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RURAL COMMUNITIES AND COMMUNICATION NEEDS (UGANDA)

PROJECT TECHNICAL REPORT

DRAFT

Authors: Nigel Scott (Gamos) Ali Ndiwalana (DICTS) Andy Sumner (IDS) Simon Batchelor (Gamos)

Grameen AppLab Date: April 2008

Crown House

231 Kings Road

Reading

RG1 4LS

UK

phone: 44 (0)118 926 7039

email: [email protected]

Project Technical Report - Draft Gamos

April 2008

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Executive Summary

Poverty is characterised by a lack of assets that people have at their disposal, shocks that

people are subject to, and governance processes that constrain (or support) the strategies that

people can adopt. This is illustrated in Figure 1 as the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach.

For Uganda, this expresses itself for the rural population in, say, the linkages through to water

and sanitation:-

67% of households use improved water sources (physical asset), 67.3% of rural households take

more than 30 minutes to draw water (reducing their human capital available for other

strategies), although most people (58.1%) do not treat drinking water, boiling is the most

common means of water treatment – most households use wood as fuel (requiring access to a

natural asset). Low grade fuels (e.g. wood, dung, charcoal) create a smoke hazard , which

causes respiratory and eye diseases (a household shock reducing the human asset). Responding

to disease adds a burden to the household and the level of burden depends on the health

infrastructure, which is often minimal, corrupt and unreliable (expressed in the SLA as

institutional factors). Gathering wood fuel adds a further household time burden (especially to

women). Deforestation is a growing environmental (and livelihoods) threat (reduction of

natural assets). Possibilities of improved water supplies are hampered by policies and

institutional processes. All this combines to limit the Sustainable Livelihood options of the

household.

The Household Survey

The survey sampled from various regions of the country in order to capture people with a range

of livelihoods (north, west, east, and central). The survey sampled people who use phones,


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and it did not reach into the most remote parts of the country so it is expected to be somewhat

higher status than the national average.

Having said that, 20% of the sample have not completed primary education, and 49% of the

sample claim that their earned income is in the lowest bracket used (less than 50,000

UGS/month). Education is a good indicator of poverty, and the sample has been divided into

three poverty categories according to their level of education and stated income.

Current Use of ICT

Just under half of respondents owned a mobile phone - 39% have their own mobile phone, and

an additional 5.9% own a SIM card only. Despite increasing levels of ownership, use of public

phones remains important. Not only do more people use public phones, but people who own a

phone also make use of public phones, and they spend more on public phones. Among this

sample, use of public phones is almost exclusively restricted to manned phones (including

Grameen VPO).

Around half of respondents claim to use SMS, although use is higher among the better off (only

10% of the poorest use SMS, compared with 82% of the highest group). TV audiences are also

increasing and, as coverage increases, this is likely to emerge as a viable alternative to radio,

which is currently the only medium with universal coverage.

Information Needs

The assessment of needs was addressed by asking people to attribute importance to a range of

issues relating to various aspects of poverty. It is clear that the top priorities reflect concerns

with both vulnerability (e.g. emergencies and HIV/AIDS) and social wellbeing (keeping in touch

with family and friends, and with what’s going on e.g. the news). Health issues seem to make

up many issues at the next level of priority, and these are followed by agriculture related

issues. The modest importance attributed to agricultural issues reflects the fact that only 38%

claim to be involved in agriculture. However, agricultural issues are attributed higher

importance among the poorest group. It is proposed that the low degree of importance

attached to governance issues probably reflects their a low perception of influence on political

issues.

As a general rule, men are more concerned with marketing and financial issues, and women

with family matters such as health issues and keeping in touch with family members.


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Table 1 Importance of livelihoods issues (ranked)

Mean score

(N=290)

Understanding HIV/AIDS 2.73

Contacting people in an emergency 2.71

Keeping in touch with family & friends 2.64

News 2.58

Understanding family planning 2.40

Finding a medical expert 2.38

Finding drugs and what they cost 2.35

Learning about first aid, disease prevention & treatment 2.32

Transport 2.24

Entertainment 2.23

Crime & insecurity 2.18

Getting agricultural advice 2.18

Getting market information 2.17

Introducing modern agricultural ideas 2.16

Job opportunities 2.13

Remittances to/from family 2.12

Weather 2.10

Fake drugs 2.08

Expanding markets 2.06

Finding the right school 2.04

Learning more about my local government 1.98

Sport 1.92

Availability of savings, credit & other financial services 1.88

Raising awareness of human rights 1.87

Compliance with government & legal requirements 1.80

Adult education 1.66

Having your say in political debates 1.65

Making cash transfers remotely 1.45

Finding a boy/girlfriend (dating) 1.36

Scale: 0 = n/a; 1 = not important; 2 = important; 3 = very important

Channels

Radio remains an important means of accessing information, along with face to face personal

contact. When compared with other means of accessing information, one of the key features

of the phone is its interactivity – communication (using either voice or data) is two way. In this

respect it is an obvious substitute for face to face communication. However, if mobile phone


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applications could be designed to fit various aspects of information that influence the choice of

channel, they may be able to substitute for other media as well.

• National origin of publication – coupling with a national database would enable a mobile

application to access information generated nationally or globally, which currently

tends to be broadcast (e.g. weather forecasts on the radio). The challenge then

becomes one of cost – broadcast media are free.

• Local origin of publication – every mobile phone owner (and public phone user) has the

potential to publish information, which will be local in nature. This can be explicit

(such as voting for the Pop Idol TV programme) or implicit (such as tracking the spread

of disease through enquiries about the disease).

• Local information – face to face discussion is the best way for farmers to share ideas,

tips and experience. Initiatives such as the Radio Apac programme sponsored by

WOUGHNET have attempted to adapt this behaviour to ICTs, and have created a

database of frequently asked questions and answers. Creating some kind of clearing

house would enable users to interrogate local knowledge.

• Time frame – any on-demand service will enable users to access information when

needed.

• Interactivity – database systems are good at sifting through large amounts of data; the

challenge is maintaining a good user experience.

There are some aspects of communication where a mobile application will be limited:

• The phone will not be able to substitute for face to face contact regarding issues which

require a personal transaction e.g. a doctor will usually still need to examine a patient.

There will, however, be scope for complementing person interaction.

• Complexity of information – it will be difficult to communicate complex data on a small

screen; this may be overcome by talking with an operator, or downloading audio /

video files.

Potential Mobile Applications

The strongest intention registered is for purely social communication – sending greetings; up to

three quarters of respondents are interested in sending greetings.

Intention to use a mobile based application is not linked to the level of satisfaction with the

current means of accessing information.

Overall, it is clear that people feel the phone (and SMS) is cost effective. The issue they are

most concerned with is speaking to computerised voice systems (IVR). It is clear that poorer

groups have greater confidence in phone operators and the services they can provide, and that


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they are less confident in the SMS services. Local languages is another issue (availability of

menus in local languages).

When looking at each application, issues that are most commonly linked to future intention to

use applications include:

• The cost of using a mobile phone based service will be good value for money;

• The phone companies will make sure that mobile phone services are available in my

language (especially business related);

• With a mobile phone based service I will be able to keep a copy of the information to

refer to later.

Inability to type (an SMS) also threatens to prevent some people from using services (especially

business related).

Along with radio, phones appear to be gender neutral channel for communication, at least in

terms of access and frequency of use. One of the potential benefits of mobile applications is

their ability to deliver accurate information; face to face information exchange is commonly

regarded as unreliable as it is susceptible to rumour, bias, and ignorance. Another benefit is

specificity – the ability to deliver information that is targeted to the user (e.g. by geographical

location, language) in a way that broadcast media cannot e.g. weather forecasts. A positive

view that mobile phones offer good value for money appears to support the uptake of mobile

phone applications. A characteristic of many mobile applications is that people can access

information more cheaply i.e. through substitution of existing means. A further important

dimension is the ability of mobile phone applications to cut the cost of corruption to the poor.

Many applications can relate to cost savings from circumnavigating day-to-day and on-the-

ground corruption.

Overall, it is clear that higher status groups are more information oriented – they place greater

importance on issues, they access information more frequently, and are more likely to use

mobile applications. They are, therefore, likely to be the early adopters of new mobile

applications. However, providing services to higher status groups would most likely serve to

increase local divides. Grameen might like, therefore, to consider applications likely to appeal

universally across status groups. Issues in this category include family matters (e.g. keeping in

touch, finding doctors and drugs), and agricultural services (e.g. market prices, agricultural

advice, weather).

The top 5 services among those engaged in agriculture are:

1. Sending greetings;

2. Send announcements to local radio station or newspaper;


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3. Market prices of agricultural produce at local markets;

4. Agriculture advice line;

5. Market prices of agricultural produce at major markets.

Overall, there is a trend for people to make sure they find sources of information concerning

those issues they regard as important. However, there would appear to be latent demand for

services that provide information that people are not currently able to find; these include:

1. finding a medical expert;

2. learning about first aid, diseases etc.

3. introducing modern agricultural ideas;

4. fake drugs;

5. expanding markets.

Note that this list bears some similarities to the types of applications likely to appeal

universally across status groups (see above).

Where there is a tangible cost benefit, it is likely that the poor will pay for a service, as the

mobile market has demonstrated. The poor in particular, will be reluctant to pay for services

offering potential or future benefit (e.g. introducing new crop varieties) as they tend to be risk

averse. NGOs have a track record of using the media to pay for programmes as part of their

work (e.g. health awareness campaigns). Institutions may, therefore, be interested in

subsidising services providing a public good.


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Contents

1 Introduction............................................................................................... 1

2 Methodology .............................................................................................. 1

2.1 Theoretical Construct ............................................................................ 1

2.2 Sampling............................................................................................ 3

2.3 Statistical Analysis ................................................................................ 3

3 Poverty, livelihoods, and the role of information and communication.......................... 3

3.1 What is the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework? ............................................ 4

3.2 What is the role of information in sustainable rural livelihoods?.......................... 6

3.3 How are we using the Sustainable Livelihoods approach? .................................16

4 Household survey Analysis .............................................................................17

4.1 Description of sample ...........................................................................17

4.2 Poverty analysis ..................................................................................21

4.3 Patterns of use of ICTs ..........................................................................23

4.4 Information needs – priorities and importance..............................................24

4.5 Channels used to access information .........................................................27

4.6 Potential mobile applications ..................................................................30

4.7 Attitudes towards channels and formats .....................................................32

4.8 Planned behaviour - linking attitudes, intention and control.............................33

4.9 Barriers and drivers - Linking attitudes to potential applications........................35

5 Information gap analysis ...............................................................................36

6 Poverty implications of potential mobile applications............................................40

7 Uganda Information and Policy environment .......................................................45

8 Specific issues ...........................................................................................46

8.1 Financial Dependence (the role of remittances)............................................46

8.2 Networks and groups ............................................................................47

8.3 Literacy ............................................................................................48

8.4 Urban Users .......................................................................................49

9 Conclusions...............................................................................................52


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1 Introduction

The work carried out by the Gamos team constitutes part of the needs assessment work that

contributes to a larger product development programme aimed at developing pro-poor mobile

phone based applications for Uganda. The core activity of the Gamos work is a questionnaire

based survey of individual users drawn from across the country. Other activities complement

the survey and its findings.

Now that mobile coverage extends to the majority of the country, and the majority of the

population have access to phones, the mobile networks effectively provide a platform that can

be used to deliver pro-poor services to residents in remote and excluded communities. The

question remains - which services are likely to be of greatest value to rural residents?

The objective of the survey is:

To understand the information priorities and attitudes associated with use of

communications media among poor and excluded (rural) communities in order to estimate

the demand for mobile phone based applications.

2 Methodology

2.1 Theoretical Construct

Figure 1 Structure of survey questionnaire


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The questionnaire comprises the sections illustrated in Figure 1.

Information needs assessment, divided into three categories:

• Business and financial – economic, natural and physical capital;

• Health and education – human capital;

• Social and civic – social capital.

For each information related issue, respondents are asked to register;

• Importance – to rank priority information needs;

• Means of access – identify how people currently get information, or where information

gaps exist;

• Frequency of access – sustainability of proposed services will depend on how often

consumers are likely to use a service;

• Level of satisfaction – willingness to seek alternative sources of information will depend

on how satisfied people are with the information they currently receive.

