project work ph. d thesis caro - university of nigeria

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IKELUSI CAROLINE O.

EFFECT OF APPLICATION OF ERGONOMIC PRINCIPLES IN PSYCHO-

PRODUCTIVE SKILLS ACQUISITION ON STUDENTS

EDUCATION

Ugwuoke Chukwuma

Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name

DN : CN = Webmaster’s name

O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka

OU = Innovation Centre

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EFFECT OF APPLICATION OF ERGONOMIC PRINCIPLES IN

PSYCHO-PRODUCTIVE SKILLS ACQUISITION ON STUDENTS

IN MAIZE PRODUCTION IN SENIOR SECONDARY

SCHOOLS IN ABUJA

BY

IKELUSI, CAROLINE ONYEBUCHI

PG/Ph.D/08/48996

DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL TEACHER EDUCATION

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

DECEMBER, 2013

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EFFECT OF APPLICATION OF ERGONOMIC PRINCIPLES IN

PSYCHO-PRODUCTIVE SKILLS ACQUISITION ON

STUDENTS IN MAIZE PRODUCTION IN SENIOR

SECONDARY

SCHOOLS IN ABUJA

BY

IKELUSI, CAROLINE ONYEBUCHI

PG/Ph.D/08/48996

A RESEARCH THESIS PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT

VOCATIONAL TEACHER EDUCATION (AGRIC. EDUCATION)

FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA IN

FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF DOCTOR

OF PHILOSOPHY DEGREE IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION

SUPERVISOR: PROF. E. C. OSINEM

DECEMBER, 2013

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APPROVAL PAGE

THIS THESIS HAS BEEN APPROVED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF

VOCATIONAL TEACHER EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF

NIGERIA, NSUKKA

By

………………………… ………………………………

PROF. E. C. OSINEM Prof. C. A. OBI

Supervisor HEAD OF

DEPARTMENT

…………………………… ………………………………

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL

EXAMINER

….………………………………………….

PROF. I.C.S. IFELUNNI

DEAN, FACULTY OF EDUCATION

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CERTIFICATION

IKELUSI, CAROLINE ONYEBUCHI, a postgraduate student in the

Department of Vocational Teacher Education and with registration number

PG/Ph.D/08/48996 has satisfactorily completed the research work for the requirements

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Agricultural Education. The work embodied

in this Thesis is original and has not been submitted in part or full for any Diploma or

Degree of this institution or any other University.

…………………………….. ………………………………

IKELUSI C. O. Prof. E. C. OSINEM

Candidate Supervisor

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DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my darling husband, Mr. Anthony Ikelusi and my

daughter, Divine Anthony.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The researcher wishes to express her profound gratitude and appreciation to

Almighty God for making grace and wisdom available for the successful completion of

this work. She is also indebted to her supervisor Prof. E. C. Osinem for his sincere

guidance, patience, endurance and tireless efforts in going through every stage of the

work. The researcher acknowledges with gratitude the help received from Prof. E. U.

Anyakoha, Prof. S. O. Olaitan, Dr. B. C. Madu, and Dr. Mrs. F. O. Ifeanyieze for their

useful suggestions which contributed immensely to the quality of this work.

She appreciates the efforts of Dr. F. M. Onu, Dr. R. O. Mama, and Dr. C. C.

Onyeonagu for assisting in validating the research instruments. She is highly indebted

to her ever loving, caring and ideal husband Engineer Tony Ikelusi for his moral and

financial contributions which made this work a success. The researcher is thankful to

her pastors and brethren of All Christian Fellowship Mission for their prayers and

encouragement. She also appreciates her loving children, Divine, Ifeanyi and Jennifer

for their prayers and support.

Her special thanks and gratitude to members of her family, especially Sir Israel

Ajuonuma and Mrs. Chika Obiukwu for their tireless effort and labour of love to make

this work possible. She also extends her gratitude to her friends and well-wishers for

their good wishes.

Ikelusi, C. O

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE - - - - - - - - - i

APPROVAL PAGE - - - - - - - - ii

CERTIFICATION - - - - - - - - iii

DEDICATION - - - - - - - - iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS - - - - - - - v

TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - - - - - vi

LIST OF TABLES - - - - - - - - ix

LIST OF FIGURE - - - - - - - - x

ABSTRACT - - - - - - - - - xi

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study - - - - - - - 1

Statement of the Problem - - - - - - - 10

Purpose of the Study - - - - - - - 11

Significance of the Study - - - - - - - 12

Research Questions - - - - - - - - 14

Hypotheses - - - - - - - - - 15

Scope of the Study - - - - - - - - 15

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Conceptual framework of the Study - - - - - - 17

Concept of Ergonomics - - - - - - - 17

Psycho Productive Skills - - - - - - - 21

Crop Production - - - - - - - - 23

Teaching and learning of agricultural science in senior secondary schools. 24

Productive Skills in Maize Production - - - - 41

Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain - - - - - 69

Theoretical Framework of the Study - - - - - 76

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Principle of Ergonomics - - - - - - 77

Gagne’s Theory of Instruction - - - - - - 84

Brunner’s Theory of Instruction - - - - - - 86

Related Empirical Studies on Ergonomics - - - - - 88

Summary of Related Literature Reviewed - - - - 100

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY-

Design of the Study - - - - - - - 102

Area of the Study - - - - - - - 102

Population for the Study - - - - - - - 103

Sample and Sampling Techniques - - - - - - 103

Instrument for Data Collection - - - - - 104

Validation of Instrument - - - - - - - 104

Reliability of the Instrument - - - - - - - 104

Experimental Procedure - - - - - - - 105

Method of Data Collection - - - - - - 110

Method of Data Analysis - - - - - - - 110

CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

Research Question 1 - - - - - - - 112

Hypotheses 1 - - - - - - - - - 113

Research Question 2 - - - - - - - - 114

Hypotheses 2 - - - - - - - - - 115


Hypotheses 3 - - - - - - - - - 116


Hypotheses 4 - - - - - - - - - 118


Hypotheses 5 - - - - - - - - - 120

Findings of the Study - - - - - - - 121

Discussion - - - - - - - 123

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CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Re Statement of the Problem - - - - - - 128

Summary of Procedure Used - - - - - - 130

Principal Findings of the Study - - - - - - 131

Conclusion - - - - - - - - 131

Implication of the Study - - - - - - - 132

Recommendation - - - - - - - - 132

Suggestions for Further Study - - - - - - - 133

REFERENCES - - - - - - - - 134

APPENDICES - - - - - - - - 144

Appendix A: Request for the Validation of Research Instruments and

Lesson Plan - - - - - - - 144

Appendix B: Ergonomic Lesson Plan - - - - 145

Appendix C: Conventional Lesson Plan - - - - - 171

Appendix D: Identified Productive Skills in Maize Production - - 188

Appendix E: Observational rating scale for measuring students’ psycho productive

skills in maize production through the application of the ergonomic

principles (pre-test/post test) – psycho productive skills performance

test items (PSPT) - - - - - - 190

Appendix F: Psycho-productive Skills Performance Test (Practical)

Scoring Guide - - - - - - - 193

Appendix G: Training Manual for Training the Research Assistants (Agricultural

Science Teacher) on the use of Ergonomic Principles

Lesson Plan - - - - - - - 197

Appendix H: Table 1: Table Representation of the Design Adopted for

The study - - - - - - - 199

Appendix I: Table 2: Distribution of Schools and Number

of Students Sampled for the Study - - - - 200

Appendix J: Secondary Schools used for the Study - - - 201

Appendix K: Result of the Reliability Test - - - - - 202

Appendix L: Results of Data Analyzed - - - - - 204

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Table Representation of the Design Adopted for the Study - 199

Table 2: Distribution of Schools and Number of Students

Sampled for the Study - - - - - 200

Table 3: Mean of Pretest and Posttest Scores of Experimental and Control

Groups in Psycho-productive Performance skills test in

Pre-planting Operations of Maize Production -- - - 112

Table 4: Summary of Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) for test of

Significance between the Mean Scores of Experimental and Control

Group in Psycho-productive Skill Performance test in Pre-planting

Operation of Maize Production - - - - - 113

Table 5: Mean of Pretest and Posttest Scores of Experimental and Control

Groups in PSPT in Planting Operation of Maize Production - 114

Table 6: Summary of Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) for Test of


Group in Planting Operation of Maize Production - - - 115

Table 7: Mean of Pre test and Post test Scores of Experimental and Control

Group in the Psycho-productive Skills Performance Post planting

Operations of Maize Production - - - - - 116

Table 8: Summary of Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) for Test of


Groups in PSPT in Post Planting Operations of Maize Production 117

Table 9: Mean of Pre test and Post test Scores of Experimental

And Control Groups in Psycho-productive Skills Performance

Test in Post harvesting Operations of Maize Production - - 118

Table 10: Summary of Analysis of Covariance for Test of Significance

Between the Mean Scores of Experimental and Control Group in the

Psycho-productive Skills in Post harvesting Operations of Maize

Production - - - - - - - 119

Table 11: Mean of Pretest and Post test Scores of High Ability Level and

Low Ability Level Students’ Taught with Ergonomic Principles in

Psycho-productive Skills Performance Test in Maize Production 120

Table 12: Summary of Analysis of Covariance for Test of Significance

between the Mean Performance Scores of High Ability Level Students’ and

Low Ability Level Students’ Taught Psycho-productive Skills in Crop

Production with the application of ergonomic principles - - 121

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LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 1: Linkages between Ergonomic principles instructional techniques and

students psycho-productive performance in maize production. - 75

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Abstract

This study was designed to determine the effect of ergonomic principles on students’

acquisition of psycho-productive skills in maize production in secondary schools. The

study adopted a pre-test, post-test, non-equivalent control group quasi-experimental

research design which involved students in their intact classes assigned to both

experimental and control groups. The population for the study was 300 senior

secondary one (SSI) students in Gwagwalada area council in F.C.T Abuja, out of which

62 students’ were sampled for the study using purposive sampling technique. Five

research questions and five null hypotheses, tested at.05 level of significance guided the

study. The instrument used for data collection was psycho-productive skills

performance Test (PSPT) in productive skills in pre-planting, planting, post planting

and post harvesting operations in maize production. The lesson plans, the instrument

and the training manual were subjected to face validation by three experts. The PSPT

was trial tested to determine its reliability coefficient. Cronbach Alpha coefficient was

used to determine the coefficient of the instrument (PSPT) which yielded the following

values; 0.76 for pre planting operations, 0.84 for planting operations, 0.82 for post

planting operations and 0.80 for post harvesting operations. The overall Cronbach alpha

coefficient value for the PSPT was 0.79. Mean was used to analyse data that answered

the research questions, while ANCOVA was used to test the null hypotheses. The study

found out that application of ergonomic principles is more effective in enhancing

students’ acquisition of psycho-productive skills in maize production. It was

recommended that the government in collaboration with curriculum planners should

incorporate ergonomic principles as an instructional technique into the senior secondary

school agricultural science curriculum for effective teaching and learning process. Also

workshops, seminars and conferences should be organized by the Ministry of Education

and school administrators to enlighten teachers of agriculture on the application of

ergonomic principle and effective teaching/learning of agricultural science in secondary

schools.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Ergonomics is the study of people in relation to their working conditions,

especially in the design of tools, equipment and furniture to help an individual work

efficiently. Kogi (2002) noted that ergonomics removes barriers to quality, productivity

and safe human performance by fitting products, tasks and environments to people. The

author added that ergonomics improves the academic performance of the learner.

Mokdad (2005) viewed ergonomics as the systematic study of people at work with the

objective of improving the work situation, the working condition and the tasks

performed. Mokdad added that ergonomics removes barriers to quality, productivity

and safe human performance by fitting products, tasks and environments to people.

Thatcher, James and Todd (2005) defined ergonomics as a science that aims at studying

about human abilities and limitations and then apply the knowledge to improve

people’s interaction with products, system and environments. In the context of this

study, ergonomics involve the systematic study of students’ interaction with equipment

and tools used in applying psycho productive skills in maize production.

Ergonomics is beneficial to people in several ways. Kadiri (2008) outlined the

following as benefits of ergonomics that could enhance workers/learners performance

and adjustment to their work environment. Ergonomics improves safety and health of

the workers in the work place, improves productivity and quality of work, reduces

absenteeism of the workers/learners, reduces occupational injuries and illness, reduces

medical cost and workers’ compensation associated with cumulative trauma disorder.

Mevey (2001) stated that the knowledge ergonomics helps the teacher to manage

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physical learning environment for effective teaching and learning processes. Mevey

also added that ergonomics has certain principles guiding its application.

Ergonomics principles are techniques of doing work effectively. Kadiri (2008)

defined Ergonomics Principles as methods of preventing work hazards, stress and

fatigue in the work place. Bridger (2003) stated that Ergonomics principles are

strategies or techniques which enable an individual to perform tasks efficiently in the

work place. In the context of this study, Ergonomics principles are new methods or

techniques that could be applied in teaching/learning psycho productive skills in maize

production to enable students perform tasks effectively in the school farm. It also

involves strategies to motivate and sustain students’ interest in practical agriculture.

The principles of ergonomics used for this study are four, namely:-principle of

comfortable environment, principle of organizing and keeping materials in easy reach,

principles of safety in the work place and principles of good working postures

(Macleod, 2006).

Comfortable work environment is a place where work is carried out with less

distress. Principle of comfortable environment according to Macleod (2008) is an

environment where work activities can be performed effectively by an individual. The

author explained that physical environment where workers carry out their work should

be made friendly or conducive by making them neat, descent, devoid of dangerous

materials, stimulating and attractive for maximum productivity and efficiency of work.

Tepper (2008) stated that comfortable environment when performing task tends to

motivate the workers/learners to work efficiently without stress and pains. Olaitan and

Mama (2001) stated that friendly or favorable environment for agriculture makes

learning easy and sustain the interest of the students in performing practical activities in

the farm. In this study, comfortable environment for maize production involve suitable

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land for practical agriculture, adequate and appropriate tools and equipment in the

school farm by the students for practicing operational skills in maize production.

Most secondary schools in the Federal Capital Territory have suitable learning

environment and school farm laboratory for learning agricultural practical activities.

Inadequate provision of tools, equipment and improper methods of teaching and

learning of agricultural science affects the students’ negatively. The application of

ergonomic principle of comfortable environment will help to sustain student interest in

the study of agriculture and enable them to acquire psycho, productive skills in crop

production (Sagus ,2008).

Principle of organizing and keeping materials in easy reach according to Kanep

and Legg (2007) involves adequate provision, organizing and keeping the working

materials such as equipment and tools within the comfortable reach of the workers or

learner. The author added that an easy way to make task user friendly is to keep

frequently used items very close to the worker/learner. Olaitan and Mama (2001)

explained that organizing and keeping materials for easy reach in the school farm

involves arranging all requisite resources including human, farm inputs and facilities in

a systematic order such that when they are being used or applied in the school farm, the

operation will be without interruption. In the context of this study, this principle implies

that all the tools and equipment used to perform operational skills in growing maize are

organized and kept safe in farm laboratory or farm store for easy reach. This will

minimize repetitive movement in the farm while performing practical activities in

agriculture. In most secondary schools in the study area, obsolete tools and equipment

used to deliver instruction are not organized according to order of use. Most of these

materials are scattered in the school premises and are not easily reached to students for

performing task easily in the farm.

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Principle of Safety means safety precautions or measures in the work place to

protect workers/learners’, equipment and tools from accidents, injuries and hazards.

Principle of safety in a work place according to Kadiri (2008) is the condition of being

protected against physical, social, emotional and psychological problems, injuries or

consequences of failure, damage, accidents or harm. Olaitan, Nwachukwu, Igbo,

Onyemachi and Ekong (1999) explained that safety in any industry involves safety

measures or precautions and maintenance services in handling equipment, tools and

chemicals in performing farm operations. In this study, this principle implies the

provision of appropriate tools and equipment for students for the performance of tasks

in growing of maize in the school farm. This also involves the provision of protective

farm wears such as hand gloves, overalls, work boot and hat (helmet) to students to

prevent them from sustaining injuries or hazard during practical activity in the farm.

Lack of safety precautions in the school farm in most secondary schools in the

study area exposes the students to hazard and ill health. The provision of inappropriate

tools and equipment, poor utilization of materials and wrong handling of tools and

equipment in carrying out practical activities such as clearing of the land, stumping,

ridging among others, exposes the students to hazard in the farm such as stress, fatigue,

injuries and accidents. These problems results to students’ loss of interest in farm

activities, absenteeism and poor academic performance (Onyebu 2007).Applications of

ergonomics principles of safety in practicing operational skills in maize production will

help to protect the students from hazards and drudgery associated with farm operations.

Another principle of ergonomics is the Principles of good neutral postures.

Macleod (2006) stated that neutral postures are good working postures required by the

workers/learners to perform tasks in the work place. Apadiji (2002) stated that good

working posture is the comfortable position of an individual while performing tasks in

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the work place. Mokdad (2005) noted that good working posture is essential when

performing tasks with machine, equipment and tools in any organization or industry.

The author added that performing jobs with good working posture reduces fatigue,

stress, accident and maximize productivity. In this study good working posture in crop

production implies that comfortable working postures of students in clearing the land,

tilling the soil, weeding, and application of fertilizers among others.

The wrong postures of the students in performing farm activities exposes them

to injuries and pains. Kadiri (2008) posited in handling and utilization of tools and

equipment in carrying out farm operations result to drudgery, fatigue, poor performance

and inefficiency. The Ergonomics principles are used or combined in a single task to

ensure maximum productivity and efficiency of work. If these principles are applied in

maize production, it will help the students’ of agriculture to acquire psycho productive

skills which will enable them to be productive in the world of work.

Psycho productive skills are acquired abilities or manipulative skills for

performing jobs in the farm. Psycho productive skills according to Olaitan and

Agusiobo (1981) are manipulative or technical skills needed for performance in any

given occupation which could be acquired through observation, training and learning.

In the opinion of Osinem (2008) psycho productive skills are manipulative skills or

motor skills which are required to perform certain activities efficiently. Similarly

Olaitan and Ali (1997) stated that psycho productive skills involve acquired abilities for

performing tasks adequately with the muscles in response to sensory stimuli. The

authors added that the ability to perform well by an individual arises from a repetitive

process in which skill holders engage in their jobs, and this becomes part of the

individual to the extent that the performance becomes automatic. That is, the individual

is never reminded before performing the skills step-by-step until the final product is

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obtained .The authors further explained that psycho productive skills involve the use of

head, heart and hand in the expression of dexterity to accomplish tasks effectively. It

involves thinking habits, process habit, manipulative habits and performance which is

one of the most vital aspects of learning for living.

In the context of this study, psycho productive skills involves manual dexterity

required by students of agriculture for manipulation of tools and equipment and the

step-by-step procedure of using them to accomplish the operational skills in maize

production through the application of ergonomic principles.

Crop production is the processes involved in growing and managing crops in the

farm. Uguru (2005) defined Crop production as the art and science of breeding the

crops, growing and management of desired crops for maximum productivity. The

author further explained that crop production also involves the harvesting, processing,

storage and marketing of agro products. In the opinion of Harper (1999) crop

production involves the sowing or planting of crops and the progression from young

plants through the subsequent phases of growth and development to the harvesting of

the economic yield.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2007) stated that crop production is a

complex business requiring many skills such as in biology, agronomy, mechanics and

marketing covering a variety of operations throughout the year. In this study, crop

production refers to the processes or activities involved in growing and management of

crops in the farm. These processes include the operations carried out at different stages

such as pre-planting, planting, post planting and post harvesting operations. In the study

area, some of the crops grown in the school farm are maize, millet, guinea corn,

groundnut, yam, vegetables and fruits. Students are expected to acquire the skills

required in growing these crops. Maize crop was used in teaching students of

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agriculture to acquire psycho productive skills through the application of ergonomics

principles. Maize is a staple crop widely grown by farmers in the study area. In growing

maize crop, there are operational skills which were practiced step by step to enable the

students to acquire psycho productive skill for self reliance. The activities performed by

the students in the farm were evaluated by teachers of agriculture in Senior Secondary

Schools at the end of the teaching and learning processes.

Teaching is the process of impacting knowledge, skills and attitude to the

learner. Offorma (2002) defined teaching as a systematic activity deliberately engaged

in by somebody to facilitate the learning of the intended worth while knowledge, skills

and values by another person and getting the necessary feed back. In the opinion of

Kirkpatrick (2004), teaching is the art of providing knowledge, skill and attitudes to a

person or giving a person instruction and training. Similarly, Olaitan (2003) stated that

teaching and learning of agricultural science in secondary school involves the three

domain of learning namely: cognitive, psychomotor and affective. The author added

that it involves the use of tools and equipment, effective demonstrations of skills

acquisition by the instructor and effective teaching of curriculum. In the context of this

study, teaching is the process of assisting students of agriculture in senior secondary

school to learn psycho productive skills in maize production through the application of

ergonomic principles. These students have various levels of abilities; low and high.

Teaching the students to acquire psycho productive skills in maize production with the

use of ergonomic principles ensures conducive learning environment which motivates

students’ interest and active participation in learning practical skills. It also encouraged

low ability students to perform the operational skills in agriculture effectively.

Ability is the natural tendency or competence to do something successfully. In

the opinion of Hills (2002), the ability level of students differs in terms of academic

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performance. The Author classified some students as high academic achievers. That is,

the students whose academic performance in tests and tasks are always high while

others are classified as low academic achievers due to their low performance in tests

and tasks. The differences in students’ academic performances according to Mac-Iver

(1988) are more easily discerned when all the students in a class do the same task at the

same time than when each student uses different materials to work individually. The

students of agriculture in senior secondary schools performed the activities in the

school farm at the same time while the teachers observed their performances and rate

their scores.

Secondary school is a school for students who have completed their primary

school education before tertiary education. National Policy on Education (FRN,2004)

defined secondary school as the education children received after primary education

and before the tertiary stage. . It has two phases; the first phase is three years of Junior

Secondary School while the second phase is three years of Senior Secondary School.

Olaitan (2003) viewed secondary school as a post primary education which students

attend after primary education and before tertiary institution. In the context of this

study, secondary school is a post primary education of six (6) years programme which

students of agriculture attend before tertiary institution. This study covered senior

secondary schools in Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.

The major aims of teaching agricultural science in senior secondary schools are

to stimulate students’ interest in agriculture; enable students’ to acquire basic

knowledge and practical skills in agriculture; prepare students for further studies in

agriculture; prepare and expose students to occupations and opportunities in the field of

agriculture(FRN,2004). However, these objectives have not been properly achieved

(Onyebu, 2007). The interaction of the researcher with the student revealed that most

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students of agriculture in senior secondary schools in the study area have low interest

and negative attitude towards agricultural practical activities. These students viewed

agricultural science as a strenuous and dirty subject, full of drudgery and fatigue. This

results to students’ absenteeism, poor academic performance and lack of skills

acquisition. Further more, the researcher’s interaction with the students revealed that

most students of agriculture who graduated from Senior Secondary School in the study

area were unable to demonstrate psycho productive skills in any production areas of

agriculture when required to do so. Commenting on the negative interest of students

and lack of skills acquisition, Olaitan (1996) who stated that though the secondary

school curriculum emphasized acquisition of basic skills and knowledge in all

occupation areas of agriculture, most graduates of senior secondary schools are not

capable of demonstrating productive skills in agriculture when required to do so.

The students’ inability to acquire psycho productive skills could be traced to the

conventional methods such as lecture method which teachers of agriculture used to

deliver instructions in the classroom and their inability to expose the students to

practical agriculture. These conventional methods are teacher-centered, full of drudgery

and strenuous to the students. This affect the interest of students in agriculture

negatively and also exposes the students to hazards, stress and fatigue. Therefore, it is

necessary to use alternative instructional techniques that will motive and sustain

students’ interest in practical agriculture and also enhance their skill acquisition. This

study therefore was carried out to determine the effect of ergonomic principles on

students’ acquisition of psycho productive skills in maize production in senior

secondary schools in federal capital Territory Abuja.

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Statement of Problem

Agricultural science is the subject taught in senior secondary school to stimulate

and sustain students interest in agriculture and equip them with psycho productive skills

that will enable them to be self reliant in the world of work. However these objectives

have not been properly achieved. The interaction of the researcher with the students

revealed that most students of Senior Secondary Schools in Abuja have low interest and

negative attitude towards agricultural activities. These students viewed agricultural

practical activities as strenuous, dirty work, labor intensive, full of drudgery and

hazards. This results to students’ abseentism, poor academic performance and lack of

skills acquisition. More so, the researcher’s interaction with the students revealed that

most students of agriculture who graduated from Senior Secondary School in Abuja

were unable to demonstrate psycho productive skills in any production areas of

agriculture when required to do so .commenting on the students’ inability to

demonstrate productive skills, Olaitan (1996) stated that though Secondary Schools’

agricultural science curriculum emphasized acquisition of basic knowledge, attitude,

and skills in all occupational areas of agriculture, most graduates of Senior Secondary

Schools are not capable of demonstrating productive skills in agriculture when required

to do so. The students’ negative attitude and low interest in agriculture, lack of skills

acquisition and low academic performance of the students could be traced to

conventional methods which teachers of agriculture used to deliver instruction. These

conventional methods such as lecture method are teacher-centered and subject matter

oriented, full of drudgery and strenuous to students. Conventional methods do not lay

emphasis on psychomotor domain aspect of education which encourages leaning by

doing. It also exposes the students to hazards, stress and fatigues. There is need to

adopt a new instructional technique that will stimulate and sustain the interest of

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students of agricultural science, improve their academic performance and enhance their

skill acquisition in secondary schools. It is assumed by this study that the application of

ergonomics principles in teaching students psycho productive skills in maize

production could provide the skill training environment for students’ in order to bridge

the existing gap of low interest and lack of skills acquisition by the students of

agriculture in senior secondary schools. Therefore, this study was carried out to

determine the effect the application of ergonomics on student’s acquisition of psycho

productive skills in maize production in senior secondary schools.

Purpose of the Study

The major purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of application of

ergonomics principles on student’s acquisition of psycho productive skills in maize

production in Senior Secondary Schools in Gwagwalada Area Councils-Federal Capital

Territory, Abuja.

Specifically the study sought to:

1. Determine the mean performance scores of the students’ taught psycho

productive skills in pre-planting operations in maize production with

ergonomics principles and those taught with conventional methods.


productive skills in planting operations in maize production with ergonomics

principles and those taught with conventional methods.


productive skills in post-planting operations in maize production with


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productive skills in post harvesting operations in maize production with


5. Determine the mean performance scores of high and low ability students taught

psycho productive skills in maize production with ergonomics principles.

Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will be of great benefit to students, teachers, parents,

and curriculum planners, Educational Administrators, West African Examination

Council (WAEC) National Examination Council (NECO) and Researchers. Students

will benefit as the performance of their manipulative skills will improve. The findings

will expose the students to various learning opportunities and improve their academic

performance by the application of ergonomic principles in teaching/learning process. It

will also enable the student to participate actively in practical agriculture thereby

enhancing their acquisition of psycho productive skills. The finding will help to

motivate and sustain the students’ interest in the study of agriculture as they participate

in practical activities involved in maize production through the application of

ergonomics principles.

The findings of the study will provide information to the teachers of agricultural

science in secondary schools on how to create conducive environment in the school

farm to make practical agriculture easy and interesting to students. The information

could be utilized by the teachers as a strategy for equipping student with psycho-

productive skills in relevant aspect of agricultural science curriculum. The teachers of

agriculture will also use the information for proper supervision and evaluation of

students work in the school farm. It would provide teachers an alternative technique of

13

instruction in teaching agriculture for easy understanding and effective application by

the students. The findings of the study would create awareness on the teachers on how

to use ergonomics principle to encourage students’ active participation and

demonstration in agricultural activities thereby stimulating the students’ interest to

study agricultural science

Parents would benefit from the findings of this study in that, better performance

of their children in school would bring joy and satisfaction as they are assured of good

certification for a better future. The parents of agricultural science students will receive

assistance from their children in their farming activities. This will maximize their food

production. The findings of the study would sensitize curriculum planners on the need

for the integration of ergonomic principles in the curriculum of secondary schools

agricultural science

Educational administrators would benefit from the findings of this study, in that

it will help them to see the need for organizing conferences, workshops and seminars

for training teachers on the adoption of ergonomic as a technique of instruction in

secondary schools.

The study will provide information to West African Examination Council

(WAEC) and National Examination Council (NECO) about the benefit of ergonomic

principle in equipping students with psycho productive skills in agricultural science in

secondary schools; this will help them to see the need of using practical agriculture to

access students for final examination in agricultural science. The findings of the study

would provide empirical evidence which could serve as a guide to researchers.

