cement:

y Type IS (X): Portland blast furnace slag cementy Type IP (X): Portrland-pozzolan cement

The X represents the amount of the second material that is in the mixture.

The reason that there are different types of cements is not only required because of the different

uses of the cement, but also because of the type of materials available differ by location. Many of

the types described above actually cross-over between the different categories. This allows for

flexibility in particular construction projects. For example, different pozzolans and slag are

available in different regions. As long as the desired properties of the concrete can be achieved

usually, there is flexibility in the final choice of cement that is used.

Setting of Cement

When mixed with water, cement sets to a hard mass. It first forms a plastic mass which hardensafter some time due to 3-dimensional cross-links between the --Si-O-Si-- and --Si-O-Al-- chains.The first setting occurs within 24 hours whereas the subsequent hardening requires a fortnight,when it is covered by a layer of water. This transition from plastic to solid state is called setting .


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Cement Hardening And Setting

It is important to know how long a cementtakes to harden and set. This is generally roughlyascertained by the impression of the finger nail upon the cakes ofcement, as described on page172, but as a rule no means are used for ascertaining this in a more accurate manner.

Time For Setting

It is extremely difficult to define the time required for the setting of different classes of cements,samples from the same lot may take five minutes or five hours to set, according to itsage, temperature , the quantity of water used, etc. As a rough guide, however, the followingtimes for setting may be taken under normal circumstances: -

Quick SettingCements ................................ 15 minutesSlow ........................ 2 hours

Very Slow ........................ 5 hours

.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Environmental impact of cement production

Concrete is the most common construction material used in the world.Cement is the principal ingredient in concrete. Producing one tonne ofcement results in the emission of approximately one tonne ofCO2,created by fuel combustion and the calcination of raw materials.

Cement manufacturing is a source of greenhouse gas emissions,accounting for approximately 7% to 8% ofCO2 globally (1), andapproximately 1.8% ofCO2 emissions in Canada (2). The cementindustry has made significant progress in reducing CO2emissionsthrough improvements in process and efficiency, but furtherimprovements are limited because CO2 production is inherent to thebasic process of calcinating limestone.

Cement and CO2 in the Vancouver region

T

h

e

i

m


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The cement manufacturing industry in the Greater VancouverRegional District (GVRD) in British Columbia Canada, currentlyproduces approximately 50% of industrial CO2 emissions, or 13% ofthe total CO2 emissions in the GVRD. The EcoSmartConcreteProject was initiated to address the issue of greenhouse gas

emissions in the Lower Mainland.

EcoSmart concrete reduces CO2 & benefits the

environment

There is an increasing demand for concrete worldwide, estimated todouble within the next 30 years. How can that demand be met withouta corresponding increase in greenhouse gases? ByusingSupplementary Cementing Materials (SCMs) to replace amaximum amount of the cement in concrete, we can reduce energyand resource consumption, reduce CO2 emissions, and lessen thenegative environmental impact. There is a further environmental

benefit in that most commonly used SCMs (such as fly ash) are wasteproducts and would otherwise end up in landfills.


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Indian Cement Industry

Total production

The cement industry comprises of 125 large cement plants with an installed capacity of 148.28

million tonnes and more than 300 mini cement plants with an estimated capacity of 11.10 million

tonnes per annum.

The CementCorporation of India, which is a Central Public Sector Undertaking, has 10 units.

There are 10 large cement plants owned by various State Governments. The total installed

capacity in the country as a whole is 159.38 million tonnes. Actual cement production in 2002-03

was 116.35 million tonnes as against a production of 106.90 million tonnes in 2001-02,

registering a growth rate of 8.84%.Major players in cement production are Ambuja cement,

Aditya Cement, J K Cement and L & T cement.

Apart from meeting the entire domestic demand, the industry is also exporting cement and

clinker. The export of cement during 2001-02 and 2003-04 was 5.14 million tonnes and 6.92million tonnes respectively. Export during April-May, 2003 was 1.35 million tonnes.

Major exporters were Gujarat Ambuja Cements Ltd. and L&T Ltd.

CURRENTMARKET RATES

Cement prices in the country, at least in the short run, are determined by local factors and

differs across regions due to transportation costs and spread of cement factories across India.