Use of ICTs section explores current use of communications services (including radio, TV and

newspaper). Specific topics of interest are use of SMS and existing data services, and means of

access to mobile phones.

Strength of intention to use a range of potential mobile based applications. These lists have

been based on:

• The original scoping study (Ken Banks);

• Discussions with VPOs and communities during the Masaka workshop;

• Team brainstorming;

• Previous experience (Gamos).

Note that lists are not exhaustive, and that they are skewed towards “pro-poor” applications –

in particular they do not include a number of services that are currently available on the MTN

SMSInfo services (197 True African /198 SMS Media).

Principles from the theory of planned behaviour are used to understand attitudes lying behind

the potential use of mobile phone based services. Attitudes explored relate to ways in which

use of mobile phone based services will be better (or worse) than current means of access to

information. Those attitudes that are closely linked with stated intention to use mobile phone

based applications (i.e. correlate) are likely to act as barriers or drivers to the uptake of the

new technology.


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2.2 Sampling

The unit for the survey was individuals who have experience of telecommunications services.

The sample was drawn mostly from rural districts, as rural consumers are of primary interest to

the project. An urban sample was also included on the basis that most calls link people in rural

areas to individuals in urban areas, and this also facilitates flows of remittances to rural areas.

Sampling districts were selected in western, eastern and northern Uganda in order to cover

respondents with a mix of livelihoods. The sample was split 290:116 rural:urban.

2.3 Statistical Analysis

The analysis uses non parametric statistical tests to look for the influence of key groupings on

behaviour. When looking at the influence of groupings, the analysis has used the Mann-Whitney

U test to test for differences between two independent groups, and the Kruskal-Wallace H test

to test for differences between three or more groups. Tables in this paper present the

probability (p value) that differences between the groupings have occurred by chance.

Generally, only differences with a probability of less than 0.05 have been taken to indicate a

relationship i.e. statistical significance is taken to be represented by p =<0.05. Similarly, when

considering correlations between two variables, only where the p value associated with a

Spearman Rank Order Correlation Coefficient is less than 0.05, and the correlation coefficient

itself is greater than 0.2, has it been assumed that a valid relationship exists.

3 Poverty, livelihoods, and the role of information and

communication

Rural livelihoods are determined by assets (human, social, natural, physical and financial), and

the underlying causes of poverty as high levels of vulnerability and poor governance. This

section takes this definition of poverty and underlying causes and outlines an approach for

poverty analysis known as the ‘Sustainable Livelihoods’ approach. After outlining the

framework, there is a discussion of theories on knowledge that considers the role of

information in poverty. The role of ICTs in aspects of the sustainable livelihoods approach is

then explored in some detail before returning to the survey and how it has been designed

around the sustainable livelihoods approach.


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This section gives some background to issues surrounding poverty, information and ICTs prior to

the analysis of the survey data, which is presented in Section 4.

3.1 What is the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework?

A ‘Sustainable Livelihoods’ approach (SL approach) is concerned with enhancing rural poor

people’s ability to expand and enhance their ‘livelihoods strategy’.

The approach is outlined in Figure 2. Poor people’s livelihood strategy is shaped by five

household assets owned (human, social, natural, physical and financial capitals), and the

vulnerability context (to shocks, trends, seasonality) and the governance context (policies,…)

that enables or not the accumulation of the five assets (known as the asset pentagon).

Figure 2 Sustainable Livelihoods model

The SL approach can be defined as,

the process of identifying the resources and strategies of the poor, the context

within which they operate, the institutions and organisations with which they

interact and the sustainability of the livelihood outcomes which they achieve,

providing a way of picking a path through this complexity at micro level’

(Shankland, 2000:6).

[in] a particular context (of policy setting, politics, history, agroecology and socio-

economic conditions), what combination of livelihood resources (different types on

‘capital’) result in the ability to follow what combination of livelihood strategies

(agricultural intensification/ extensification, livelihood diversification and migration)

with what outcomes? Of particular interest in this framework are the institutional


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processes (embedded in a matrix of formal and informal institutions and organisations)

which mediate the ability to carry out such strategies and achieve (or not) such

outcomes. (Scoones, 1998: 3)

The SL approach is associated with the seminal paper of Chambers and Conway (1992).

Further, with Scoones (1998) Ellis (2000) and DFID (1999; 2001). The key difference to other

approaches to poverty analysis is that SL approach is about more than just measuring poverty.

It is concerned with how poor people make a living and whether their livelihoods are becoming

more or less secure over time. In sum, the approach extends Sen’s 'endowments' and

'entitlements' to,

provide a dynamic perspective on the role of institutions in people-environment

relations…[and address the] institutional arrangements – including those of an

informal nature – that are of central importance to the well-being of those social

groups often marginalised by so-called community-level interventions (Leach et

al., 1997:29).

For Uganda, this expresses itself for the rural population in, say, the linkages through to water

and sanitation:-

67% of households use improved water sources (physical asset), 67.3% of rural households take

more than 30 minutes to draw water (reducing their human capital available for other

strategies), although most people (58.1%) do not treat drinking water, boiling is the most

common means of water treatment – most households use wood as fuel (requiring access to a

natural asset). Low grade fuels (e.g. wood, dung, charcoal) create a smoke hazard , which

causes respiratory and eye diseases (a household shock reducing the human asset). Responding

to disease adds a burden to the household and the level of burden depends on the health

infrastructure, which is often minimal, corrupt and unreliable (expressed in the SLA as

institutional factors). Gathering wood fuel adds a further household time burden (especially to

women). Deforestation is a growing environmental (and livelihoods) threat (reduction of

natural assets). Possibilities of improved water supplies are hampered by policies and

institutional processes. All this combines to limit the Sustainable Livelihood options of the

household.


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3.2 What is the role of information in sustainable rural livelihoods?

At the very beginning it is useful to consider some definitions of knowledge, power and related

concepts before we move onto studying the dynamics of their interaction of information and

poverty/livelihoods (see box 1).

Box 1. Defining data, information, etc

Data: Data is raw. It simply exists and has no significance beyond its existence (in and of

itself). It can exist in any form, usable or not. It does not have meaning of itself. In computer

parlance, a spreadsheet generally starts out by holding data (Belinger et al.)

Information: Information is the codified expression of different types of knowledge. It is

analysed data, codified and formatted for different purposes. It draws on social and political

frameworks of shared meanings embedded in its context, and so is open to interpretation by

different actors (Davies 1994; Baumann 1999). (Vogel, 2007)

Information: Information is data that has been given meaning by way of relational connection.

This "meaning" can be useful, but does not have to be. In computer parlance, a (relational

database makes information from the data stored within it.) (Baumann 1999)

Knowledge: Knowledge refers to human understandings shaped by cognitive processes and the

social interactions between individuals. Knowledge entails human ‘knowers’ and is

dynamically constructed and reconstructed through cognitive processes (reflection,

awareness, thinking, learning), social interactions, and political circumstances. It is therefore

subjective, .engaged, value bound and context determined. (Scoones and Thompson 1993).

(Vogel, 2007)

Knowledge: Knowledge refers to the subsequent absorption (often, but not always, by

reading), assimilation, understanding and appreciation of that information. (Davies1994)

Wisdom: Wisdom beckons to give us understanding about which there has previously been no

understanding, and in doing so, goes far beyond understanding itself. It is the essence of

philosophical probing. Wisdom is therefore, the process by which we also discern, or judge,

between right and wrong, good and bad. Wisdom is a uniquely human state...for it resides as

much in the heart as in the mind. (Belinger et al.)

Bellinger et al. in Data, Information, Knowledge and Wisdom conceptualise the above four

concepts in linear progression they use the following to illustrate these concepts effectively

(see box 2).


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Box 2. Bellinger et al.,’s Definitions

Data represents a fact or statement of event without relation to other things.

Ex: It is raining.

Information embodies the understanding of a relationship of some sort, possibly cause

and effect.

Ex: The temperature dropped 15 degrees and then it started raining.

Knowledge represents a pattern that connects and generally provides a high level of

predictability as to what is described or what will happen next.

Ex: If the humidity is very high and the temperature drops substantially the

atmospheres is often unlikely to be able to hold the moisture so it rains.

Wisdom embodies more of an understanding of fundamental principles embodied within

the knowledge that are essentially the basis for the knowledge being what it is. Wisdom

is essentially systemic.

Ex: It rains because it rains. And this encompasses an understanding of all the

interactions that happen between raining, evaporation, air currents, temperature

gradients, changes, and raining.

Broadly speaking, the interaction between these concepts can be effectively displayed using

Figure 3:

Figure 3 Data through to wisdom

After looking at these concepts it is important to reach a few broad conclusions. Firstly,

information seems to always precede knowledge formation or knowledge seems to stem from

received information. Therefore, information is key to the construction of ‘knowledge’.

Secondly, knowledge seems to be information with an added process of subjective/individual

Figure


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cognition and therefore knowledge can not be relayed only information can. Lastly, every step

of this process is political. Be it defining the limits of data collection, presenting this data in a

manner that urges a certain kind of processing or perceiving this data from subjective

experiential positions, the process of knowledge formation is susceptible to bias at every stage.

Another figure that attempts to encapsulate these diverse assumptions is included here.

Before moving onto briefly glance at some dynamics of knowledge and power, it is important to

bear in mind, that in the analysis above “...there is, of course, an assumption of linearity...

and in real life, the transition from data to information to knowledge is a much more circuitous

and iterative process. The distinction is nevertheless a useful initial means of differentiating

between the generation of information and what happens to it once it becomes absorbed into

the decision-making process...” (Davies,1994)

All these somewhat abstract theories on knowledge lead to certain concrete lessons that

must be kept in mind while designing any information interventions for poverty

alleviation. Firstly, there must be recognition of the strong impact of the information

provided as sometimes that might be the only information on a particular subject being

received by the community. This information might define the society’ perception on a

particular topic and influence their actions indelibly. Second, providers of information

and generators of knowledge must be self reflexive about the potentially empowered

position that they hold and factor that into the design of any interventions. Thirdly, it is

easy for information flows and processes of knowledge formation to mirror traditional

racial and colonial hierarchies. Lastly, there must be recognition of the fact that no single

reality exists independent of a context and so all interventions must aim to be relative

and acknowledge the existence of a multiplicity of viewpoints and individual life

situations. These nebulous arguments are summed up somewhat problematically and

extremely essentially, in the following table.


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Theory/Approaches Lessons

Foucault’s Power-Knowledge Information provided might define certain issues for rural communities. Information providers must be aware and self reflexive about the power they hold.

Susan Davies in Introduction: Information,

Knowledge and Power

Information providers must be cognizant of the fact that information flows can mirror pre existing colonial and racial relationships.

Post modern approaches to knowledge Information interventions must be relative and information providers must be flexible to change their interventions for different contexts.

Information and Rural Poverty

What does this all mean for poor people and their livelihoods? Modes of communicating and

sharing information are widely known as Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and

ICTs have been understood to be critical for poverty alleviation by their potential impact on

economic growth, rural development, governance and vulnerability reduction. This point is

explained by McNamara in Information and Communication Technologies, Poverty and

Development: Learning and Experience,

One of the reasons for the high degree of excitement in the last decade about the

potential of ICT to combat poverty and promote sustainable development is that it is

possible to discern an information, communication or knowledge component of

virtually every development challenge... It is widely understood that information

plays a vital role in the proper functioning of markets. Yet information flows are

crucial to society more broadly. When information flows poorly, and the poor lack

adequate access to information about rights, services, and opportunities, pubic

institutions are often unresponsive to the needs of the poor, inefficient, and subject

to corruption. When the poor lack information and knowledge about basic hygiene

and health issues and resources, disease deepens and perpetuates their poverty.