14

Finally, the study will be of great benefit to the society as more students will be

motivated to study agricultural science in senior secondary schools. They will graduate

and become self employed in agricultural production areas thereby helping to curb food

insecurity in the society.

Research Questions

The following research questions guided the study.

1 What are the mean performance scores of the students’ taught psycho productive

skills in pre-planting operations in maize production with ergonomics principles

and those taught with conventional methods?


skills in planting operations in maize production with ergonomics principles and

those taught with conventional methods?


skills in post-planting operations in maize production with ergonomics

principles and those taught with conventional methods?


skills in post harvesting operations in maize production with ergonomics


5 What were the mean performance scores of students taught psycho productive

skills in maize production with ergonomic principles?

15

Research Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses guided the study.

1 There was no significant difference in the mean performance scores of the

students’ taught psycho productive skills in pre-planting operations in maize

production with ergonomics principles and those taught with conventional

methods.


students’ taught psycho productive skills in planting operations in maize


methods.


students’ taught psycho productive skills in post-planting operations in maize


methods.


students’ taught psycho productive skills in post harvesting operations in maize


methods.

5 There was no significant difference in the mean performance scores of high and

low ability students taught psycho productive skills in maize production with

ergonomic principles.

Scope of the Study

The study was restricted to determine the effect of ergonomic principles on

student’s acquisition of psycho productive skills in maize production in senior

secondary schools in Gwagwalada Area Council-Abuja FCT. Abuja is located in

16

Central Nigeria. The study was restricted to the application of four ergonomic

principles: principles of comfortable environment, principle of organizing and keeping

materials in easy reach, principle of safety and principle of good working posture in

maize production. The study was also delimited to four (4) major skill areas in maize

production which include: pre-planting, planting, post-planting and post harvesting

operations. Maize crop was used for the experimental group and control group. The

study made use of senior secondary one (SS1) students of agriculture. The study was

not cover operational activities in processing of maize.

17

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE:

The review of related literature was organized under the following sub-headings;

1. Conceptual Framework

� Concept of ergonomics

� Psycho productive skills

� Crop production

� Teaching and learning of agricultural science in senior secondary school

� Agricultural operations in maize production

� Taxonomy of Psychomotor Domain

2. Theoretical Framework of the Study:

� Principles of ergonomics

� Theory of instruction

3. Related Empirical Studies on Ergonomics

4. Summary of Related Literature Reviewed

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework of the study was organized under the following

subheadings: concept of ergonomics, psycho-productive skills, crop production,

teaching and learning of agricultural science in secondary schools, productive skills in

maize production and taxonomy of psychomotor domain.

Concept of Ergonomics

Ergonomics is the study of working conditions especially in the design of tools,

equipment and furniture to help people work efficiently. According to Singleton (2009),

ergonomics originated from two Greek words, ‘ergon’, meaning work and ‘nomos’

17

18

meaning Law. Ergonomics is therefore, the study of law(s) governing work and its

environment. The author further explained that ergonomics deals with the consideration

of human characteristics, expectations and behaviors in the design of tools, equipment

and materials that people use in their work and everyday lives and also the environment

in which they work and live.

The board of certification for professional Ergonomics (BCPE, 1993) defined

ergonomics as a body of knowledge about human abilities, human limitations and

human characteristics that are relevant to design. Tepper (2008) viewed ergonomics as

an ‘approach’, a ‘philosophy’, a way of taking account of people in the way in which

things are designed, organized and may be used to provide an environment in which

individual can produce their work in harmony with the machine to the betterment of

work quality and quantity and the maintenance or improvement of the physical and

behavioral environment. The author further explained that the application of

ergonomics within organization such as school can result in improved working

techniques reduced errors and hazards, improved industrial relations, enhanced

productivity and increased efficiency. The author also explained that the philosophy is

to alter the task to suit human capacity rather than to force human being or a worker to

adapt to inappropriate task in the work place.

Similarly, the international Association of Ergonomics (IAE, 2003) stated that

Ergonomics is a scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions

among humans and other elements of system and the profession that applies theory,

principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize human well being and

overall system performance.

Mokdad (2005) viewed Ergonomics as the systematic study of people at work

with the objective of improving the work situation, the working condition and the tasks

19

performed. Ergonomics removes barriers to quality, productivity and safe human

performance by fitting products, tasks and environments to people. Ugwu and Edwin

(2002) stated that ergonomics is the study of the relationship between people, the work

that they perform, and the environment in which mental and physical activities take

place.

In the context of this study, ergonomics refers to the relationship and interaction

between the teachers of agriculture and the students while performing operational

activities in maize production such as pre-planting, planting, post planting and post

harvesting operations for acquisition of psycho productive skills. It also involves

assisting and supporting the students with adequate materials, equipment and tools to

make the work interesting, easy and result oriented.

Ergonomics is beneficial to people in several ways; Kadiri (2008) outlined the

following benefits of ergonomics that could enhance workers/learners performance in

the work place such as school. Ergonomics improves safety and health of the worker in

the work place, it reduces occupational injuries and illness, it reduces absenteeism of

the workers, ergonomics reduces medical and workers compensation cost associated

with cumulative trauma disorder. Similarly, Isa (2009) outlined the following benefit of

ergonomics to organizations, workforce is highly engaged and makes environment and

facilities more user-friendly, increased quality and quantity of product, reduces the

error of the employee in the work place, employee injury minimized, organization

process and layout efficiency is optimized.

Shrestha (2000) affirmed that the benefit of applying ergonomics to the design

of work environment in industries such as agriculture is to increase productivity

efficiency, job satisfaction, motivation ,reduction of work related injuries and distress.

Ergonomics ensures enabling environment that helps the worker to perform their work

20

in harmony with the machines, improved work quality and quantity and the

maintenance of the physical and behavioral environment, (Sillanpaa, Huikko and

Nyberg 2003). Hedge (2004) explained that the goal of ergonomics is to continually

strive to develop new and better ways to optimize performance of people using

products (technology) by changing the design of products, the training, the job, the

work place layout, and work environment conditions and organizational systems. The

author added that ergonomics ensures a combination of good habits, work practices and

optimizing the learning or working environment. In agreement with Hedge, Adree

(2006) stated that applying ergonomics in any industry improves quality and quantity of

the work, improves the performance of the workers, and reduce fatigue and stress. The

author further explained that application of ergonomics principles in agriculture will

minimize hazards, accidents, drudgery and occupational injuries associated with farm

operations.

In the same vein Sagus (2008) explained that ergonomics ensures safety and

health of the worker or learners in the work place such as school. The author added that

application of ergonomics in teaching the students to acquire necessary skills in

agriculture will motivate and sustain the interest of the students and reduce absenteeism

and truancy in the school. Rudakew and Valent (2001) explained that the goal of

ergonomics is to reduce stress, eliminate injuries and disorders associated with the over

use of muscles, bad posture and repeated tasks. The author added that this is

accomplished by designing tasks, work spaces control, displays, tools, lighting and

equipments to fit the workers/learners physical capabilities and limitations. Similarly,

Boron, Estill and Steega (2001) explained that the application of ergonomic principle to

work practice allows prevention and control of musculoskeletal disorders such as pains,

injuries and strains arising from repetitive or forceful movement and awkward postures.

21

Thatcher, James and Todd (2005) enumerated the following benefits of ergonomics to

educational environment: Ergonomics ensures that curricula and programs are well

designed to fit the learner’s needs, interest, values, norms and environment. It also

ensures that a well designed curriculum will help learners acquire the necessary

cognitive effective and psychomotor skills, it ensures effective choice and use of

teaching methods and effective design and use of instructional materials such as power

point and overhead projector, and it ensures that evaluation of academic performance of

the learners is accurately and effectively done. Therefore, the design of evaluation tools

such as objective exams and standardized tests is widely considered, it ensures that

teacher’s carryout their work efficiently and effectively in a well designed working

environment. Ergonomics ensures that the following aspect of educational environment

is well designed: Learning stations such as classrooms and laboratory, study tools and

materials, social and physical environment.

From the benefit of ergonomics mentioned above, it is evident that ergonomics

will be of a great benefit to agriculture and its application in teaching and learning

psycho productive skills in maize production may improve student’s performance and

enable the teachers to achieve the objective of teaching Agricultural science in senior

secondary schools. This study will guide the researcher to plan, organize, implement

and evaluate instruction effectively during the experiment.

Psycho Productive Skills

Psycho productive skills are acquired abilities or manipulative skills for

performing jobs in the work place. In the opinion of Olaitan and Agusiobo (1981)

psycho productive skills are manipulative or technical skills needed for performance in

any given occupation which could be acquire through observation training and

learning.

22

Psycho productive skills are manipulative skill required to perform jobs in the

farm Osinem (2008) defined psycho productive skills as manipulative skills or motor

skills which are required to perform certain activities efficiently. Della (2004) stated

that psycho productive skills are manipulative skills which help an individual to work

skillfully. Olaitan and Ali (1997) explained that psycho productive skills involve

acquired abilities for performing tasks adequately with the muscles in response to

sensory stimuli. The authors added that the ability to perform well by an individual

arises from a repetitive process in which skill holders engage in their jobs. The authors

further explained that psycho productive skills involve the use of head, heart and hand

in the expression of dexterity to accomplish a task.

Similarly Robinson and Davidson (2004) stated that psycho productive skills

involve the ability acquired by an individual to perform tasks skillfully. In the context

of this study, psycho productive skills involve abilities required by the students of

agriculture to perform activities in crop production through the application of

ergonomics principles in the school farm. It also involves proper handling and

utilization of appropriate tools such as cutlass, hoe, shovel, hand fork, rake, among

others to carryout activities such, as clearing, digging, planting, weeding and harvesting

of crop effectively in the school farm.

Psycho productive skill connotes performance. Performance is the result of an

individual’s action that accessed to see whether he/she has successfully completed an

objective. Epunna (1999) stated that performance is learning out come of students

which includes the idea acquired and retained through their courses of studies within

and outside the classroom situation. In this study, performances is the result of student’s

actions or activities in learning practical skills in crop production through the

application of ergonomics principles that could be assessed for its effect on students

23

and also to see whether the stated objective of agriculture in secondary schools have

been achieved

Crop Production

Crop production is the processed of growing and managing crops in the farm.

Uguru (2005) defined Crop production as the art and science of breeding the crops,

growing and management of desired crops for maximum productivity. The author

further explained that crop production also includes the harvesting, processing, storage

and marketing of agro products. In the opinion of Harper (1999) crop production

involves the sowing or planting of crops and the progression from young plants through

the subsequent phases of growth and development to the harvesting of the economic

yield. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2007) stated that crop production is a

complex business requiring many skills such as in biology, agronomy, mechanics and

marketing covering a variety of operations throughout the year.

In this study, crop production refers to the processes or activities involved in

growing and management of maize crops in the school farm. These processes include

the operations carried out at different stage such as pre-planting, planting, post planting

and post harvesting operations. In the study area, some of the crops grown in the school

farm are maize, millet, guinea corn, groundnut, yam, vegetables and fruits. Students are

expected to develop expertly the skills required in growing these crops. In this study,

Maize crop was used in teaching students of agriculture to acquire psycho productive

skills through the application of ergonomic principles. Maize production is contained in

the Senior Secondary school year one agricultural science curriculum (Appendix L.)

The activities will be evaluated by the researcher at the end of the experiment to

determine its effect on the students’ performance

24

Effect in the opinion of Della (2004) is a change produced by the action of an

individual on a job. Robinson and Davidson (2004) defined effect as the way in which

an action has an impact on some one in order to achieve or produce the desired result.

In this study, effect is regarded as a change in the level of psycho productive skills

acquired by students in crop production as a result of being exposed to ergonomic

principles.

Teaching and Learning of Agricultural Science in Senior Secondary Schools

Teaching is the various activities undertaken by a more knowledgeable person to

enable others learn. According to Ezeani (2004) teaching is any interpersonal influence

aimed at changing the ways in which other persons will behave. The author added that

it is a communication which involves the transmission of information from the teacher

to the taught and vice versa. Ogwo and Oranu (2006) viewed teaching as the science

and art of assisting a person to learn. The authors further explained that the science in

teaching entails the use of acquired knowledge from natural and behavioral science in

order to help appreciate the circumstances and personality of a leaner while the art

aspect of teaching involves the use of both creative and demonstrating skills in aiding

the delivery of instruction.

Similarly, Akudolu (1994), stated that teaching is a deliberate effort by a mature

or experienced person to impart, knowledge, skills and attitude to a less experienced

person through a process which is morally and pedagogically acceptable. In the same

vein, Moore (1998) defined teaching as the action of a person imparting skills,

knowledge or giving instruction to a student.

The author further explained that for teaching to facilitate learning, the content

to be taught has to be worthwhile and the procedure has to be educationally acceptable

for an activity to be classified as teaching Ezeani (2004) stated that teaching is the

25

process of changing and modifying existing behaviours and establishing new ones as

well. Obi (2005) contended that teaching involves guiding the student to learn. In this

study teaching refers to a process by which a teacher imparts information, knowledge,

skills and attitude to student in crop production (maize) through the application of

ergonomic principles.

The application of ergonomics principles in teaching agricultural science in

senior secondary schools can make significant contributions by providing appropriate

opportunities to diverse learners and motivate students of agriculture to learn practical

skills in crop production (maize) both inside and outside the school environment.

For teaching of psycho-productive skills in maize production to be effective,

learning must be promoted. Learning is a process through which behavior is initiated,

modified or changed. According to Hockenbury (2000) learning is a relatively enduring

change in behavior or knowledge as a result of experience. The author added that

learning is said to be of relatively permanent or enduring change because learning

lingers until forgetting takes place or until new learning displaces old learning. In the

opinion of Okorie (2001) learning is an active process which goes on within the learner

by guiding his or her experiences through planned activities. The author added that the

learner starts to learn when he/she becomes deeply involved in the learning situation.

Similarly, Nwachukwu (2006) defined learning as a continuous process which goes on

throughout life and it may be observed in the form of development or change of

attitude, interest, adjustment, skills, value, beliefs, cognitive structure, insights,

mannerism and gesture.

In the same vein, Oladele (2005) viewed learning as a process by which one

profits from past experience. The author added that it is what the child does that he

learns not what the teacher does. Supporting this view of learning, Olaitan (2003)

26

pointed out that learning is a process which causes a change in behavior of an

individual. The author added that this change in behavior results from experience or

interaction between the individual and his environment. The author further explained

that human learning is a process of adaptation which may lead hopefully to a better

adjustment to the demand of life.

In agreement with Olaitan, Ngwoke (2004) stated that the students (learners) can

contribute to their own learning by helping to identify, plan and find solutions to

problems. The author added that learning is like growth which comes as a natural

course mostly by invitation, but for purposes of acquiring knowledge, skills and

attitude. The learners should play a participative role in constructing their own learning

which must contain both social and professional skills. In this study learning is viewed

as a relatively permanent change in the behavior of students of agriculture as a result of

their interaction with tools and equipment in practicing growing of crop (maize) in the

school farm through the application of ergonomics principles. This study helped the

researcher to identify those activities in maize production in which ergonomics

principles could be applied for learning to take place.

Agricultural Science Programme in Senior Secondary Schools

Agricultural science is the art and science of cultivating the soil, producing

livestock, preparing live stock feeds, processing crops and livestock products for man

and the process of selling excess crops and livestock In the opinion of Erebor (2006),

Okaro (2007) viewed Agricultural Science as the Art and Science of cultivating the

land, producing animals and raw materials for man and his environment. Agricultural

Science is the art and science of cultivating the soil, producing livestock, raw materials,

processing and marketing the products for man and his industries. In the opinion of

27

Anyanwu, Anyanwu and Anyanwu (2008) agricultural science is the science of tilling

the soil, growing and harvesting of crops and raising of livestock for man’s use.

Similarly, Iwena (2008) stated that agricultural science is the art and science of

growing crops such as cereals, legumes and tubers and rearing of animals that are

useful to man. The author further explained that agricultural production involves series

of activities which includes; growing of crops, rearing of animals and preparation of

their products into forms that could be used by man. The author also explained that

preparation of products includes; processing, packaging, storage and marketing of

agricultural produce. Olaitan and Omomia (2009) stated that agricultural science is the

application of scientific principles to the growing of crops, rearing of animals and

processing them for man’s use.

In the context of this study, Agricultural Science is subjects taught to students in

senior secondary schools to enable them acquire knowledge, skills and attitude about

growing of crops and rearing of animals for man’s use. The growing of crops such as

maize involves the following operational activities Pre – planting, Planting, Post –

planting and Post harvesting.

In this study ergonomics principles will be applied to the above mentioned

operations to determine whether the students will be motivated to practice growing of

maize and other crops towards the achievement of objectives of agricultural science in

senior secondary schools.

Methods of Teaching Agricultural Science in Secondary Schools

Assisting learner to learn is the ultimate goal of any instructional activities in

both formal and informal education. In fostering teaching/learning in the classroom,

teachers bring the learners in close contact with the curriculum contents using

appropriate method and materials. An effective teaching requires skillful teachers to use

28

many different methods of teaching at his/her disposal. Teaching methods according to

Ezeani (2004) are strategies or systems used by teacher in piloting the student to learn.

The author added that teaching methods are important factors in teaching/learning

activities and they are important instrument that the teachers employ in performing his

basic function of teaching.

Similarly, Ogwo (2002) stated that no teaching method is more efficacious than

the other but in a strict sense, some methods are more suitable for teaching certain

contents. The author added that variety of teaching methods and technique can be

adopted to make teaching effective. The different methods which teachers of

agriculture may use in teaching/learning of agricultural science in secondary schools

include lecture method, discussion method, filed trip/excursion method, demonstration

method, and project method among others (Osinem 2008).

Demonstration Method

Osinem (2008) stated that demonstration is one of the teachers’ greatest assets in

arriving at fundamental skills and practice in a very short time. Available to the job

trainers in industries, teachers in various trades and instructors where people want to

learn skills or ability or better way of doing something for example; a better way of

planting seeds or application of fertilizer to a particular crop such as maize. The author

further explained that demonstration method is used mostly in the following areas;

teaching manipulative skills; developing understanding in learner; show how a new

practice is carried out (method demonstration); securing acceptance of new improved

ways of doing things for example spraying of herbicides; developing an appeal to the

sense of vision; causing learner to see immediate progress as a result of effort; and

creating the desire to emulate the work of the teacher.

29

The demonstration method is a very valuable method used by the teacher of

agriculture for areas needing skill acquisition by the students. Ogwo (2002) explains

that demonstration method is the most effective method in teaching skills or

performance oriented subjects in the Science, Arts and Vocational and Technical

Education. The author added that the teacher can explain steps in an operation,

techniques of handling a piece of apparatus, machines or hand tools and procedure in

carrying out experiment while performing them. Obidimma (1997) asserted that the

method makes use of verbal explanation and practical application to an instructional

situation. The author stated that in demonstration, seeing, hearing, discussing,

questioning and doing are all employed. According to Nwachukwu (2001),

demonstration method is an effective method applied by teachers in achieving objective

of learning in real-life situations. Obasi and Oku (2004), stated that the teaching of

agriculture using demonstration include such size of demonstration as class

demonstration, group demonstration and individual demonstration. The authors

explained that class demonstration involves the entire class in which such topics as the

method of fertilizer application is demonstrated to the students by the teacher. Group

demonstration is limited to a section of the class at a particular time. This method is

adopted in realization that differences exist in individuals in their learning abilities or

when facilities are enough to reach all the students Okoro (2006) explained that such

topics as soil sedimentation experiment in the laboratory could be taught on group basis

due to the insufficient quantity or number of graduated cylinders. The author explained

individual demonstration as teaching one individual at a time in skills in the workshop

or in the school farm.

Individual demonstration is used to teach special skills which require direct

supervised attention such as the budding of plants. This method helps the student to

30

have the opportunity to observe closely the techniques involves in the operation.

Agricultural demonstration may be carried out either in the school farm (field) or in the

school laboratory.

The agricultural science teacher has certain roles to play in a demonstration

lesson. Akubue (2004) outlined the responsibilities of the teacher (agriculture) in a

demonstration to include; obtaining all necessary equipment and place them in the

proper location after checking to see whether they are in good working condition;

ensuring that the students get in proper positions to observe the demonstration;

explaining the procedure thoroughly taking it step by step including the precautionary

measures; allowing the students to practice the demonstration under the teacher’s

supervision and corrections; and, maintaining discipline among the students and

evaluating the work done by the students.

Egbule (2004) stated that the demonstration method is effective in teaching

agriculture science because it stimulates students’ interest in the learning process and

increases the teacher’s effectiveness, competence and resourcefulness. Ogwo and

Oranu (2006) maintained that the demonstration is important as it arrests the various

senses in a human being, motivates students, enhances effective communication, saves

time and energy, enhances the prestige of the teacher, gives a measure of positive

reinforcement, gives a real life situation of the course of study and allows for process

and project evaluations.

The author added that demonstration method may be noisy if not well managed,

uneconomical to use and highly demanding on the teacher during the course of

instruction. The demonstration method can be made more effective through the

application of ergonomics principles by considering all the equipment, working

materials and items needed for the smooth and successful carrying out of the

31

demonstration must be kept ready and hardy; the equipment and tools should be kept in

the best possible position for all the students to see; the demonstration should be

conducted in an atmosphere devoid of distracting influences that can prevent the

students from concentrating their attention on the teacher; the demonstration proper

should be preceded by an explanation by the teacher as to what the demonstration is all

about; the teacher should carry out the demonstration at a speed appropriate for the

pupils to follow the key points; and the teacher should pause at intervals during the

demonstration to ask questions to ensure that all the pupils are following the processes

involve in the skill being demonstrated.

In this study demonstration method will be used to teach the students’ maize

production through the application of ergonomic principles in the school farm. The

students’ of agriculture will be exposed practically in the school farm on how to

produce maize through the application of ergonomic principles on pre-planting,

planting, post-planting and post harvesting activities.

Discussion Method

The discussion method is student - centered method of teaching which is

characterized by learners’ active participation and interaction. Obasi and Oku (2004)

explained that discussion method is a conversation in which the topic of the lesson or

the subject matter is talked about from various points of view in order to exchange

ideas or views. Both teachers and students learn from one another as there is flow of

information from teachers to students, from students to teachers and from student to

student. Onwuka (1981), noted that students could reject or accept ideas with reason,

expand, prove, expose, query, argue, share, contribute and examine opinions and views.

The teacher acts as a moderator, contributor, guide, facilitator and helper.

32

Osuala (2004) stated that the discussion method is effective in getting trainees to

think constructively while interacting with the rest of the group. A teacher could

conduct discussion with large or small groups. However, small groups are more

desirable. A large group should be broken into smaller groups or teams with a

discussion leader for each team. Osinem (2008) outlined the following conditions for

effective discussion; there must be favourable environment; those concerned, as

participants must be ready/prepared for it before going into it; there must be rapport

(relationship) among participants; it must be well planned for it to be meaningful and

successful; everybody present must be made to contribute in the discussion;

irrelevances, faulty logic and constraints must be discouraged; there must be full

concentration to have effective and purposeful discussion; and the objective must be

understood by every participant.

Obidimma (1997) advised that to use the discussion method, the teacher should

first lay a suitable foundation for the discussion by asking one or more challenging

questions. The trainees or students should then be stimulated to discuss the basic

questions and then finally guide the discussion to a logical conclusion. The author

added that in the directed discussion, the teacher acts as the chairman or moderator. As

a result of the teacher’s questions, suggestions and redirection of ideas, the students in

the class become genuinely interested in exploiting all angles of the central problem.

The students therefore forget the normal classroom restraints and begin to talk to each

other as they would, when carrying out an ordinary conversation. This becomes more

effective when ergonomics principles are applied in instruction.

According to Osuala (2004), before the class discussion, the teacher should

make more extensive and thorough preparations to be able to have a thorough

knowledge of the subject matter so as to sift out pertinent ideas and steers the

33

discussion away from wrong ideas. The teacher should guide the students to do away

with irrelevant ideas and toward the desired objectives of the lesson without dominating

the discussion.

In a discussion, the teacher could ask the students to compare, contrast and

weigh facts, concepts and ideas. To get an appropriate benefit from the discussion, the

students should have some previous familiarity with the subject matter. They could get

such familiarity through observation or by outside reading. The discussion method is

therefore good for teaching agriculture in schools as learners have direct first – hand

experiences in agriculture either as a result of their own activities or from observation

of their immediate surroundings.

Obidimma (1997) advised that to make the class discussion a success, the

teacher should arrange the classroom in such a manner that he is part of the group. The

author suggested that the class sitting arrangement could be made for the group to sit

around a table so that all the pupils could see each other and the teacher or invariably

the class should be arranged in a horse-shoe formation Obasi and Oku (2004) listed the

guidelines for the use of discussion method in teaching agriculture to include; the

teacher selects the topic of the discussion bearing in mind the age, class and sex of the

students. The topic and objective of the lesson should be known by the teacher and the

students; the students must be made to listen and not interrupt unnecessarily while the

other person is talking; the teacher should intervene when occasion demands like when

the discussion becomes noisy; the teacher assigns speakers. Students are all given

opportunity to speak and contribute their ideas; the teacher should not dominate the

class by doing most of the talking; and the students should be made to summarize

points and not the teacher.

34

That applying ergonomic principles in discussion method of teaching will

enable the students to express themselves freely and interact with the teachers and one

another thereby enhancing scholastic performance. It will also make the discussion

interesting and easy. Olaitan (2003) listed the merits of discussion method to include; it

is student – centered and therefore promotes interpersonal relationship, inter-learning

and active participation of learners; the discussion method provides students with a

sense of confidence, freedom of expression, power of inauguration, stimulates and

motivates them to learn; and it makes the learners learn social skill of listening to other

peoples’ view points. The author however stated that the discussion method is not

economical to use, could be noisy if not well managed, and could be dominated by

some learners and therefore not suitable for the lower basic education (lower primary).

The Project Method

The project method is one of the suitable methods employed in teaching and

learning agriculture in schools. According to Emperor and Onwuegbu (1995), the

project method is a natural life like learning activity involving the investigation and

solving of problems by an individual or small group. The author added that the method

involves the use and manipulation of physical materials which result in some tangible

products. Students could in a project be assigned to undertake the controlling of

erosion, brooding chicks and multiplying improved cassava stems among others. The

author also suggested that any project to be carried out should provide a valuable

learning experience and should equally have relevance to the unit or course being

taught. The author stated that the project method develops initiative and creativity

among students.

The author further explained that projects could be on individual basis in which

the student under the supervision of the teacher carries out the project alone. Such

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projects as the brooding of a small number of chicks could be assigned to an individual

student to carry out alone. A project could also be for a group or the whole class

working together to accomplish a common task chosen by them or assigned by the

teacher. Such projects as the preparation of compost manure or mulching the school

farm could be on group or class basis.

According to Olaitan (1984), a good project should be characterized by the

following; capability of stimulating and motivating the pupils; provide initiative,

ingenuity and sense of evaluation to the participants; be meaningful and beneficial to

the participants; provide a coordinated and organized thought in the pupils; and create

self-discipline in the participants. The author stated that the advantages of the project

method in teaching agricultural science include; offering a proper forum for acquisition

of knowledge and skills; helping to build cooperation among students and teachers;

actualizing school work because it enables students to come in direct contact with real

life situations; giving room for creativity because it offers the students unlimited

opportunity to operate according to their abilities. From the foregoing, it can be seen

that application of ergonomics principles in the use of project method offers the

learners all the benefits as the students understand the projects and processes involved

in carrying them out better without fatigue.

Discovery Method

This is an attempt to discover the route to a goal, in the light of past experience

and in a manner appropriate to the present situation. Obidimma (1997) defined

discovery method as a method of instruction through which students interact with their

environment by exploring and manipulating objects or performing experiments. The

author added that this method is a way through which learners are involved to have

direct experiences with the environment which gives them information and allows them

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to form concepts or come to conclusions about facts themselves. The method helps the

teacher to give the students the opportunity to discover new rules, methods or

techniques of solving problems and get new facts. Ajewole (2006), stated that the

discovery method is student-centered, activity-oriented teaching strategy in which the

teacher uses varieties of instructional materials and probing questions to enable students

discover answers to the problems at hand. The author further explained that this method

could also be called problem solving method of teaching. There are two types of

discovery methods which are guided and unguided inquiries. Obasi and Oku (2004)

explained that if a general principle is given and the learner is expected to use the

principle in order to discover the solution to a sensitive problem is given and the learner

is expected to discover the general principles on which the solution is based, the guided

inquiry is adopted through inductive method. In guided discovery learning, learners

must be guided along a path toward discovery of ideas, concepts and information.