Currently, wholesale cement prices are hovering between Rs 230-240 per 50-kg bag in the

northern region. The commodity is priced at Rs 240-245 per bag in the southern region and

between Rs 220-240 per bag in the western and eastern markets, respectively. Cement demandin India has revived after a sluggish quarter ended December09, backed by accelerating

construction activity. The industry sold 18.19 million tonne cement in January, a growth of

12.77% over the year ago period. Indias current cement manufacturing capacity is around 240

million tonne annually and is likely to go up to 276 million tonne by the end of next month.


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BRICKS

Bricks are one of the oldest types of building blocks. They are an ideal building material becausethey are relatively cheap to make, very durable, and require little maintenance. Bricks areusually made of kiln-baked mixtures of clay. In ancient times, bricks were made of mud and driedin the sun; modern bricks are made from concrete, sand and lime, and glass. The physical andchemical characteristics of the raw materials used to make bricks, along withthe temperature at which they are baked, determine the color and hardness of the finishedproduct. Bricks are made in standard sizes, are usually twice as long as they are wide and, since

most bricklaying is done manually, are made small enough to fit in the hand. Bricklayers use atrowel to cover each brick with mortara mixture of cement, sand, and water. The mortarhardens when dry and keeps the bricks in place. Bricks are arranged in various patterns, calledbonds, for strength.

HISTORY OF BRICKS

Archaeologists have found bricks in the Middle East dating 10,000 years ago. Scientists suggestthat these bricks were made from mud left after the rivers in that area flooded. The bricks weremolded by hand and left in the sun to dry. Structures were built by layering the bricks using mudand tar as mortar. The ancient city of Ur (modern Iraq) was built with mud bricks around4,000 B.C. The Bible (Exodus 1:14; 5:4-19) provides the earliest written documentation of brickproductionthe Israelites made bricks for their Egyptian rulers. These bricks were made of claydug from the earth, mixed with straw, and baked in crude ovens or burned in a fire. Many ancientstructures made of bricks, such as the Great Wall ofChina and remnants of Roman buildings,are still standing today. The Romans further developed kiln-baked bricks and spread the art ofbrickmaking throughout Europe.

The oldest type of brick in the Western Hemisphere is the adobe brick. Adobe bricks are madefrom adobe soil, comprised of clay, quartz, and other minerals, and baked in the sun. Adobe soilcan be found in dry regions throughout the world, but most notably in Central America,Mexico,

and the southwestern United States. The Pyramid of the Sun was built of adobe bricks by theAztecs in the fifteenth century and is still standing. In North America, bricks were used as earlyas the seventeenth century. Bricks were used extensively for building new factories and homesduring the Industrial Revolution. Until the nineteenth century, raw materials for bricks weremined and mixed, and bricks were formed, by manual labor. The first brickmaking machineswere steam powered, and the bricks were fired with wood or coal as fuel. Modern brickmakingequipment is powered bygas and electricity. Some manufacturers still produce bricks by hand,but the majority are machine made.


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PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING OF BRICKS

The manufacture of bricks entails several steps and starts with obtaining the raw materials.Clays are mined from open pits or underground mines. Storage areas are located atthe mining site so that portions from various "digs" can be blended. The clay mixture goesthrough a process called primary crushing, where the clay is put through giant rollers that breakthe clay into small chunks. This mixture is transported to the manufacturing site, where the claymixture is pulverized and screened to remove impurities. Further blending of materials may takeplace at this time.

There are three methods of forming bricks. The most common is the stiff-mud process where theclay blend is put into a machine called a pug mill that mixes the clay with water (12-15% by

weight), kneads the mixture, removes trapped air, and transfers the mixture to an augermachine. The auger forces or extrudes the wet clay through a die that forms a continuousrectangle-shaped column. The column is cut with steel wires into desired lengths. The newly

formed bricks are place on drying racks for a few days and then fired in a kiln. The soft-mudprocess is used when the mined clay is naturally too wet (20-30% by weight) to undergo the stiff-mud process. The clay is mixed, extruded, and placed in lubricated molds. Each mold makes sixto eight bricks. The drying process takes more time than with stiff mud, but the firing procedureis the same. The third method is the dry-press process, which is most commonly used whenmaking refractory bricks. The clay has minimal water content (up to 10% by weight) and isexposed to high pressure (in a hydraulic or mechanical press) while in the molds. The bricks aredried and fired. While still damp and moldable, textures, designs, or functional grooves can bepressed into the brick. Special glazes can be applied for decorative and for functional purposes.