When poor farmers lack information about crop prices, new farming techniques, and

new markets, they remain excessively dependent on middlemen, unable to adapt to

environmental and market changes, and unable to get the best yield from their own

labor and that of their family. (McNamara, 2003)

Economic growth too, is dependant on the efficient flow of information. Investment and

innovation are also scarce in environments where knowledge flows poorly (ibid). ICTs are also

critical for economic growth and poverty alleviation as they allow producers to undertake the

maximum utilisation of scarce resources by providing new information on improving production

processes (ibid). “The poor typically spend a disproportionate percentage of their scarce resources


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(labour, time, money, land, water, and other resources) to secure the things necessary for

themselves and their families because they have less access to the time-saving and productivity-

boosting effects of technology”. (ibid)

The poor, apart from being deprived of material realities like healthcare, agricultural inputs etc.

are also deprived of information on how to develop new skills, diversify their income sources and

understand the how certain institutions have a bearing on their situation-ICTs can be effective in

changing this situation. This point about knowledge as a key ingredient of economic growth is

buttressed by the World Development Report 1998/1999 ‘Knowledge for Development’, “...the

East Asian economies did not build, work and grow harder so much as they built , worked and

grew smarter. Could knowledge, then, have been behind East Asia’s surge? If so, the implications

Potential impact of ICT interventions

Economic

Growth

• Allow maximum utilisation of scarce resources.

• Provide information on markets/products and on developing new skills and diversifying income sources.

• Providing access to markets

• Reduce travel costs and increases disposable income and time.

• M -banking

Rural

Development

• Access to information on crop varieties, pests, strategies to increase yield, more efficient harvesting , prices etc.

• Reduction in rent seeking /government corruption through the provision of accurate information.

• Enhancing the long term decision making capabilities of rural communities in fluctuating agricultural markets.

• Sharing of indigenous knowledge between rural communities on soil, water, air etc.

• Education

Vulnerability

Reduction

• Dissemination of information on disease outbreaks.

• Behaviour change on hygiene and health issues.

• Greater know how and access for medical health professionals.

• Remote diagnosis.

• Disaster risk reduction through early warning systems.

• Allowing people to stay in touch

Governance • Dissemination of information on government resources and their allocation.

• Collect and share citizen’s concerns.

• Bringing greater transparency to governance and circumventing red tape.

Infrastructure • Deepening communication networks

• Monitoring water supply

• Acting as producer goods


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are enormous, for that would mean that is the key to development – that knowledge is

development,” (1999).

Rural Poverty, Information and Livelihoods

Economic growth is a critical but not an ‘all important’ indicator of poverty alleviation and so it

would be useful to examine the role of ICTs in rural development. Roughly 75% of the world’s poor

live in rural areas and depend on agriculture. Therefore agricultural productivity is of critical

importance. The condition of the poor is worsened by their isolation which “...translates, in most

developing countries, into poor access to markets, weak physical infrastructure, poor health and

education, weak access to capital, and poor access to government services. Information about crop

varieties, pests, strategies to increase yield, more efficient harvesting and processing

technologies, weather and climate, prices and markets – are vital to farmers, but often difficult or

costly to access.” (ibid). ICTs can play a major role in helping farmers to access critical

information. Apart from this short term information, ICTs can also be effectively employed for the

provision of education to rural communities through engaging teachers and students in multi-media

technologies, enhancing the skills of rural artisans and exposing farmers to improved agricultural

practices (more on education later in this review). While highlighting the role of ICTs for rural

development, it is important to note that any ICT based interventions must take into account the

livelihood strategies of the farmers (this will be discussed in detail in the next section). It is

critical that information provided through ICTs is developed using the input collected from the

target communities (ibid). Apart from information, farmers need a variety of other services like

access to markets and government credit etc. ICTs “can help markets and government institutions

work more effectively for the poor by lowering transaction costs, providing better choice, and

decreasing opportunities for various forms of rent-seeking, including local government corruption,”

(ibid). Robert Chapman and Tom Slaymaker support this point in ‘ICTs and Rural Development:

Review of the Literature, Current Interventions and Opportunities for Action’ when they say that

globalisation has changed the way that markets and governments interact and “In order to be able

to cope with and adapt to these changes the rural poor require improved access to information

regarding market opportunities and information about their rights and the roles and responsibilities

of institutions supposedly designed to benefit them,” (2002). They go on to highlight the fact that

small farmers are not in a position to bear the shocks of an open agricultural market and so need

to strengthen their decision making capabilities. ICTs by providing information and education and

training to farmers can effectively build their decision making capabilities over a long term. This is

apart from ICTs having the potential of providing short term, up to date market information that

puts farmers in a stronger negotiating position in the context of an open agricultural market. One

point shared by Kerry S. McNamara, Robert Chapman and Tom Slaymaker is that, rural

communities carry vital indigenous/local knowledge on a variety of issues like micro climates, soil


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12

condition etc. and this information can be effectively shared between communities to feed into

their individual livelihood strategies and lead to their effective relative empowerment.

Rural Poverty, Information and Vulnerability

Poverty alleviation cannot take place without

adequate attention to the idea of

vulnerability. This vulnerability takes a variety

of forms, a predominant one being

vulnerability to disease.

Poor people are particularly prone to

disease and illness for several related

reasons. Their living conditions are often unsafe and unsanitary ... Their ability to

preserve good health and to treat illness is further compromised by a shortage of

medical personnel, medicines and health infrastructure. The medical personnel who

do treat the poor are hampered not only by scarce supplies but by scarce information

about new threats and new treatments and few opportunities to improve their own

skills... (McNamara, K. S., 2003)

Apart from ill health, the poor are also vulnerable to the calamities of nature. Chanuka

Wattegama in ICTs and Disaster Management says that understanding risk is a critical factor in

mitigating disasters and ICTs can be effectively used to spread information and manage risk from

approaching bad weather or risky terrain (2007). Thus, ICTs can be critical in early warning “...the

occurrence of a hazard does not necessarily result in a disaster. While hazards cannot be avoided,

their negative impacts can be mitigated. The goal of early public warning is to ensure to the

greatest extent possible that the hazard does not become a disaster....” (ibid)

Also, it is possible to also see that ICTs allow people to stay in touch with their relatives, friends,

business associates and variety of individuals/associations that form a social and economic ‘safety

net’ that is an essential, informal vulnerability reduction mechanism.


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Rural Poverty, Information and Governance

After looking at examples of how ICTs can

contribute to a reduction in the vulnerability of

the poor let us see the bearing that they can

potentially have on governance-another factor

that directly affects poverty. Firstly, ICTs can

be used for disseminating information on

government resources and the manner in which

they are expected to use them (McNamara, 2003). Secondly, ICTs can help collect, aggregate and

share issues that citizens have with governance (ibid). Thirdly, ICTs can lead to government

institutions becoming more transparent “The most obvious role for ICTs is to “disintermediate”

between the citizen and the services, procedures and documents she requires by automating, and

making widely accessible, many of the simpler procedures which have traditionally depended on the

involvement of a local government bureaucrat,” (ibid). Patricia J. Pascaul buttresses this point in E-

Government when she says “While opportunities are increasing for citizens to be more actively

involved in the policy-making and decision-making process, much of government decision-making is

still hidden from the wider public. ICT integration in government processes facilitates greater

openness, transparency, and accountability. As more information is given to the public, greater

citizen engagement in the overall policy process is considered as necessary as greater accountability

for public officials,” (2003).

Rural Poverty, Information and Natural Capital

Natural capital is understood to be “the natural

resource stocks (soil, water, air, genetic

resources, and environmental services

(hydrological cycle, pollution sinks etc.) from

which resource flows and services useful for

livelihoods are derived,” (Scoones, 1998).

Deprivation of this type of capital happens due to

various reasons, like environmental degradation the effects of which “are disproportionately felt by the

poor” (GDRC). Environmental degradation can take a variety of forms from soil erosion to water

pollution. Natural capital can also be negatively impacted by natural disasters that can grossly upset

local ecosystems and other natural cycles. If we analyse the examples from the last section in this

context we can see that the sharing of local knowledge amongst farmers can help them access and

utilise natural capital better. Also, vulnerability reduction through disaster warning systems via ICTs will

put rural communities in a better position manage and engage with the mentioned “natural resource

stocks”.


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Rural Poverty, Information and Economic Capital

Economic or financial capital is seen as “...the

capital base (cash, credit/debt, savings, and other

economic assets, including basic infrastructure and

production equipment and technologies) which are

essential for the pursuit of different livelihood

strategies.” (Scoones, 1998) The causes of the

poor being deprived of this capital are numerous

and inter related. The World Development Report 2001 analyses the reasons for the lack of this capital

when it succinctly comments on the reasons of low economic growth. The report acknowledges that the

lack of economic capital is a by product of policy choices, external shocks, low education, low life

expectancy, large populations, large governments, wars, civil unrest and natural disasters. ICTs could

help the poor in accessing this capital by providing up to date information on production processes that

allow producers to utilise, most efficiently, the resources or capital base that they have to work with.

They can also provide information that leads to an expansion of the capital base through showing

opportunities for income diversification, increasing income through access to markets and market

information and through m-banking

Rural Poverty, Information and Human Capital

Human capital is understood to be “the skills,

knowledge, ability to labour and good health and

physical capability important for the successful

pursuit of different livelihood strategies,”

(Scoones, 1998). Very broadly, human capital

encapsulated sectors such as health and

education. Some reasons for the reasons of why

rural communities being deprived of human capital in the form of health care include geographical

hindrances, resource biases in favour of urban centres and unfavourable health policies due to

centralisation (Baird and Wright, 2006) ICTs have an important bearing on this as they can be critical for

improving the health conditions of the rural poor by disseminating information about the spread and

nature of diseases and allowing health care professionals to stay in touch with health support networks.

ICTs can also enhance the “ability to labour” (Scoones, 1998) through the spread of education.


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Rural Poverty, Information and Social Capital

Social capital is “the social resources (networks,

social claims, social relations, affiliations,

associations) upon which people draw when

pursuing different livelihood strategies requiring

coordinated actions” (ibid). The causes for the

deprivation of social capital amongst the rural poor

are diverse but are summed up in this paragraph

One of the more entrenched sources of poverty throughout the world is social inequality

that stems from cultural ideas about the relative worth of different genders, races, ethnic

groups, and social classes. Ascribed inequality works by placing individuals in different

social categories at birth, often based on religious, ethnic, or 'racial' characteristics. In

South African history, apartheid laws defined a binary caste system that assigned different

rights (or lack thereof) and social spaces to Whites and Blacks, using skin color to

automatically determine the opportunities available to individuals in each group. (GDRC)

Firstly, ICTs help the rural poor develop their social resources by allowing them to stay in touch with a

range of actors and form “social associations” (Scoones, 1998). Secondly, they can assist in

consolidating “social claims” (ibid) by allowing citizens to aggregate and share their opinion on matters

of governance. Thirdly, ICTs have a direct relationship with social capital also because they strengthen

‘social claims’ by making the government more accountable to the society which it aims to serve.

Rural Poverty, Information and Physical Capital

Apart from the above, physical infrastructure like

roads, water supply, energy and producer goods

(DFID Guidance Sheets) are also essential for

development and ICTs have role to play in this

too. Firstly, the deployment of ICTs

automatically leads to an enhancement in existing

communication networks. Secondly, ICTs can

contribute to improved water supply through enhanced monitoring water resources through

programmes like JalChitra (indiawaterportal) that provide information on water quality and the

overall ‘water budget’ of villages. Also a “redressal mechanism for non-functioning water points such

as hand pumps and tube wells” has been included certain e-governance (an ICT concept) agendas

(ibid). Thirdly, sometimes ICTs themselves act as ‘producer goods’ and become tools for income

generation, there are number of examples of this such as the case of Grameen ‘phone ladies’.


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It is very important to acknowledge that though certain causes for capital deprivation have been shown

as exclusive to certain types of capital, in reality causes are highly integrated. For example, civil unrest

may prevent markets from operating freely and negatively impact economic capital, it may also lead to

internal displacement and decrease the social capital available to the rural poor. Similarly, though for

the sake of analysis, we have slotted examples of the potential impact of ICTs according to the capital

they most obviously affect, these too are highly interrelated. For example, disseminating agricultural

information obviously leads to an increase in human capital but it also makes farmers more productive

and therefore positively impacts their economic capital base too. This idea is integral to the SLRF and

the framework expects us to analyse each component not as mutually exclusive but in combination with

one another. These arguments are roughly encapsulated in Table 2 below, which also takes into

account questions from the Rural Needs Assessment Delivery of e-content questionnaire.