Obidimma (1997) explained that pure discovery (unguided discovery) is a situation

where the students are expected to discover both the principle and the solution.

There are several advantages of the discovery method of teaching identified by

several authors. According to Akubue (2004), the advantages include opportunities that

challenge the learners to find out information on their own; exposing the learners to the

world of inquiry thereby helping to increase the intellectual potency and memory

processing of the child; helping in assimilation and retention of knowledge discovered

by students. The discovery method also gives intrinsic reward as the learners discover

new facts as well as encourages active participation of the learner, equips the learner

with a vital means of acquiring knowledge independently. In line with Akubue’s

contribution to advantages of discovering method, Obi (2005) also outlined the

advantages of discovery method with slight modification. These advantages include

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enhancing active students’ learning; providing opportunities for students to learn more

and retain more; encouraging active participation of students in learning activities and

enhancing the development of positive social skills. Discovery method will be more

effective through the application of ergonomics principle to make learning interesting.

However, Obasi and Oku (2004) stated that the discovery method has such

disadvantages as: being time consuming; placing a high demand on teachers and

student; having no feedback mechanism; involving huge finance in terms of buying

expensive equipment; and being ineffective if not properly supervised especially when

collaborative and investigation skills are not taught first to make guided discovery fully

effective; and providing opportunities for learners develop activities that are not

relevant to the problem which may cause confusion in learning process and output.

Field Trip/Excursion Method

This is a planned visit to a place outside the regular classroom to obtain

information directly and study real situation. It is one of the best methods used for

effective teaching/learning of agricultural science. Obasi and Oku (2004) stated that

field trip is an excursion taken outside the classroom for the purpose of making relevant

observations and for getting specific information. The authors explained that field trip

is a trip to give learners opportunity to obtain first – hand information by seeing things

as they really are and for them to acquire knowledge. Students have the opportunity to

actively engage, observe, collect, classify and study relationship and objects. Field trip

gives the most realistic means of the study of real things, real processes and real people

in their real environment. However, every field trip to be made by teachers and students

should be of interest to students, suitable to their age and sex, and produce learning

relevant to curricular goals.

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Similarly, Ogwo (2002) stated that field trip is an organized visit to a place of

interest to achieve a stated instructional objective. The author added that field trip

brings learners’ in close contact with realistic experiences which can hardly be

achieved in the class room no matter the honest intention of the teacher. The author

further explained that field trip help learners to integrate knowledge and skills acquired

through classroom instruction and laboratory practical with actual practices in the world

of work. This is true in vocational education where acquisition of work and habit is

paramount. Obasi and Oku (2004) therefore stated that planning for field trips requires

that the followings should be done by the teacher; the objective of the trip should be

clearly defined; make an initial visit to the place of visit to obtain permission to visit by

all concerned; prepare a good plan for transportation; define a dress code for himself

and students; prepare questions that would be asked with students clarity; and state the

code of conduct to the students clearly.

In the view of Obidimma (1997), the teacher should do the followings in making

plans for the trip: Determine the appropriate place to take the trip to and obtain the

permission of the school head; visits or writes the farms or stations concerned to obtain

permission and arrange for the trip in advance; outlines for the class the exact facts or

skills to be learned during the trip; sets out a time during the planning step to discuss

the plan with the students making clear to them the reasons for the journey; guide the

students at the end of the trip to review objectives and evaluate the trip, discussing

interesting and useful points which they observed;

The field method of teaching influences the quality of teaching and learning

opportunities. This method provides several advantages to the students in learning

processes. The advantages of field trip according to Eya (2004) are as follows: Students

learn more readily in a natural situation which the field trip provides; field trip breaks

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the monotony of the usual classroom routine; it affords the students to learn to do by

doing; it facilitates remembrance of facts learned because facts observed and collected

on field trips are remembered longer and better than that obtained from textbooks; field

trip makes both teaching and learning of concepts in agriculture clearer to the students;

it affords students the opportunity to discover and explore new information, apply and

organize previous knowledge by concrete examples; and it develops students’ interest

in learning as they gather first hand information.

Furthermore, Osinem (2008) outlined the following as merits of field trip: It

brings learners in close contact with realistic experience; it ensures better utilization of

community resources; it provides the students the opportunity to learn outside the

classroom environment; ensures a realistic concrete, meaningful and effective learning;

it motivates students to learn more. In spite of the advantages of field trip highlighted

above, the author provided the following demerits of field trip: field trip is time

consuming, very expensive to conduct and it is a risky process of learning. Application

of ergonomics principles in field trip motivates the interest of the learners. It helps the

teacher to provide enabling environment for the excursion which will help the students

of agriculture to learn with ease.

Lecture Method

This is the method of teaching in which the teacher does most of the talking

during teaching and learning processes. This method is one of the traditional methods

of transmitting knowledge to the students. Awotra-Efebo (2002), explained that lecture

method is teaching whereby the teacher transmits information (subject matter content)

verbally to the students. The students listen and take notes of facts considered important

and sometimes the students are allowed to ask questions for clarification. Obasi and

Oku (2004) stated that the lecture method is teacher – centered. The teacher engages

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himself in speaking or reading and at times may use some form of media. While the

teacher is active, the learners are passive listening and taking down points. Akubue

(2004) stated that in the lecturer method, communication flows only in one direction –

from the teacher to the learners. The teacher may allow questions at the end or at

interval just for clarification. The author stated that the lecture method is not

appropriate for secondary schools. However, there are situations in which it appears

inevitable especially when dealing with a very large class or when there is large amount

of subject matter to cover within a limited time. Obasi and Oku (2004) therefore listed

the followings to be done in order to make lecture method effective. The teacher must

use ideas and words which are familiar to the learners, the lecture must be delivered

systemically using a suitable order, the important points must be repeated severally and

also emphasized, and the teacher must be clear and distinct and use illustrations

whenever possible.

Emperor and Onwuegbu (1995) outlined the following disadvantages of lecturer

methods: it encourages root learning, it is one way communication affair which is

autocratic and encourages student’s passivity, role learning and is in appropriate for

teaching and encouraging students to think of themselves. The method is not capable of

identifying the varied needs of the students, it does not offer pupils opportunity to

communication, think and to solve problem since students are mere listeners, and not

much learning is guaranteed. The author added that students generally remembered

10% of what they read, 20% of what they hear, 30% of what they see, 50% of what

they see and hear, 70% of what they say and 90% of what they say as they perform

activities. Good teaching always provides for a two – way communication between the

teacher and the students and of this reason other methods such as demonstration with

the application of ergonomics principles are more effective than conventional method

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(lecture method) in teaching and learning practical activities in secondary schools. Most

teachers of agriculture in senior secondary schools in FCT use lecture method to deliver

instruction in the classroom. Lecture method as an example of conventional method of

teaching is full of stress, fatigue, and hazards. It does not motivate and sustain students’

interest in practical agriculture.

Productive Skills in Maize Production

Pre-planting Operations in Maize Production

There are many activities to be carried out before crops are planted in the soil.

These activities are skills in pre-planting operation. Pre-planting operations in the

production of any crop are farming activities that are carried out prior to the actual

planting of crops on the land. According to Obinne (1986) pre-planting operations are

cultural practices carried out before the actual planting of the crops. Emedo and Emedo

(2005) explained pre-planting operations as all essential aspects of farming activities

carried out on the farm before sowing of the crops. The author further said that pre-

planting operation involves: choosing of site (site selection), clearing, stumping,

plotting, ploughing, harrowing and ridging. In the opinion of Environmental Production

Agency (EPA) (2007) pre-planting operations are accomplished during the period

subsequent to the harvest of one season’s crop and prior to the planting of the next

season’s crop. Farm operations at this stage of crop production start from farm planning

through selection of suitable land to land preparation for planting. Application of

ergonomic principles in performing activities in pre-planting operations enhances skills

acquisition, efficiency of work and improves productivity.

Selection of Suitable Land

The selection of suitable land for cultivation is one of the most important

activities in the production of any crop by farmers. The influence of soil and soil water

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retention on the health of a growing crop is important which can be determined by soil

suitability for the crop. The suitability of any soil according to Wustenberghs, Moons,

Pauwels, Keulemans and Deekers (2008) is defined by quality of the texture, winter

grained water level, profile development, organic matter content, the presence of

substrate and its depth. In the opinion of Uzo (2003) the land poorly sited may produce

inferior crops despite the use of recommended methods of cultivation by the farmers.

Farmers rely on physical perception of some observable soil properties on the field.

Such soil properties according to Osunade (2007) include; soil texture, colour, organic

matter content, drainage condition of soil and its bulk density. Iwena (2010)

recommended that a level site is suitable for most arable crops that though, a gentle

slope can be advantageous because it assists drainage. Fully exposed sites are suitable

for crops production because plants are well exposed to sunlight.

The Author stated that before acquiring land for crop production, the following

conditions must be sought for: Usually fadama or alluvial soils high in organic matter

are the best; texture and colour of the soil are often indicative of its potential usefulness

of growing crops; dark soils are usually the most fertile since they often have a

reasonable content of organic matter; good soil for Maize production is a well drained

sandy loamy soil with pH of 6-7; generally, fertile, deep, friable and well-drained soil is

one of the first essentials for successful crop cultivation. An infertile soil with

favourable physical properties may be upgraded into high productive soil by

incorporating organic matter and other soil amendment materials and commercial

fertilizers. Uzo (2004) stated further that soil analysis is essential in order to estimate its

suitability for crop production. Soil testing and analysis in the opinion of Enweuzor

(2000) is physical and chemical measurement of soil properties in order to make

prediction on its agricultural use. Soil testing and analysis has certain importance which

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according to Hinga (2000) include: It helps in evaluating the ability of the soil to

sustain good yield; It helps in determining specific condition in the soil which can be

improved by addition of corrective or by the introduction of other agricultural practices;

it helps in predicting the probability of obtaining response to the application of

fertilizers; it is useful in soil classification on the basis of analytical data by the soil

surveyor; it is used for fertilizer recommendation.

Ogieva (2008) is of the view that soil testing and analysis is a necessary

prerequisite for effective use of fertilizer and selection of suitable soil for cropping. In

carrying out soil testing and analysis by farmers, there are certain procedure that must

be followed and where farmers may require some skills for success in operations.

Ulysses (2004) enumerated the following procedures as necessary in soil testing and

analysis: Sample separately area fertilized, these areas with different slops, textures,

depth or drainage; take one sample to represent 10 acres (4 ha); take one sample to

represent home garden, lawns or ornamental beds; use soil auger, spade or shovel for

collecting soil sample; take sample at the depth of 15 to 20cm; take sample from

pasture or turf at the depth of 5 to 7.5cm; sample sub-soil at the depth of 0-30cm; take

equal size core or slice if using shovel or spade from the side of a v – shaped hole from

12 or more locations within sample area; Place the core or slice in a bucket and mix

thoroughly; label and number the soil box and loosely fill the box with the mixed soil

from the bucket; take sample to the soil laboratory to determine available nutrient; use

fertilizer recommendation guideline to interpret results. Ergonomics principles ensures

friendly environment for practical agriculture in the school farm such as: fertile soil,

appropriate tools and equipment meant for each operational activity, provision of farm

house and other materials needed in farm to make the tasks interesting and result

oriented.

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Land Preparation

Land preparation is an essential farm activity in crop production that must be

well carried out for effective growth, development and yield of the crop. Land

preparation according to Akinsanmi (2005) is the various measures adopted by the

farmer to get the best out of his soil and these measures are classified as pre-planting

operations which include bush clearing, burning, stumping, field laying and tilling or

ridging. Imolehin (1991) stated that land preparation is one of the principles and

practices of crop production. The author added that land preparation is a pre-planting

operation which includes such processes as providing suitable root environment for

crop to achieve higher productivity. Similarly Emone (2003) viewed land preparation

as the process of clearing the land of any vegetation growth and tilling it ready for

planting crops. Onwueme and Sinha (1999) explained that land preparation is the

slashing of the grasses and saplings of shrubs undergrowth with the machete or cutlass.

According to Green (2006) land preparation for planting should be done

carefully considering the nutrient status of the soil. The author noted further that

organic materials such as compost or manure should be worked into the soil: that this

will help the soil retain moisture, improve drainage, add oxygen to the soil and improve

root and tuber development for tuber crops. To achieve these, Are, Igbokwe, Asadu and

Bawa (2010) stated that land clearing, burning, stumping and tilling to a depth of 25 –

30cm are the necessary tasks that must be performed by farmers during land or soil

preparation to ensure desirable crop yield.

Land Clearing

Land clearing in crop production according to Jakusko, Saidu, Jada, Bawuro and

Fawusi (2006) is carried out using cutlass and other clearing tools in clearing the bush

follow by burning of the dried vegetation on the land. International Institute of Tropical

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Agriculture (IITA, 2007) agreed with this view that under land preparation for crop

production, the first step is clearing of the bush with necessary tools follow by burning

of the thrashed if it is a virgin land. In some cases, it is advisable most especially when

the thrashes are soft fibrous shrubs should be incorporate into the soil during land

preparation to improve soil fertility.

The various land clearing systems a farmer can adopt in crop production. Emone

(2003) highlighted such land clearing systems to include:

• Burn and Plant: This merely involves burning off thick and dry

secondary vegetation and immediately after burning before the

germination of weeds, the crops are planted under zero tillage;

• Burn, Hoe and Plant: This is common in savanna areas where fire

effectively eliminates most of the vegetation. Cutting is limited to the

remaining trees and bushes;

• Cut, adds extra Wood, Burn, Hoe and Plant: This is referred to as

“chitemene” in Zambia. It involves cutting bush from a greater area to

where burning is required in order to obtain a hotter fire and a large

amount of ash on the land that is to be sown;

• Cut, Burn and Plant: This involves cutting down vegetation usually

towards the end of the dry season, allow it to dry a while and then burn it

as the rainy season approaches and the soil must be prepared for planting;

Cut, bury refuse in Mounds and Plant:

• Under this system, vegetation is cut down; the thrashed are buried in

mounds on the field and in some cases ignited possibly because of the

beneficial effect of heat on the soil fertility; Cut, Plant and Burn: This is

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the system in which the vegetation residues left in the fields are burned

after crops are already growing.

To effectively carry out clearing operation using any of the above land clearing

system, the application of ergonomic principle of safety helps the students to practice

the activities in farm with out hazards. These safety practices according to Osinem

(2005) include: Jungle boots are recommended and must be worn to protect the farmer

from being bitten by poisonous reptiles and insects or stepping on dangerous thorns;

avoid unnecessary contact with holes in the ground without being combatant ready.

Such holes constitute hide outs for dangerous reptiles; farmers should avoid close

contact with one another during land clearing operation with cutlass. Considerable

working space must be maintained to avoid injury and cutlass cut from one another;

sharp objects such as cutlass and other clearing tools must not be struck downwards to

prevent cutting oneself or springing back of uncut branches; hand gloves must be worn

while working on the farm to prevent injury. The students applied ergonomic principles

of safety and good working posture while performing the tasks in the field by handling

and proper utilization of tools and equipment, bending, stooping and standing in

appropriate position to perform the practical activities in the farm.

Stumping and Tillage

Stumping in the opinion of Pearson (2007) is the removal of bottom part of a

tree that is left in the ground after the rest of it has been cut down. It involves the

digging and removal of roots of trees that can prevent smooth tillage operation by man

or farm machines. In most land preparation for planting, stumping and tillage

operations go together most especially where the farm land is covered by forest with

giant trees. In cases where the land has been under cultivation for some years, stumping

may not be necessary at all but tillage after land clearing. Purseglove (2000) outlined

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the following steps involved in manual stumping: small and medium size trees are cut

90cm above the ground; other trees are felled with axe or hand operated saws at any

convenient height; the area is burnt when the twigs and all other materials are

sufficiently dry; dig out the soil from the base of the stump; cut off the roots; pull out

the stump from the soil by hands; stumped trees are cut into logs and taken off the field;

holes made by the stumps are filled with the soil to facilitate easy movement of man

and machinery in the field. Ogieva (2008) stated that after stumping, the farm is laid

out prior to tilling of the soil. The author added that a new farm can be laid out into

rectangular plots, blocks or fields by using the 3 – 4 – 5 methods, taking the following

steps: Get a baseline by erecting a pole either in the center or at the middle of the field;

tie a string to the pole and extend it along the line AB until the free end is 4m from the

pole; do the same thing with another string from A to C and make that distance 3m;

move the end of the strings at B and C until they are just 5m apart; arrange ranging

poles along each arm of the angle and sight; measure and add up the distance; and

divide the whole field into plots for different uses.

Tillage according to EPA (2008) is the mechanical manipulation of soil

performed to nurture crops. Emone (2003) described tillage as the preparation of the

soil for planting and the process of keeping the soil loose and free from weeds during

the growth of the crops. In the submission of Foth (1990) tillage is the mechanical

manipulation of soil to modify soil condition for plant growth. Tillage is beneficial for

preparing land for planting, controlling weeds and managing crop residues. In addition,

Gagiri, Avora and Prihar (2004) viewed tillage as the manipulation of the soil with

tools and implements for the germination of seeds and the growth of crops. Tillage

operation in land preparation is carried out with different farm tools and implement

such as hoe, shovel, animal drawn implement and tractor mounted with plough, harrow

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or ridges. The ploughing is primary tillage while the harrowing at 15 days latter is

secondary tillage that ensures adequate mixing and incorporation of plant residues into

the soil for improved fertility. To buttress this point, EPA (2008) stated that tillage can

be categorized mainly into primary and secondary tillage which were explained by the

author as follows: Primary Tillage: This involves the mechanical manipulation of soil

that displaces and scatters soil to reduce soil strength and to bury or mix plant materials

and crop chemicals in the tillage layers. This tends to leave a rough soil surface that is

smoothened by secondary tillage;

Secondary Tillage: On the other hand is the mechanical manipulation of soil that

follows primary tillage. It is performed at shallower depth than primary tillage.

Secondary tillage can provide additional soil pulverization, crop chemical mixing, soil

surface leveling and firming and weed control. In conventional tillage systems, the final

secondary tillage is used to prepare a seed bed. In the view of Edwin and Eje (2004),

tillage is classified into three which include conventional tillage, minimum tillage and

no-tillage practice system. The author explained these tillage systems as follows:

Conventional Tillage Practice: This is the maximum usage of several tillage

implements such as ploughing or disking twice, planting using a conventional planter

etc. Conventional tillage practice has some problems which include excessive erosion,

soil compaction and high cost of implement used. Minimum or Limited Tillage: This is

the tillage practice which involves the use of only one tillage implement or minimum

use of tillage implement such as plough, disk or field cultivator and plants. No-tillage

Practice: As the name implies, it is the tillage practice under which the land is not

broken by any tillage tools or implement before land use for planting. It is suitable for

grains, vegetables and pasture for livestock feeding. Although for deep rooted crops, no

or zero tillage practices is not suitable. Are, et al (2010) confirmed that concentration of

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some soil nutrients such as Calcium, Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Magnesium is

influenced by tillage system adopted by farmers. The authors further explained that in

situation where tillage is required, the following are necessary: Tillage operations shall

be performed when soil moisture is less than 30 percent of the field capacity, using

‘feel test’ or other acceptable method at the maximum depth to which the tillage will be

done.

Use tillage equipment such as chisels, subsoiler, bent leg subsoilers, and rippers

with the ability to reach the required depth to fracture the restrictive layer; the depth of

tillage shall be a minimum of one inch deeper than the depth of the restrictive layer;

tillage depth should be set carefully and periodically checked to maintain this working

depth; completes fracturing of the restrictive layer is not required. The fractured zone as

a minimum shall be sufficient to permit root penetration below the restrictive soil layer;

to bury soil deposits from wind and water erosion or flood over wash, tillage equipment

such as large disk plough and mould board plough with the ability to reach the required

depth shall be used; to mix soil deposits from wind and water erosion or flood over

wash, tillage equipment such as large chisels with twisted points, disc ploughs and

mould board ploughs shall be used.

Okaro (2007) stated the purpose of tillage practice to include:

Bury or mix soil and plant deposits from wind and water erosion to allow

decomposition for improved soil structure and fertility; reduce concentration of soil

contaminants which inhibit plant growth; and Fracture restrictive soil layers. In

addition, MeColly and Martins (1995) stated the following as objectives of tillage

practices. To turn under and mix stubble manure and other organic matter thus adding

humus forming materials to the soil in such manner that it will not interfere with

further tillage and planting operation; to destroy or prevent the growth of weed; to

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loosen the soil so that it may take in and retain maximum amount of rainfall and allow

ready penetration of roots and hairs; to loosen the soil so that seed may be properly

planted and covered; to leave the surface of the soil in condition necessary for a

satisfactory seedbed for the type of crops being planted; and to make soil surface

resistant to erosion by wind or water in those areas where erosion is a problem.

Troeh, Hobbs and Danahue (1999) added that tillage ensures surface soil

conditioning which favours effective seed placement germination and early emergence

of seedlings and permit unrestricted root growth and plant development. The Author

stated the following as knowledge and skills in tillage practices:

Break and stir the soil with hoe or shovel; scrape the soil surface; burry the weed

with hoe or shovel; smooth the scrape soil surface; till the soil to leave straw and

stubble on the surface; prepare the land flat without ridges; break down initial ridges

and build new ones over the rows by inventing half of the soil from the adjacent ridge

onto the old furrow bottom which is not cultivated; construct flat beds wide enough to

accommodate two rows of crops; and construct ridges and leave crop residues and clod

at the surface of the soil.

In the submission of Brady and Weils (1999) the skills involved in tillage

operation are; Break the soil structure with hoe, or tillage implement; twist the tilled

soil with the hoe; invert the soil while incorporating crop residues and animal waste

into the soil layer; break up the soil clods to prepare seedbed; make ridges, seed bed

and create furrows; and smooth the surface of the seed bed or ridges.

Anyanwu; et al (2008) highlighted the following as pre-planting care that must

be ensured by farmers for healthy growth and development of crops for high yield:

Adequate preparation of field or bed to ensure minimum time lapse between tilling and

planting; secure planting materials against abrasion, exposure and extreme temperature

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change during transit. Avoid binding of plants with rope or wire which may damage

barks, break branches or destroy natural shape of plant; and protect planting materials

for frost, excessive heat, wind and sun during delivery.

Application of ergonomics principles in pre-planting operations helps to

stimulate and sustain the interest of the students towards practical activities in the farm.

Ergonomics principle helps to minimize static load and pressure in manipulating farm

implement and tools. Tilling the soil with sharpened metal hoes reduce excessive force,

fatigue and drudgery associated with farm operations. Students used the tools that fit

the tasks and perform the activities easily with appropriate working postures of

bending, stooping, striding and standing positions

Planting Operations in Maize Production

Planting is an important task in crop production that must be carried out

carefully for effective growth and development of crops. Planting according to Emone

(2003) is the placement of seeds, seedlings or any form of planting materials in the

ground usually in rows so that subsequent hoeing and weeding can be done easily.

Planting operations in the opinion of Okaro (2007) is the process of introducing the

seeds or seedling into the soil. He categorized planting of crop into two namely, direct

planting (planting in situ) and transplanting. The author added that choice of a

particular method depends on such factors as type of crop, age of the variety,

availability of the moisture content in the soil, climatic conditions and availability of

labour and agricultural inputs. Iwena (2010) stated that planting operation can be

carried out by farmer either manually with planting tools or with the use of arm

machine (planter) in mechanized farming Ogieva (2008) stated that no definite date can

be given for planting any crop because climatic and topographic factors vary widely

even within relatively small areas. The author added that planting of particular seeds or

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seedlings often determines the success or failure of the crop. The author further

explained that planting is done when the rains have sufficiently moistened the soil; and

in West Africa, the erratic nature of the rainfall makes choice of planting time very

difficult.

The planting of any crop on the field is associated with some other important

farm activities. Omoruyi, Orhue, Akerobo and Aghumien (2005) stated that the

planting of maize is associated with the decision on selection of planting materials,

when to plant, the rate of planting, spacing and finally the depth of planting for

maximum yield of the crop. Iwena (2010) explained that maize is propagated by seeds,

the date of planting maize in West African Zone is mid March – Early April (for early

maize), late planting is August – September spacing distance for maize is 80cm

between rows and 50cm between holes. The author further said that the quantity of

seeds required to plant one hectare of land is 25kg – 30kg / hectare, number of seeds

per hole is three seeds which can be thinned down to 2 from two to three weeks after

planting and the depth for maize is 4-5cm. Okaro (2007) noted that planting of maize

can be done manually, using cutlass, or mechanically by planters at 2 – 3 seeds per hole

at 2 – 4cm deep. Germination occurs 4 – 7 days after planting. Obi (1991) recorded that

the time of planting maize in the forest zone is mid – march to first week of April. The

author added that it is advisable to treat seeds intended for planting with Aldrex – T or

Fernasan – D before sowing to secure against seed infestation by fungi which reduces

germinability of maize seed considerably the depth of 2 – 4cm deep and 2 – 4 seeds are

planted per hill or hole at a spacing ridges spaced 70 – 80cm apart when maize is grown

alone. When seedlings are about 2.5cm high or 15 – 20 days after planting they should

be thinned down to one or two plants per hill.

53

In the opinion of Olaitan and Omomia (2009) maize is propagated by seed, date

of planting is March – April (early planting) July to early September (late planting)

seed rate is 23kg to 30kg per hectare or 3 – 4 seeds per stand or 53,000 plants per

hectare for 75cm x 25cm between plants and this requires 25kg seeds per hectare. The

authors added that the spacing distance of maize to be 30cm x 90cm apart or 60cm

apart to either side of the ridges, and the sowing depth of 6 – 8cm deep or 4 – 5cm on

side of the ridges.

The application of ergonomics principles in planting operations ensures proper

organization of materials, equipment and tools in easy reach to make the work faster

and interesting. Ergonomics principles help the students to perform the activities

successfully by making appropriate holes for planting the seeds, accurate measurement

of planting distance, planting viable seeds for easy germination and good yield using

appropriate farm tools such as sharp cutlass, hoes, ruler and calibrated sticks.

Post-Planting Operations in Maize Production

Post – planting operations are those farming activities that are carried out by

farmers immediately after sowing or planting which proceed through series of crop

maintenance activities to harvesting in order to ensure high crop yield. Iwena (2010)

stated that post – planting operations are farm activities carried out in the farm after

planting such as weeding, thinning, soil moisture management, fertilizer application,

pest and disease control.

Weeding

Weeding is the mechanical or chemical removal of plants growing on the field

where they are not wanted among planted crops. Omoruyi ,et al (2005) stated that weed

is a plant growing where it is not desired in such a way that is constitutes a nuisance

either to man, livestock or to the corps. The authors noted that weed competes with

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maize for space, soil nutrients, height, air among others and it serves as alternative

hosts to pests and diseases organisms that could affect cultivated crops. The authors

highlighted the several methods used in weed controls as: Hand pulling: This is the

pulling of weeds by hand in the farm. Hoeing: It involves the use of hoe, which is used

in cutting the weed. It is effective in the control of weeds in maize farm. Mowing:

Involves the use of mower to control weeds.

Early planting of maize, good spacing, Use of selective herbicides

Iwena (2010) stated that weeding of maize is done three to four times at regular

intervals. The author added that weeding can be done manually by hoeing, cutlassing,

and herbicide; or mechanically with machine. Akinsanmi (2005) stated that method of

weeding depends on the nature of the crops. The author added that short handle native

hoe can be used for clean weeding on plots of maize and in mechanical farms;

herbicides that are harmless to crop plants are used to destroy weeds. The author further

explained that the herbicides are form o sprays, powders and dusts. Each chemical

compound usually destroys a specific chemicals are needed to destroy an assortment of

weeds which are not the same major plant group. The author warned that chemical

weed killer should always be used with care, since crop damage can easily be done by

too high chemical concentration. The author further identified some common herbicide

such as: Paraquat (Gramoxone), 2, 4 – dichloroacetic acid (2, 4-D), and 2, 4, S –

trichloroacetic acid (2, 4, S – T) and some herbicides which act through the roots are

simazine and linuron.

According to Obi (1991) two or three weeding are required for maize before the

crop is mature. The first and most important weeding usually takes place about three

weeks after planting. The author added that during weeding, it is important to earthen

55

up the bases of the maize plants by heaping soil around the base of the maize plant high

enough to prevent the plant from lodging (falling down).