Firing or burning the bricks takes two to five days. The most common type of kiln used to firebricks is the tunnel kiln, where the bricks, stacked on cars, move slowly though a long chamberor tunnel. Many changes in the physical properties occur during the firing process. During firing,any residual water evaporates, some minerals melt, blend, and fuse, andorganic matter oxidizes. The hardness of the brick increases and the color develops. The wholeprocess of making bricks takes 10-12 days.

With handmade bricks, the clay is kneaded and put into molds. Excess clay is skimmed off thetop of the mold, and the brick is then dumped out, dried, and fired. Handmade bricks are usuallymore expensive than machine-made bricks. They are often used in special projects, such ashistorical restoration.

TYPES OF BRICKS

Some bricks are made for specific purposes and are made of certain raw materials, formed in aparticular shape, or with added special textures or glazes.


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Common brick is the everyday building brick. They are not made of special materials, and do nothave special marks, color, or texture. Common brick is typically red and sometimes used as a"backup" brick, depending on the quality.

Face brick is often applied on top of common backup brick. Face brick can be obtained in avariety of colors, has a uniform surface appearance and color, is more durable, and is graded

according to its ability to withstand freezing temperatures and moisture.

Refractory bricks are made from fireclaysclays with a high alumina or silica content or nonclayminerals such as bauxite, zircon, silicon carbide, or dolomite. Fireclays are heat resistant andare used in various types of furnaces, kilns, and fireplaces.

Calcium silicate bricks are often made in areas where clay is not readily available. Glazed bricksare made primarily for walls in buildings such as dairies, hospitals, and laboratories, where easycleaning is necessary.

CRUSHED STONES

Crushed stone

Crushed stone or angular rockis a form of construction aggregate, typically produced bymining a suitable rock deposit and breaking the removed rock down to the desired sizeusing crushers. It is distinct from gravel which is produced by natural processes of weatheringand erosion, and typically has a more rounded shape. Angular crushed stone is the key material

for macadam road construction which depends on the interlocking of the individual stones'angular faces for its strength.[1]Crushed natural stone is also used similarly without a binder

for riprap, railroad track ballast, and filter stone. It may also be used with a binder in

a composite material such asconcrete, tarmac, or asphalt concrete. Crushed rock consists ofpieces of large rock that are broken down into smaller pieces by machinery, then sorted by sizevariation and stored until purchased. There are several types of crushed rock that can be usedin many different applications. The prices vary depending on the type of crushed rock. Crushedrock consists of pieces of large rock that are broken down into smaller pieces by machinery,then sorted by size variation and stored until purchased. There are several types of crushedrock that can be used in many different applications. The prices vary depending on the type ofcrushed rock.


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Background

Crushed stone is one of the most accessible natural resources, and is a major basic raw

materialused by construction, agriculture, and other industries. Despite the low value of its

basic products, the crushed stone industry is a major contributor to and an indicator of

the economic well-being of a nation.[3] The demand for crushed stone is determined mostly by

the level of construction activity, and, therefore, the demand for construction materials.[4]

Stone resources of the world are very large. High-purity limestone and dolomite suitable for

specialty uses are limited in many geographic areas. Crushed stone substitutes

for roadbuildinginclude sand and gravel, and slag. Substitutes for crushed stone used as

construction aggregates include sand and gravel, iron and steel slag, sintered or

expanded clay or shale, and perlite orvermiculite.

Types of Stones

Crushed stone is a high-volume, low-value commodity. The industry is highly competitive and is

characterized by many operations serving local or regional markets. Production costs are

determined mainly by the cost of labor, equipment, energy, and water, in addition to the costs of

compliance with environmental and safety regulations. These costs vary depending on

geographic location, the nature of the deposit, and the number and type of products produced.