3.3 How are we using the Sustainable Livelihoods approach?

We take the 5 assets and underlying causes of vulnerability and governance and identify

questions in our survey.

Table 2 Survey questionnaire and the Sustainable Livelihoods approach

Asset

(from which

livelihoods are

derived)

Examples of underlying

causes of poverty

(Vulnerability and

Governance)

Questions in our survey

Natural Environmental Degradation

Natural Disasters

30 (7), 31 (10), 37 (9)

Economic/financial Bad Policy choices

Low education

Civil unrest

Natural Disasters

Unfavourable Governments

9,11,18,19,27, 29, 30

(1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9) 31

(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8) 34 (3) , 37

(6), 37(8), 37 (9)

All of part 9

Human Geographical hindrances

Urban biases in resources

allocation

Centralised Policies

10,14,15,29,3233, 37 (1),37

(2), 37 (3), 37 (7), 37 (9)

Social Caste systems

Historical Gender

8,13,17,20,22,23,24,25,2829,

30 (3), 31 (4), 34, 35, 37 (5),


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Discrimination

Historical Racial

Discrimination

37 (9)

Physical Colonial history

Warfare

27, 29, 30 (5) 31 (9), 37 (1),

37 (4), 37 (9)

4 Household survey Analysis

4.1 Description of sample

4.1.1 Rural – urban distribution

The distribution of the sample is 71:29 rural:urban, where urban is defined as Kampala city

centre and district capitals – all other areas are classified as rural. A breakdown of the sample

by districts is given in Table 3, and illustrated in Figure 4, and Table 4 shows the rural:urban

spread of interviews within each district.

The remainder of this section, including the analysis, will be based on the rural part of the

sample, as this is the target group of primary interest to the project.

Table 3 Division of sample by districts

Frequency Percent

Valid 5 1.2

APAC 1 .2

KAMPALA 103 25.4

LIRA 73 18.0

MBALE 75 18.5

MBARARA 75 18.5

MUKONO 1 .2

TORORO 68 16.7

WAKISO 5 1.2

Total 406 100.0


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Table 4 Rural / Urban context of districts.

RURAL / URBAN CODED

Rural Urban Total

4 1 5

APAC 1 0 1

KAMPALA 29 74 103

LIRA 60 13 73

MBALE 71 4 75

MBARARA 60 15 75

MUKONO 1 0 1

TORORO 60 8 68

Name of District

WAKISO 4 1 5

Total 290 116 406

Figure 4 Sampling locations


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4.1.2 Demographics

� The sample has a gender balance of 56:44 (male:female ratio).

� The mean age of the sample is 31.1 years old; 9.0% of the sample are over 49 years old.

� Roughly one third of the respondents (34.1%) are heads of household.

� Of male respondents, 53.1% are heads of household compared with 10.3% of female

respondents.

� The sample has a good balance of educational levels as illustrated in Figure 5.

� The average household size is 7.2 people, with an average of 3.3 children.

� 78.6% of respondents have members of their immediate family living in other cities in

Uganda and 24.8% of respondents have members of their immediate family living

abroad.

Rural 7%

13%

25%

16%

18%

7%

14%

No formal schooling

Incomplete Primary School

Complete Primary School (P7)

Incomplete Secondary School

Complete Secondary School (S6)

Post Secondary

Degree and above

Figure 5 Level of education

4.1.3 Income

The distribution of declared earned income (for the individual) is presented in Figure 6. This

gives a mean estimated earned income1 of 83,000 UGS/month (N = 230). Based on an exchange

rate of 1,700 UGS/USD, this gives a mean estimated earned income of approximately

$50/month.

1 Estimated on the basis of the mid point of each income bracket. N.B. respondents with no income

(e.g. students) will fall within the lowest income bracket, so the actual mean is likely to be below

the mid point.


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Rural

49%

25%

8%

4%

14%

0 - 50,000

51,000 - 100,000

101,000 - 150,000

151,000 - 200,000

>200,000

Figure 6 Declared earned monthly income (UGS/month)

4.1.4 Language and literacy

Only 10.3% claim they cannot read or write in their local language. However, a small number of

these respondents have achieved post primary education or higher and also claim to be literate

in English, indicating that English is more relevant for educational achievement than local

language.

There are two main language groups that respondents belong to – namely Banyankole and Langi

(Table 5). It should be stressed that this in no way reflects the language composition of the

country as a whole, but simply reflects the selection of sampling areas. The importance of

English as the national language is reflected in the high levels of English literacy - 72% of

respondents claim to be able to read and write in English (see Figure 7). Note also the high

levels of Luganda literacy, even though only 12% of the sample are Baganda. When considering

the combination of the two main literacy groups, 82% are literate in either English or Luganda.

This demonstrates that even though there is a large number of local languages in the country,

many people are literate in a smaller number of dominant languages.


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Table 5 Language groups

Frequency Percent

Valid Acholi 3 1.0

Baganda 35 12.1

Bagisu 32 11.0

Bakiga 12 4.1

Banyankole 51 17.6

Basoga 14 4.8

Iteso 34 11.7

Langi 58 20.0

Lugbara 7 2.4

Other 41 14.1

Total 287 99.0

Missing System 3 1.0

Total 290 100.0

Literacy (Rural)

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%

Acholi

Luganda

Lugisu

Lukiga

Lunyakole

Lusoga

English

Iteso

Langi

Lugbara

Swahili

Proportion of sample

Figure 7 Literacy levels in main languages

4.2 Poverty analysis

4.2.1 Poverty groupings

Who are the poor in the survey? They have been defined by schooling and education because

this tends to be the strongest cross-correlation in the wider literature across the dimensions

noted above of income, nutrition, health and so on. The survey collected various other poverty

outcome data such as literacy and income but self-declaration on both is notoriously open to


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error and the income declaration only covered 80% of the sample (people are cautious of

openly declaring their income in most societies). People were asked their main (and other)

occupation, but the UBOS categories mix poor and non-poor livelihoods. The survey also

gathered data on household consumer durables. This permitted comparison with national

statistics.

For the purposes of the analysis, the sample has been divided into three groups (the

distribution is given in Table 6):

� chronic poor – those with no (or little) education and low levels of literacy;

� transient poor – those with a formal education;

� secure – those with tertiary education will have professional jobs.

Table 6 Poverty groupings

Frequency Percent

Valid poorest (incomplete primary & below) 58 20.0

poor (primary to secondary) 160 55.2

medium (post secondary) 72 24.8

Total 290 100.0

Differences between these poverty groups include:

� Mobile phone ownership appears to be almost exclusively restricted to the better off

group;

� the earned income distribution is presented in Figure 6; these indicate little difference

in earned income between the lower two groups (median income brackets are the

same) – the means of estimated earned income figures are:

o poorest 46,000 UGS/month ($27/month)

o poor 64,000 UGS/month ($38/month)

o medium 160,000 UGS/month ($94/month)

� around 50% of respondents receive money (from unspecified sources), and this is

consistent across all three groups; note that remittances are received more regularly

among the higher status groups (differences not significant; p = 0.857);

� high status respondents are more likely to have family members living abroad; there is

no difference in distribution of families within the country;

� people in the poorest group are mainly engaged in agriculture and elementary

occupations (e.g. unskilled labour).


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A comparison with national statistics indicates that the survey sample, especially the rural

sample, is of somewhat higher status than national averages; there are several factors behind

this:

� the survey sampled only users of communications services;

� although the survey sampled in a range of regions of the country (north, west, east, and

central) it did not sample in some of the poorest areas of the country;

� the DHS survey used as the basis for comparison presents data from a 2006 survey, so

certain indicators will have improved since then.

4.3 Patterns of use of ICTs

4.3.1 Use of ICTs – intensity of use (including expenditure)

Figure 8 shows that radio is clearly the most commonly used ICT. TV as a broadcast media is

becoming significantly used, although it is likely that signal coverage in rural areas remains

patchy. Although a slightly higher number of people make use of manned public phones than

private mobiles, users of private mobile are more intensive users.

Phones are mainly used to make outgoing calls – an average of 35% of all calls are incoming.

Many people own their own private mobiles, but the breakdown of access to different types of

private mobiles (as opposed to public phones) is given in Table 7.

Note also a clear preference for manned public phones – however, this probably simply reflects

an absence of unmanned booths in rural areas. Nevertheless, respondents gave a number of

advantages to using a manned public phone, including:

• Cheap;

• You can make a call when you don’t have enough money to buy airtime;

• Manage costs by looking at timer (can’t do on private mobile);

• Can’t be tracked through the call;

• Good when you have no credit on your phone;

• Always somebody to help with the call;

• Even the illiterate can make calls.

There is quite a high use of SMS – around 50% of respondents claim to use it, although many use

it only infrequently. Phones are mainly used to send SMS messages – an average of 31% of all

SMS messages are received.


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0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%

Radio

TV

Newspaper

Private mobile phone

Fixed line phone

Internet

Fax

SMS

manned public phone

unmanned public phone booth

Proportion of respondents

One or more times a day

One or more times a week

More than once a month

Less than once a month

Not used

Figure 8 Breakdown of frequency of use of ICTs – (N=290)

Table 7 Means of access to private mobile phones

% of sample

Own private mobile phone 33.8

Other household member’s phone 5.9

Other private mobile phone (friends, business) 23.8

Other 14.8

Do not use phone 24.1

People with mobile phones also use manned public phones. In fact, they are more intensive

users of manned public phones (p = 0.000) - only 58% of people without a mobile phone use

manned public phones, compared with 74% of people who do own a mobile phone.

4.4 Information needs – priorities and importance

Top priorities presented in Table 8 reflect concerns with both vulnerability (emergencies and

HIV/AIDS) and social wellbeing (keeping in touch with family and friends, and with what’s going

on – the news).


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Health related issues rank highly – HIV/AIDS, family planning (which probably also covers

reproductive health), finding a medical expert, finding drugs, and learning about first aid and

diseases.

It is interesting to note that issues associated with agricultural production (e.g. agricultural

advice, modern agricultural ideas, weather information) are ranked more highly than issues

relating to finance (e.g. credit, cash transfers). This implies that regard their lack of

knowledge of good practice as more of a problem than infrastructure issues. However, the

issue of transport ranks higher than all of these; this is not specifically restricted to transport

of agricultural products, but it does demonstrate the importance of transport infrastructure.

Issues relating to governance tend to be given low importance e.g. learning about local

government, awareness of human rights, compliance with legal requirements, and participation

in political debate. This appears to be at odds with the importance currently attributed to

good governance by the donor community. However, the low degree of importance attached

to governance issues by respondents probably reflects their perception of the extent of their

influence on political issues. To some extent this view is backed up by the fact that, of all the

governance related issues, local government is attributed highest importance.

Men tend to regard issues associated with income generation and finance as more important,

and women are more concerned with family related matters such as health, and keeping in

touch. Overall, the importance attributed to most issues is linked to poverty (regarded as

more important among better off groups). There are a few exceptions where registered

importance is higher among poorer groups:

• Getting agricultural advice (correlates negatively);

• Introducing modern agricultural ideas;

• Contacting people in an emergency.

Nevertheless, the top priorities among the poorest are widely similar to those of the rural

sample as a whole.


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Table 8 Importance of issues (ranked)

Mean score

(N=290)

Understanding HIV/AIDS 2.73

Contacting people in an emergency 2.71

Keeping in touch with family & friends 2.64

News 2.58

Understanding family planning 2.40


Finding drugs and what they cost 2.35


Transport 2.24

Entertainment 2.23

Crime & insecurity 2.18

Getting agricultural advice 2.18

Getting market information 2.17



Remittances to/from family 2.12

Weather 2.10

Fake drugs 2.08


Finding the right school 2.04

Learning more about my local government 1.98

Sport 1.92

Availability of savings, credit & other financial services 1.88





Making cash transfers remotely 1.45

Finding a boy/girlfriend (dating) 1.36

Scale: 0 = n/a; 1 = not important; 2 = important; 3 = very important

Ranking of general development needs (within the community) shows similar trends – high

importance given to vulnerability (health, and peace and security), and low importance given

to governance and rights.