The author further explained that chemical weeding is carried out using

Gesaprim 500 F.W, pre-emergence herbicide which is applied at 4 litres of water per

hectare. The author suggested that Herbicides should be sprayed when it is expected not

to rain at 3 – 5 days after spraying. In case of herbicide failure, the field may be hand

weeded at 10 man day per hectare as necessary. Atrazin is another herbicide for maize

which is selective herbicide that is applied at the rate of 2kg/ha immediately after

planting or 10days after planting, after which no weeding may be needed. The author

also explained that Atrazine has residual effect which last for about 6 months.

Therefore, only maize or sorghum (guinea corn) can be grown on the same piece of

land within the time range also Herbicide application is highly technical; therefore

expert advice is essential in herbicide handling and efficient application. It is very

important to adhere to safety practices while handling chemical in the farm to avoid

hazards. Hand gloves goggles, jungle boots and so on should be worn to protect the

students from injury or poison (Osinem, 2011) Application of ergonomics principles in

weeding activities will enhance safety and productivity. It will also make the task easy

and prevent musculoskeletal disorder which results from bad working postures.

Okaro (2007) stated that thinning is very necessary in maize production. The

author stated that thinning is the removal of weak plant from a stand to give rise to one

or two vigorous crop plants. The author further said that when seedlings are about

2.5cm high or 15 – 20 days after planting, they should be thinned down to one or two

plant per hill and for this operation, a special hoe called thinning fork is used to dig and

cut the seedling below the non-meristematic region to prevent re-growth of seedlings

after thinning.

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Soil Moisture Management

Soil moisture management in this study is the manipulation of soil water /

moisture level to ensure normal growth and development of crops for maximum yield.

These activities include irrigation drainage and mulching. In the opinion of Olaitan and

Omomia (2009) irrigation is any artificial means of supplying water to crops for its

growth and development. In dry areas where there is little or no rainfall, irrigation

provides the total water needs of the crops. The author reported further that wet areas

where there is rainfall in almost all the months of the year, crops are grown under

natural rainfall.

Iwena (2010) affirmed that farm requires a reasonable moisture supply

equivalent to about 3cm of rain a week during the growing season for the best result,

that during the dry season when rain ceases, regular watering or irrigation of the crop

will be required for good yield. Uguru (2005) explained that irrigation can either be by

manual, surface or pressurized. Manual irrigation is very common in West African

Countries where the technology and energy allocated to agriculture are low. The pattern

of water distribution under manual irrigation is primitive and time wasting. The author

further explained that the surface irrigation can be carried out through basin, border and

irrigation in furrows; while pressurized irrigation is the forcing of water from the source

such as river, lake, well and so on.

Falusi and Adeleye (2003) outlined the following advantages of sprinkler

irrigation: Efficiency of greater than 75%; it is easy to operate; it requires less land

preparation; it saves labour; fertilization is done with sprinkler irrigation; and it can be

used on sleep slopes. Drainage is the process of removing excess water from the soil to

make it free saturation and water logging. Olaitan and Omomia (2009) stated that the

main purpose of drainage is to reduce the water or moisture content of the root zone

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thus permitting free oxygen movement around crop roots and diffusion of Co2 from the

roots. The author outlined the following benefits of drainage in crop production;

It improves soil aeration; prevent soil structure determination; it promotes

biological, biochemical and microbial processes related to nitrogen availability to

crops; drainage permits early soil workability after rain; it lowers the water table; and it

warms the soil to activate the activities of micro organisms.

Mulching is the process of covering the land with leaves, dry grasses and so on.

The mulch materials should be soft dry grasses or fine and soft wood shaving which

should be spread lightly on the surface of the soil (Olaitan and Omomia 2009)

Kirkpatrick (2004) explained mulching as the laying of compost, leaves, straw among

others on the soil around plants in order to keep the moist, to protect plants roots and to

prevent growing of weeds. Aniekwe, Onyia, Ngwu, and Mba (2005) stated that

mulching is necessary if carried out during dry season when the soil temperature is very

high. The authors warned that care should be taken to avoid materials such as weed

seeds, dry grasses and other mulching materials should be removed after dry season in

order to prevent termites attack

Further more, Osinem (2011) stated that in mulching, the following activities are

carried out: covering every part of the ridge/bed (complete mulching); covering only

around the crop the size of root zone (partial mulching); spreading mulches or soil

loosened by tillage or weeding for greater effect on water infiltration; chop up mulch

materials to make layers permeable to water and speed up rotting of the materials;

maintain mulch layer of 5 – 10cm for effective cover and adequate aeration; and avoid

direct contact between plant leaves and mulches to prevent transmission of fungal

diseases. Application of ergonomics principles in carrying out soil moisture

management activities will make the task easy, conserve energy and increase

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productivity (Thatcher, at al 2005). Ergonomic principles help the students in selecting

appropriate materials for mulching and performing the activities such as gathering of

the materials, carrying and spreading them on the ridges with appropriate tools such as

rake, shovel, hand trowel, head pan and cutlass.

Fertilizer Application and Manuring

Manure is the waste matter from animals and animals that is spread over or

mixed with the soil to help plant grow. Manuring is the process of adding manure into

the soil. Olaitan and Omomia (2009) identified two types of manure, they are: Organic

and Inorganic manure. The author explained that organic manures are obtained from

decayed plants and animals such as farmyard manure, compost and green manure

farmyard manure is obtained from animal droppings and their beddings such as grasses

and wood shavings. Compost is obtained from plant and animal materials that are

allowed to decay together. Green manure is young, succulent plants buried in the soil.

Inorganic manures are called fertilizers which are manufactured in industries.

Fertilizers are off different categories and uses such as compound fertilizers like

Nitrogen phosphorous and potassium (N.P.K), Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (C.A.N)

and straight or simple fertilizer such as Ammonium Sulphate Ammonium nitrate and

Urea (Okaro 2007) .Iwena (2010) stated that fertilizer is incorporated inside the soil to

increase the available soil nutrients required. The author added that fertilizer improves

the soil nutrients for the purpose of good growth and increases the yield of crops. In the

same vein Osinem (2011) stated that fertilizers or manures help to spur plants growth.

According to Ogieva (2008) plants response to fertilizers according to the

following factors: The weather must not be so dry that the fertilizer cannot dissolve;

improved varieties of crop well adapted to the environment should be used; there

should be a proper control of weeds to prevent their competing with the crops; the

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poorer the soil, the greater is the response of fertilizer application and in very rich soils;

the fertilizer might not have any effect at all; and fertilizers are better applied first

during planting or shortly after germination for luxuriant vegetative growth.

Iwena (2010) outlined the following methods of fertilizer application such as:

ring method, broadcasting method, band placement method, side dressing and spraying

method. Falusi and Adeleye (2003) explained that highest yield of maize is obtained on

the heavily fertilized soil. The authors added that maize responds well to both organic

and inorganic fertilizer among the essential mineral elements necessary for satisfactory

yield are N2 P K, Ca and to some extent Magnesium and Zinc. Similarly Obi (1991)

stated that application of complete fertilizer immediately after planting of maize is

recommended. The author added that fertilizer should be placed about 5 – 10cm away

from the plant in ring or continuous rows.

According to Olaitan and Omomia (2009) mixed fertilizer such as NPK at the

ratio of 2:2:3 should be applied to maize, 3 weeks after planting and the fertilizer

should be applied 10cm away from the plant in a ring form round the plant. Falusi and

Adeleye (2003) explained that four 50kg bags of NPK 15:15:15 per hectare are applied

at planting followed by two 50kg bags of sulphate of ammonia at 6 – 7 weeks of

planting. The authors added that this split application of Nitrogen fertilizer is necessary

to reduce leaching. The fertilizer is applied in a ring of 10cm radius and 2cm deep

around each stand. Sagus (2008) suggested that students should wear hand globes

before applying the fertilizer in the farm to prevent and protect their body from

chemical poisoning. Therefore, the application of ergonomics principles in fertilizer /

manure application make the task interesting, minimize fatigue and prevent hazards. It

helps the students to practice the activities in the farm using correct methods and

appropriate tools.

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Pest and Diseases

A pest is an insect or animal that destroys plants while a disease is any

abnormality or deviation from the health of a plant. Olaitarn and Omomia (2009) stated

that pest are insects, rodents and birds that destroy crops on the farm and diseases are

abnormal condition affecting plants and animal growth, development, production and

reproduction. The author added that diseases are caused by the following pathogens;

virus, fungi, bacteria, Nematodes and protozoa. According to Anyanwu, Anyanwu and

Anyanwu (2003) a disease may be regarded as an abnormality in health, while disease

in plant is a physiological activity caused by a continuous irritation of a primary causal

factor (pathogen or malnutrition exhibited through abnormal cellular activity and

expressed in characteristic pathological/conditions known as symptoms and harmful to

the plant or to any of its part and products to reduce its economic value.

The authors added that pest and disease control is an important practice in maize

production because it ensures maximum yield. Omoruyi, Orhue, Akerobo and

Aghumien (2005) stated that maize is affected by a number of pests and diseases such

as: maize aphid, maize stalk borer and African army worm. The author added that

maize aphids is an insect pest of maize that damages leaves, leaf sweat and

inflorescence covered with colonies of dark green aphid, with a slight white covering.

The leaves may become mottled and distorted and new growth may be dwarfed

damaged to become sterile. The authors further explained that maize aphid is controlled

by:

Burning the seed crop stubbles after harvest which affects a degree of cultural

controls; and using aphicides (chemical) such as chlorphrifos at the rate of 0.4 – 1.2kg

a.i/ha or Diazinon at the rate of 0.3 – 0.6kg a.i/ha. Falusi and Adeleye (2003) noted that

cornsmut is a disease caused by a fungus named ustilago maydis affects the aerial part

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of maize plant forming black spores on the stem, leave and tassels. The authors stated

the following methods of controlling corn smut: Infected plants should be uprooted and

burnt; apply seed treatment that is used in treating seeds with mercury dust before

sowing; and use resistant varieties or hybrids of maize.

Anyanwu, et al (2008) highlighted various methods of controlling plant disease

as: Ecological Control- This is burning about of a radical change in the environment of

the crop or pathogen so that it and encourages the destruction of the pathogen.

Examples are bush burning which kills soil borne pathogens and flooding on a united

scale thus suffocating the pathogens; and cultural Control- This involves modification

of the cultivation system to enable the crop to escape disease attack. Examples of this

practice are: Crop rotation of susceptible with non- susceptible plants to the disease to

starve out the pathogen; alteration of the planting dates, if the pathogen is much when

the planting is done, biological Control- This is the use of a pathogen’s natural enemy

to control it. This method is ineffective with fungi but is most applicable with

nematodes; chemical Control - Chemicals are introduced which serve either as

eradicates or defensive. It gives quickest results and in most cases is very economical.

However, the danger in this method is that chemicals can be destructive to desirable

organisms or even to man and animals: Breeding Resistant Varieties- This is fairly

successful method but the period does not last too long before the pathogens device a

counter resistance and then attack the plants.

Okaro (2007) out lined the following pest and diseases of maize and their

method of control: leaf Spot- cause by fungi (physoderma spp.) the leaves of infected

plant are covered with spots on the lower surface, usually on leaves closer to the

ground. Method of control is by practicing crop rotation; maize Rust- This is caused by

a fungus named Puccinia polysora; It causes reddish to purple coloration of infected

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leaves resulting in death of such leaves. It occurs occasionally and attacks crops that are

not planted at the right time. The method of controlling maize rust are; use of resistant

varieties; and plant crops at right time; maize streak- it is a viral disease and the virus is

transmitted by an insect named cicadulina imbila .The virus produces long yellowish,

irregular stripes on the leaves leading to plant deformation and stunted growth. The

methods of control are: control of the insect vector; infected plant should be uprooted

and burnt.

Maize stalk bore (Busseolafusca) is a major disease in tropical Africa the

caterpillars of the insect bore holes in the leaves and make a funnel covering. It also

bore holes on stem and cobs of maize and destroys all these parts. Control of maize

stalk borer could be achieved by burning all crop residues and by applying insecticides

such as DDT dust, down the funnel of young plants when the maize is about 30 cm tall.

This will be repeated if necessary three weeks after the first application. The spray

treatment is generally more effective during dry weather. Iwena (2010) stated that stem

borers can be controlled through the following methods: Use of resistant varieties

adequate weeding; use chemical e.g. vetox 85 at the rate of 28g per gallon of water 14

days after planting for effective control, second application is done 28 days after

planting at the same rate. Weevil- Sitophilus zamias attack maize in store. It is a field -

to – store pest. It reduces maize grain into powdery substances, and it is the larval of the

insect that do the damages.

Methods of Control of Pests and Diseases

Early harvesting of cobs; maize grains should be dried to safe moisture level

before they are stored; containers to be used for storage should be properly dried and

fumigated using phostoxin. African army worm (spodoptera) for example is a serious

pest in outbreak years which follow rain in the hot season. The caterpillars damage

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leaves of maize by making a hole through the midrib and eventually eat down the

midrib. Control of armyworm infestation on maize could be carried out by spraying

DDT dust at the rate of 0.5kg per hectare, carbary, at the rate of 1.0kg/hectare or

malathion at the rate of 2.Jkg a.lha.

Application of ergonomic principles in controlling pest and disease of crop such

as maize improves quality and quantity of crop yield, enhance the performance of the

student and reduces drudgery. Ergonomic principles enables the students to identify the

maize plants attacked by pest and diseases, practice how to control pest and diseases of

maize by using hand picking method, destruction of the affected parts, practicing farm

sanitation and using correct chemicals to perform the tasks.

Harvesting of Maize Crop

Harvesting is the cutting, plucking, uprooting or digging of mature and ripe

grains, leaves, fruits and tubers. According to Emone (2003) crop harvesting is the

cutting, digging, gathering, and handling of mature crops up to their final removal from

the field. Onwueme and Sinha (1999) viewed harvesting as the removal of useful crop

parts such as maize for processing and storage for either home consumption or for sale.

Olaitan and Omomia (2009) stated that harvesting of crops can be carried out manually

through the use of hands with implements like hoes, cutlasses, pick axe and sickle. The

author added that machines such as harvester can be used for harvesting of crops on

commercial or large-scale farm. The harvested crop products are gathered together in a

place for marketing or processing.

In the opinion of Falusi and Adeyele (2003) harvesting of maize depends on the

aim or objective of production, for example, maize to be consumed fresh is harvested at

60-90 days after planting, and if as dried shelled grain, harvest at 90-120 days after

planting when the cobs are not fully developed/matured. The time for harvesting also

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depends on the variety grown. The authors added that most of the maize produced in

Nigeria is consumed fresh with little reserved for the following season especially in the

southern part. Most matured maize cobs have their silk turn brown and at this stage

they should be harvested. The authors further explained that yield of maize is about 3,

500kg/ha. For improved varieties local ones vary from 600-1,200kg/ha. Depending on

varieties harvesting on small farm is usually by using cutlass but big farms are the use

of machines that is combine harvester is used. Application of ergonomic principles in

performing activities in maize harvesting ensures maximum productivity and efficiency

of work. Students practice how to harvest maize cobs using appropriate tools and

materials such as sharp cutlass, head pan, wheel barrow, and basket among others.

Post-Harvesting Operations in Maize

Post harvesting operations are all activities carried out after the harvesting of

crops and processing those crops for the use of consumers or making them available in

the form acceptable to consumers. Okaro (2007) viewed post harvesting operations as

the activities carried out in the farm after post planting operations. In this study post

harvesting operations are those activities carried out in the school farm such as

processing and storage of maize which the teacher of agriculture inculcated into the

student through the application of ergonomics principles. Processing means various

activities performed in order to change harvested farm produce into a form that can be

preserved or in readiness for sale. The activities required by cereal may be different

from those required by tubers or pulses. Hornby (2011) stated that processing is putting

raw materials, food and so on through an industry or a manufacturing process in order

to change it, preserve and treat it. Emone (2003) pointed out that those post harvest

operations that alter the product the farmers are to use or send to the market are referred

to as processing. Olaitan and Omonia (2009) highlighted general activities in

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processing crops such as maize. They include shelling, threshing, winnowing and

drying:

Shelling- this is the process of separating the maize grain from the cobs or

husks. It is an act of removing the outer hard covering of grain such as maize, shelling

is also called decortications. There are two types of shelling such as hand shelling and

machine shelling; hand shelling is the process of carrying out shelling activities by the

use of hand while machine shelling is carried out by the use of machine called Sheller.

This machine separates dry grains from the cobs of maize. The authors explained that

hand shelling is efficient and cheaper.

Machines Shelling Has the Following Advantages: It is better where labour is scarce and

expensive; it is faster in operation than hand shelling where materials to be shelled are

abundant; it saves time; it is suitable or economical where there is large quantity of

crops. Disadvantages of machines shelling are as follows:

It leads to more physical damage to seeds than hand shelling; the machine can break

down suddenly leading to stoppage of work; and efficient machine operation may be

scarce to get. Winnowing- this is the removal of the chaff or husks from the grains.

Winnowing is carried out by blowing air through the grains in order to remove the chaff

or husks. It may also be achieved by throwing the threshed crops against a current of

moving air to remove the chaff. The chaff is blown away and the clean grains are

collected in a basin or sacks.

Drying - this is the process of reducing the moisture content of crop by spreading the

maize grains under the sun to make them ready for storage maize grains are dried under

the sun or dryer spread in the cool dry environment. Dried maize grain can be

processed into flour, starch, pap, fufu, among others (Obi 1991).

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Storage of Maize

Storage is a process of keeping something in a particular place until it is needed.

Storage in the opinion of Are, Ashaye, Adebgola and Nwogu (2010) is the process of

keeping agricultural produce or products for future use as food, fuel or fiber or for sale.

The authors further explained that the farmer stores food crops such as maize in order

to make sure that he and his family, as well as the other citizens have some to eat for

the rest of the year when he is not producing. Okaro (2007) enumerated the following

aims of storage: To ensure that food is available all through the year at affordable

prices; to reduce the amount of food spoilage caused by old age, disease or pest attack;

to preserve the harvested product from loss or poor quality. As poor quality food will

result in poor sales for a farmer; to enable the farmer to take advantage of a higher price

during the off season and therefore make a profit; storage also ensures that the raw

materials can be made available to industries for processing; and good storage also cuts

down on crop losses and makes more food available to people.

In the same vein, Olaitan and Omomia (2009) stated that dry shelled cereals

such as maize are stored in bags, moisture content under eaves of house, rafters or

beams of hut or cribs and the smoke from the cooking fire below prevents the stored

maize from attack by insect pests. The author further explained that shelled grains can

also be stored in earthen pots, in bins made of materials, soil raised from the ground

and covered with thatched roof. These containers are tightly covered to prevent pests

from entering there.

Obi (1991) stated that maize seeds retain their viability for 3-5 years or more

when stored at 16-20 o C while a high quality seed retains its viability for 10-12 years

when it is stored at a relative humidity of about 35 degrees and at temperature of 4 o C.

The author added that viability is of shorter duration when temperature and humidity

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values are above this level. For short term storage, paper bags or envelopes are

satisfactory. The Author further explained that long term storage is better done in

moisture proof containers. Green maize can be stored at 5-10 o C preferably in a

refrigerator.

Application of ergonomic principles in storage of maize cobs enhances quality

and quantity of product and maximizes productivity. The students practice the activities

in storage of maize by drying the maize cobs in the sun, removing maize grains from

the maize ribs using manual Sheller, storing the dried maize grains and cobs in the silos

and rhombus for proper preservation of the products.

Marketing of Maize Products

There must be a marketing process for maize products such as maize flour,

starch, pap, fufu among others in order to reach the final consumers. Market, according

to Akinsanmi (2005), is a means by which the exchange of goods and services takes

place as a result of buyers and sellers being in contact either directly or through a

mediating agents or institutions. The Author added that in marketing processed maize

products, certain market functions such as grading, storing, transporting, financing, risk

taking, market information, buying and selling, would be observed in order to achieve

maximum profit. Olayide and Heady in Asogwa (2009) stated that marketing is the sum

totals of business activities that direct the flow of sales of products and services from

the producer to the consumers. Such activities include; processing, assembling of

products, grading, sorting, transportation and financing of these activities. Iwena (2010)

recorded that the objectives of agricultural marketing include: To enable the primary

producers get the best possible returns; to produce facilities for lifting all products the

farmers are willing to sell at an incentive price; to reduce price differences between the

primary producer and ultimate consumers; to make available all product of farm origin

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to consumer at reasonable price without impairing on the quality of the produce. In the

context of this study, marketing involves buying and selling of maize products, which

include activities of presenting, advertising and selling maize products through the

application of ergonomic principles with the aim of making profits. This is also

concerned with the performance of business, activities and services from the point of

initial maize production until they are in the hand of the ultimate consumers.

George and Robert (2007) highlighted marketing activities as: Processing the

product to attract customers; assembling and packaging of products; grading, weighing

and measurement of products to size, weight and quality; sorting of products into

groups; storage of products to preserve quality; loading and off-loading of products to

and from the market; and financing marketing activities. Marketing of maize products

is an important aspect of maize production requiring skills. Therefore, for the farmer to

market his products, he should adopt various strategies to sustain rapid market growth.

In view of this, Omoruyi, et al (2005) said that the farmers should advertize their

products and fix their prices based on production cost.

The importance of marketing maize products as stated by Onwueme and Sinha

(1999) includes: It makes the producers or farmers to market the excess of their

products and the consumers to obtain their needs; it creates job opportunity for traders

and marketers; it enables one to determine the price of goods and services through the

forces of demand and supply under open market system; it encourages healthy

competition among producers which in turn induces them to improve the quality of

their goods and services; it provides income to the farmers and other business men who

engage in agriculture; and it helps to make agricultural products available throughout

the year. Marketing maize products as stated by Okaro (2007) requires specialized

skills and professional handling of products to maintain quality for foreign trade. The

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Author identified the following skills in marketing maize products: Advertize maize

products to attract buyers; carry out effective market survey to know the best time to

sell products for profits; sort, grade and measure maize grain in bags and containers;

open a sale book record for all product sale made; fix appropriate priced for the

products; select buyers based on the maize product of their choice; distribute and

transport the products to the buyers; sell the products to the buyers based on their

willingness to pay for the products; and balance the farm account at the end of every

farming season to ascertain profit or loss.

Rajagopal (2007) opined that several skills are needed for an individual to

succeed on the marketing of maize products. Such basic skills include the ability to

calculate time of production, time of consumption, search for market, sort, grade, weigh

and fix price of the products, record financial transaction and reconcile sales and

purchase record to identify profit and loss. The application of ergonomics principles

helps the students perform the activities in marketing maize products by sorting

packaging and grading of maize product to make them more acceptable, portable and

attractive to the consumers. The views and submission of the authors cited above,

guided the researcher in identifying productive skills in maize production and

developing psycho productive skills performances test items for rating students’

performance scores in the farm.

Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain

Psychomotor domain is a dimension of learning that involves thinking, some

bodily actions and manipulation. The psychomotor domain taxonomy of education

objectives emphasized manipulative skills. This domain is characterized by progressive

levels of behaviours from observation to mastery of a physical skill. Dave (1970)

developed psychomotor domain taxonomy with five levels. These include: Imitation:

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this involves observing a skill, or copy action of another and attempt to replicate a

finished product. The possible key verbs include copy, follow, and replicate, repeat,

adhere and mimic. Manipulation: reproduce or perform the skill or activity from

general instruction or memory rather than observable. In other words, manipulation

involves the carrying out of task from written or verbal instruction. The key verbs

which describe the activity to be trained or measured include: recreate, build, perform,

execute, implement, follow and complete.

Precision: it involves performing a task or activity with expertise and to high

quality, accuracy, proportion and exactness without assistance or instruction. Possible

verbs include: demonstrate, complete expertly, calibrate perfectly. Articulation: it

involves relating and combining associated activities in sequence to develop methods to

meet varying, novel requirements. Possible verbs are: construct, solve, combine,

coordinate, integrate, adopt, develop, modify and master. Naturalization: it involves the

combination of two or more skills sequenced and performed consistently and with ease.

It also means automated, unconscious mastery of activity and related skills at strategic

level.

Harrow (1972) taxonomy for the psychomotor domain was organized according

to the decree of coordination including involuntary responses as well as learned

capabilities. Simple reflexes begin at the lowest level of the taxonomy, while complex

neuromuscular coordination makes up the highest level. The model is classified thus:

Reflex movements: are actions elicited without learning in response to some

stimuli. Examples include: flexion, extension, stretch, postural adjustments, segmental,

inter-segmental and supra segmental reflexes. Possible key verb is respond. Basic

fundamental movements: are inherent movement patterns which are formed by

combining of reflex movements and are the basis for complex skilled movement.

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Examples are: walking, running, pushing, twisting, grasping and manipulating. These

are grouped into loco motor, non- loco motor and manipulative movement.

Perceptual abilities: refers to interpretation of various stimuli that enable one to

make adjustments to the environment. Visual, auditor, kinaesthetic, or tactile

discrimination suggests cognitive as well as psychomotor behaviour. Examples include:

coordinated movement such as jumping, rape, pulling or catching. Physical activities:

require strength, endurance, vigour and agility which produce a sound, efficiently

functioning body. Examples are: all activities which require (a) strenuous efforts for

long period of time. (b) Muscular exertion (c) a quick wide range of motion at the hip

joints; and (d) quick, precise movements

Skilled movement: are the results of acquisition of a degree of efficiency when

performing a complex task. Examples are: all skilled activities obvious in sports,

recreation, and dance. Kibler, Baker and Miles in Okeme (2011) developed their own

model of psychomotor domain with four levels. These levels include; behaviour of

gross bodily movement, finely coordinated movement, non-verbal communication and

speech behaviour. The authors added that the first three levels of this model have

observable movements’ phenomena; the last one represents oral responses from the

learners. Instead of visual stimulus, the learners become auditory stimulated.

The gross bodily movement: It comprises loco motor and non-loco motor skills.

For examples loco motor skill involves weeding harvesting, and crawling. Non

locomotors skills include staying in a particular place to make movement such as

swinging, cutting, drilling, bending, Fine coordinated movement: This involves

manipulative skills and visual motor coordinated skills. In manipulation, the students

have to use hands and fingers to hold objects like in using measuring tape to map out

spacing distance in maize, drawing and painting a diagram visual motor coordinated

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skill is the ability of the students to observe events or objects make movement which

are coordinated with the event. Example is marking out the length of cut on mild steel

and machine on the lathe.

Non-verbal communication: This according to Okeme (2011) seems to relate

more to the affective area of behaviour because it involves gesticulations and facial

expression which may reflect approval or non-approval of something. It may also

reflect interest or attitude toward a concept or somebody. Speech behaviour: This

concern with sound production, sound word formation, and sound gesture coordination

which are not all observable. The first two stages and the last one have direct relation to

teaching and learning of practical skills in crop production in senior secondary schools.

Simpson (1972) s classified psycho motor domain as follows:

Perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex or overt response, adaptation

and origination. The classification consists of seven levels each succeeding level from

perception to origination demands certain degrees of skills from simplest to a complex

set of skills.

Perception: (5-10% of the total items) the first level in performing a motor act is the

process of becoming aware of objects, qualities or relations through the sense organs. It

involves the use of sense organs. It recognizes cues, make choices and relate to actions.

Illustrative verbs include: Choose, describe, detect, differentiate, distinguish, identify,

isolate, relate, separate and recognize. For example; Recognizes deficiency of nutrients

in the growing of maize through stunted growth of the plant; identify variety of maize;

and describe a maize plant. Set: (5-10% of the total test items) it is a preparatory

adjustment or readiness for a particular kind of action or experience. They are called

mental set, physical set and emotional set. Illustrative verbs include: begin, display,

explain, move, proceed, react, respond, demonstrate, show, start, and volunteer.

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Examples are: - Show the implement for clearing bush; demonstrate the correct way of

making a ridge for planting maize with good postures; and explain the use of shovel in

the farm.

Guided Response (20-30% of the total test item) it emphasizes abilities which

are components of the more complex skill. It is the overt behavioral act of an individual

under the guidance of another individual (learner) guided response involves imitation

which is the execution of an act as a direct response to the perception of another person

performing the act. It involves trial and error- trying various responses until an

appropriate response is achieved. The appropriate response is one which meets the

requirements of task performance that is getting the job done efficiently.- Illustrative

verbs includes: - assemble, build, calibrate, construct, dismantle, display, dissect,

fasten, fix, grind, heat, manipulate, measure, mend, mix and organize. Examples are:

Measure the planting distance of maize; construct an improvise silo for maize storage;

grind the maize to process pap (ogi). Mechanism (20-30% of the total test items) this is

the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have become

habitual and the movement can be performed with some confidence and proficiency.