Despite having one of the lowest average by weight values of all mineral commodities, in the

United States the constant dollar price of crushed stone has changed relatively little during a

recent 20 year period. As a result of rising costs of labor, energy, and mining and processing

equipment, the average unit price of crushed stone increased from US$1.58 per metric ton,

f.o.b. plant, in 1970 to US$4.39 in 1990. However, the unit price in constant 1982 dollars


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fluctuated between US$3.48 and US$3.91 per metric ton for the same period.

Increased productivity achieved through increased use ofautomation and more efficient

equipment was mainly responsible for maintaining the prices at this level.[4]

Transportation is a major factor in the delivered price of crushed stone. The cost of moving

crushed stone from the plant to the market often equals or exceeds the sale price of the product

at the plant. Because of the high cost of transportation and the large quantities of bulk material

that have to be shipped, crushed stone is usually marketed locally. The high cost of

transportation is responsible for the wide dispersion of quarries, usually located near highly

populated areas. However, increasing land values combined with local environmental concerns

are moving crushed stone quarries farther from the end-use locations, increasing the price of

delivered material. Economies of scale, which might be realized if fewer, larger operations

served larger marketing areas, would probably not offset the increased transportation costs.

Applications and Uses

Each type of crushed rock usually has an application that is best suited to its characteristics.

Finely-crushed stone is frequently found on walking trails to provide a substantial surface for

running, wheelchairs, bikes and strollers. Smaller crushed stone is used in driveways, asphalt

mixtures, septic systems and patios. The medium sizes are often used in drainage ditches,

landscaping and on job sites. Larger sizes are used commercially on quarry sites and other

large operations. Commercial distributors offer aggregate crushed rock pieces for use in road

construction and re-surfacing, and in mixing concrete. All sizes are used in home construction

and building, including sand and other slivers and sifted pieces of the crushed rock. Curbs and

sidewalks are created by commercial pavers using crushed rock in the base of the application.


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SAND

Close-up of sand from a beach inVancouver, showing a surface area of (approximately) between 1-2 square

centimetres.

Heavy minerals (dark) in a quartz beach sand (Chennai, India).

Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely

divided rock and mineralparticles. The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the

local rock sources and conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in inland

continental settings and non-tropical coastal settings is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in

the form of quartz.

As the term is used by geologists, sand particles range in diameter from 0.0625mm

(or 116 mm, or 62.5 micrometers) to 2 millimeters. An individual particle in this range size is

termed a sand grain. The next larger size class above sand is gravel, with particles ranging from

2 mm up to 64 mm (see particle size for standards in use). The next smaller size class


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in geology is silt: particles smaller than 0.0625 mm down to 0.004 mm in diameter. The size

specification between sand and gravel has remained constant for more than a century, but

particle diameters as small as 0.02 mm were considered sand under the Albert

Atterberg standard in use during the early 20th century. A 1953 engineering standard published

by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials set the minimum

sand size at 0.074 mm. A 1938 specification of theUnited States Department of Agriculture was

0.05 mm.[1] Sand feels gritty when rubbed between the fingers (silt, by comparison, feels

like flour).

ISO 14688 grades sands as fine, medium and coarse with ranges 0.063 mm to 0.2 mm to

0.63 mm to 2.0 mm. In the United States, sand is commonly divided into five sub-categories

based on size: very fine sand (116 - mm diameter), fine sand ( mm - mm), medium sand

( mm - mm), coarse sand ( mm - 1 mm), and very coarse sand (1 mm - 2 mm). These sizes

are based on the Krumbein phi scale, where size in = -log base 2 of size in mm. On this scale,

for sand the value of varies from -1 to +4, with the divisions between sub-categories at whole

numbers.

Constituents

Sand from Pismo Beach, California. Components are primarily quartz, chert,igneous rock and shell fragments. Scale

bar is 1.0 mm.

Close up of black volcanic sand from Perissa, in Santorini, Greece


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The most common constituent of sand, in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal

settings, is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form ofquartz, which, because of its

chemical inertness and considerable hardness, is the most common mineral resistant

toweathering.