The frequency with which respondents access information relating to given issues tends to

reflect the importance attributed to those issues. This compounds the potential value of being

able to provide services relating to important issues, especially:


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• Understanding HIV/AIDS;

• Keeping in touch with family & friends;

• News;

• Contacting people in emergencies.

On the other hand, there are some issues rated as important which respondents access only

infrequently:

• Contacting people in emergencies;

• Finding a medical expert;

• Expanding markets;

• Fake drugs.

The frequency with which respondents access information is generally linked with poverty

(more frequent among better off groups). Exceptions where this is not the case highlight issues

for which the poorest need to access information in much the same way as other groups –

agriculture, support, and entertainment.

4.5 Channels used to access information

Figure 9 illustrates the importance of radio as a means of accessing information, especially

regarding high priority issues of news and HIV/AIDS. Face to face contact remains the most

commonly used means of accessing information relating to many issues. Note that the phone is

mostly commonly used for accessing two of the highest priority issues:

• Contacting people in emergencies;

• Keeping in touch with friends and family.

Although over 60% of respondents watch TV (Figure 8), the television is only regarded as the

most important means of accessing information by a relatively modest proportion of

respondents – around 15% (note that this corresponds to the number of respondents watching

TV frequently). TV is primarily used as a source of information on entertainment, sports, news,

and weather.

Note the use of newspapers for:

• Job opportunities;

• Government and legal issues.


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Figure 9 channels used to access information on issues (ranked by importance of issue) - (N=290)

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Finding a boy/girlfriend (dating)

Making cash transfers remotely

Having your say in political debates

Adult education

Compliance with government & legal requirements

Raising awareness of human rights

Availability of savings, credit & other financial services

Sport

Learning more about my local government

Finding the right school

Expanding markets

Fake drugs

Weather

Remittances to/from family

Job opportunities

Introducing modern agricultural ideas

Getting market information

Getting agricultural advice

Crime & insecurity

Entertainment

Transport

Learning about first aid, disease prevention & treatment

Finding drugs and what they cost

Finding a medical expert

Understanding family planning

News

Keeping in touch with family & friends

Contacting people in an emergency

Understanding HIV/AIDS

proportion of respondents

Not applicable

I don't get it

Face to face contact

Radio

TV

Newspaper/Newsletter

Local information centre

Phone - voice (fixed/mobile)

SMS

Internet

Letters


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Radio and face to face are clearly the dominant means of accessing information. When

comparing the issues for which each is dominant, the following observations can be made:

• Face to face is suited to issues involving local information, whereas radio tends to be

better suited to information of a more generic (or national) nature.

• Closely linked to this is the geographic origin of publication of the content, so

information that generated locally tends to be accessed through face to face, where as

information that is generated remotely (nationally or globally) tends to be accessed via

the radio. This may highlight a difference between means of getting agricultural advice

and introducing modern agricultural ideas – the former may well relate to tips and local

experience relating to traditional crops (available from peer farmers), whereas the

latter relates to innovative ideas generated elsewhere (e.g. national research centres).

• Face to face is suited to information which is needed within a given time frame (or has

a limited shelf life – closely linked to urgency). Although learning about HIV/AIDS

recognised as important, it tends not to be a matter of immediate urgency, unlike the

need to find a doctor, for example.

• Where the issue involves a personal transaction (even as an outcome of the issue

itself) face to face tends to be better suited e.g. finding a medical expert, job

opportunities (employers will generally want to meet the person they employ); finding

schools (similarly, parents will probably want to meet staff before committing to a

school). On the other hand, information suited to the radio tends to be “impersonal”

information e.g. weather, information on disease.

• Complexity of information – some needs for information can be met by a simple piece

of information e.g. the result of a football match, the price of maize at a particular

market. On the other hand, some needs require complex information in order to

achieve the intended benefit e.g. a job opportunity will include start date, duration,

tasks, skills and experience required, and wage – all of which tend to be negotiable.

Although face to face might be expected to lend itself to complexity, this is not

immediately obvious from the issues – for example, radio can be effectively used to

communicate some fairly complex issues.

• Linked to complexity is interactivity, and the ability to drill down through large

amounts of information to find what you’re looking for - this is where the internet has a

clear advantage. However, it is not clear how this feature relates to the means of

access under consideration.

Looking at issues for which the phone is used among a significant proportion of the sample as

the main means of access to information shows that the mobile phone (used for making voice

calls) is most useful when it substitutes (or complements) face to face communication. Most of

these issues also have a clear social or personal content (expanding markets is the exception).


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Attempts to link satisfaction with information received with the channels used to access

information were inconclusive. However, it is possible to see a trend that satisfaction tends to

be higher for issues regarded as more important. It is interesting to note high priority issues

for which satisfaction levels are relatively low:

• Introducing modern agricultural ideas;

• Fake drugs;

• Getting agricultural advice;

• Learning about first aid, disease prevention & treatment;

• Raising awareness of human rights;

• Expanding markets.

These indicate issues for which people might be inclined to use alternative means of accessing

information.

4.6 Potential mobile applications

The potential mobile applications are ranked according to mean strength of intention to use

the service in Table 9. It is interesting to note that, in line with current uses of mobile phones,

the strongest intention registered for potential mobile services is for purely social

communication – sending greetings.


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Table 9 Expressed intention to use mobile phone services

N (valid) Mean Score

Proportion of sample likely to use service (%)

Sending greetings 289 0.67 73.4

Send announcements to local radio station or newspaper 289 0.3 59.0

Make contact with support/interest groups 288 0.18 56.2

Get contact details of local doctor 290 0.11 51.7

Market prices of agricultural produce at local markets 290 0.05 53.4

Hotline to report things 288 -0.02 45.5

Find where you can buy drugs & check prices 289 -0.04 49.0

Health advice line 289 -0.07 45.5

Buying & selling 288 -0.11 42.1

Agriculture advice line 290 -0.15 43.4

Market prices of agricultural produce at major markets 288 -0.16 42.1

Verify that drugs you buy are genuine and not fake 290 -0.18 43.8

Jobs market 290 -0.22 41.7

Get information on microfinance available in your area 289 -0.48 32.1

Receive health alerts & news 287 -0.49 24.1

Weather information in your area 289 -0.52 32.4

Check times & cost of transport 289 -0.57 28.6

Money payments to institutions 289 -0.57 29.3

Send your opinion to politician, newspaper, local radio station 290 -0.58 26.9

Information on school fees & admissions 289 -0.59 29.7

Money transfer to other people in Uganda 287 -0.61 30.7

Request certificates, registration documents, fill in & submit forms 287 -0.65 23.4

Find your exam timetables or results 289 -0.75 24.1

Governance advice line 286 -0.81 17.9

Scale: -2 = very unlikely; -1 = unlikely; 0 = no opinion; 1 = likely; 2 = very likely

Overall, men tend to express a greater willingness to use services. It is interesting to note that

among health and education related services, differences are not significant. Interest in

applications linked to income generating activities tends to be stronger among economically

active age groups (e.g. market prices, information on financial services, money transfer and

payments, transport). Intention to use services generally correlates positively with poverty

(stronger intention among better off groups). Comparing the top 5 services from the poorest

with those among the rural sample as a whole indicates that preferences are widely similar,

with the exception of agricultural advice, which is of greater appeal among the poorest. Note

a stronger interest in finding a doctor among the poorest, even though the distance to the


April 2008

32

nearest clinic is the same among groups. Services which appear to appeal to the poor centre

around:

• agriculture – agricultural advice, weather, and market information on agricultural

produce;

• emergencies and urgent communication – sending announcements to the radio;

• health – locating a doctor, information on drugs, health alerts.

Within the principal economic activity groups, there is a good deal of consistency over which

applications are ranked most highly – see Table 10.

Table 10 Ranking of top 5 applications by principal economic activity groups

Agriculture Sales Elementary

Percentage of rural sample engaged in occupation 37.9% 28.3% 21.7%

Sending greetings; 1 1 2

Send announcements to local radio station or newspaper 2 2 1

Market prices of agricultural produce at local markets 3 3 3

Agriculture advice line 4

Market prices of agricultural produce at major markets 5

Buying & selling 4

Make contact with support/interest group 5 5

Find where you can buy drugs & check prices 4

Attempts to identify any channel currently used to access information that was particularly

likely to be replaced by a mobile application were inconclusive. Moreover, intention to use

mobile based applications is not linked to the levels of satisfaction with the current means of

accessing information.

4.7 Attitudes towards channels and formats

Of the statements presented, there are two for which mean attitude scores are reasonably

positive (see Table 11):

• the relatively low cost of using SMS;

• the ability to get an immediate response using a phone (voice calls);

The issue which people feel most negatively about is computerised voice systems (IVR).


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Table 11 Attitude scores

Attitude N

Mean

score

(-4 to +4)

Sending an SMS will be cheaper than making a voice call 288 1.13

Voice calls will give me an immediate response 289 1.01

It will be difficult to get to a radio at the right time to listen to a particular programme 289 0.77

The cost of using a mobile phone based service will be good value for money 289 0.39

Phone operators will be capable of operating mobile phone based services 289 0.35

I won't know if an SMS message has been delivered 289 0.31

I will find it difficult to charge my mobile phone 274 0.28

With a mobile phone base service I will be able to keep a copy of the information to refer

to later

288 0.25

Mobile coverage will be poor 286 0.03

If I use an SMS service it will take too long for the reply to come back to the handset 289 -0.06

The phone companies will make sure that mobile phone services are available in my

language

288 -0.07

Using a phone operator is private because nobody can trace calls or transactions back to

me

289 -0.07

A phone operator will deliver messages for me straight away 290 -0.09

I will be happy to speak to a computerised voice menu system 288 -0.26

Women and men have broadly similar attitudes, with the exception that women have a more

positive attitude concerning the confidentiality of using a phone operator service. Poorer

groups and the elderly also appreciate the phone operator services. The young seem more SMS

aware – attitudes towards knowing if an SMS has been delivered are linked to age. The poor

are less confident in the use of SMS.

4.8 Planned behaviour - linking attitudes, intention and control

When presented with a general statement of intention to use mobile phone based services, 73%

gave a positive response – higher than might be expected from the responses to specific

applications given in Table 9.

There is a strong and positive correlation between how people feel about using mobile phone

based services (stated attitude) and their stated intention to use them (generic statement

rather than specific applications) – see Figure 10. There is also a positive correlation between

subjective norm and stated intention, indicating that intention is also influenced by people’s


April 2008

34

perception of how other people (social referents) will feel about them using mobile phone

based applications. However, the correlation with attitude is stronger, indicating that

intention is more strongly influenced by the attitudes of the individual.

Menus on mobile phones are not available in my language 0.236*** SMS is too complicated to use People don't know how to type an SMS

Stated 0.531*** Mobile coverage will be poor - I will find it difficult to charge my mobile phone - 0.238*** Voice calls will give me an immediate response - 0.201*** Sending an SMS will be cheaper than making a voice call - 0.325*** I won't know if an SMS message has been delivered - 0.206*** I will be happy to speak to a computerised voice menu system will be able to keep a copy of the information to refer to later - mobile phone services are available in my language - The cost of using a service will be good value for money - It will be difficult to get to a radio at the right time VPOs will be capable of operating services - A phone operator will deliver messages for me straight away - an SMS service will take too long for the reply to come back Using a phone operator is private

Stated

Attitudes

Subjective norm

Control

Intention

Stated 0.324***

Figure 10 links with stated intention to use mobile phone applications

(correlation coefficients)

The figure also highlights those specific attitudes that appear to act as drivers supporting

intention to use mobile based applications (in general):

• Relatively low cost of an SMS;

• The ability to get an immediate response.

Similarly, linkages with negative issues highlight barriers:

• inability to charge a mobile phone;

• lack of confidence in delivery of an SMS.

Only the lack of menus in local languages appears to act as a constraint to intention to use

mobile applications (in general).


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4.9 Barriers and drivers - Linking attitudes to potential applications

4.9.1 Applications relating to Economic, Physical and Natural Capitals

Links between attitudes and specific potential mobile phone based applications are presented

in Table 20.

Overall, intention to use many of these services is influenced by a perception of how others

feel about respondents using the service. Attitudes that are commonly linked to a number of

these services include:

• Availability of services in local languages;

• using the mobile phone is good value for money.