The habitual act is a part of the learner’s repertoire of possible responses to stimuli and

the demands of situation where the response is appropriate illustrative verbs include: -

assemble, build, calibrate, construct, dismantle, display, dissect, fasten, fix, grind, heat,

manipulate, measure, mend, mix and organize. Complex Overt Response: (20- 25% of

the total test item) at this level, the individual can perform a motor act that is considered

complex because of the movement pattern required. The act can be carried out

efficiently and smoothly, that is with minimum expenditure of energy and time. Two

sub-categories in this level are: - resolution of uncertainty and automatic performance

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automatic performance involves the act without hesitation of the individual to get a

mental picture of task sequence.

Illustrative verbs include: - assemble, build, calibrate, construct, dismantle,

display, dissect, fasten, fix, grind, heat, manipulate, measure, mend, mix, organize and

sketch. Examples are: Organize the implements and tools very close to the farm site;

clearing a farm site with cutlass; and stumping stem and roots of trees in the site.

Adaptation: (5-10% of the total test item) this involves altering motor activities to meet

the demand of new problematic situations requiring a physical response. Illustrative

verbs include: adapt, alter, change, rearrange, revise, reorganize and vary. Examples

are: Use a shovel to make ridge for planting maize; using knapsack sprayer to irrigate

the maize farm; and boreholes with stick to plant maize.

Origination: (5-10% of the total test items) this involves creating new motor acts

or ways of manipulating materials out of understanding abilities and skills developed in

the psychomotor area. Emphasis is on creativity which is based on well developed and

articulated skills. It involves the making of new movement to suit a particular

condition. The movements are made to solve specific problems that require the skilled

movement. Illustrative verbs include: arrange, combine, compose, construct, create,

design and originate. Examples are: Design a 4year course crop rotation; construct a

farm house; and converting kitchen waste into organic manure.

This study involved the application of ergonomics principles in practicing

operational skills in growing maize crops in the school farm by the student’s through

instructions and guidance of the teacher. This study will make use of psycho-productive

skills performance test items to determine the effect of ergonomic principles on

students’ acquisition of psych productive skills in maize production. The teachers

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observed the students while performing the practical activities in the farm and rate their

performance scores.

Key: S = stimulus

O = organism

R = response

Source: The researcher.

The conceptual framework for this study is based on the stimulus organism

response paradigm in which an organism (student) is stimulated in one way or the other

to produce a response. In this paradigm, the effect of the treatment which is the

stimulus (independent variable) will be observed from the responses which in this study

are the results from the student performance in productive skills in maize production.

Dependent

Variables

Independent

Variables

Ergonomic Principles

(comfortable

environment, easy reach,

safety and neutral

postures) instrumental

technique (experimental)

Moderator

Variables

Conventional

Instructional method

(Control)

Acquisition of

skills for self-

reliance

Psycho productive

skills performance

in crop productions

Students

Ability Levels

High Low

Productive Skills:

Pre-planting,

planting, Post-

planting and Post-

harvesting

operations.

Fig.1: Linkages between Ergonomic principles instructional techniques and

students psycho-productive performance in maize production.

S O R

Experimental Behavioural

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Acquisition of psycho-productive skills in maize production for self reliance represents

the dependent variables. Independent variables are the result or an outcome of the

interaction between the independent variable and moderator variable which can be

expressed in the students’ performance of psycho productive skills in maize production.

The moderator variables are variables that can mediate between the treatments so the

out come can be measured. In this study, the moderator variables are: Students ability

levels in productive skills in maize production (pre-planting, planting, post-planting and

post harvesting operation). These moderator variables will be studied along with

Ergonomic principles instructional technique as the experimental group and

conventional method as control group in order to measure their effect on students’

psycho-productive skills performance in maize production.

The stimuli in this study are the treatments which are the use of Ergonomic

principles and conventional method for teaching productive skills in maize production.

The responses are the academic performance and students’ acquisition of psycho-

productive skills for self reliance. The stimuli – organism-response is paradigm was

used in analyzing the conceptual framework for this study because it gives an

opportunity to consider the variables in an orderly manner (Egbochukwu 1997).

Theoretical Framework

A theory is a formal set of ideas that is intended to explain a fact or observation

made by some one. In the opinion of Nnachi (2007), a theory is a verified and accepted

idea or a set of ideas set forward to explain events that take place within a natural

system. In the opinion of Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2011) theory is a set of

interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions that presents a

systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the

purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena. The author further said that a

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theory is a form of structure which related events are examined. In the same vein

Beauchamp in Olaitan (2003) stated that a theory is a set of related statement that are

systematically arranged so as to give functional meaning to a set or series of events.

The author further explained that the set of related statement may take the form of

descriptive or functional definitions, assumptions principles and propositions. Honby

(2011) viewed theory as a formal set of ideas that is intended to explain why something

happens or exist. The author further said that a theory is the principles on which a

particular subject is base on. This study was based on Ergonomics principles and theory

of Instruction.

Ergonomic Principles

Ergonomic principles were propounded by Macleod (1990). The author

classified the principles into ten groups which include: comfortable environment;

organizing and keeping materials in easy reach; safety in the work place; good working

posture (Neutral Posture),reduce excessive force, minimize fatigues and static load,

provide clearance, reduce excessive motion (repetitive movement), work at proper

height, and minimize pressure point. The study made of four ergonomic principles.

They include: principle of comfortable environment, easy reach, safety and neutral

postures (good working posture)

Comfortable Environment

Environment in the opinion of Nnachi (2007) is the sum total of all the external

conditions that may act upon an organism or community to influence its development

or existence. The author added that environment involves the equipment, tools,

machines, facilities, materials, teachers, learners and other people in the work place.

This theory according to Macleod (2006) is focused on how the working/learning

environment should be designed to fit or match the capabilities of the worker/learner.

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Work environment is a system that cannot function efficiently and effectively when any

subsystem is missing, damaged or wounded. Consequently, it becomes very important

that the work environment must be protected from risks and hazards. The author further

explained that the environment in which job is performed can directly or indirectly

affect the health and comfort of the worker and also the quality and efficiency of work

being done.

This principle is also concerned about how agricultural environment (school

farm) will be designed in a comfortable way to suit the capabilities of the students and

system their interest in practical activities in the farm. Comfortable environment is

beneficial to people in many ways, Ugwu and Edwin (2002) stated that comfortable

environment improve workers performance and productivity, reduce fatigue and

absenteeism. The author also explained that comfortable learning environment ensures

effective teaching/learning process, motivate and sustain the interest of the students and

enhance their creative ability. Similarly, Olaitan and Mama (2001) stated that

agricultural friendly or comfortable environment makes learning easy, conserve energy,

saves time, and improves students’ performance and skills acquisition. Jeffress (2004)

outlined the following benefit of comfortable environment to industries such as

agriculture: Work force is highly engaged; products are more user friendly; and work

quality increases; workers (employee) make fewer mistakes while workers injury, stress

and fatigue are minimized.

Nnachi (2007) suggested that the environment where people perform their task

should be designed with modern equipment, machines tools and materials for comfort

of the worker. The author added that the environment should be made comfortable by

making them beautiful, descent, stimulating, attractive, supportive and devoid of

dangerous materials to facilitate teaching/learning processes. Similarly Launis (2007)

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said that learning environment should be designed in a conducive and comfortable way

so that learning will proceed with minimum stress and maximum effectiveness. The

author further suggested that the environment should promote sensory comfort, high

auditory and visual acuity and its dimensions and physical layout should accommodate

scheduled activities, allow for people’s sense of personal space and promote desirable

patterns of social interaction and communication.

This theory is relevant to this study in that it helped the researcher to design

comfortable environment in the school farm for teaching agricultural practical activities

such as growing of maize crops to students in order to achieve the stated objective of

agricultural sciences in secondary schools. This principle was incorporated in the study

by providing suitable farm size, adequate tools and equipment and other materials for

effective teaching and learning process.

Easy Reach (Organizing and keeping materials in easy reach)

This principle is concerned with organization and keeping of materials in the

work place to the reach of the workers. Macleod (2008) stated that an easy way to make

task or job more user – friendly is to keep frequent used items very close to the workers

or learners long reaches can make work more difficult and strain the body. The

principle also involves how the instructional materials such as equipment tools and

other materials used in any organization such as schools should be properly organized

and appropriately utilized for effective teaching and learning processes. Olaitan and

Mama (2001) explained that organizing materials for easy reach in the school farm

involves arranging all requisite resources including human, farm inputs and facilities in

a systematic order such that when they are being used or applied in the school farm, the

operations will be without interruption or gaps in the activities and time plan to

adversely affect production. Kanep and Legg (2007) stated that organization of

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materials in the work place such as industry makes the job easy and interesting. It also

improves the workers performance and efficiency.

Similarly, Sawyer (2004) noted that proper organization and utilization of work

materials in any organization such as school stimulate and sustains students’ interest,

improve their academic performance, and minimize absenteeism and truancy. The

author added that it will also enhance teacher’s effectiveness and efficiency. The author

further explained that in organizing materials in the work place, sufficient space should

be maintain around equipment, tools and furniture to allow freedom of movement for

the workers to adjust postures; stand and stretch and reach into storage areas. In the

same vein, Pitchard (2011) stated that common sequence pattern should be identified in

the work place so that item or equipment should be grouped and located in their order

of use to prevent stress and fatigue. Similarly Akubue (2004) suggested that work

activities should be well organized and progressively made from simple to complex to

make learning easy and interesting. This principle is relevant in teaching students

productive skills in agriculture. It will help the researcher to organize the implements

and tools and other materials to teach the students operational skills in growing crops

such as maize in step wise manner, and enhanced students’ performance and skills

acquisition. The principle helped the students to organize tools, equipment and other

materials orderly in the farm house.

Safety in the Workplace

Safety as explained by Kadiri (2008) is the condition of being protected against

physical, social, emotional and psychological problems or consequences of failure,

damage, error, accident, harm or any other events. Macleod (2008) explained that: The

principle is concerned with how the workers/learners equipment, tools, facilities

machines and materials used in the workplace will be protected from problems such as

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accidents, hazards and ill health. This principle also states that work area should be

designed with enough space to get the work done easily and have access to everything

needed (Iverg, 2000) .The author added that this principle is concerned about designing

the working tools, equipment and materials to suit the capacity of each user. It also

involved using the right tool that is meant for the job to prevent injury and fatigue.

Okorie (2000) explained that safety involved the effort of the teacher, the leaner and

management to prevent and eliminate the causes of accidents and sickness in an

organization such as school. The author further said that an unsafe working

environment is a threat to the life of workers, learners and liability to an employer of

industry.

According to Olaitan, et al (1999) safety in any industry such as agriculture

involves safety measures or precautions and maintenance services in handling

equipments, tools and chemicals in performing farm operations such as; pre-planting,

planting, post-planting and post harvesting operations.

Safety is essential /beneficial to people in many ways. According to Tepper

(2008) safety in the learning environment such as classroom or farm laboratory

promotes learning, minimizes stress and absenteeism and also enhances students’

creativity. Similarly, Idowu (2003) stated that application of safety practices or

precaution in performing job in any industry such as Agriculture promotes health and

productivity. It also minimizes hazards and injuries associated with farm operations.

Osinem (2011) suggested the following safety measures in farm operations which

enhance productivity and quality of work: Safety boots must be worn to protect the feet

from injury; avoid close contact with one another, considerable working space must be

maintained while working together with cutlass, hoe, shovel, and so on. Gloves and

nose shield must be worn to avoid chemical inhalation; chemical fertilizers must be

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packed in leak-proof containers to prevent skin burn; poisonous substances or

chemicals must not be kept in processing/storage arena and Gloves must be worn while

packing dried slashed vegetables to protect injury. In the same vein Olaitan, et al

(1999) suggested some safety techniques in the work place to assist the teacher or

instructor in the safety use of tools machines and equipment: Maintaining gentle work

and avoid running in the work shop; wear proper work clothes and shoes or feet

protectors; avoid working on slippery and wet floor; keeping first aid box and fire

fighting equipment in appropriate location and be sure that they are functioning;

maintain electrical safety rules; and wearing masks for jobs that require their use.

The author further suggested that there is the need of safeguarding all hazardous

equipment, organizing and directing learners work station to avert any form of accident,

keeping the shop clean, using colours for various demarcations and teaching safety

practices whenever and wherever it is necessary, so that safety will be in the minds of

learners. This principle is relevant to this study in that it will help the researcher to

teach the students how to practice safety measures in handling farm tools and

equipment when performing agricultural activities in the farm. It will also guide the

researcher to provide tools and equipment that will fit the tasks the students will

perform in the farm in order to protect them from injuries and hazards. This will help to

motivate and sustain their interest, enhance their performance and skills acquisition.

Neutral Posture (Good Working Postures)

Neutral posture according to Macleod (2006) is the position in which one holds

his/her body when standing, sitting or walking. The author added that good working

posture is the comfortable position of a worker while performing tasks in the work

place. This principle states that good working posture is essential when performing any

job with machine, equipment, tools and materials in any organization to enhance

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performance and maximize productivity. It involves how work station will be designed

and organization in the work area, tasks and equipment to facilitate and encourage

postural changes throughout the work shift. This principle is also concerned with the

seat and sitting arrangement of the students in the classroom or laboratory and the

various positions of the students while performing practical activity in the farm. The

author added that good sitting arrangement of students and positioning of items and

materials in the classroom or laboratory will enhance teaching/learning process and

prevents neck and back pains.

Good working posture is beneficial to people in many ways. Apadiji (2002)

stated that working with the body in neutral or comfortable positions reduces stress and

strain on the muscle, tendons and skeletal system and also reduces the risk of

developing musculoskeletal disorders (MSD). The International Labour Organization,

(ILO, 2008) stated that good working posture minimizes errors, fatigue and hazards in

the industry such as Agriculture. In the same vein Agricultural Ergonomics Research

Center (AERC, 2001) explained that good working posture in performing farm

operations such as clearing of bushes, digging, weeding, harvesting and so on makes

the tasks easy and also minimize hazards and drudgery associated with farm operations.

Osinem (2011) stated that fatigue and stress can be avoided by economy of efforts and

less distortion of physical motions of the natural body posture. The author further

explained the following guidelines that could enhance good working postures in any

industry such as agriculture; Balanced and orderly movement of the body must always

be maintained while undertaking any type of farm work for instance, a basket full of

crops must be lifted with the handle in an upright position, leaning forward may cause

strain on the back and stumbling for lack of balance. The author also suggested that

load of farm produce should be rightly packed to facilitate balance and lifting; sacks

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should be carried over ones shoulder. O’Neill (2000) suggested the following guide

lines that could enhance job performance in work place such as computer; keep your

shoulder relaxed not slumped down; keep your elbow close to your body and keep

work at elbow height; avoid situations that require twisting the neck or bending it

forward, backward or to the side. For work performed while sitting, a back rest helps to

maintain proper posture; placing a foot on a footrest or other support will promote

comfort; and good quality anti-fatigue mats reduces back and leg fatigue. Principle of

neutral posture is relevant to this study in that it guided the researcher in teaching the

student productive skills in growing maize crops and using correct working postures in

performing farm operations such as pre-planting, planting, post-planting and post

harvesting operations in the school farm. This helps to improve the performance of the

students and sustain their interest in learning agriculture practical activities in the farm.

Gagne’s Theory of Instruction

This theory was based on Gagne’s theory of instruction and Brunner’s theory of

instruction. Gagne (1992) approaches learning from the view point of the teacher

(instructor). This theory covers the entire leaning process, from design to assessment

and application. The theory is divided into three elements which include: Taxonomy of

learning outcomes; conditions necessary to achieve the learning outcomes and nine

events of instruction designed to guide the instructor (teacher) through the process of

designing for learning .The Author enumerated the following nine events of instruction

which refers to steps teachers (instructors) should take in developing and delivering a

unit of instruction: (1) It is imperative to gain students attention. Teachers are expected

to use those strategies that will make them to gain students’ attention so that learning

can take place during instruction. (2)The teacher should make students aware of the

learning objectives; he should tell the students what they are expected to know and do

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at the end of the lesson or instruction.(3) It is important to help students recall

previously learned information which might be helpful in learning new materials. In

stimulating recall for prior learning, the teacher reviews the previous lessons to the

learners (students) and linked it with the present lesson. It helps to create a new desire

to learn and acquire new knowledge and skills about the topic of the instruction; the

teacher can achieve this through questioning and discussion. (4) New materials should

be presented to the students step by step, from known to unknown. It should not be

above the learning ability of the students. (5) The teacher should provide students with

learning guidance. For example, the teacher might suggest an effective way for students

to organize the new information; the teacher should allow the students to ask questions

while he/she guides their response. (6) Teacher should give students a chance to

demonstrate what they have learnt from the information; when students participate in

the learning activities, learning will take place. The students should be given

opportunity to practice what they learnt from the lesson. This will enhance their skill

acquisition. (7) Providing feed back: - providing feed back is very necessary in order to

know how far the learning objectives are being achieved. It helps to correct students’

mistakes. It also helps the student to know their areas of weaknesses that may require

improvement. (8) Assessing performance: - this is the process of evaluating instruction

in order to check whether the students have achieved the learning objectives.

It will help the teacher to improve instruction, provide basis for assigning marks

or scores and help him/her to diagnose students/teachers success or failure. Teachers

should provide scores and correct student’s mistakes. (9) Enhance retention and

transfer- The teacher should strive to reinforce learning and help students to apply it to

other situations. That is, the teacher should help the students to apply the knowledge

and skills acquired to other situations. This theory is relevant to this study in that it

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guided the researcher on the steps to follow during instruction such as planning,

organizing, implementing and evaluating instruction during the experiment.

Brunner’s Theory of Instruction

There are many theories of instruction however Brunner’s theory of instruction

In the opinion of was used in this study. Brunner (1996) instruction consists of leading

the learner through a sequence of statement and restatement of a problem or body of

knowledge that increase the learner’s ability to grasp, transform and transfer what he is

learning. The author added that the sequence in which a learner encounters materials

within a domain of knowledge, affects the difficulty he will have in achieving mastery.

The author further explained that instruction should specify the following areas:

Instruction should specify the experience which most effectively implant in the

individual, as a predisposition towards learning. The relationship between the people

and the things in the environment should make the student willing and ready to learn

when he/she enters the school. The author further explained some factors that can

predispose student towards learning such as; personal factors for instance the

relationship between teacher and students, the degree to which a student develops an

independent skills, and the degree to which the learner is confident of his/her ability to

perform an his own affects the nature of learning that occurs; the cultural and

motivational factors for instance different ethnic groupings such as age groups, social

classes, sex type and so on. These factors affect the desire of the student to learn.

Learning experiences to be selected should be those that students better chances of

achieving the specified instructional objectives. The author further explained that the

things like students’ intelligence, reaching ability, special interests and study habit

should be known and used by the teacher to stimulate the interest of students to learn;

instruction must specify the ways in which a body of knowledge should be designed

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(structured) so that it can be readily grasped by the learners (spiral organization).

Brunner (1966) mentioned optimal structure which refers to a set of propositions from

which a large knowledge can be generated.

The author explained that the merit of a structure depends upon its power for

simplifying information, generating new proposition and increase the ability to

manipulate a body of knowledge hence structure must be related to different status and

gift of the student (learner). Knowledge is a process and not a product, the acquisition

depends on the ability of the student to relate the incoming information to the

previously acquired ones. Its effectiveness depends on the student’s ability to spot the

relationship and relatedness of the formerly acquired knowledge and the ideas;

Instruction should specify the most effective sequences in which to present the

materials to be learnt.

Brunner (1966) stated that when learner encounters materials within a domain of

knowledge, it affects the difficulty he/she will have in achieving mastery. The author

further explained that there is no unique sequence for all the learners and the optimum

in any particular case will depend on variety of factors including: Past learning; Stage

of development; native of the material and Individual differences. The teacher should

formulate and sequence instructional process in order to meet the objectives and goals

of the lesson. The author added that for learning to be effective, it must proceed in a

logical sequence. The materials presented will be associated in the learner’s memory

and more easily recalled. The author explained that events, ideas, words, concepts and

stimuli in general which are not organized and logically sequenced in some meaningful

way are difficult to understand and remember than those which are organized and

logically sequenced. Instruction should specify the nature and placing of rewards and

punishments in the process of learning and teaching. Brunner (1966) stated that as

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learning processes, there is a point at which to shift away from extrinsic reward such as

teachers praise toward intrinsic reward inherent in solving a complex problem. The

author further explained that there is also a point at which immediate reward should be

replaced by deferred reward. The reward or praise for work well done reinforces a

student’s good behaviour and motivates him/her towards greater achievement.

Reinforcement helps learning and make learning period faster.

This theory is relevant to this study in that it guided the researcher in designing

the lesson in such a way that it will enhance the readiness and interest of the learner. It

also helped the researcher to arrange the materials sequentially from known to

unknown so that the teaching of productive skills in crop production through the

application of ergonomics principles will enhance effective teaching/learning processes

and improve the performance of students of agriculture in senior secondary schools.

Related Empirical Studies on Ergonomics

Some studies have been carried out on the application of ergonomics to various

work situations. A study was conducted by Heyman (2004) on attitude of teachers and

students of teachers training college towards ergonomics programs in the school

curriculum in Israel. The purpose of the study was to determine the awareness and

attitude of teachers and students of teachers’ training college towards the incorporation

of ergonomics program in the school physical education curriculum. The research was

conducted at Kibbutzim College of education in Tel Aviv, Israel. The overall research

population consisted of 328 participants. The participants were divided into two main

categories: one consisted of students from the physical education (PE) discipline, and

the other from non –PE academic discipline such as Early Childhood Education,

creative education and elementary Education.

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Two different ergonomics intervention programs were carefully constructed and

administered to these two populations. An extensive (four months) intervention

program was given to the PE students, who would eventually teach the proposed

ergonomic related curriculum in PE classes while six weeks intervention program was

designed for the non- PE students who are expected to be able to promote proper

ergonomic behavior in the school. The programs were given only to experimental

groups and the changes in the attitude and knowledge-levels were monitored and

compared with those of the control groups who were not exposed to the subject. Three

sets of questionnaires were used in the research. An attitude questionnaire to measure

28 students attitudes towards the incorporation of an ergonomics educational program

into the school curriculum; knowledge about ergonomics related subjects, and a

demographic questionnaire to collect data concerning relevant demographic variables

Pilot questionnaire were developed and administered to 42 students, who had similar

characteristics to the two experimental populations of the actual research.

The statistical analysis of the pre-test results show that the attitudes of the PE

students and the teachers were significantly more positive than the attitudes of the non

PE students and the Knowledge level of the PE students and teachers was significantly

higher than the knowledge level of the non-PE students. The result of the statistical

analysis also show that the attitude of PE students towards the teaching of ergonomics

subjects to all age groups in school towards the teaching of ergonomics subjects at

teacher training colleges become more positive following participation in an ergonomic

intervention program. The research suggested that PE teachers are capable of following

appropriate ergonomic training to teach the theoretical as well as practical aspects of

ergonomics in schools. The study also suggested that ergonomic education be

incorporated into all Teachers Training College curricula. It should include extensive

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courses for physical education students in order to qualify them to teach these subjects

in schools and basic courses for students from all other Academic disciplines in order to

enable them to promote and be involved in the ergonomic education of children in the

school. The work of the above author will help the researcher to design the

experimental study in the application of ergonomics principles in teaching the students

growing of crops in senior secondary schools.

Shalizer, Shahrul, Zalinda and Mohzani (2009) carried out a study on

Ergonomics Awareness in manufacturing industries in Malaysia. The purpose of the

study was to evaluate the level of ergonomics awareness in Malaysia manufacturing

industries and to determine the best practices of ergonomics program using Quality

Function Development (QFD) among manufacturing industries with the highest

awareness of ergonomics. A questionnaire was developed and distributed to 200

manufacturing industries. The reliability of the questionnaire was analyzed using

Statistical Package for Social Scheme (SPSS) 12.0 for windows. The reliability of the

measurement was measured using Cronbach alpha Values; the evaluation shows that

3.5% of the industries were classified as having high level of ergonomics awareness,

51.1% with moderate level and 13.3% having low level of ergonomics awareness. The

result from the ergonomics House of Quality analysis showed that orientation program

(124 points) was the best practice in helping to increase the awareness of ergonomics

amongst the employees. Besides, ergonomics need to be formalized via the creation of

ergonomics team within the organization. This was based on the results where, 62.2%

of the respondents agreed that organized ergonomics team will help improve the

awareness of ergonomics in the workplace.

The author was in the opinion that ergonomics orientation program should cover

the component of operators and management in order to increase ergonomics

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awareness, knowledge and information in the organization. The program should include

various theoretical session which introduces the ergonomics principles and the

symptoms of MSD. It follows by a practical session which introduces the benefit of

applying ergonomics in the work place. The author observed that increasing the

knowledge and awareness of ergonomics will lead in increasing of productivity, safety

and health of employees in the manufacturing industries. This study will help the

researcher in identifying ergonomics functions that will help students to become aware

of the usefulness of ergonomic principles when applied to agriculture to increase

productivity.

Ismaila S.O (2010) conducted a study on Ergonomics Awareness in Nigeria.

The aim of the study was to ascertain the level of ergonomics awareness in Nigeria.

The study used survey design covering a target population of 950 respondents

comprising of 500 males and 450 females, the study was carried out in Abeokuta, Ogun

State – Nigeria. Percentages were used for data analysis. Out of the 950 respondents

100 (10.5%) were in transportation business 50(5.3%) engaged in manufacturing

activities, 200(21%) in the educational sector, 200(21%) were in the medical

profession, 150(15.8%) were in construction business, 50(5.3%) were in

communication, 150(15.8) were in banking sector and 50(5.3%) were engaged in petty

trading and other sectors of the economy.

The study revealed that 3.4 % of the respondents were aware of ergonomics

signifying that there was very low awareness of ergonomics in the country. The

educational sector and medical professionals did not fare better as just 10(1%) and 20

(2.1%) respectively were aware of the subject called ergonomics. The author observed

that the low level of ergonomics awareness may be due to the fact that Nigeria was not

conversant with the benefits derivable from ergonomics. The author made the following

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suggestions: The ergonomics society of Nigeria should organize seminars and

conferences to orientate the public on the benefits of ergonomics and the need to make

it part of their lives; there should be publicity in newspapers, television and radio

stations across the country on why ergonomics should be part of our daily activities;

and the government should engineer the promotion of education and training in

ergonomics and participate actively in ergonomics related guidelines. This study will

help the researcher in identifying ergonomics functions that will make the students

aware of the usefulness of ergonomic principles when applied in agriculture to

maximize productivity.

Aderonke (2010) carried out a study on ergonomics effect of ICT facilities. The

study aimed to determine the effect of ergonomics on Academic library staff using ICT

facilities in Ogun State. The study used survey design covering a targeted population of

94 respondents comprising 57 library staff of Lagos University and 37 library staff of

covenant University. The population sample was made up of all library staff that makes

use of a computer and other ICT related resources that spend long hours carrying out

their dairy responsibilities. These include librarians, library officers, systems engineers

and secretaries the study revealed the following likely causes of ergonomics problems

with their number and percentages in the two Universities: Awkward posture 25(83%),

frequent repetitive motion task 19 (63%), Stress at workforce 28(93%), Vibrations

11(37%), Forceful movement 19(63%), Poor workplace set up 27(90%), sitting in the

same position for hours 25 (83%), Lower back support is inadequate 21(70%) and

Exposure to computer screen on a regular basis without protectors 27(90%), standing

for long period 24(80%),poorly designed seats 29(97%). The author identified

symptoms or characteristics of ergonomic problems experience by workers which

include; pains in the wrist, forearms, elbow, neck or back followed by discomfort;

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aching or tingle(have pricking or feeling in the skin);dry, itching or sore eyes;

cramping, numbness or burning sensation in the hand; weakness, tension, stress,

headaches and related ailments. The study revealed some benefits of applying

ergonomic principles in the work place such as healthier and safer working condition

and increased productivity. The author made the following suggestions that could

promote health, safety and efficiency in the work place; There should be variety in the

task performed. A good chair is essential for seated work. The chair should allow the

worker to change leg and general working positions easily. Libraries should have

elevators to convey library materials from one location to the other to minimize stress

and fatigue.

Proper positioning of computers is crucial to prevent pain and injury computers

should be situated directly in front of workers to avoid uncomfortable positions;

Nigerian library schools should integrate ergonomics issues into their curriculum. The

formal teaching of this concept would help sensitize library practitioners to emerging

global standards; and general work station. Ergonomic instruction should be

documented and circulated among staff. Good ergonomics assignment and design can

ensure library efficiency and increased productivity. This study helped the researcher in

identifying ergonomics functions that will make students aware of the usefulness of

ergonomics principles when applied to agriculture to increase productivity.