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Correlative analysis of Icelandic volcanic beach sand from Reynisfjara beach, using aStereo Microscope and

an Scanning Electron Microscope with EDS detection system for element analysis.

The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock sources and conditions.

The bright white sands found in tropical and subtropical coastal settings are

eroded limestone and may contain coral and shell fragments in addition to other organic or

organically derived fragmental material.[2] The gypsum sand dunes of the White Sands National

Monument in New Mexico are famous for their bright, white color. Arkose is a sand

or sandstone with considerable feldsparcontent, derived from the weathering and erosion of a

(usually nearby) granitic rock outcrop. Some sands

contain magnetite, chlorite, glauconite or gypsum. Sands rich in magnetite are dark to black in

color, as are sands derived from volcanic basalts and obsidian. Chlorite-glauconite bearing

sands are typically green in color, as are sands derived from basaltic (lava) with a

high olivinecontent. Many sands, especially those found extensively in Southern Europe,

have iron impurities within the quartz crystals of the sand, giving a deep yellow color. Sand

deposits in some areas containgarnets and other resistant minerals, including some

small gemstones.

Environments

Sand from Coral Pink Sand Dunes State Park, Utah. These are grains of quartz with a hematite coating providing the

orange color. Scale bar is 1.0 mm.

Sand is transported by wind and water and deposited in the form ofbeaches, dunes, sand

spits, sand bars and related features. In environments such as gravel-bedrivers and glacial

moraines it often occurs as one of the many grain sizes that are represented. Sand-bed rivers,

such as the Platte River in Nebraska, USA, have sandy beds largely because there is no larger

source material that they can transport. Dunes, on the other hand, are sandy because larger


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material is generally immobile in wind, and are a distinctive geographical feature of desert

environments.

Study

An electron micrograph showing grains of sand

Photomicrograph of a volcanicsand grain; upper picture is plane-polarized light, bottom picture is cross-polarized

light, scale box at left-center is 0.25 millimeter.

The study of individual grains can reveal much historical information as to the origin and kind of

transport of the grain. Quartz sand that is recently weathered from granite or gneiss quartz

crystals will be angular. It is called grus in geology or sharp sand in the building trade where it is


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preferred for concrete, and in gardening where it is used as a soil amendment to loosen clay

soils. Sand that is transported long distances by water or wind will be rounded, with

characteristic abrasion patterns on the grain surface. Desert sand is typically rounded.

People who collect sand as a hobby are known as arenophiles. Organisms that thrive in sandy

environments are psammophiles.

Uses

At 300 km/h, an ICE 3 (DB class 403) releases sand from several bogies to the rails .

Sand sorting tower at a gravelextractionpit.

Agriculture: Sandy soils are ideal for crops such as watermelons, peaches, and peanuts, andtheir excellent drainage characteristics make them suitable for intensive dairy farming.

Aquaria: Sand makes a low cost aquarium base material which some [who?] believe is betterthan gravel for home use.[why?]


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Artificial reefs: Geotextile bagged sand can serve as the foundation for new reefs. Beach nourishment: Governments move sand to beaches where tides, storms or deliberate

changes to the shoreline erode the original sand. [3]

Brick: Manufacturing plants add sand to a mixture of clay and other materials formanufacturing bricks.

Car Engine Disablement Sand is also used in addition to Sodium Silicate to inexpensively,quickly, and permanently disable automobile engines.

Cob:Coarse sand makes up as much as 75% of cob. Concrete: Sand is often a principal component of this critical construction material. Glass: Sand is the principal component in common glass. Landscaping: Sand makes small hills and slopes (for example, in golf courses). Paint: Mixing sand with paint produces a textured finish for walls and ceilings or non-slip

floor surfaces.

Railroads: Train operators use sand to improve the traction of wheels on the rails. Roads: Sand improves traction (and thus traffic safety) in icy or snowy conditions. Sand animation: Performance artists draw images in sand. Makers of animated films use the

same term to describe their use of sand on frontlit or backlit glass.

Sand casting: Casters moisten or oil molding sand, also known as foundry sand and thenshape it into molds into which they pour molten material. This type of sand must be able to

withstand high temperatures and pressure, allow gases to escape, have a uniform, small

grain size and be non-reactive with metals.