Difficulties that appear to be influential across some services include:

• Lack of menus in local language;

• Inability to type an SMS.

Some interesting observations relating to specific applications include:

• Market prices of agricultural produce - The ability to keep a record acts as a driver i.e.

people who feel this is important express a stronger intention to use these services;

• Weather information - there is a link with perceived difficulty of getting to the radio

(the dominant means of accessing weather information), which shows that intention is

stronger among people who feel that it is difficult to get to the radio at the right time.

4.9.2 Applications relating to Human Capital (Health and Education)


in Table 21.

Overall, intention to use health related services is influenced by the attitudes held by the

individual, while intention to use education related services is influenced by a perception of

how others feel about respondents using the service (reflecting a tendency for the young to be

more susceptible to peer pressure). Attitudes that are commonly linked to a number of these

services include:

• using the mobile phone is good value for money.

Some interesting observations relating to specific applications include:

• Verifying drugs - availability of service in local language is important; also ability to

keep a record for reference.


April 2008

36

• Locating doctor (medical expert) - the service will need to give people a prompt

response, reflecting the fact that there is usually a sense of urgency associated with

finding a doctor.

4.9.3 Applications relating to Social Capital (Social and Civic)


in Table 22.

Overall, intention to use socially related services is influenced by the attitudes held by the

individual, while intention to use governance related services is influenced by a perception of

how others feel about respondents using the service. Attitudes that are commonly linked to a

number of socially related services include:

• Sending an SMS will be cheaper than a voice call – this reflects the fact that people

currently use the phone to keep in touch, but they would be interested in a cheaper

alternative;

• The ability to keep a record to refer to later – possibly in much the same way as people

appreciate receiving greetings cards; also some announcements carry important details

such as time and dates of family events.

5 Information gap analysis

Issues about which people feel they are unable to get information are illustrated in Figure 9.

Important issues include (for which over 10% of respondents claim not to get information)

o finding a medical expert;

o learning about first aid, diseases etc.

o getting agricultural advice;

o introducing modern agricultural ideas;

o job opportunities;

o weather;

o fake drugs;

o expanding markets.

Note that most of these involve people seeking information (information pull), and face to face

contact is currently the most common means of accessing this information.


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37

Latent demand for information will lie among people who feel an issue is important, but are

not currently able to access related information. The proportions of people with positive views

on the importance of issues who claim not to get information are presented in Table 12.

The relationship between importance attributed to issue, and unmet demand (proportion of

respondents) is illustrated in Figure 11 and that overall, there is a trend for people to make

sure they find sources of information relating to those issues they regard as important. Priority

issues would appear to include:

1. finding a medical expert;

2. learning about first aid, diseases etc.

3. introducing modern agricultural ideas;

4. fake drugs;

5. expanding markets.


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Table 12 Latent demand for information – respondents not getting information

Number of respondents registering issue as important, but claiming not to get information

% of rural sample (N=290)

Importance of issue (mean score)

Fake drugs 128 44.1 2.08

Raising awareness of human rights 74 25.5 1.87

Expanding markets 68 23.4 2.06

Having your say in political debates 65 22.4 1.65

Finding a medical expert 64 22.1 2.38

Adult education 53 18.3 1.66

Introducing modern agricultural ideas 50 17.2 2.16

Learning about first aid, disease prevention & treatment 49 16.9 2.32

Compliance with government & legal requirements 45 15.5 1.80

Job opportunities 43 14.8 2.13

Getting agricultural advice 42 14.5 2.18

Weather 41 14.1 2.10

Making cash transfers remotely 38 13.1 1.45

Availability of savings, credit & other financial services 27 9.3 1.88

Finding drugs and what they cost 27 9.3 2.35

Finding the right school 22 7.6 2.04

Transport 20 6.9 2.24

Learning more about my local government 19 6.6 1.98

Remittances to/from family 15 5.2 2.12

Crime & insecurity 14 4.8 2.18

Sport 12 4.1 1.92

Getting market information 11 3.8 2.17

Finding a boy/girlfriend (dating) 7 2.4 1.36

Entertainment 6 2.1 2.23

News 6 2.1 2.58

Understanding family planning 5 1.7 2.40

Contacting people in an emergency 3 1.0 2.71

Keeping in touch with family & friends 3 1.0 2.64

Understanding HIV/AIDS 2 0.7 2.73

Importance scale: 0 = never / n/a; 1 = rarely; 2 = occasionally; 3 = often


April 2008

39

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0

45.0

50.0

1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00

Importance

Pro

po

rtio

n o

f ru

ral

sa

mp

le t

ha

t "d

oe

s n

ot

get

it"

Figure 11 Proportion of sample not getting information against importance of

issue (N=290)

Table 13 considers only the poorest group, and presents the proportion of respondents who feel

an issue is important that claim they do not get information relating to the issue. Overall, this

ranking is similar to the rural sample as a whole.

Table 13 Latent demand for information – respondents not getting information

(poorest)

Proportion of respondents registering issue as important, but claiming not to get information

Fake drugs 56.9










1

2 3

4

5


April 2008

40

6 Poverty implications of potential mobile applications

The poverty implications of each mobile phone based application are summarised in Table 14.

The following observations can be made:

• The poverty impact of most mobile apps are that the poor can get their information

cheaper (i.e. substitution of alternative means) and thus have more income for supporting

their livelihoods. Both chronic and transient poor would benefit from this.

• Many of the poverty impacts relate to information as a public good – one household

member pays and then shares it.

• one important dimension is being certain to get accurate information (i.e. most starkly on

drugs authenticity). Current means do not guarantee this but mobile applications – in

theory – could, depending on the source of information. Both chronic and transient poor

would benefit from this.

• One further important dimension is mobile phone applications cutting the cost of

corruption to the poor’s weekly expenses. Many applications can relate to cost savings from

circumnavigating day-to-day and on-the-ground corruption that prevents the poor from

claiming services at the rate they are supposed to pay and avoiding all sorts of informal

payments for state services. Here is where the chronic poor benefit most clearly. This also

relates to being certain to have accurate information. Economists call it imperfect or

asymmetrical information and say it’s a major cause of market failure.


April 2008

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Table 14 Poverty implications of mobile applications

Mobile application

Poverty impact Livelihoods Capital Means of access

Benefit Type of poverty

Notes

Hu

ma

n

So

cia

l

Ec

on

om

ic

Na

tura

l

Ph

ys

ical

Cu

rre

nt

- fa

ce t

o f

ace

Cu

rre

nt

- p

ho

ne

Po

ten

tia

l s

ave

tr

an

sp

ort

ati

on

P

ote

nti

al in

cre

as

ed

fr

eq

ue

ncy

In

cre

ase

d a

cc

ura

cy

Lo

we

r c

orr

up

tio

n

Tra

ns

ien

t

Ch

ron

ic

Mig

ran

ts

Sending greetings

Immediate impact: benefits to (emotional) well-being and supports long term reduction in poverty by building social capital or coping mechanisms of support and thus reduces risk during times of acute shocks from seasonality/poor harvest/etc. x x x x x x x

Those who livelihoods are primarily dependent on others.

Sending announcements to local radio station/newspaper

Reduces poverty by building social capital or coping mechanisms of support and thus reduces risk during times of acute shocks from seasonality/poor harvest/etc. but also depending on the nature of the announcement via good governance and improved accountability of local leaders. Substitution of costs of alternative means of getting messages out on the radio – transport costs and time taken. x x x x x

Make contact with support/interest

Reduces poverty by building social capital or coping mechanisms of support and thus reduces risk during times of acute shocks from seasonality/poor harvest/etc. x x x x x


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Mobile application



Notes

Get contact details of local doctors

Reduces poverty via access to services to maintain human capital levels and thus economic productivity People are prevented from finding doctors are the moment due to lack of information regarding nearest clinic and/or if medical staff are certified. (and transportation costs of travelling to clinic may be greater than phone call). x x x x x x

Those whose livelihoods are prone to long term illnesses – likely the chronic poor.

Market prices of agricultural produce at local markets

Reduces poverty via maximisation of price for agriculture produce and/or planning for and management of vulnerabilities due to prices changes. x x x x x x

Those with livelihoods in agriculture – likely the chronic poor but maybe the transient poor as they have surplus food to sell.

Hotline to report things

Reduces poverty via good governance and improved accountability of local leaders. x x x x x x x x

Benefits transient and chronic poor.

Find where to buy drugs and check prices

Reduces poverty via minimising expenditures by finding cheapest drugs. Health costs can be a major cause of poverty in themselves. x x x

The transient poor who buy drugs, so this service will tend not to benefit the poorest.

Health advice line

Reduces poverty by maintaining health and thus economic productivity. x x x x

Transient poor might pay for this. Chronic poor need subsidy

Buying and selling

Reduces poverty by access to information on best prices for trading and thus maximising income. x x x x

Those whose livelihoods are multiple – the transient poor.

Agriculture advice line

Reduces poverty by access to information on agricultural productivity improvements and access to public services such as agricultural extension programmes. x x x x

Those whose livelihoods are in agriculture – likely the chronic poor.


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Mobile application



Notes

Market prices for agriculture produce at major markets

Reduces poverty by maximising income – if farmers know prices at major markets it can help negotiating with local traders. It also reduces poverty by ensuring highest price and planning for and management of vulnerabilities due to price shocks. x x x x x

Not likely to benefit chronic poor. Only larger scale farmers likely to deal with major markets?

Verifying drugs

Reduces poverty because counterfeit drugs are the vast majority of drugs sold to poor people. Health costs can be a major cause of poverty in themselves. x x x x x

The transient poor. The poorest often unable to afford drugs

Job market Reduces poverty via new sources of income and diversification from livelihoods based primarily on agriculture. x x x x x x

Those whose livelihoods are based on migrations i.e. casual labourers might stand to benefit most

Micro-finance information

Reduces poverty because of access to income for investment and many poor people do not know they have access (or a right to micro-credit in some countries).

x x x x

Micro-credit tends to draw the poorest further into debt as they are unable to invest and make success of business. Service will be of greatest benefit to the transient poor, and could act as a hazard to the poorest (depends on performance of micro credit agencies themselves)

Health alerts Reduces poverty via information to improve health and thus economic productivity.

x x x x x

Chronic and transient poor. Migrants might be exposed to greater health risks.

Weather Reduces poverty via planning for and management of vulnerabilities due to weather impacts on agriculture and non-agricultural incomes.

x x x x

Those whose livelihoods are in agriculture – i.e. the chronic poor but would they be able to pay? Also migrant agricultural labour – different ways in which weather is important (to different groups) e.g. planting, harvesting, arranging transport, labouring (painting, building)


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Mobile application



Notes

Transport Reduces poverty via allowing planning to manage transport costs.

x x x x

Those whose livelihoods is based on migration – likely the transient poor as better off tend to spend more on travel – they will benefit more.

Money payments to institutions

Reduces poverty via ensuring correct payment (often payment demanded is significantly higher due to corruption) and households can plan and manage costs to reduce expenses shocks. x x x x x x

Both chronic and transient poor would benefit from cutting cost of corruption.

Send your opinion to…

Reduces poverty via good governance and improved accountability of local leaders. x x x x x x x x


Information on school fees…

Reduces poverty via ensuring correct payment (often payment demanded is significantly higher due to corruption) and households can plan and manage expenses. x x x x x


Money transfer

Reduces poverty by reducing transaction costs and maximises money value of transfer. x x x x x

Transient poor and household with migrating members.

Request certificates

Reduces poverty because many poor people do not know what/how/under what terms they have access to public services. x x x x x


Exam timetable

Reduces poverty by reducing transportation costs to get results and plan for expenses to travel to exams. x x x x x

Both chronic and transient poor would benefit.

Governance advice line

Reduces poverty as above and via good governance and improved accountability of local leaders. x x x x x x x x x



April 2008

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7 Uganda Information and Policy environment


April 2008

46

8 Specific issues

8.1 Financial Dependence (the role of remittances)

International remittances is an issue that has received a good deal of attention within the

donor community recently, and the role of remittances in both national economies and rural

livelihoods is becoming increasingly recognised. The survey provides some interesting data on

the topic.