Okasuprapt (2010) carried out the study in Ikip Saraswati Tabanan. The purpose

of the study was to determine the effect of the application of ergonomic principles on

the health of the students studying social science technology approach. The study used

treatment by subject design with a total sample of twenty (20) people selected

randomly. The result of data analysis showed increase musculoskeletal disorder (MS)

15.02% (PL 0.05) and fatigue 11.9% (PL 0.05). The work revealed the following

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ergonomic problems in the study area: Inadequate instructional materials, poor

placement of the blackboard, poor ventilation and lighting in the classroom,

inappropriate teaching method and awkward sitting and walking position of the

students’ in the in the classroom. The study revealed that application of ergonomics

principles in teaching and learning science technology reduces fatigue, injury and pains

in the muscles and enhance efficiency and performance of the learner. The author

suggested that ergonomics should be incorporated in the school curriculum for effective

teaching and learning processes. The researcher suggested that application of

ergonomic principles in teaching and learning science and technology improves

students’ academic achievements, promote their health and comfort. This present study

was carried out to determine whether application of ergonomics principles in teaching

students’ practical skills in maize production will provide similar gain in their academic

performance, safety, health and efficiency.

Johnson (2008) carried a research study on assessment of ergonomic

workstations and pain among computer users in a Nigerian University Community. The

study aim at determining computer workstation (CW) ergonomics among computer

users in Obafemi Awolowo University Ile Ife, Nigeria and the distributions of

musculoskeletal pain experienced by computer users. One hundred and fifty (150) male

and female participants were recruited using cluster sampling technique. Participants

were computer users who had use a computer for a minimum of six months and

constantly working for five hours per week. The participants bio-data were recorded

and CW were identified and measured for footrest, casters keyboard height, seat height,

monitor height, seat back angle and arm angle. They were asked if they were

experiencing pain, its location and cause. Data were analyzed using descriptive

statistics.

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The results obtained showed that 8(15.3%) of the CW had 5 casters, and just

3(2%) had buttress while there were 130 (86.7%) and 104 (69.3%) with ideal chair and

key board height respectively. Also, there were 130 (86.7%) and 136 (90%) with ideal

monitor height and seat back angle respectively. The study revealed that 105(70%) of

the participants experienced pain in eye, neck, wrist but majority experience pain in the

back. The mean pain intensity observed on a ten point pain scale was seven (7), which

showed that pains experienced by computer users were high. The author noted that

there is an upsurge in computer usage with a consequent increase prevalence of

musculoskeletal disorders in the neck upper extremities and low back. The author

suggested that computer work station should designed with comfortable furniture

equipments, tools and materials such as standard seat, key board height, monitor, seat

back angles, buttress and so on. This will help to eliminate musculoskeletal disorders,

improve workers efficiency and enhance productivity in the workplace. This study will

help the researcher to design the experimental study in the application of ergonomic

principles in teaching the students growing of crops (maize) in Senior Secondary

Schools.

Bongo (2005) conducted a study on awareness of ergonomic principles in small

scale industries in Dares Salsam in Tanzania. The purpose of the study was to access

awareness of ergonomics principles among workers in welding, spray painting, wood

work, carpentry and metal work. The study was carried out in Tanzania. A total

population of 600 workers were randomly selected from small scale industry (SS1) and

300 from officers near SS1 (as control) these people were interviewed about complaints

related to a particular type of job and whether they were aware of the major areas of

ergonomics such as (human facto engineering, work physiology, occupational

biomechanics and anthropometry). The complaints most reported by workers in SS1

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were compared against those of the control. The data were analyzed using EPI info 6.

Statistical significance was determined for different levels of awareness concerning the

major areas of ergonomics among SS1 workers. The findings were compared against

the controls and tested by chi-square analysis. The level of awareness concerning the

major areas of ergonomics was low among workers in SSI compared against office

workers. The study revealed that application of ergonomics in small scale industry

improves productivity and quality of work. The author suggested that seminar and

workshop should be organized for office and small scale industries to create more

awareness in the application of ergonomic principles in the work place. This will help

to improve the performance of workers and reduce drudgery. This study will guide the

researcher in identifying ergonomics functions that will make students of agriculture

aware of the usefulness of ergonomic principles when applied to agricultural practical

activities in crop production (maize) to increase productivity.

A research study was carried out by Yisa (2005) on ergonomics in small scale

grain mills in Nigeria. The purpose of the study was to access the ergonomic

characteristics of grain mils in view of their importance to the Nigerian population. The

study was conducted in Minna Niger state. The functional mills in the two local

government areas within were visited and numbered. Ten mills were randomly selected

from each local government area. The mills selected were then assessed for ergonomic

compliance. The parameters accessed include: Physical dimensions of the building

housing the mills. They were measured with a measuring tape. The doors, windows, the

space occupied by the engines and other facilities were measured. The difference

between the total area and the area occupied gives the workspace. The results showed

that the mill structures differed within and between the local government areas. The

author reported that there were no standards for construction, installation, operation and

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maintenance in work places in Nigeria. The study revealed that application of

ergonomic principles in designing small scale grain mills will enhance the effectiveness

and efficiency with which work and human activities are carried out and to maintain or

enhance certain desirable human values such as health, safety, satisfaction and so on.

The authors suggested that there is a need to standardize the operation of the

mills in terms of design of structure, required finishing and so on. This will help to

promote the health of the workers, reduce absenteeism and poor productivity. This

study will guide the researcher to design the experimental study in the application of

ergonomics principle in teaching and assessing the performance of students in

operational skills in growing maize crops.

Metgud, Khatri, Mokashi and Saha (2008) carried out a research work on

Ergonomics study of women workers in a woolen textile factory for identification of

health-related problems in India. The purpose of the study is to identify musculoskeletal

problems among women workers in the spinning section of woolen textile industry. The

study was conducted in India. The study made use of cross-sectional observational

survey. The population of the study was 350 female workers while 100 females in the

age ranging between 30 to 45 years were randomly selected for the study; data were

collected and analyzed using percentages. The study revealed that pains, fatigue and

grip were found to be the main problems for women in the spinning section of the small

scale industry. The musculoskeletal problems were found to be abundantly present with

pains in 9190 of the respondents. 47% of women have postural pains at the back while

19% of women have pains in their neck. The study made the following suggestion for

work modification seats with adjustable back rest supporting the lumbar region are

recommended to reduce postural strain and low back pain and the axis of the wheel

should be at the same height as the axis of the shoulder to avoid extra muscular effort

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and discomfort or pains to the workers. The study concluded that there is ample scope

for improvement in work design, machine layout and working conditions in the study

from ergonomic view point with the objective of providing maximum comfort to the

women workers for promotion of their health and well being and consequently

enhancement of productivity. Mustafa, Kamaruddin, Zalinds and Mohazani (2009)

conducted a research work on the effect of Ergonomics Applications in work system on

mental health of Visual Display Terminal [VDT] workers. The study was conducted in

the Malaysia. The purpose of the study is to identify the effect of ergonomics

application in work system on mental health of visual display terminals [VDT] in

manufacturing industry. The study used survey research design covering a target

population of 200 Malaysia manufacturing industries. The 5-point liked scale with the

response category ranging from 1-point of strongly disagree to 5-point for strongly

agree was used for the study.

The reliability of the questionnaires was measured using Cronbach Alpha. The

data was analyzed using statistically package for social science [SPSS] 14-0 for

windows. The study revealed that ergonomics in work place will make sure that VDT

workers are safe, satisfied, reduce boring and stress as well as increase their efficiency

in working. Ergonomically, workplace design will increase good mental health of

workers. The researcher was of the view that application of ergonomics principles in

work system will improve worker’s health, productivity and efficiency. This present

study focused on how the application of ergonomic principles in teaching and learning

processes will enhance student’s performance in practical activities without stress and

fatigue.

Wodu [2010] carried out a research work on Users Assessment of Ergonomic

Factors in the Design of Instructional Machines, Tools and Visual Materials in

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Vocational Education. The purpose of the study was to find out the extent to which the

instructional facilities fit into the physical, anthropometric and sensory dimension of

the students, to promote the ease, convenience, comfort, dignity and satisfaction during

learning and work in vocational education. The study made use of survey research

design. The population for the study was 686 year2 regular students of NCE and ND

students of the department of Technical studies and secretarial studies, of the Rivers

State Collage of Education Port Harcourt; Federal Collage of Education [Technical]

Omoku and River State Polytechnic, Bori. The study used stratified random sampling

technique to draw a sample size of 150 NCE and ND students for the study. Two kinds

of instruments used for the study are: vocational instructional faculty evaluation scale

(VIFES) and facility Assessment checklists for users of vocational education Tools

(FACUVET). The instruments were analyzed using chi-square and t-test statistic to test

the null hypothesis.

The result indicated that there were no design deficiencies in the design of

machines but there were deficiencies in the areas of instructional hand tools and

visual/information display materials. The study recommended that effort should be

made to improve the ergonomic qualities of the hand tools and visual materials to

enhance the human phase of man-machine interactions. The study suggested that

evaluation, replacements, modification, maintenance and redesigning of instructional

facilities should be regularly carried out to keep them functional, effective and efficient.

While the researcher ascertained the extent to which the instructional materials

such as tools, machines and visual aids, and how they are used during teaching and

learning in vocational education, this study went a step further to find out how

ergonomic principles will be practically demonstrated in utilizing and handling of tools,

machines among others in teaching and learning processes. The ideas, principles,

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methods and techniques used by the above authors and their suggestions helped the

researcher planning and carrying out the experiment in a step wise manner with out

stress.

Summary of Related Literature Reviewed

The literature reviewed in this study covered the following: Conceptual frame

work emphasized relevant concept of the ergonomics, psycho productive skills, crop

production, teaching and learning of agricultural Science in secondary schools, methods

of teaching agricultural science in secondary schools and productive skills in maize

production. The conceptual frame work of the study helped the researcher in identifying

productive skills in maize production which can be applied to the principles of that

can encourage students to become interested and productive in agriculture. The

theoretical frameworks reviewed for the study are: principles of ergonomics, Gagne’s

theory of instruction and Brunner’s theory of instruction. The theoretical frame work

guided the researcher on the steps to follow during instruction such as planning,

organizing, implementing and evaluating instruction during the experiment with

reference to specific principles of ergonomics.

The literature reviewed on taxonomy of psychomotor domain guided the

researcher in developing the psycho productive skills performance test covering the

following operational areas in maize production; pre-planting, planting, post-planting

and post-harvesting operations. The psycho-productive skills performance tests items

was used to access students on the skills acquired based on the effect of ergonomics

principles. The literature reviewed on maize production guided the researcher in

identifying operational skills that was taught to students in farm laboratory. The psycho

productive skills test items developed were used to obtain information to bridge the

existing gap between low level of interest and lack of skills acquisition by students in

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agriculture and the application of ergonomics principles to improve students interest

and capability in Agricultural production in order to encourage them to enter career or

occupation in Agriculture for a living.

However, many studies have been carried out on application of ergonomic

principles in different areas of study such as; computer, health, engineering, industry,

psychology among others, but no research work to the best of the knowledge of the

researcher have been conducted on effect of ergonomic principles on students

acquisition of psycho productive skills in crop production. Thus, this study is geared

towards filling this gap. Therefore, this study was carried out to determine the effect of

ergonomic principles on students’ acquisition of psycho productive skills in maize

production in secondary schools.

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CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

In this chapter, the researcher discussed the procedures that was adopted in this

study and are discussed under the following sub-headings: Design of the study, Area of

the Study, Population for the Study, Sample and Sampling Techniques, Instrument for

Data Collection, Validation of the Instruments, Reliability of the Instruments,

Experimental Procedure, Method of Data Collection and Method of Data Analysis.

Design of the Study

This study adopted a quasi-experimental research design. The study made use of

pretest; posttest non equivalent control group design. Quasi-experimental research

design is an experiment where randomization of subjects of the experimental and

control group is not possible (Shadish, Cook & Campbell, 2002). Non-randomized

control group, pre test post-test experimental research design was used for this study.

Quasi experimental research design was appropriate in this study in order not to disrupt

the normal classes of the students and the schools selected for the experiment. The

researcher therefore randomly assigned intact classes in the sampled schools to

treatment and control groups. The use of intact classes in a quasi experimental research

design is supported by Ali (2006) who stated that learners in school classes in most

cases form natural clusters having similar age, height and other attributes. Emaiku

(2007) explained that the use of intact classes makes the reactive effect of experiment

being conducted than when subjects are drawn from classes and put into experimental

classes. The design adopted is shown in Appendix H.

Area of the Study

The area of study is Gwagwalada area council of Federal Capital Territory

(F.C.T) Abuja. Abuja is located at the Central Nigeria. People in Gwagwalada Area

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Council produces crops such as Maize, Millet, Cassava, sorghum, corn and yam. The

environment of Gwagwalada is favorable for arable crop production such as maize.

Maize is one of the staple foods in Abuja and Nigeria at large because of its nutritive

value. The land of Abuja is rich in clay and loamy soil which is suitable for maize

production. The climatic condition of Gwagwalada is favourable for growing maize

crop. Maize production is a source of employment and income for the people in F.C.T.

Agricultural science is taught in all the secondary schools in Gwagwalada Area Council

which provides opportunity for students to learn productive skills.

Population for the Study

The population for this study was 300 SS I students of Agricultural Science in

the ten public Senior Secondary School in Gwagwalada area council. (Appendix I) The

choice of this category of students was based on the content of their SS I curriculum

where they are expected to be exposed to instruction on crop production. Federal

Ministry of Education (FME, 2011) the secondary schools in Gwagwalada Area

Council has school farm and teachers of agricultural science.

Sample and Sampling Technique

The sample size for the study was 62 SSI students. Out of ten (10) Senior

Secondary Schools operating in Gwagwalada Area Council of the Federal Capital

Territory Abuja, two schools were randomly sampled. One of the schools sampled was

used for the experimental study while the other was used for control; 30 students were

used for the experimental group while 32students were used for control. The intact

classes were selected in order to keep the students together in a normal class setting to

enable the students learn without any awareness of research activities going on.

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Instrument for Data Collection

The instrument for data collection for this study consists of observational rating

scale list on psycho productive skill performance test on maize production. The

observational rating scale list was developed by the researcher from the identified skills

in four (4) operational areas in maize production which the students of Agricultural

Science in Senior Secondary Schools are expected to acquire the psycho productive

skills for self reliance. Observational rating scale list was used by the researcher to

collect data from the two schools and the intact classes for the experimental and control

group. The check list was used to rate the performance of the students as they perform

the tasks in operational skills in maize production in the school farm [Appendix E].

The instrument used a four-scale rating format of High Performance [HP] = 4,

Moderate Performance [MP] = 3, Low Performance [LP] = 2 and Poor Performance

[PP] = 1. The psycho productive performance test scoring guide help the researcher and

the research assistance to conduct the experiment in step wise manner (Appendix F)

Validation of Instrument

Three experts in agricultural education from Vocational Teacher Education

Department, University of Nigeria Nsukka validated the instrument. The Validates

were requested to vet the test items and lesson plan for clarity and suitability for use in

collecting data for the study. Their comments and suggestions were used in making the

final draft of the instrument.

Reliability of the Instrument

The reliability coefficient of the Psycho-productive Skills Performance Test

[PSPT] items for the Senior Secondary School year one students was determined using

Cronbach alpha method to determine the internal consistency of the validated

instrument. The instrument was administered on ten students of agricultural science in

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Government Girls Secondary School Mararaba, Nasarawa State, which is outside the

school selected for the study. Their performance scores were used in the computation of

the reliability co-efficient of the instrument which the overall result was found to be

0.79. The co-efficient obtained from the computation show that there was high degree

of internal consistency of the instrument.

Experimental Procedure/steps

Te researcher carried out the following activities in the course of the

experiment;-

- Grouping the sample into intact classes

- Consultation of basic Agricultural science curriculum standard on the

content to teach.

- Determining the basic topic to cover

- Determining objective required in the topic to cover

- Drawing of lesson plan

- Breaking the content into units of lesson

- Identifying the teaching materials/recourses best suited for

accomplishing each lesson

- Designing lesson plan for control group and experimental group

- At the each topic, summarize the previous lesson to link with the day’s

lesson

- For the new lesson, test the students previous knowledge

- Ask questions to guide the learners

- Give the students opportunity to answer the questions

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The study was conducted during the normal school periods, using the normal

time-table of the schools for the study. The regular school teachers of agriculture in

each of the schools sampled for the study were used for the study.

At the beginning of the experiment, the students were observed in the school

farm as they carried out the operational skills in maize production and their

performance were rated as pre-test to both the experimental and control group after

which proper teaching commenced by the teachers using ergonomic lesson plan and

conventional lesson plan respectively. Demonstration method was used for the

application of ergonomic principles to expose the experimental group to psycho-

productive skills in growing maize, while the control group was taught with

conventional method (Lecture method) each lesson lasted for 40minutes for single

period and 80minutes for double periods. The treatment lasted for eight (8) weeks as

required by the curriculum to complete the unit of instruction on crop production. The

teacher in each group was supervised by the researcher during the teaching process to

make sure that they did not deviate from the prepared lesson plan procedure. At the end

of the treatment, the post-test was administered on both experimental and control

groups. The researcher observed the students as they practice the activities (operational

skills in maize production) in the school farm and rate their performance scores using

PSPT. All the students were scored at the same period as they perform each activity in

the field. The scores obtained from both group were compared to determine whether

there was any significant difference in the performance scores of the two groups.

Determination of the Ability Group

The average scores of the students for the first term and second term agricultural

science examinations of 2011 – 2012 academic sessions were used for only the

experimental group to determined the students’ high ability level and low ability level.

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The students who had average scores of 50% and above were classified as high ability

students while those students whose average scores ranged below 50% were classified

as low ability students. The examination had been conducted before the succeeding

third term when this study was carried out.

Training of Teachers of Agricultural Science as Research Assistant for the Study

A one week intensive training programme was organized for the teachers

[research assistance] used for the study. The training was organized for both the control

group and experimental group teachers. The training was based on the purpose of the

study, the topics to be taught, the use of lesson plan, the application of ergonomic

principles as instructional approach and the general conduct. After training the teachers,

the researcher and the teachers administered the instrument as pre-test to the students

before the actual teaching begins. The performance test covered the psycho productive

skills in pre-planting, planting, post planting and post harvesting operations (see

Appendix F for teachers training manual).

Lesson plan

The researcher prepared two (2) sets of lesson plans for teaching the topics set

out for the study. The lesson plans were prepared from the eight topics in the test blue

print. Each set of the lesson plans contained eight (8) lesson plans for the eight topics

which lasted for a period of eight (8) weeks at eighty (80) minutes duration for double

periods. The researcher took into consideration the age, class of the SS I students, the

80 minute duration, the specific objectives and their relation to the lesson topics in

preparing the lesson plan. One set of the lesson plan was written based on the

ergonomic principles as instructional approach (Appendix B). The subject teacher in

the experimental group used ergonomic principles lesson plan in teaching operational

skills in maize production at different stages (steps) of instructional process, while the

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subject teachers in control group use conventional lesson plan in teaching operational

skill in maize production. (Appendix C)

Control of Extraneous Variables

The researcher attempted to control the following variables

Teacher variable

The researcher organized one week training for the research assistants in order

to control teacher variable. Lesson plan was also prepared by the researcher and made

available to the participating teachers. This reduced teacher’s effect on lesson

preparation and presentation. In order to avoid experimental bias, the researcher

involved the services of the teachers of agricultural science in the sampled schools in

teaching the experimental group and control group. The lesson plan was discussed

between the researcher and the teacher. There was trial teachings by the teachers during

the training programmes and supervised by the researcher. The researcher ensures that

the eight weeks periods for the experiment were completed by the teachers. The entire

tests were under the custody of the researcher until when required.

Effect of pre-test and post test (pre-test sensitization)

The same instruments which were used for both pretest and post-test for the

measurement of students psycho productive skills made the students get familiar with

the test instrument and hence bringing error into the study. To control this pre-test

sensitization therefore, the researcher and the assistants used the instrument to assess

the students’ performance in the field after the pre-testing. This enable the students to

perform the tasks effectively within the time allotted for the practicals.

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Initial Group Differences

The researcher checked the issue of initial group difference through the

application of analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) since the study was pre-test post test,

non-equivalent control group design.

Subject Interaction

To avoid interaction within the two groups (experimental and control) the

researcher assigned each school to a different treatment. One intact class in different

schools served as experimental group, while an intact class in another different school

served as control group. This was used to control the issue of subject interaction.

Hawthorne Effect

This is a situation where the performance of research subject is affected due to

the fact that the students are conscious of the fact that they are involved in an

experiment. In order to reduce this problem, the researcher used normal classroom

teachers in both control and experimental groups. The students were not informed that

they were involved in any research process.

Homogeneity of instructional situation

The following steps were taken to ensure homogeneity of instructional situation

across all the groups:-Training programmes for all the teachers involved focused on the

following: - instructing the teachers on the application of ergonomics principles as

instructional technique, Rehearsal on the conventional method which is lecture method

of teaching. All the students were taught the same topics in operational skills in maize

production which include: pre-planting, planting, post planting and post harvesting

operations during the experiment in the school farm.

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Method of Data Collection

The researcher and five research assistants [teachers of agricultural science]

administered the pre-test to the treatment group and control groups in their respective

schools. In the pre test, the psycho productive skills performance test items was

administered to both control group and experimental groups respectively in the school

farm. The teachers rated the performance of the students in the field while they

performed the practical activities to obtain their scores on the psycho productive skills

on maize production before the treatment.

During the post-test, the researcher and teachers of agriculture administered the

posttest to the treatment group and control groups in their respective schools. The

teachers observed and rated the performance of students’ process skills as they perform

the operations in maize production in the school farm with the (PSPT) developed by the

researcher [Appendix E]. The exercise provided post treatment data for the dependent

variable after the treatment.

The averages scores of the students first term and second term examination of

2011 – 2012 academic sessions were used to determine the students’ high ability level

and low ability level. These scores were collected from the school selected for the

treatment group. The students who had average scores of 50% and above were

classified as high ability students while those students whose average scores ranged

below 50% were classified as low ability students.

Method of Data Analysis

The data collected for this study were analyzed using mean to answer all the

research questions. The pretest, posttest mean gain of each group (experimental and

control groups) were compared to determine the group that perform better to answer

research question 1, 2, 3 4 and 5. The study made use of four point response mode with

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the following numerical values: High performance=4, Moderate performance=3,Low

performance=2,poor performance=1.Cut off point of 3.50 was used, where every mean

of 3.50 and above was considered as performed while mean below 3.50 was considered

not performed. The null hypotheses were tested using Analysis of Covariance

(ANCOVA) at 0.05 level of significance. The major assumptions of ANCOVA include:

i. The linearity between the dependent and covariant (variables).

ii. The homogeneity of regression or parallelism was tested.

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CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

This chapter presented the results and discussions of the Data Analysis for the

Study. The presentations were organized according to the Research Questions and Null

Hypotheses that guided the study.

Research Question 1

What are the mean psycho productive skills performance scores of students

exposed to ergonomics principles in pre-planting operations in maize production and

those taught with conventional method?

Data which answered this research question was presented in table three

Table 3

Mean of pretest and posttest scores of Experimental and Control Groups in Psycho-

productive performance test in pre-planting operation in maize production.

Groups N Pretest Posttest Mean Gain

X1 X2

Experimental 30 2.39 3.83 1.44

Control 32 2.14 2.52 0.38

The data presented in Table 3 show that the experimental group had a mean

score of 2.39 in the pretest and a mean score of 3.83 in the post-test making a pretest,

post-test mean gain in the experimental group to be 1.44. The control group has a mean

score of 2.14 in the pretest and a post-test mean of 2.52 with a pretest post-test mean

gain of 0.38. With this result, the students in the experimental group performed better in

the psycho-productive skills than the students in the control group. Hence, application

of ergonomic principles as instructional technique is more effective than conventional

(lecture) method in improving students’ acquisition of psycho-productive skills in

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113

maize production. This means that students taught psycho productive skills in pre-

planting operation with ergonomic principles performed better than those taught with

conventional method.

HO1: There is no significant difference in the mean performance score of students

exposed to ergonomic principles in psycho-productive skills in pre-planting operations

and those taught with traditional method.

Table 4

Summary of Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) for Test of Significance between the

Mean Scores of Experimental and Control Groups in psycho productive skills in pre-

planting operation of maize production.

*Significant at F < .05

The data presented in Table 4 show F- calculated values for mean scores of

experimental and control groups in psycho-productive skills performance test. The F-

calculated value for Groups is 195.469 with a significance of F at .000 which is less

than .05. The null hypothesis is therefore rejected at.05 level of significance. With this

result, there is significant different between the mean performance scores of students

exposed to ergonomic principles in psycho-productive skills in pre-planting operations

Source Sum of Squares df Mean square F Sig.

Corrected Model 31.558a 2 15.779 127 .749 .000

Intercept 12.974 1 12.974 105.038 .000

Control .009 1. 009 .071 .791

Groups 24.144 1 24.144 195.469* .000

Error 7.164 59 .124

Total 614.440 62

Corrected Total 38.723 61

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and those taught with traditional method. This means that students taught with

ergonomic principles in pre-planting operations performed better than those taught with

traditional methods.

Research Question 2


exposed to ergonomics principles in planting operations in maize production and those

taught with conventional method?

Table 5

Mean of pre-test and post-test scores of experimental and control group in

psycho-productive skills performance test in planting operations in maize production.


X1 X2


Control 32 1.99 2.25 0.26

Table 5 shows that the experimental group had a mean score of 2.67 in the pre-

test and a mean score of 3.73 in the post-test making a pre-test, post-test mean gain of

the experimental group to be 1.06. The control group had a mean score of 1.99 in the

pre-test and a post-test mean score of 2.25 with the pre-test, post-test mean gain of 0.26.

With this result, the students in experimental group performed better in the psycho-

productive performance test than the students in the control group. This result therefore

implies that application of ergonomic principle in psycho-productive skills in planting

operation of maize is more effective than conventional (lecture) method. This means

that students taught with ergonomic principles in planting operations performed better

than those taught with convectional methods.

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HO2: There is no significance difference in the mean performance score of students

exposed to ergonomics principles in psycho-productive skills in planting operations and

those taught with conventional method.

Table 6

Summary of Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) for Test of Significance between the

mean scores of Experimental and Control Groups in psycho-productive skills in

planting operation of maize production.


Corrected Model 30.681a 2 15.341 178.090 .000

Intercept 14.606 1 14.606 169.563 .000

Control .070 1 .070 .809 .372

Groups 21.648 1 21.648 251.317* .000

Error 4.996 59 .086

Total 587.080 62


Significant at F < .05

The data presented in Table 6 shows the F – calculated values for mean scores

of Experimental and Control Group in psycho-productive skills in planting operations

of maize production. The F- calculated value for Groups is 251.317 with a significance

of .000 which is less than .05. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected at.05 level of

significance. There is a significant difference in the mean performance score of students

exposed to ergonomic principles in psycho-productive skills in planting operations in

maize production and those taught with conventional (lecture) method.

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Research Question 3


exposed to ergonomic principles in post-planting operations in maize production and


Table 7

Mean of pre-test and post-test scores of Experimental and Control Groups in

psycho-productive skills performance test in post-planting operations in maize

production.


X 1 X2


Control 32 2.09 2.51 0.42

The data presented in Table7 show that Experimental group had a mean score of

2.22 in the pretest and mean score of 3.75 in the post test making a pre test, post test

making a pretest, post test mean gain in experimental group to be 1.53. The control

group had a mean score of 2.09 in the pre test and a post test mean of 2.51 with the pre

test, post test mean gain of 0.42. This result shows that the students in the experimental

group performed better in psycho-productive performance test than the students’ in the

control group. This result therefore implies that application of ergonomic principles in

psycho-productive skills in post planting operation is more effective than conventional

(lecture) method of teaching.


exposed to ergonomic principles in psycho-productive skills in post planting operations

and those taught with traditional method.

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Table 8

Summary of Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) for the Test of Significance

between the Mean Scores of Experimental and Control Group in psycho-productive

skills in post-planting operations in maize production.