Sand castles: Shaping sand into castles or other miniature buildings is a popular beachactivity.

Sandbags: These protect against floods and gun fire. The inexpensive bags are easy totransport when empty, and unskilled volunteers can quickly fill them with local sand in

emergencies.

Sandblasting: Graded sand serves as an abrasive in cleaning, preparing, and polishing. Water filtration: Media filters use sand for filtering water. Zoanthid "skeletons": Animals in this order of marine benthic cnidarians related

to corals andsea anemones, incorporate sand into their mesoglea for structural strength,

which they need because they lack a true skeleton.


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Environmental Issues

Sand's many uses require a significant dredging industry, raising environmental concerns over fish

depletion, landslides, and flooding.Countries such as China, Indonesia, Malaysia and Cambodia ban

sand exports, citing these issues as a major factor.

Sand Mining on ABeach

Sand can be removed from a beach in two main ways. The first is natural, for example by groundseas, storms, or currents. The second is from human activities, the most destructive of which islarge-scale sand mining.

Sand mining is the physical removal of sand from anywhere that it exists. It can take place on asmall-scale taking a bucket or two or large-scale truckloads that take it away for suchthings as construction. Almost all of Anguillas beaches are protected from any form of sandmining. All except for one, that is a beach on the north-east side of the island betweenSavannah Bay and the tip of Windward Point. The unregulated removal of the sand has had anenormous impact on the area. Sand dunes that once loomed over the beach and protected theinland shoreline and vegetation have been reduced to a three-foot mound that is being erodedby constant wave action and a continued sand mining effort. Activities have been expanded intothe more inland area. Large trucks and heavy equipment have been chipping away at the sand-based land and this has created an unprotected and unstable cliff.

It is a precarious situation. Once this now small sand dune is gone, water will flood the openarea, and waves will hit this newly created cliff. The erosion process and cycle will continue andthe land will be washed away the rate of which depends on the waves, the storms, and the levelof continued sand mining pressure. The latter of which is largely unknown. There are no formalrecords indicating approximately how much sand is being removed on a daily, weekly, monthly,or even yearly basis.

The area will also become more susceptible to storm and hurricane damage. The loose and un-vegetated soil and sand that is becoming exposed can be easily washed away. The coastline forwhich Anguilla is so famous for is at risk.

And the effects of sand mining are felt at more than just this one beach. The coastal system is aninter-connected one and the effects can potentially be widespread. For example, through aprocess called sand displacement, currents can move sand from one beach to another. The lossof sand from one beach by such a process, however, does not mean that it will necessarily bereduced or negatively impacted as it may also, in turn, be receiving sand from another beach.

But this natural give-and-take process has to be allowed.

Sile Bay used to have large sand dunes. After significant sand mining and Hurricane Luis, thebeach is gone and a breakwater (a concrete wall) is being used to stop further coastal landerosion. While the breakwater may help with the erosion, it also stops beach rehabilitationbecause the waves are not able to deposit any sand. Any substrate that these waves may becarrying hits the wall with such force that it cannot settle; it returns with the waves to the sea.


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There is a very strong chance that the same could happen to the Windward Point beach. Theeastern tip of Anguilla is very thin. The distance between the coasts is minimal. Every truckloadof sand that is removed for construction or other purposes is one less truckload of sandycoastline and one more reason for us to be concerned.

While Anguillians should visit the area to see the impacts of these activities for themselves,

these pictures provide a glimpse into what has happened.

So we see the activities and have a better understanding of the impacts. The question is now,what are we going to do about it?

Effects from sand mining on Windward Point Beach (2006).

Effects from sand mining on Windward Point Beach (2006).


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Sile Bay prior to Hurricane Luis (1995).

Remedial action through the construction of a breakwater was necessary to address the effects from both sand mining and

Hurricane Luis along Sile Bay.