Headline statistics from the rural sample:


Uganda;

� 24.8% of respondents have members of their immediate family living abroad;

� Distance to the nearest bank is greater for the poorest;

� 36% of respondents have access to a bank account (31% have their own account);

� Just under half of the sample regard themselves as dependent to some extent on family

members living elsewhere;

� 39% of respondents receive money from family members living elsewhere (Table 15);

food and clothing are also significant;

� A higher proportion of the sample (49%) indicated that they use various means of

receiving money (see Table 16), but this question was not restricted to immediate

family members;

� This table shows that travelling to collect money is the most common means (either in

person or through a relative), followed by bank accounts and money transfer systems.

When looking at expressed intention to use potential mobile phone applications, intentions are

generally stronger among respondents with family members living elsewhere in Uganda, those

with family members living abroad, and those with access to bank accounts. This simply

supports the finding that intention to use services is stronger among higher status groups. The

fact that people without bank accounts do not appear more interested in mobile phone based

financial services tends to indicate that consumers view mobile phone based financial services

as complementary to conventional bank accounts rather than an alternative.


April 2008

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Table 15 Type of support received from family members living elsewhere (N=290)

% of respondents

money 39.0

clothing & shoes 15.9

food 17.9

mobile phone 4.5

airtime 4.5

other 2.8

none 49.7

Table 16 Means of receiving money (N=290)

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Bring it home in person 40 13.8 27.8 27.8

By another relative 31 10.7 21.5 49.3

By a neighbour 2 .7 1.4 50.7

By bus driver or stranger 8 2.8 5.6 56.3

Through a merchant 4 1.4 2.8 59.0

Through a bank account 22 7.6 15.3 74.3

Through a western union/moneygram/foreign exchange bureau

19 6.6 13.2 87.5

Through the post office 4 1.4 2.8 90.3

Mobile phone airtime 4 1.4 2.8 93.1

Other 10 3.4 6.9 100.0

Valid

Total 144 49.7 100.0

Missing System 146 50.3

Total 290 100.0

8.2 Networks and groups

Around one third of respondents are members of some form of group – see Table 17. The

median size of group is 30, and the scope of most groups (two thirds) is at the village level .

Given that most groups link people within a village, communication will be done through face

to face contact, so there is no clear benefit from a mobile phone based networking application.

This leaves one third of groups with a wider scope, with members equivalent to around 10% of

the total rural sample. When comparing intention to use mobile services between these


April 2008

48

respondents and others, they have more positive intention to use services relating to economic

capital:

� Buying and selling;

� Information on microfinance, credit, and financial services;

� Money transfers and payments;

� Jobs.

Interestingly, these respondents are not more interested in services to help them make contact

with other support or interest groups.

Table 17 Membership of groups (N=290)

% of respondents

cooperative 5.9

NGO 3.1

financial 7.6

religious 6.9

other 7.6

Others includes:

� Social;

� Leisure – sports, dance, drama, artists;

� Disabled;

� Burial.

8.3 Literacy

Illiteracy is clearly an issue in a developing country such as Uganda - national statistics indicate

that literacy is 67% (20022). However, literacy (in any language) among this sample of phone

users is higher at around 95%. English is the national language, so this is the single language in

which the greatest number of respondents are literate – 72%. Over 50% are literate in the

second language – Luganda, even though only 12% of the sample are Baganda. Literacy in other

languages more or less mirrors the ethnic composition of the sample. This demonstrates that

Luganda also acts as a common language (note that literacy in Swahili is relatively low at

around 25%). Literacy in one or other of the two main languages (English and Luganda) is 82%.

2 UNESCO Institute for Statistics


April 2008

49

When looking at links between attitudes and intention to use mobile phone based services, a

lack of menus in local languages appears to act as a constraint to intention to use mobile

applications, and availability of services in local language appears to be influential for some

specific services (especially health related services). These findings may appear to be at odds

with the literacy rates. One explanation is simply that although people may be able to read

and write in a number of languages, they can still hold a strong preference for their own

language.

For each attitude statement, those respondents registering a positive intention have been

analysed to give a breakdown of their literacy in the main language groups. Low levels of

literacy implies that the attitude is in sympathy with illiteracy, so issues that appear important

for people with low levels of English literacy include:

• Making mobile phone services are available local language;

• A phone operator will deliver messages;

• Confidentiality of using a phone operator because calls cannot be traced;

• Phone operators will be capable of operating mobile phone based services;

• I will be happy to speak to a computerised voice menu system.

This tends to confirms that the illiterate will be prepared to use speech rather than text

systems.

8.4 Urban Users

The survey sampled 116 users from urban areas; this includes not only Kampala but also district

capitals – see Table 4. Although the analysis focuses on the rural sample, this section draws out

some of the characteristics of urban respondents, mainly by highlighting ways in which they

differ from the rural sample.

Demographics of the urban sample are:

� The sample has a gender balance of 68:32 (male:female ratio);

� The mean age of the sample is 30.6 years old;

� The sample has high educational status – 43% have post secondary education – see

Error! Reference source not found. and Error! Reference source not found.; this

means the numbers in the poorest category are small (Table 18);


Uganda and 46.6% of respondents have members of their immediate family living

abroad.


April 2008

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Table 18 Poverty groupings – urban and rural

Urban

(N=116) Rural

(N=290)

Percent Percent

Valid poorest (incomplete primary & below) 6.9 20.0

poor (primary to secondary) 36.1 55.2

medium (post secondary) 56.9 24.8

Total 100.0 100.0

Differences between urban and rural samples in the gender balance, level of education,

poverty categories, and number of households with family members abroad are significant.

Patterns of use of ICTs

Comparison of the patterns of use of ICTs among the urban sample (Figure 12) with patterns of

use among the rural sample (Figure 8) clearly shows a greater use of all communication media

among urban residents, with the single exception of radio, which is almost universally listened

to among both urban and rural samples.

0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%

Radio

TV

Newspaper

Private mobile phone

Fixed line phone

Internet

Fax

SMS

manned public phone

unmanned public phone booth

Proportion of respondents

One or more times a day

One or more times a week

More than once a month

Less than once a month

Not used

Figure 12 Breakdown of frequency of use of ICTs – urban sample (N=116)


April 2008

51

The direction of both voice and SMS traffic is roughly balanced – 54% of voice calls are

incoming, and 46% of SMS messages are incoming. This compares with an unbalanced traffic

direction for the rural sample, where only around one third of traffic is incoming.

83.6% of respondents owned a mobile phone, and an additional 4.3% own a SIM card only. The

distribution of network subscribers is as follows:

• MTN 62.1%

• Celtel 31.0%

• Mango/UTL 25.0%

• Other 3.4%

Information needs

Overall, urban respondents register higher importance for most issues, access information more

frequently, and express higher levels of satisfaction with the information they receive. Only on

agricultural matters do rural respondents register the higher importance. Issues for which

satisfaction levels are higher among rural respondents include:

� Understanding family planning;

� Adult education;

� Crime & insecurity;

� Finding a boy/girlfriend (dating);

� Learning more about my local government.

These highlight some features of urban living in Uganda, which would appear to be

characterised by a lack of community and networking (alienation from government, fear of

crime, loneliness). It may be that adult education and family planning awareness are

campaigns targeted at rural areas. It is interesting to note that urban residents are more

dependent on support family members living elsewhere than rural residents.

Potential Mobile Applications

Overall, the likelihood of using services is higher among urban respondents. Of interest are

those applications for which differences in intention to use are not significant:

� Market prices of agricultural produce at local markets;

� Market prices of agricultural produce at major markets;

� Agriculture advice line;

� Weather information in your area;

� Send announcements to local radio station or newspaper;

� Send your opinion to politician, newspaper, local radio station;

� Make contact with support/interest group;

� Request certificates, registration documents, fill in & submit forms.


April 2008

52

Several of these are related to agricultural matters, so the fact that expressed intention is

similar indicates that urban residents have an active interest in agriculture, reflecting the ties

that most urban residents still have to their villages. Another point of interest is that although

interest in sending announcements is balanced, urban respondents registered a much higher

intention to use applications for sending greetings. It is not clear whether the desire is to keep

in touch with people within the urban environment (given the loneliness factor mentioned

above), or whether they want to keep in touch with family in rural areas.

Attitudes towards channels

Urban respondents are more confident with SMS, although they registered a stronger view that

SMS is complicated to use. Note that higher levels of SMS use among urban resident indicate

that this view does not appear to stop them using it.

Urban respondents have a more strongly negative view of phone operators (ability to operate

services, message delivery), but they have a more positive attitude towards the confidentiality

that using a phone operator service can provide.

Issues associated with status and peer pressure appears to be more important among urban

respondents (feeling that others would have a positive view about respondents using the

services).

9 Conclusions

Phones, access and ICTs

In terms of communication media, it is clear that phones now have a wide reach into rural

communities. The rapid increase in phone penetration, coupled with the good coverage

available in the country, indicates that handset ownership is likely to spread into poorer

sections of society. TV audiences are also increasing and, as coverage increases, this is likely

to emerge as a viable alternative to radio, which is currently the only medium with universal

coverage.

While the poor make extensive use of public phones, it is interesting to note that even mobile

phone owners also use public phones, and that they make more intensive use of public phones

than non-owners. Most reasons given for using public phones are associated with cost e.g.

lower cost (calling off network), lower denomination (compared with a top-up) and

management (timer). It is clear that the poor, in particular, appreciate some of the services

provided by phone operators.


April 2008

53

One of the implications of public phone use is that it is more difficult to receive calls – only

around one third of calls and SMS messages are received, meaning that the rural poor are

bearing more than their “fair share” of the costs of communication. Given that phones are

mostly used for calls to family and friends, this has implications for the development of social

types of applications. It would be attractive to find a way of sharing the cost of the service

(much like a collect call, or reversed charge call). This needs to be considered carefully, as

collect call services for example, have not been widely adopted in Africa.

Around half of respondents claim to use SMS, although use is higher among the better off (only

10% of the poorest use SMS, compared with 82% of the highest group). TV audiences are also

increasing and, as coverage increases, this is likely to emerge as a viable alternative to radio,

which is currently the only medium with universal coverage.

Livelihood needs, information, and potential applications

The sustainable livelihoods approach asserts that people respond to shocks by deploying the

assets at their disposal as best they can. The ranking of livelihoods issues shows the

importance of shocks, or vulnerability, and the value of assets that enable people to respond to

those shocks. For example, HIV/AIDS (along with other diseases) presents a threat that will

result in loss of income (inability to work), and eventually in death. The importance attributed

to contacting people in emergencies (and the frequency with which information is accessed)

indicates that the threat (or hazard) posed by emergencies is severe, and that they occur

regularly (risk is high). Reducing vulnerability would, therefore, appear to be a priority

development need.

Even though the risk of shocks may be perceived as high, they will still occur relatively

infrequently, compared with listening to a weather forecast on the radio, for example. For

several of the top priority issues, people only access information occasionally implying that any

mobile phone application would be used only infrequently. This creates a bit of a paradox in

that some services that might be of considerable benefit to the rural poor are least likely to be

financially sustainable. Examples include finding a medical expert, verifying drugs, and

contacting people in emergencies.

On the other hand, there are some issues that people regard as less important, but for which

they access information regularly e.g. sport, entertainment. These indicate areas where

services are more likely to prove financially sustainable, but there is no clear development

impact. Having said that, one of the criticisms of the livelihoods approach is that it has a

strong econometric focus and does not adequately take account of psychological factors that


April 2008

54

may be described as “wellbeing”. The strongest intention registered is for purely social

communication – sending greetings.

Overall, it is clear that higher status groups are more information oriented – they place greater

importance on issues, they access information more frequently, and are more likely to use

mobile applications. They are, therefore, likely to be the early adopters of new mobile

applications. However, providing services to higher status groups would most likely serve to

increase local divides. Grameen might like, therefore, to consider applications likely to appeal

universally across status groups. Issues in this category include family matters (e.g. keeping in

touch, finding doctors and drugs), and agricultural services (e.g. market prices, agricultural

advice, weather). The top 5 services among those engaged in agriculture are:

1. Sending greetings;

2. Send announcements to local radio station or newspaper;

3. Market prices of agricultural produce at local markets;

4. Agriculture advice line;

5. Market prices of agricultural produce at major markets.

A summary of mobile applications and characteristics of associated livelihoods issues is given in

Table 19.