Intercept 14.726 1 14.726 239.567 .000

Control .023 1 .023 .373 .544

Groups 26.391 1 26.391 429.327* .000

Error 3.565 59 .061

Total 584.730 62


*Significant at < .05

The data presented in Table 8 show F- calculated values for mean scores of

Experimental and Control Groups in the psycho-productive skills in post planting

operations in maize production. F- Calculated value for Group is 429.327 with a

significance of F at .000 which is less than .05. Hence the null hypothesis is therefore

rejected at.05 level of significance. This means that there is a significant difference in

the mean performance scores of students exposed to ergonomic principles in psycho-

productive skills in post- planting operations in maize production and those taught with

traditional method. This means that students taught with ergonomic principles in post-

planting operations performed better than those taught with conventional (lecture)

methods.

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Research Question 4


exposed to ergonomics principles in post-harvesting operation in maize production and


Table 9

Mean of pre test and post test scores of Experimental and Control Groups in

psycho-productive skills performance test in post harvesting operations in maize

production.


X 1 X2


Control 32 1.95 2.42 0.47

The data presented in Table 9 show that the Experimental Group had a mean

score of 2.10 in the pre test and a mean score of 3.58 in the post test making a pre test,

post test mean gain of the experimental group to be 1.48. The control group had a mean

score of 1.95 in the pre test and a post test mean score of 2.42 with a pre test, post test

mean gain of 0.47. With this result, the students in experimental group performed better

than students in control group in psycho-productive skills performance test. This

implies that application of ergonomic principles in psycho-productive skills in post

harvesting operations is more effective than conventional (lecture) method of teaching.


exposed to ergonomic principles in psycho-productive skills in post harvesting

operations in maize production and those taught with conventional method.

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Table 10

Summary of Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) for Test of Significance

between the Mean Scores of Experimental and Control Groups in psycho-productive

skills in post harvesting operations in maize production.

*Significant at F < .05

The data presented in table 10 show F- Calculated values for mean scores of

Experimental and control groups in psycho-productive skills in post harvesting

operations in maize production. The F-Calculated value for Groups is 268.712 with a

significance of F at .000 which is less than .05. The null hypothesis is therefore rejected

at.05 level of significance as there is a significant difference in the mean performance

score of students exposed to ergonomic principles in psycho-productive skills in post

harvesting operations in maize production and those taught with conventional method.

This means that students taught with ergonomic principles in post-harvesting operations

performed better than those taught with conventional methods.



Intercept 11.217 1 11.217 145.970 .000

Control .088 1 .088 1.145 .289

Groups 20.648 1 20.648 268.712* .000

Error 4.457 59 .077

Total 531.690 62


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Research Question 5

What are the mean psychos productive skills performance scores of high ability

and low ability level students exposed to ergonomics principles in maize production

and those taught with conventional method?

Table 11

Mean of pretest and post test scores of High Ability level students and Low

Ability level students exposed to ergonomic principles in psycho-productive skills in

maize production.

Ability Level N Pretest Post test Mean Gain

X1 X2

High Ability 14 54.07 61.21 7.14

Low Ability 16 39.06 45.31 6.25

The data presented in Table 11 show that high ability level students had a mean

score of 54.07 in the pretest and a mean score of 61.21 in the post test, making a pre-

test, post test mean gain of 7.14 while the low ability group had a mean score of 39.06

in the pre-test and a mean score of 45.31 in the post test, making a pre test, post test

mean gain of 6.25. This result shows that high ability level students exposed to

ergonomic principles in productive skills in maize production performed better than the

low ability level students, exposed to the same ergonomic principles in psycho-

productive skill performance test in maize production.

HO5: There is no significance in the mean psycho-productive skills test performance

scores of high ability and low ability level students exposed to ergonomic principles in

productive skills in maize production.

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Table 12

Summary of Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) for Test of significance

between the mean performance score of High Ability level students and low Ability

level student exposed to ergonomic principles in psycho-productive skills in maize

production.



Intercept 200.200 1 200.200 13.570 .001

Pre test 89.467 1 89.467 6.064 .020

Ability Level 100.867 1 100.867 6.837* 0.14

Error 398.328 27 14.753

Total 84100.000 30


*Significant at F<.05

Table 12 shows that F-calculated value for ability level is 6.837 with a

significance of F at 0.14 which is greater than .05. Hence, the null hypothesis is

therefore accepted at.05 level of significance. With this result, there is no significant

difference between the mean performance score of high ability level students and low

ability level students exposed to ergonomic principle in psycho-productive skills in

maize production.

Findings of the Study

The following findings emerged from the study based on the data collected and

analyzed and the hypotheses tested:

1. Application of ergonomic principles as instructional technique is more effective

in exposing the students to psycho-productive skills in pre-planting operations in

maize production than conventional (lecture) method.

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2. There was significant difference between the mean performance scores of

students exposed to ergonomic principles in psycho-productive skills in pre-

planting operations in maize production and those taught with conventional

(lecture) method.

3. Application of ergonomic principles in teaching students psycho-productive

skills in planting operation in maize production is more effective than

conventional method of teaching.


students taught psycho-productive skills in planting operations in maize

production with application of ergonomic principles and those taught with

traditional method.

5. Ergonomic principles as instructional techniques are more effective in exposing

the students to psycho-productive skills in post planting operations in maize

production than conventional method of teaching.

6. There was a significant different between the mean performance scores of

students exposed to ergonomic principles in psycho-productive skills in post

planting operations in maize production and those taught with conventional

method.

7. Application of ergonomic principles in exposing the students to psycho-

productive skills in post harvesting operations in maize production is more

effective than conventional method of teaching.


students exposed to ergonomic principle in psycho-productive skills in post

harvesting operations in maize production and those taught with conventional

method.

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9. High ability level students taught psycho-productive skills in maize production

through the application of ergonomic principle performed better than low ability

level students taught the same psycho-productive skills in maize production.

10. There was no significance difference between the mean performance scores of

high ability level students and low ability level students expose to ergonomic

principles in psycho-productive skills in maize production.

Discussion

The findings of the study are discussed under the following sub-headings:

1. Effect of the application of ergonomic principles on students’ performance in

psycho-productive skills in pre-planting operations.

2. Effect of the application of ergonomic principles on students’ performance in

psycho-productive skills in planting operations.

3. Effect of the application of ergonomic principles on students’ psycho-productive

skills performance in post planting operations in maize production.

4. Effect of the application of ergonomics principles on students’ psycho-

productive skills performance in post harvesting operations in maize production.

5. Ergonomics principles and ability level on students’ psycho-productive skills

performance in maize production.

1. Effect of the application of ergonomics principles on students’ psycho-

productive skills performance in pre-planting operations:

The findings revealed that the effect of the application of ergonomic principle in

students’ psycho-productive skills performance in pre-planting operations in maize

production is higher than the effect of conventional (lecture) method of teaching. There

was a statistically significant difference between the effect of ergonomic principles as

instructional techniques and conventional instructional methods on students’ psycho-

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productive skills performance in pre-planting operation in maize, production

confirming that the difference between the effects of the application of ergonomic

principles and conventional instructional techniques was statistically significant. The

implication of this finding is that application of ergonomic principles (comfortable

environment, easy reach, safety and good working posture) in teaching productive skills

is more effective than conventional method of instruction in enhancing students’

performance and skill acquisition in maize production. The findings that ergonomic

principles (as instructional technique) has positive effect on students’ psycho-

productive skills performance is in conformity with that of Okasuprapt (2010) in a

study of “Application of ergonomics in teaching and learning science Technology

Society Approach” which revealed that application of ergonomic principles in

teaching/learning process improve students’ academic performance and promote their

health.

The effectiveness of ergonomic principles in improving learning is expressed in

the students’ active involvement in learning process using conducive learning

environment (Agricultural science laboratory, school farm) appropriate tools,

equipment and other materials for practical demonstration of the activities in maize

production, step by step with good working postures as the students’ practice in groups

and individually with the materials. Moreover, providing opportunities for students’ to

interact with the teacher tools, equipment and other learning materials in the farm

laboratory tends to change the course of teaching/learning process from being teacher-

centered to one that is student-centered as such interaction helps to integrate

conventional knowledge in practical agriculture and experiences into formal learning

especially in productive skills in Agriculture (Osinem, 2008). Hence, one means of

enhancing psycho-productive skills acquisition (manipulative skills), is to encourage

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‘learning by doing’ which will enable the students’ to acquire skills for self reliance.

Mokdad (2005) affirmed that application of ergonomic principles in the work place

such as farm, improve quality of work; enhance performance and efficiency of the

worker/learner. Students’ can learn to demonstrate manipulative skills better, if

schools concentrate on teaching how to do so through the use of appropriate

instructional techniques, which will promote intellectual growth, skill acquisition and

fosters psycho-motor achievement/performance gains in the rapid technology changing

world.

2. Effect of the application of ergonomic principle on students’ psycho-productive

skills performance in planting operation:

The finding revealed that the mean score of students’ exposed to the application

of ergonomic principles in psycho-productive skills in planting operation is higher than

the mean performance scores of students’ taught with conventional (lecture) method of

instruction. The difference is attributed to the use of ergonomic principles as

instructional techniques for the experimental group. The implication of this is that the

application of ergonomic principle in teaching productive skills in maize production is

more effective in enhancing students’ psycho-productive skill performance in planting

operation than that of traditional method of teaching. This finding is in agreement with

Sagus (2008), who noted that application of ergonomic principles in teaching/learning

process motivate and sustain the interest of the learners and improve their performance.

Assisting learners to learn is the ultimate goal of any instructional activities in both

formal and informal education and an effective teaching requires skillfulness to use or

adopt instructional techniques that are capable of stimulating students’ interest and

enhance their skill, knowledge and attitude development (Okorie 2001).

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3. Effect of the application of ergonomic principle on students’ psycho-productive

skills in post planting operations:

The findings revealed that students’ exposed to the application of ergonomic

principles in psycho-productive skills in post planting operation had a higher mean

score than those taught with conventional method of instruction. There was a statically

significant difference between the effect of ergonomic principle as instructional

technique and conventional (lecture) method of instruction on students’ psycho-

productive skills performance in post planting operation of maize. The implication of

this finding is that application of ergonomic principles in teaching students’ productive

skills is more effective than traditional instructional method. This finding is in

agreement with that of Aderonke (2010) in a study on “Effects of ergonomic principles

on ICT facilities on library staff which revealed that application of ergonomic

principles in an organization such as school improves students’ performances,

efficiency, and productivity and promote good health. To improve students’ psycho-

productive skills in agricultural practical activities, involves proper organization and

utilization of instructional materials such as tools and equipment in teaching/learning

processes Sawyer (2004) noted that proper organization and utilization of work

materials in any organization such as school enhance students’ academic performance,

minimize fatigue, absenteeism and motivate their interest in learning.

4. Effect of the application of ergonomic principles on students’ psycho-

productive skills performance in post harvesting operations:

The finding revealed that the effect of the application of ergonomic principles in

students’ psycho-productive skills performances in post-harvesting operation is higher

than the effect of conventional method of instruction. There was a statistically

significant difference between the effect of the application of ergonomic principles

(instructional technique) and conventional method of instruction on students’ psycho-

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productive skills performance in post harvesting operations of maize. The implication

of this finding is that the application of ergonomic principles in exposing the students’

to psycho-productive skills in post harvesting operation is more effective than

conventional method of instruction in improving students’ manipulative skills,

knowledge and attitude. This involves active participation in learning process using

appropriate materials and methods through frequent demonstration of operational

activities with the students’ in the farm. In learning practical skills, provision of

comfortable learning environment through adequate and appropriate working tools and

equipment under favorable conditions increases efficiency, productivity, quality of

work and skill acquisition (Khai and Kawakami, 2002). Olaitan and Mama (2001)

noted that comfortable learning environment make learning of practical activities in

agriculture easy conserve energy, save time, improve students’ performance and skill

acquisition.

5. Ergonomic Principles and Academic Ability on Students’ Psycho-productive

Skills Performance in Maize Production:

The findings revealed that students’ with high ability level had a higher mean

score than students’ with low ability level in psycho-productive skills performance test

in maize production. It was found out that there was no significant mean difference in

the performance scores of high ability level students’ and low ability level students’.

The differences in students’ academic performances are easily discerned when all the

students’ in a class do the same task at the same time than when each student uses

different materials to work individually (Mac-Iver 1988). Hills (2002) noted that the

students’ whose academic performance in tests and tasks are always high are classified

as high academic achievers while others are classified as low academic achievers due to

their low performance in tests and task.

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CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Re-statement of the Problem

Agricultural science is one of the subjects taught in secondary schools to

stimulate and sustain students’ interest in agriculture and equip them with psycho-

productive skills that will enable them to be self reliant in the world of work. However

these objectives have not been properly achieved. For example, the researcher

observed that most students’ in Senior Secondary School in Federal Capital Territory

have low interest and negative attitude towards agricultural practical activities. These

students’ viewed practical agriculture as a strenuous job, dirty work, labour intensive,

full of drudgery and hazards. Besides, most schools in the study area lack comfortable

learning environment for practical agriculture such as suitable farm site, adequate

learning periods, appropriate tools and equipment. This unfriendly learning

environment hinders the teachers from exposing the students’ to practical activities

regularly in the farm. The teachers focused their teaching on theory aspect of the

curriculum, neglecting practical activities which will help the students’ to acquire

psycho-productive skills for self reliance.

The researcher observed that low interest and negative attitude of the students

towards agricultural science could be attributed to inappropriate methods, obsolete tools

and equipment which the teachers used in teaching the students in the classroom. The

conventional (lecture) method commonly used is teacher-centered and subject matter

oriented. It does not motivate students’ interest and lay emphasis on psycho-motor

domain aspect of education which encourages ‘Learning by doing’.

Further more, Onyebu, (2007) it has been observed that most students of

agriculture who graduated from Senior Secondary Schools in the study area were

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129

unable to demonstrate manipulative skills in any production area of agriculture because

they lack Psycho-productive skills. This observation is in agreement with Olaitan

(1996) who said that though the Secondary School curriculum emphasizes acquisition

of basic skills and knowledge in all occupational areas of agriculture, however graduate

of Senior Secondary Schools are not able to demonstrate acquisition of practical skills

in agriculture when required to do so. The author added that this could be due to some

limitations which include: inadequate facilities, inappropriate teaching methods,

unfriendly environment for practical agriculture and wrong working postures.

There is need to adopt a new approach that will stimulate and sustain students’

interest in agriculture, improve their academic performance and enhance their skill

acquisition for self reliance. This situation therefore prompted one to research into the

effect of the application of ergonomics principles on students’ acquisition of psycho-

productive skills in maize production in Senior Secondary Schools.

The specific objectives of the study were to:

• Determine the mean performance scores of the students’ taught psycho

productive skills in pre-planting operations in maize production with



productive skills in planting operations in maize production with ergonomics



productive skills in post-planting operations in maize production with


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productive skills in post harvesting operations in maize production with


• Determine the mean performance scores of high and low ability students taught

psycho productive skills in maize production with ergonomics principles.

Summary of Procedure Used

A pre test, post test, non-equivalent control group, quasi experimental research

design was employed to determine the effect of the application of ergonomic principles

on students’ acquisition of psycho-productive skills in maize production in Secondary

Schools. The area of the study was Gwagwalada area council in F.C.T Abuja. Five

research questions and five null hypotheses guided the study. The population for the

study was 300 students of agricultural science in Senior Secondary School one (SS1) in

Gwagwalada area council Abuja from which 62 students’ were selected and used for

the study. The instrument used for data collection was observational rating scale called

Psycho-Productive Skills Performance Test items (PSPT). Other instruments used were

ergonomic lesson plan and conventional lesson plan. The PSPT items were drawn

based on the identified productive skills in maize production which covered the four

operational skills in maize production (pre-planting, planting, post planting and post

harvesting operations). The instruments (PSPT) were given to three experts who

validated the items in terms of face validation.

The PSPT was trial-tested to determine the reliability coefficient. The instrument was

administered on a sample of 20 Students’ in Government Secondary School Mararaba,

in Nasarawa State. Cronbach alpha statistical tool was used to compute the reliability

coefficient of the instrument (PSPT) which yielded the following values; 0.76 for pre-

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planting operation, 0.84 for planting operation, 0.82 for post planting operation and

0.80 for post harvesting operation. The overall Cronbach Alpha coefficient value for

PSPT is 0.79. Data collected for the study were analyzed using mean to answer all the

research questions while Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test the five

hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance.

Principal Findings of the Study

Based on data collected and analyzed the followings are principal finding of the

study:

1. The study revealed that the students exposed to the application of ergonomic

principles in psycho-productive skills in pre-planting operation performed better

than students taught with traditional method.

2. There was a significant difference in the mean performance scores of students’

exposed to ergonomic principles in planting operation and those taught with

traditional method.

3. There was a significant difference in the mean performance scores of students’

taught with the application of ergonomic principles in psycho-productive skills

in post planting operations and those taught with traditional method.

4. There was a significant difference in the mean performance score of students’

exposed to ergonomic principles in psycho-productive skills in post harvesting

operations and those taught with traditional method.

5. High ability level students taught psycho-productive skills in maize production

performed better than the low ability level students.

Conclusion

The need to find the best teaching strategy which could help the students’ of

agriculture in learning agricultural practical activities stimulate their interest and

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enhance their psycho-productive skill acquisition is paramount as productive skill

acquisition is very essential in every occupational areas of agriculture. Moreover,

interest motivated and developed in the students in Secondary level could be sustained

up to other levels of education.

Implication of the Study

The findings of the study have implications for government, teachers of

agricultural science, curriculum planners, and secondary school administrators. The

study found out that application of ergonomic principles is more effective in improving

the students’ psycho-productive skills performance and motivate their interest in

learning agricultural practical activities in maize production. The implication of this

finding to curriculum planners is that they should develop appropriate curriculum in

agriculture which will make provision for the adoption of ergonomic principles for

teaching/learning agricultural science in secondary schools.

Having found out that application of ergonomic principles in exposing the

students’ to psycho-productive skills in crop production is more effective than

traditional method of teaching, there is need for teachers of agricultural science in

Senior Secondary Schools to adopt the use of ergonomic principles in the teaching and

learning of practical agriculture.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study, the discussion and the implications of

findings, the following recommendations were made:

1. Teachers of Agricultural Science in Senior Secondary Schools should adopt the

use of ergonomic principles for teaching agricultural science to senior secondary

students.

133

2. The curriculum planners in collaboration with government officials of

Secondary Education Board (SEB) should incorporate ergonomic principles into

Senior Secondary Schools agricultural science curriculum for effective teaching

and leaning of practical agricultural science.

3. The Government in collaboration with Ministry of Education should provide

comfortable learning environment, tools, equipment and other instructional

materials needed to teach agricultural practical activities in Senior Secondary

Schools.

4. Workshops, seminars and conferences should be organized by Ministry of

Education and Administrators of Secondary Education Board (SEB) to enlighten

Teachers of Agricultural science and improve their knowledge, attitude and

skills on the use of ergonomic principles as instructional technique for

improving students’ psycho-productive skills and motivate their interest in

practical agriculture.

Suggestion for Further Study

1. This study should be replicated in other area councils in Federal Capital

Territory Abuja using other ergonomic principles such as minimize excessive

force, reduce Height and repetitive movement.

2. Effect of ergonomic principles and conventional (lecture) method on students’

performance and attitude towards practical agriculture.

3. Effect of the application of ergonomic principles on students’ psychomotor

achievement and interest in such areas as Home Economics, Computer Science

Industrial Technology could be studied.

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REFERENCES

Aderonke, O. A. (2010). Ergonomic Effects of ICT Facilities on Academic Library

Staff, Covenant University Ogun State, Nigeria (M. Ed Thesis)

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144

APPENDIX A

Department of Vocational Teacher Education,

University of Nigeria,

Nsukka.

6th June 2012

Dear Sir/Madam,

REQUEST FOR FACE AND CONTENT VALIDATION OF RESEARCH

INSTRUMENTS AND LESSON PLAN

I am a Post-graduate student of the Department of Vocational Teacher

Education, (Agricultural Education Unit), carrying out a research on “Effects of the

application of ergonomics principles on the students acquisition of psycho-productive

skills in maize production in Secondary Schools in Federal Capital Territory Abuja”.

Attached are draft copies of the lesson plans and psycho-productive skills

performance test items for the study. You are kindly requested to go through the items

of the instruments and vet their clarity, suitability, relevance and total coverage for the

test. You are requested to make sure that the test items cover the four productive skill

areas in maize production. Also check the lesson plan to make sure the

procedure/format for lesson plans were followed and ascertain whether the lesson plan

are in line with the topics, content and duration of the lesson. Please, kindly write down

your comments and suggestions for improving the quality of the instruments.

Thanks for your corporation.

Yours sincerely,

Ikelusi, Caroline Onyebuchi PG/PhD/08/48996

145

APPENDIX B

ERGONOMICS LESSON PLAN

LESSON PLAN I

NAME OF SCHOOL: Government Secondary School Tungan maje

DATE:

CLASS: SSI

SUBJECT: Agricultural Science

TOPIC: Maize Production

SUB – TOPIC – Pre-planting operations (land clearing and stumping)

PERIOD: 1st and 2nd period (double period)

DURATION: 80 minutes.

BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES – At the end of lesson the students should be able to:

1. Explain the meaning of pre-planting operation

2. Mention two activities involved in clearing and stumping the farm land.

3. Identify the tools and equipment used for clearing and stumping the farm land.

4. Practice clearing and stumping of their individual farm plot in the school farm.

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE: The students have been going to the farm with their

parents to help them do some work in the farm.

INTRODUCTION: The teacher asks the students to mention two operational activities

they have helped their parents to do in the farm.

146

INSTRUCTIONAL PROCEDURES:

Step Content Teacher’s

Activities

Students

Activities

Instruction

Materials

Principles of comfortable

environment:

1 Meaning and

examples of pre-

planting operations

Teacher create conducive

learning environment in the

laboratory to promote

learning. Teacher explains the

meaning of pre-planting

operations as the activities

carried out in the farm before

planting crops.

Students’ listen

to teacher’s

explanation and

say the meaning

of pre-planting

operations.

Picture

chats

2

Organization and

display of working

materials

(tools & equipment)

Principle of easy reach: The teacher organizes and

displays the appropriate tools

and equipment used to

carryout the activities in pre-

planting operations, examples

are: cutlass, rake, and hoe

among others. Teacher keeps

those materials very close to

the farm for easy reach.

Students identify

the material used

in pre-planting

operations and

mention their

names.

Hoe, cutlass,

rake mattock

and shovel.

3

Explanation of

Activities in pre-

planting operation

(site selection clearing

of the vegetation and

stumping).

Principle of Safety: Teacher explains how to

select suitable land for maize

production, example: a fertile

land with a well drained

sandy loamy soil of pH 6 – 7.

Teacher discusses with the

students how to clear the bush

and stump the farm land with

the materials mentioned

above. Teacher takes the

students out for practical

activities in the farm. She

ensures safety in the farm by

providing materials that will

protect the students from

injuries, accidents and pains.

Examples, helmet, work-boot.

Students listen to

the teacher

explanation and

identify the best

soil for growing

maize.

Students

participate in the

discussion on

how to prepare

the land for

growing of

maize. The

students also

identify the

protective

working

materials to

prevent injuries

or hazards in the

farm.

Hoe, rake

cutlass hand

glove, work

boot and

helmet.

147

4

Practice clearing of

the bush and stumping

in the school farm.

Principles of good working

posture: The teacher demonstrates

how to clear the bush and

stump the farm land with

correct or good working

postures.

Students’

observe and

imitate teacher’s

demonstration

and practice how

to carry out the

activities on their

own.

Cutlass,

rakes, and

shovels.

EVALUATION

Teacher asks the students to

clear the bush and stump their

farm land using the correct

materials and good postures.

Students clear

their farm plots

with appropriate

tools and

postures.

CONCLUSION/SU

MMARY

The teacher guides the

students and supervises their

work and rate their

performance scores using

PSPT.

Assignment: The teacher asks the students to pack the dry grasses and burn them.

LESSON PLAN 2


DATE:

CLASS: SSI



SUB – TOPIC – Pre-planting operations continued (mapping and making of the ridges).

PERIOD: 1st and 4th period



1. Explain mapping and making of the ridges.

2. Name the materials used in mapping and making of ridges.

148

3. Practice how to map out the field for making of the ridges.

4. Make ridges in their farm plot for planting maize seeds.

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE: The students have learnt about clearing of the bushes and

stumping.

INTRODUCTION: The teacher reviews the previous lesson with the students and asks

them the following questions: (1) what is stumping? (2) List three materials used for

clearing vegetation and stumping



Activities

Students

Activities

Instruction

Materials

Principles of

comfortable

environment:

1 Meaning of mapping and

making of ridges.

The teacher creates

comfortable

environment in the

laboratory. She

explains the

meaning of mapping

and making of

ridges.

Students listen

to teacher’s

explanation and

define mapping

and ridging

individually.

Picture

Chart.

2

Identification of materials used

for mapping and making of

ridges.

Teacher organizes

and displays the

materials used for

mapping and making

of ridges for the

students to see and

mention their names.

Teacher keeps all the

materials very close

Students’ listen

to the teacher,

identify the

materials and

mention their

names. Students

carry those

materials very

close to the

Rope, peg,

hoe,

ranging,

pole, tape,

cutlass and

digger.

149

to the farm for easy

reach to make the

task interesting and

easy. Teacher

demonstrates how to

use those materials

in the farm.

farm.

3

Practical activities on making

of the ridges.

Principle safety

and posture:

Teacher explains

how to make ridges

for growing maize,

she explain safety

precautions to the

student and provide

the materials that

will protect the

students from

injuries while

making the ridges.

Example; hand

glove, work boot

and helmet or hat.

She takes the

students out for

practical activities in

the farm. She

demonstrates how to

make the ridges with

appropriate bending

positions.

Students listen

to the teachers;

explanation and

adhere to safety

measures in the

farm. Students

imitate

teacher’s

demonstration

on how to make

the ridges and

practice on their

own.

Hoe, spade,

helmet,

work boot,

hand

gloves.

150

EVALUATION The teacher asks the

students to

demonstrate

mapping and making

of ridges in the farm.

The students

practice how to

perform the task

in the farm.

SUMMARY/CONCLUSION The teacher observes

the students

performance rate

their scores using

PSPT..

ASSIGNMENT: The teacher told the student to make their own ridges for planting

maize.

LESSON PLAN 3


DATE:

CLASS: SSI



SUB – TOPIC – Planting operations

PERIOD: 1st and 2nd period



1. Define planting operations.

2. Identify maize variety for planting.

3. Test the viability of the maize grain.

4. Measure the planting distances of maize.

151

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE: The students have learnt about pre-planting operations.


them these following questions: (1) what are pre-planting operations? (2) Mention the

activities in pre-planting operations.



Activities

Students

Activities

Instruction

Materials

1

Meaning of planting

operation.

Principles of

comfortable

environment:

The teacher create good

and comfortable

learning environment in

the laboratory. She

explains the meaning of

planting operations.

Students listen

to teacher’s

explanation and

define planting

operation after

the teacher.

Pictures and

charts.

2

Selection of maize variety

and carrying out the

viability test.

Principle of easy

reach:

Teacher displays the

materials for testing the

viability of the maize

grain. She explains and

demonstrates how to

carry out the viability

test she also explains

the importance of

testing the viability of

the maize before

planting. E.g. easy

germination.

Students

identify the

materials for

testing the

viability of the

maize grain,

listen to

teacher’s

explanation and

say the

importance of

testing the

viability of

maize grain.

Maize grain,

water,

container and

basket.

152

3

Measuring the plant distance

of maize and planting of

maize seeds on the ridges.

Principle safety and

posture:

Teacher explains how

to measure the

planting distance of

maize. She

demonstrates how to

measure the planting

distance with tape or

calibrated stick 90cm

x 30cm at one seed per

hole or 75cm x 25cm

at two seeds per hole.

Teacher demonstrates

planting of the seeds

by dropping 2 or 3

seeds in a hole.

Students listen to

the teachers’

explanation and

identify the

materials used

for spacing or

measuring

planting distance

of maize.

Students observe

the teacher and

imitate how to

measure the

planting distance

of maize.

Students observe

the teacher and

imitate how to

plant the maize

seeds inside the

ridges.

Hoe, spade,

helmet,

work boot,

hand

gloves.

EVALUATION Teacher asks the

students to practice

how to plant maize

seeds in their ridges.

Students plant

the maize seeds

in their own

ridges.

SUMMARY/CONCLUSION The teacher observes

the performance of the

students and awards

marks to them using

PSPT.

ASSIGNMENT: The teacher asks the students to plant maize in their farm plot.

153

LESSON PLAN 4


DATE:

CLASS: SSI



SUB – TOPIC – Post-planting operations

PERIOD: 1st and 2nd period



1. Meaning of post-planting operations.

2. Define weeding.

3. Mention the importance weeding maize farm.

4. Weed the farm and earthen up the maize plant.

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE: The students have learnt about clearing pre-planting

operations.


them the following questions: (1) what is planting operations? (2) Mention three

activities in planting operations.