TMT Bars in India


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TMT TMPCORE BARS

Strength of the bars are carefully controlled by optimizing the waterpressure for their pearlitic core and tough surface of tempered martensite,thereby providing an optimum strength, ductility and toughness. TMT barsare widely used in general purpose concrete reinforcement structures,bridges and flyovers, dams, thermal and hydel power plants, industrialstructures, high-rise buildings, underground platforms in metro railway andrapid transport system. TMT Bars are thermo-mechanically-treated throughleading world temp core based technology for high yield strength. Theprocess involves rapid quenching of the hot bars through a series of waterets after they roll out of the last mill stand. The bars are cooled, allowing

the core and surface temperatures to equalize. The bar core cools downslowly to turn into a ferrlite-pearlite aggregate. Kamdhenu Ispat Ltd.,Bhiwadi unit has been authorized by CRM, Belgium to manufactureTempcore TMT under licence agreement.

Features of TMT Bars

Enhanced strength combined with high ductilityExcellent weldability without loss of strength at welded jointsBetter ductility and malleabilityEarthquake resistantHigh thermal resistanceSignificant savings in cost of steel

PROPERTIES RELATED TO TMT SARIA

PROPERTIES/COMPOSITIONINDIA (IS

1786)

KAMDHENU

TMT

AMERICAN (ASTM

A 615)

EURO (DI

488)

MECHANICAL PROPERTIESGrade Fe -

415

Grade Fe -

415 - KGrade 40 (300) BSt 420

Proof Stress (Min.) 415 N/mm2 450 N/mm2 300 Mpa 420 M


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Tensile Strength (Min.) 485 N/mm2 530 N/mm2 500 Mpa 500 M

Elongation (Min.) 14.50% 20% 12% 10%

Bend Test (Min.) Upto 22 mm-3D

Upto 22 mm-

2D

10 to 16 mm-3.5D

upto 20 mm-5-D

6 To 12 M

14 To 16

6d

20 To 28

6d

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

(%)

Carbon 0.30 Max. 0.30 Max. 0.24-0.33 % 0.22 M

Sulphur 0.06 Max. 0.06 Max. 0.05 Max. 0.05 M

Phosphorus 0.06 Max. 0.06 Max. 0.06 Max. 0.05 M

S+P 0.11 Max. 0.11 Max. 0.110 Max. 0.100 M

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Grade Fe -500 Grade Fe -500-K Grade 60 (420) Bst 50



Elonngation(Min.) 12% 16% 9% 10%

Bend Test (Min.)

Upto 22 mm-4DUpto 22 mm-

3D

10 to 16 mm-3.5D

20 mm to 25mm-5D28 mm to 32mm-7D

6 To 12 M

14 To 166d

20 To 28

6d



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(%)

Carbon 0.30 Max. 0.17-0.24% 0.30-0.40% .22 Ma



S+P 0.105 Max. 0.095 Max. 0.100 Max. 0.100 M

Mn. 0.5 Min. 0.60 Min.

Si. 0.4 Max. 1.30-1.60

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Grade Fe- 550Grade Fe-

550-kGrade 75 (520) Bst 500



Elonngation (Min.) 8% 14% 7% 8%

Bend Test Upto 22 mm-5D Upto 22 mm-

4D

6 to 25 mm-5D

above 20 mm-7D

6 D


(%)

Carbon0.

30

Max.

0.1

7-0.

240.

30

-0.

40

0.0

22 M




26/26

S+P 0.100 Max. 0.090 Max. 0.100Max. 0.100 M

Mn. 0.5 Min. 1.30-1.60

Si. 0.4 Max. 1.30-1.60

Kamdhenu TMT

TMT (Thermo Mechanicallly Treated Bars) are the most popular reinforcement bars in the world. KamIspat Group is the largest reinforcement bars manufacturing group in India. The group is manufuinternational quality TMT Fe - 415, 500, 550 bars with best features for construction industry. HighLatest Technology TMT Grade Fe - 415, 500, 550 has the best strength with better mildness, better coresistance, better bond strength with cement Resistance to fire hazard excellent ductility, higher strength, easy work ability at site, better results than BIS standards, savings of 14-19% steel, reducconstruction costs.

Product Specification

Trade Mark KAMDHENU TMT

Grades Kamdhenu TMT Grade Fe- 415, Fe - 500, Fe - 550*

Diameter 8,10,12,16,20,25 MM (28 and 32 min. On bulk demand)

Standard Length 5.5 mtrs. To 13 mtrs.

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