Mobile applications and versatility

When compared with other means of accessing information, one of the key features of the

phone is its interactivity – communication (using either voice or data) is two way. In this

respect it is an obvious substitute for face to face communication. However, if mobile phone

applications could be designed to fit various aspects of information that influence the choice of

channel, they may be able to substitute for other media as well.

� Origin of publication – coupling with a national database would enable a mobile

application to access information generated nationally or globally, which currently

tends to be broadcast (e.g. weather forecasts on the radio). The challenge then

becomes one of cost – broadcast media are free.

� Origin of publication – every mobile phone owner (and public phone user) has the

potential to publish information, which will be local in nature. This can be explicit

(such as voting for the Pop Idol TV programme) or implicit (such as tracking the spread

of disease through enquiries about the disease).

� Local information – face to face discussion is the best way for farmers to share ideas,

tips and experience. Initiatives such as the Radio Apac programme sponsored by

WOUGHNET have attempted to adapt this behaviour to ICTs, and have created a

database of frequently asked questions and answers. Creating some kind of clearing

house would enable users to interrogate local knowledge.


April 2008

55

� Time frame – any on-demand service will enable users to access information when

needed.

� Interactivity – database systems are good at sifting through large amounts of data; the

challenge is maintaining a good user experience.

There are some aspects of communication where a mobile application will be limited:

� The phone will not be able to substitute for face to face contact regarding issues which

require a personal transaction e.g. a doctor will usually still need to examine a

patient. There will, however, be scope for complementing person interaction.

� Complexity of information – it will be difficult to communicate complex data on a

small screen; this may be overcome by talking with an operator, or downloading audio /

video files.

Mobile applications – strengths and weaknesses

Along with radio, phones appear to be gender neutral channel for communication, at least in

terms of access and frequency of use. One of the potential benefits of mobile applications is

their ability to deliver accurate information; face to face information exchange is commonly

regarded as unreliable as it is susceptible to rumour, bias, and ignorance. Another benefit is

specificity – the ability to deliver information that is targeted to the user (e.g. by geographical

location, language) in a way that broadcast media cannot e.g. weather forecasts.

A positive view that mobile phones offer good value for money appears to support the uptake

of mobile phone applications. A characteristic of many mobile applications is that people can

access information more cheaply i.e. through substitution of existing means. This is consistent

with other work that has pointed out that the economic benefit of mobile phones tends to be

in cost reduction rather than increased income.

A further important dimension is the ability of mobile phone applications to cut the cost of

corruption to the poor. Many applications can relate to cost savings from circumnavigating day-

to-day and on-the-ground corruption that prevents the poor from claiming services at the rate

they are supposed to pay and avoiding all sorts of informal payments for state services. This

also relates to accuracy of information.

Business models

Although the analysis has gathered some data on number of people interested in using

applications, frequency of use of information, and channels currently used to access

information, this section presents some final thoughts on how applications can be made

sustainable. There remains a tension between viewing information as for private gain or public


April 2008

56

good. Rural communities tend to work collaboratively on certain matters, and certain types of

information may fall into this category - one household member pays and then shares it.

Where there is a tangible cost benefit, it is likely that the poor will pay for a service, as the

mobile market has demonstrated. The poor in particular, will be reluctant to pay for services

offering potential or future benefit (e.g. introducing new crop varieties) as they tend to be risk

averse. NGOs have a track record of using the media to pay for programmes as part of their

work (e.g. health awareness campaigns). Institutions may, therefore, be interested in

subsidising services providing a public good.

Moreover, a service may be able to generate data that is of public good (e.g. tracking spread of

disease, monitoring insecurity), in which case a government institution may be able to justify a

subsidy. This raises the possibility of interesting partnerships between government and private

sector institutions, both of which would be interested in tracking production (e.g. crops, goods)

– one for national statistics and policy development, the other for commercial management.

D R A F T Rural Communities and communication needs (Uganda) – Desk Research Gamos

57

Table 19 Summary of Mobile applications and data from corresponding livelihood issues

Potential mobile application Livelihoods issue

% with positive intention to use

corresponding livelihoods issue*

Importance of corresponding issue

frequency of use

Current means of access

% claiming they don’t get info

Sending greetings 73.4

Send announcements to local radio station or newspaper 59.0

Contacting people in an emergency 2.71 1.82 Face to face 1.0

Make contact with support/interest groups 56.2

Market prices of agricultural produce at local markets 53.4

Getting market information 2.17 1.76 Face to face 3.8

Get contact details of local doctor 51.7 Finding a medical expert 2.38 1.30 Face to face 22.1

Find where you can buy drugs & check prices 49.0

Finding drugs and what they cost 2.35 1.51 Face to face 9.3

Health advice line 45.5 Learning about first aid, disease prevention & treatment 2.32 1.42

Radio / face to face 16.9

Hotline to report things 45.5 Crime & insecurity 2.18 1.47 Radio 4.8

Verify that drugs you buy are genuine and not fake 43.8

Fake drugs 2.08 0.64 Don’t get it 44.1

Agriculture advice line 43.4 Introducing modern agricultural ideas

2.16 1.12 Radio / face to

face 17.2

Buying & selling 42.1 Expanding markets - Means 2.06 1.00 Don’t get it 23.4

Market prices of agricultural produce at major markets 42.1

Jobs market 41.7 Job opportunities 2.13 1.33 Face to face 14.8

Weather information in your area 32.4 Weather 2.10 1.58 Radio 14.1

Get information on microfinance available in your area 32.1

Availability of savings, credit & other financial services

1.88 1.36

Radio / face to face 9.3

Money transfer to other people in Uganda 30.7 Remittances to/from family 2.12 1.55 Face to face 5.2

Information on school fees & admissions 29.7 Finding the right school 2.04 1.31 Face to face 7.6

Money payments to institutions 29.3 Making cash transfers remotely 1.45 0.76 Face to face 13.1

Check times & cost of transport 28.6 Transport 2.24 1.74 Face to face 6.9

Send your opinion to politician, newspaper, local radio station 26.9

Having your say in political debates 1.65 0.83 Don’t get it 22.4

Find your exam timetables or results 24.1

Receive health alerts & news 24.1

Request certificates, registration documents, fill in & submit forms 23.4

Compliance with government & legal requirements

1.8 1.24 Radio 15.5

Governance advice line 17.9 Learning more about local government 1.98 1.37 Face to face 6.6


58

Table 20 Links between attitudes and applications (correlation coefficients) - Economic, Physical & Natural Capitals (N=290)

Ma

rke

t p

rices o

f a

gri

cu

ltura

l p

rod

uce

- lo

ca

l

Ma

rke

t p

rices o

f a

gri

cu

ltura

l p

rod

uce

- m

ajo

r

Bu

yin

g &

se

llin

g

Ag

ricultu

re a

dvic

e

line

Ge

t in

form

atio

n o

n

mic

rofina

nce

Mo

ney t

ran

sfe

r to

o

the

r pe

ople

in

U

ga

nd

a

Mo

ney p

aym

en

ts

to institu

tion

s

Jo

bs m

ark

et

Ch

eck t

ime

s &

co

st o

f tr

an

sp

ort

We

ath

er

info

rma

tio

n in

yo

ur

are

a

How do you personally feel about mobile phone based services in general?

How strongly do you feel those who you respect would encourage you to use mobile phone based services? 0.204*** 0.4*** 0.435*** 0.28*** 0.389*** 0.272***

Mobile coverage will be poor

I will find it difficult to charge my mobile phone 0.354*** 0.261*** -0.222***

Voice calls will give me an immediate response

Sending an SMS will be cheaper than making a voice call

I won't know if an SMS message has been delivered 0.222*** 0.228***

I will be happy to speak to a computerised voice menu system

With a mobile phone base service I will be able to keep a copy of the information to refer to later 0.21*** 0.21***

The phone companies will make sure that mobile phone services are available in my language 0.246*** 0.212*** 0.302*** -0.4*** -0.206*** 0.316***

The cost of using a mobile phone based service will be good value for money 0.227*** 0.256*** 0.225*** -0.278*** -0.312*** 0.266***

It will be difficult to get to a radio at the right time to listen to a particular programme 0.268*** 0.215*** -0.251***

Phone operators will be capable of operating mobile phone based services -0.241*** -0.23***

A phone operator will deliver messages for me straight away -0.292*** -0.303*** -0.218*** -0.228*** 0.226***

If I use an SMS service it will take too long for the reply to come back to the handset

Using a phone operator is private because nobody can trace calls or transactions back to me -0.253*** -0.332*** -0.227***

Menus on mobile phones are not available in my language 0.231*** 0.203***

SMS is too complicated to use

People don't know how to type an SMS -0.206*** 0.212*** 0.28*** 0.203***

Degree of significance (* p< 0.05; ** p <0.01, *** p<0.001)


59

Table 21 Links between attitudes and applications (correlation coefficients) - Human Capital (N=290)

Ve

rify

th

at d

rugs

yo

u b

uy a

re

ge

nu

ine

an

d n

ot

fake

F

ind

whe

re y

ou

ca

n b

uy d

rugs &

ch

eck p

rice

s in

yo

ur

are

a

He

alth

ad

vic

e lin

e

Ge

t co

nta

ct d

eta

ils

of

loca

l d

octo

r

Re

ce

ive

he

alth

a

lert

s &

ne

ws

Fin

d y

ou

r e

xa

m

tim

eta

ble

s o

r re

su

lts

Info

rma

tio

n o

n

scho

ol fe

es &

a

dm

issio

ns

How do you personally feel about mobile phone based services in general? 0.285*** 0.313*** 0.241***

How strongly do you feel those who you respect would encourage you to use mobile phone based services? 0.254*** 0.274***


I will find it difficult to charge my mobile phone -0.224***

Voice calls will give me an immediate response 0.236***

Sending an SMS will be cheaper than making a voice call 0.255***

I won't know if an SMS message has been delivered 0.232***


With a mobile phone base service I will be able to keep a copy of the information to refer to later 0.226***

The phone companies will make sure that mobile phone services are available in my language 0.315***

The cost of using a mobile phone based service will be good value for money 0.273*** 0.212*** 0.215***

It will be difficult to get to a radio at the right time to listen to a particular programme -0.238***

Phone operators will be capable of operating mobile phone based services -0.23***

A phone operator will deliver messages for me straight away -0.233***


Using a phone operator is private because nobody can trace calls or transactions back to me

Menus on mobile phones are not available in my language


People don't know how to type an SMS



60

Table 22 Links between attitudes and applications (correlation coefficients) - Social Capital (N=290)

Se

nd

ing

gre

etin

gs

Se

nd

a

nn

oun

cem

en

ts to

lo

cal ra

dio

sta

tio

n

or

ne

wsp

ape

r

Ho

tlin

e t

o r

ep

ort

th

ings

Se

nd

yo

ur

op

inio

n

to p

olit

icia

n,

ne

wsp

ap

er,

loca

l ra

dio

sta

tio

n

Ma

ke

co

nta

ct

with

su

ppo

rt/in

tere

st

Re

qu

est

ce

rtific

ate

s,

do

cum

ents

, fill

in &

su

bm

it fo

rms

Go

ve

rnan

ce

ad

vic

e lin

e

How do you personally feel about mobile phone based services in general? 0.323*** 0.24*** 0.202***

How strongly do you feel those who you respect would encourage you to use mobile phone based services?

0.252*** 0.318***


I will find it difficult to charge my mobile phone

Voice calls will give me an immediate response

Sending an SMS will be cheaper than making a voice call 0.225*** 0.209*** 0.212***

I won't know if an SMS message has been delivered


With a mobile phone base service I will be able to keep a copy of the information to refer to later

0.21*** 0.223***

The phone companies will make sure that mobile phone services are available in my language

The cost of using a mobile phone based service will be good value for money 0.25***

It will be difficult to get to a radio at the right time to listen to a particular programme

Phone operators will be capable of operating mobile phone based services -0.231*** -0.259***

A phone operator will deliver messages for me straight away -0.247***


Using a phone operator is private because nobody can trace calls or transactions back to me

Menus on mobile phones are not available in my language 0.237***


People don't know how to type an SMS


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