154



Activities

Students

Activities

Instruction

Materials

Principles of

comfortable

environment:

1

Meaning of post-planting

operation.

The teacher create

good environment

in the laboratory.

She discusses the

meaning of planting

operation with the

students.

Students’ listen

very attentively

to teacher’s

explanation

and say the

meaning of

post-planting

operation.

Hoe,

cutlass.

2 Weeding and thinning. The teacher explains

the meaning of

weeding as the

process of removing

the unwanted

grasses in the farm.

Thinning is the

process of removing

the excess seedlings

in a stand to allow

healthy growth and

yield of the plant.

The students

listen very

attentively to

the teachers

explanation

and say the

meaning of

weeding and

thinning

individually.

Principle of easy

reach:

3 Identification of material for

weeding and the maize plot.

Teacher displays the

materials for

carrying out

weeding and

thinning activities in

the farm. She

Students listen

to the teacher

and identify the

materials for

weeding and

thinning the

Hoe,

cutlass,

hand glove,

workboot,

hat/helmet.

155

organizes and keeps

them very close to

the farm for easy

reach. Teacher also

explains safety

precautions and

provides working

wears to protect the

students from

hazards or injuries;

teacher

demonstrates how to

carryout weeding

and thinning of the

maize plants. She

uses good working

postures and

demonstrates how to

earthen up the maize

plants to help plants

stand firm.

maize plants.

Students also

practice how to

earthen up the

maize plant.

EVALUATION (1)The teacher asks

the students to weed

their farm plot and

earthen up the maize

plants.

Students’

demonstrate

how to weed

the maize plot

and earthen up

the maize

plants.

SUMMARY/CONCLUSION The teacher rates the

scores of the

students with PSPT

as they perform the

tasks in the farm

step by step.

ASSIGNMENT: The teacher asks the students to write their observation in the farm

while carrying out weeding activities.

156

LESSON PLAN 5


DATE:

CLASS: SSI



SUB – TOPIC – Post-Planting Operations (Application of fertilizer in the maize plants)

PERIOD: 3rd and 4th period


BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES – At the end of the lesson the students should be able

to:

1. Define fertilizers.

2. Identify different types of fertilizers.

3. List methods of applying fertilizers in the farm.

4. Apply fertilizer correctly to the maize plants.

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE: The students have learnt about weeding and thinning of

the maize plot.


them these questions: (1) what is weeding? (2) Name two materials for weeding maize

plot.

157

INSTRUCTIONAL PROCEDURE:


Activities

Students

Activities

Instruction

Materials

1

Meaning and types of

fertilizers.

Principles of

comfortable

environment:

The teacher creates a

comfortable

environment in the

laboratory, she

explains the meaning

of fertilizers as the

chemical substances,

generally in form of

granules or powder,

pellets or crystals

which can be added to

the soil to increases its

fertility. Examples are:

(1) single fertilizers

such as, urea,

potassium nitrate,

ammonium nitrate

among others. (2)

Compound fertilizer

such as N.P.K

fertilizer etc. which is

the best fertilizer for

maize production.

Students’ listen

to the teacher’s

explanation and

identify different

types of

fertilizers for

growing crops in

the farm.

Fertilizers

such as

urea,

potassium

nitrate,

ammonium

nitrate.

158

2

Methods of fertilizer

applications in the farm.

Principle of easy

reach:

Teacher explains

various methods

used to apply

fertilizer in the farm.

Example; ring

method, side

dressing etc. she

organize the

materials for

fertilizer application

in easy reach.

Teacher ensures

safety in the farm by

providing students

with working wears

that will protect their

body from hazards.

Examples are:

workboot, overall,

hand gloves and so

on.

Students listen to

the teacher’s

explanation and

identify various

methods of

fertilizer

application such

as ring method,

side dressing

broadcasting etc.

159

3

Application of fertilizer to the

maize plants.

Principle of

postures:

Teacher discusses

how to apply

fertilizer in the farm

using appropriate

methods and

working postures.

Teacher takes the

students out for

practical in the

school farm.

Students’

participate in the

discussion.

Students’ follows

the teacher to the

farm to practice

how to apply the

fertilizers on the

maize plants.

Hand

glove,

stick, work-

boot and

overall.

4

Demonstration of fertilizer

application in the farm.

Teacher

demonstrates the

application of

fertilizers to the

maize plants with

correct bending

postures. Using

appropriate tools.

Students’ observe

and imitate the

teacher’s

demonstration and

practice on their

own.


students to apply

fertilizer to their

maize plants.

Students’

demonstrate how

to apply fertilizer

in the maize plant.

SUMMARY/CONCLUSION The teacher rates the

performance scores

of the students with

PSPT as they

perform the

activities in the

farm.

ASSIGNMENT: The teacher asks the students to visit their maize plot.

160

LESSON PLAN 6


DATE:

CLASS: SSI



SUB – TOPIC – Prevention/control of diseases and pests of maize.




to:

1. Define diseases and pest of crop.

2. Name causes of diseases

3. Identify some diseases of maize.

4. Classify insect pest.

5. Explain methods of prevention/control diseases and pest of crops.

6. Draw and label insect pest of maize crop.

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE: The students have learnt about weeding and thinning of

the maize plot.

INTRODUCTION: The teacher introduces the lesson by reviewing the previous lesson

with the students and asks them some questions: (1) what is fertilizer? (2) Name three

methods of fertilizer application.

161



Activities

Students

Activities

Instruction

Materials

1

Meaning of diseases.

Types of maize diseases

and causes of maize

diseases.

Principles of

comfortable

environment:

The teacher creates

conducive

environment in the

laboratory and

explains the

meaning of

diseases to the

students’. Teacher

show the students

pictures of

different diseases

of maize.

Examples are: corn

smut, maize rust,

maize streak and

leaf spot.

Teacher explains

the causes of

maize diseases

which include:

virus, fungi,

bacteria and

nematode.

Students’ listen

to the teacher’s

explanation and

identify various

types of diseases

that attack

maize plant.

Students’ listen

attentively to the

teacher, identify

disease

pathogens and

maize crops

attacked by

diseases.

Pictures and

charts of

maize attack

by smut and

streak.

Pictures of

diseases of

maize.

162

2 Prevention and control of

diseases.

Principle of

safety:

Teacher explains to

the students that

diseases of plant

can be controlled

by the following

methods: cultural,

biological and

chemical control

methods. She

explains the need

of safety

precautions while

using chemicals to

control diseases

such chemicals are

fungicide,

nematicides and

insecticides.

Students listen

to the teacher’s

explanation and

identify

different

methods of

controlling

diseases.

Students listen

to the teacher’s

explanation on

safety

precautions in

the school farm

while handling

chemicals.

Resistant

varieties

such as:

manoma

yellow

maize.

fungicide.

163

3

Meaning and classification

of insect pest of maize.

Principle of

postures:

Teacher explains

the meaning and

classification of

insect’s pests. A

pest can be

described as any

organism capable

of causing damage

to crop plant.

Examples of crop

pest are: insects,

birds, rodents,

monkeys etc.

The teacher

classifies insect

pest and explain

how they attack

crops:

(1) Biting and

chewing insects,

(2) Boring insects

(3) Piercing and

sucking insects.

Students’ listen

to the teacher;

say the

meaning of

insect pest after

the teacher.

Students

identify some

crop pest.

Students listen

to the teacher’s

explanation and

group the insect

pest on the

board.

Pictures and

charts.

4

Control of insect pest. Teacher explains

methods of

controlling insect

pest such as

physical control

and biological

control. She

demonstrates how

to use scare crow

and setting traps

Students’ listen

to the teacher’s

explanation and

identify various

methods of

controlling pest

of crops

students

observe the

teacher and

Trap, scare

scow.

164

examples physical

control method.

imitate how to

control pest of

crops.

5 Visit to the maize farm. Teacher takes the

students to the farm

to identify the

maize attacked by

diseases or pest.

Teacher hand picks

some pests in the

farm and destroys

them.

Students visit

the farm and

identify some

diseases and

pests attacking

maize plants.

EVALUATION The teacher asks

the students to

identify any

diseases or pests

that are attacking

the maize and kill

them.

Students

observe the

plants and

check the

diseased plants

and identify

those plants

attacked by

pests.

SUMMARY/CONCLUSION The teacher rates

the students’

performance scores

with checklist as

they carryout the

activities in the

farm.

ASSIGNMENT: The teacher asks the students to draw and label four insect pests, and

visit their maize plot.

165

LESSON PLAN 7


DATE:

CLASS: SSI



SUB – TOPIC – Post planting operation (harvesting and storage)




to:

1. Define harvesting.

2. List the materials for harvesting maize.

3. Harvest maize cobs with cutlass.

4. Carry the harvested maize cobs to the store.

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE: The students have learnt about pest and diseases of

maize.


them the following questions: (1) Define diseases and pest of crops? (2) Explain three

classes of insect pest.

166



Activities

Students

Activities

Instruction

Materials

1

Meaning of harvesting.

Principles of

comfortable

environment:

The teacher creates

enabling

environment in the

laboratory and

explain the meaning

of harvesting as the

process of removing

mature maize cobs

from the farm.

Students

listen to the

explanation of the

teacher and say

the meaning of

harvesting

individually.

Pictures of a

farmer,

harvesting

maize cobs in

the farm.

2

Identification of

materials used for

carrying out harvesting

activities.

Principle of easy

reach and safety:

Teacher organizes

the materials for

harvesting maize

such as cutlass,

basket, head pan and

wheel barrow and

Students listen to

the teacher and

identify some

materials for

carrying out

harvesting

Cutlass,

basket head

pan

wheelbarrow

work-boot

overall and

167

keep them very close

to the farm for easy

reach. She explains

and demonstrates

how to use each

material to perform

the tasks.

activities in the

farm. Students

imitate teacher’s

demonstration

and practice on

their own.

hand gloves.

3

Harvesting and

packing out harvested

cobs from the farm to

the store.

Principle of

postures:

Teacher explains

how to harvest

mature maize cobs

with the appropriate

materials and good

working posture –

holding the cutlass

with the right hand

and hold the cob

with left hand and

cut the tem of the

maize plant, then

pluck the cobs.

The teacher

demonstrates how to

harvest maize cobs

and allows the

students to practice

how to perform the

tasks.

Students’ listen

carefully to the

teacher’s

explanation and

identify the

materials for

harvesting maize

cobs.

Student’s

observe and

imitate teacher’s

demonstration

and practice on

their own

students pack the

harvested maize

cobs to the store.

Cutlass,

basket, head

pan and

wheelbarrow.

168


students to harvest

their maize cobs and

packs them to the

store.

Harvest their

maize and pack

them to the store.

SUMMARY/CONCL

USION

Teacher awards

marks to the students

using PSPT.

ASSIGNMENT: The teacher asks the students to separate the spoilt maize cobs from the

good ones.

LESSON PLAN 8


DATE:

CLASS: SSI



SUB – TOPIC – Post harvesting operations storage and marketing of maize cobs

TIME - 9.20 – 11.50 am

PERIOD: 3rdand 4th period



to:

1. Define storage and marketing.

2. Remove the maize cob from the husks.

3. Dry the cobs on the sun for storage.

4. Carryout market survey to identify buyers.

5. Sort the maize into quality and grade and fix prices.

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE: The students have learnt about harvesting.

INTRODUCTION: The teacher introduces the lesson by reviewing the previous lesson

with the students and asks them the following questions:

1. What is harvesting? (2) lists two materials used for harvesting maize cobs?

169



Activities

Students

Activities

Instruction

Materials

2

Identification of storage

materials such as crib, silo,

rhombus, bags among others.

Principle of easy

reach and safety:

The Teacher

organizes the

materials used to

carryout storage

activities and keeps

them very close to

the farm for easy

reach.

Students’

identify the

materials used

for storage of

maize cobs and

maize grain.

Bags

rhombus

silo earthen

pot, crib.

3

Marketing of maize

cobs/grains

Teacher explains

how to sort the

maize into grades

and advertise for

buyers. Teacher

guides the students

to fix prices on the

maize according to

quality and quantity.

Teacher

demonstrates how to

sale the maize and

keep proper records.

Students’ sort

the maize cobs

(fresh or dry)

into grade,

advertise for

buyers and fix

prices according

to grade

students imitate

teacher’s

demonstration

and practice on

their own.

Students take

the maize to the

market for sale.

Poster,

maize cobs,

maize grain

bags and

wheelbarro

w.

170


students’ to sort the

maize cobs

according to grade

for storage and

marketing.

Students sort

the maize cobs

according to

grade and sale

them to the

buyers.

SUMMARY/CONCLUSION Teacher observes the

students’ activities

and rates their

performance scores

using check PSPT.

ASSIGNMENT: The teacher asks the students to store the dry maize in the farm store.

171

APPENDIX C

CONVENTIONAL LESSON PLAN

LESSON PLAN I

Name of the School: Government Secondary School Dobi

DATE:

CLASS: SSI



SUB-TOPIC-Pre-planting operations (land clearing and stumping)

PERIOD - 1st and 2nd period (double period)

Duration – 80 minutes


to:

1. Explain the meaning of pre-planting operation.

2. List three materials used for clearing and stumping of the farm land.

3 Identify the tools and equipment used for clearing and stumping the farm.

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE: The students have been helping their parents in the farm.

INTRODUCTION: The teacher introduces the lesson by asking the students to mention

two farm activities they have helped their parents to do in the farm.

172



Activities

Student’s

Activities

Instructional

Materials

1 Meaning of pre-planting

operation.

Teacher explains

the meaning of

pre-planting

operation to the

students.

Student’s listen

to teacher’s

explanation.

2 Display of material for

clearing and stumping the

farmland.

Presents the

picture of some

tools which can

be used to

carryout the

activities in the

farm and

discusses how to

use them with

the student.

Students

identify some

of the tools

used to clear

the land.

Pictures of hoe

cutlass and

digger or

mattock.

3 Clearing of vegetation and

stumping.

Teacher explains

how to clear

vegetation and

stumping. She

presents the

pictures of

farmers clearing

the land or

planting of

maize.

Student’s listen

to teacher’s

explanation

and look at the

picture of the

farmer clearing

the farm land.

Picture of

farmer’s

clearing and

stumping the

land Hoe,

cutlass digger.

EVALUATION

Teacher asks the

students to clear

the bush and

stump their farm

Students clear

their farm plots

with

appropriate

173

land using the

correct materials

and good

postures.

tools and

postures.

CONCLUSION/SUMMA

RY

The teacher

guides the

students

supervises their

work and rate

their

performance

scores using

PSPT.

ASSIGNMENT: The teacher asks the student to clear their farm plots.

LESSON PLAN 2


DATE:

CLASS: SSI



SUB-TOPIC: Mapping and making of the ridges

PERIOD – 3rdand 4th period (double period)

DURATION – 80 minutes


to:

1. Identify the materials of laying (mapping) out the field for making ridges.

2. Explain how to layout the field for making ridges.

174

3. List two farm tools that can be used for digging/tilling the land for making

ridges.

4. Make ridges for planting maize.

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE: The students have learnt clearing and stumping of the

farm land.


them the following questions:

(1)What is stumping? ( 2) list three farm tools used for clearing stumping the farm

land.



Activities

Student’s

Activities

Instructiona

l Materials

1 Laying out the field for

making ridges.

Teacher explains

the importance

of laying out the

field before

making of the

ridges – it helps

to make the

ridges straight

and orderly.

Student’s

listen to

teacher’s

explanation.

2 Identification of materials for

mapping and making of

ridges.

Teachers’

presents some of

the materials

used for

mapping out the

land and making

of ridges.

Students

identify some

of the tools

used to clear

the land.

Peg, Rope,

Hoe and

Shovel.

175

3 Making of the ridges for

growing of maize.

Teacher explains

how to use hoe

to make ridges

in the farm and

also

demonstrates

how to make

ridges in the

farm.

The Student’s

listen to the

explanation of

the teacher.

Hoe, Spade


the students to

demonstrate

mapping and

making of ridges

in the farm.

The students

practice how

to perform the

task in the

farm.

SUMMARY/CONCLUSION The teacher

observes the

students

performance and

rate their scores

using PSPT.

ASSIGNMENT: The teacher asks the students to make their own ridges in the school

farm.

LESSON PLAN 3


DATE:

CLASS: SSI

176



SUB-TOPIC: Planting operations

PERIOD – 4thand 5th period (double period)



to:

1. Difine planting operation?)

2. Identify maize variety for planting. (3) Test the viability of maize seeds. (4)

Measure the planting distances of maize,

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE: The students have make ridges for planting maize.

INTRODUCTION: The teacher reviews the previous lesson with the students.


Step Content Teacher’s Activities Student’s Activities Instruction

al

Materials

1 Selection of maize

variety, testing the maize

for viability.

Teacher explains to the

students how to select

and test the healthy

maize for planting.

Student’s listen to

teacher’s

explanation.

Maize,

water and

bowl.

2 Measuring the planting

distance.

The teacher demonstrate

the students how to use

ruler to measure

planting distance of

maize 90cm x 30cm at

one seed per a whole or

75cm x 25cm at two

seeds per a whole.

Students’ imitate

teacher’s

demonstrate and

practice how to

measure planting

distance of maize.

Ruler

Cutlass.

3 Digging hole for planting The teacher

demonstrates to the

Students imitate the

teacher and plant

Maize

Grain

177

of maize. students’ how to make

holes and plant maize

seeds.

maize seed in their

ridges.

Bowl

Stick.


students to practice how

to plant maize seeds in

their ridges.

Students plant the

maize seeds in their

own ridges.

SUMMARY/CONCLUSION The teacher observes the

performance of the

students and awards

marks to them using

PSPT.

ASSIGNMENT: The teacher asks the students’ to bring maize grain from their home

for planting.

LESSON PLAN 4


DATE:

CLASS: SSI



SUB-TOPIC: Post planting operations (weeding)

PERIOD – 1stand 2nd period (double period)



to:

1. Explain the meaning of post planting operation.

2. Define weeding.

178

3. Mention the importance of weeding the maize farm.

4. Weed the farm and earthen up the maize plants.

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE: The students have learnt about planting operations of

maize.



1. What is planting operation?

2. Mention three activities in planting operations.



Activities

Student’s

Activities

Instructional

Materials

1 Weeding of the maize plot. Teacher explains

the meaning of

weeding and

importance of

weeding the farm.

Student’s

listens to

teacher’s

explanation and

ask questions

where

necessary.

Hoe and

cutlass.

2 Earthen up the basis of the

maize plant and placing the

material in the furrow.

Teachers

demonstrate to

the students how

to weed and

earthen up the

maize plant.

Students’

imitate the

teacher and

practice on

their own.

Hoe and

cutlass.

3 Thinning of the maize

seedling.

Teacher explains

to the students’

the importance of

thinning the

maize seedlings.

Students’

listens to t

teacher’s

explanation and

imitate how to

179

She demonstrates

how to thin the

maize seeding to

one or two plants

per stand.

thin the maize

plant.

EVALUATION (1)The teacher

asks the students

to weed their farm

plot and earthen

up the maize

plants.


the scores of the

students as they

perform the tasks

in the farm step

by step.

ASSIGNMENT: The teacher asks the students’ to weed their maize plot.

LESSON PLAN 5


DATE:

CLASS: SSI



SUB-TOPIC: Post planting operation(fertilizer application)




to:

1. Define fertilizer.

2. Identify different types of fertilizer.

180

3. List methods of applying fertilizer in the farm.

4. Apply fertilizer correctly to the maize plants in the farm.

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE: The students have learnt about weeding of the maize

farm.




Activities

Student’s

Activities

Instructional

Materials

1 Meaning of fertilizer. Teacher explains

the meaning

fertilizer to the

students.

Student’s

listen to

teacher’s

explanation.

Chart.

2 Types of fertilizers. The teacher

presents different

types of

fertilizers to the

students.

Examples are

Nitrogen,

phosphorus and

potassium.

Students’

identify types

of fertilizer.

Different

types of

fertilizers.

3 Methods of fertilizer

application.

Teacher explains

different

methods of

applying

fertilizers in the

farm such as ring

method, side

dressing and so

on.

Students

imitate the

teacher and

plant maize

seed in their

ridges.

Maize

Grain

Bowl

Stick.

181


the students to

apply fertilizer to

their maize

plants.

Students’

demonstrate

how to apply

fertilizer in

the maize

plant.


the performance

scores of the

students with

PSPT as they

carryout the

activities in the

farm.

ASSIGNMENT: The teacher asks the students to visit their farm plot.

LESSON PLAN 6


DATE:

CLASS: SSI



SUB-TOPIC: Diseases and pest of maize crops, prevention/control




to:

1. Define diseases and pests of crops.

2. Name two causes of diseases.

3. Identify some diseases of maize.

182

4. Classify insect pests

5. Explain methods of preventing/control of diseases and pests of crops.

6. Draw and label insect pest of maize crop.

7. Identify diseases of maize.

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE: The students’ have learnt about weeding of maize farm.




Activities

Student’s

Activities

Instructional

Materials

1 Meaning of pest. Teacher explains

the meaning of

crop pest to the

students.

Student’s listen

to teacher’s

explanation.

2 Classification pest. Teacher explains

three classes of

pest such as boring

pest, piercing and

sucking insect

pest, biting and

chewing insect

pest. Examples are

– stem borer,

grasshopper etc.

Students’ listen

to the teacher’s

explanation

and identify

pest of maize.

Picture of

pest.

3 Effect pest on maize

production.

Teacher discusses

effect of insect

pest to crop

(maize) with the

students-

(1) They cause

damage to the

plant (2) Reduce

the quality and

quantity of

product.

Students’

participates in

the discussion.

Pictures of

insect pests.

183

4 Diseases of maize types. Teacher explains

the meaning of

disease: and causes

of diseases such

virus, fungi,

nematode and

bacteria. She

explains how

diseases like smut,

streak and rust

attack maize plant.

Students’ listen

to teacher’s

explanation

and identify

causes of

diseases and

diseases of

maize.

Picture of

maize

affected by

diseases and

pest.

5 Control of pest diseases. Teacher explains

different methods

of pest and

diseases control.

Students’ listen

teacher’s

explanation.


the students to

identify any

diseases or pests

that are attacking

the maize and kill

them.

Students

observe the

plants and

check the

diseased plants

and identify

those plants

attacked by

pests.


the students’

performance

scores with PSPT

as they carryout

the activities in the

farm.

ASSIGNMENT: The teacher asks the students’ to draw and label four insect pests and

visit their maize plot.

184

LESSON PLAN V7


DATE:

CLASS: SSI



SUB-TOPIC-Post planting operation (harvesting and storage of maize)




to:

1. Define harvesting.

2. List the materials for harvesting maize cobs.

3. Harvest maize cobs with cutlass.

4. Carry the harvested maize cob to the farm store.

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE: The students’ have learnt about pest and diseases of

maize.



1. Define diseases and pest of crops (2) Explain three classes of insect pests of crops.



Activities

Student’s

Activities

Instructional

Materials

1 Meaning of harvest. Teacher

explains the

meaning of

harvesting to

the students.

Student’s

listen to

teacher’s

explanation.

2 Harvesting of maize cob with

cutlass.

Teacher

explains how

to harvest

maize cobs to

Students’

listen to the

teacher and

ask questions

Cutlass

basket bag

wheel

barrow.

185

the student. where

necessary.

3 Packing of harvesting maize

cob to the store.

Teacher asks

the students’

to pack the

maize cob to

the store for

sale.

Students’ pack

the cobs with

basket and

wheel barrow.

Pictures of

insect pests.

EVALUATION The teacher

asks the

students’

harvest their

maize cobs

and packs

them to the

store.

Harvest their

maize and

pack them to

the store.

SUMMARY/CONCLUSION Teacher

awards marks

to the students

using PSPT.

LESSON PLAN 8


DATE:

CLASS: SSI



SUB-TOPIC: Post harvesting operations (marketing of maize)




to:

186

Define marketing.

1. Remove the maize cobs from the husks.

Dry the cobs on the sun for storage.

2. Carry out market survey to identify buyers.

3. Sort the maize into quality and grade and fix the prices.

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE: The students’ have learnt about harvest of maize.



1. What is harvesting?

2.List two materials used to harvest maize



Activities

Student’s

Activities

Instructio

nal

Materials

1 Marketing of maize cob. Teacher explains

the meaning of

marketing to the

students’.

Student’s

listen to the

explanation

of the

teacher.

Poster.

2 Sorting and grading of maize cobs

for sale.

Teacher

demonstrates how

to sort the maize

and grade them

for sale.

Students’

grade the

maize cob.

3 Advertising for the buyers, selling

of the maize cob and keeping

records.

Teacher explains

how to carryout

market survey and

identify buyers.

She guide the

students’ on how

to sale the maize

Students’

listen to the

teacher,

carryout

market

survey and

sale the

basket ,

bags and

Wheelbarr

ow.

187

cob in the market. maize cobs

in the

market.

4 Storage of maize cobs and maize

grain.

The teacher

explains the

importance of

storage, explains

how to dry maize

cobs for storage.

Students’

listen to the

teacher,

remove the

maize cob

from the

husk, dry

and store

them for the

next

planting

season.


students’ to sort

the maize cobs

according to grade

for storage and

marketing.

Students

sort the

maize cobs

according

to grade

and sale

them to the

buyers.

SUMMARY/CONCLUSION Teacher observes

the students’

activities and rates

their performance

scores using

PSPT.

APPENDIX D

188

IDENTIFIED PRODUCTIVE SKILLS FOR MAIZE PRODUCTION

A. Identified skills in pre-planting operations for maize production.

1. Slash the grasses and shrubs using machete or cutlass.

2. Pack the materials and burn

3. Stump the trees and pack them out of the field.

4. Lay out the field for making ridges.

5. Make ridges for planting materials required include: hoe, cutlass, mattock,

digger, tape, pegs, ropes, etc.

B. Identified skills in planting operations for maize production.

1. Obtain maize variety to be planted

2. Test the maize grain for variability

3. Measure the planting distance of 25cm staggered or 50 cm apart by the side of

the ridge.

4. Dig holes about 4-5cm deep

5. Drop 2-4 grains container such as cup and plate.

C. Identified skills in post planting operations for maize production.

1. Remove weed by hoeing, outclassing or by hand pulling.

2. Earthen up the basis of the maize plant.

3. Place the materials in the furrow.

4. Thin the maize plant to one or two stands based on spacing.

5. Apply fertilizer to maize plant in ring form

6. Control pest and diseases with chemical or cultural method.

7. Harvest matured maize either with cutlass or sickle.

8. Sort the harvested cobs into grades.

189

9. Pack harvested cob in heaps.

10. Carry the harvested cobs away from the farm with basket, head pan or wheel

barrow.

Materials required include: machete or cutlass, hoe, basket, head pan, wheel barrow

fertilizers and insecticides.

D. Identified skills in post harvesting operations for maize production.

1. Remove the maize cobs from the husk

2. Dry the cobs on the sun for storage.

3. Remove the grains from the cobs.

4. Dry the grains, remove the chaff for storage and processing.

5. Carry out market survey to identify buyers or demand for the produce.

6. Advertise both the cob and the grains.

7. Sort the produce into grade and quality.

8. Fix prices and sell the maize cobs or grains.

9. Calculate profit and losses of goods sold

10. Keep all financial records including income and expenditure?

APPENDIX E

190

OBSERVATIONAL RATING SCALE FOR MEASURING STUDENTS’ PSYCHO

PRODUCTIVE SKILLS IN MAIZE PRODUCTION THROUGH THE APPLICATION

OF THE ERGONOMIC PRINCIPLES (PRE-TEST/POST TEST) – PSYCHO

PRODUCTIVE SKILLS PERFORMANCE TEST ITEMS (PSPT)

Section A: psycho production skills in pre-planting operations in maize production.

S/N Section A: Psycho productive skills in Pre-planting operations

in maize production

4 3 2 1

1 Slashing the grasses and shrubs using machete or cutlass

2 Packing the materials and burn

3 Stumping the trees and pack them out of the field

4 Laying out the field for making ridges

5 Making ridges for planting maize seeds

Section B: Psycho productive skills in planting operations in

maize production

1 Obtaining maize variety to be planted

2 Testing the maize grain for variability

3 Measuring the planting distance of 25cm staggered or 50cm apart

by the side of the ridge.

4 Digging holes about 4-5cm deep

5 Dropping 2-4 grains container such as cup and plate.

S/N Section C: Psycho productive skills in post planting operations

project work ph. d thesis caro - university of nigeria

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