propositional logic 17 -...
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Propositional logic lecture 2 DR. Herlina Jayadianti., S.T.,M.T
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Agents that reason logically
• A logic is a: • Formal language in which knowledge can be expressed
• A means of carrying out reasoning in the language
•A Knowledge base agent
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Language Examples
• Programming languages • Formal, not ambiguous
• Lacks expressivity (e.g., partial information)
• Natural Language • Very expressive, but ambiguous:
• Flying planes can be dangerous.
• The teacher gave the boys an apple.
• Inference possible, but hard to automate
• Good representation language • Both formal and can express partial information
• Can accommodate inference
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Components of a Formal Logic
• Syntax: symbols and rules for combining them What you can say
• Semantics: Specification of the way symbols (and sentences) relate to the world What it means
• Inference Procedures: Rules for deriving new sentences (and therefore, new semantics) from existing sentences Reasoning
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Propositional Logic
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What is a Proposition?
•Propositions are the meanings of statements.
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I have no money
Meanings are the thoughts, concepts, ideas we are trying to convey through speech and writing.
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Simple Propositions
• This box contains of chili
• Bangkok is the capital of Vietnam
• Ir.Sukarno is the first president of Indonesia
• "Kotagede" has 9 letters.
• I am hungry
• This thing is solid
• India is a country
• 1 + 101 = 110
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Simple Propositions
• Fast foods tend to be unhealthy.
• Parakeets are colorful birds.
• Simple propositions are grammatically independent expressions of information.
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Compound Propositions – operator or functor
If fast foods tend to be unhealthy,
then you shouldn’t eat it.
Parakeets are colorful birds,
and colorful birds are good to have
at home.
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People are free, if and only if they can choose their actions and there are no forces compelling those actions.
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The Focus of Propositional Logic
• Propositional truth is determined by consulting typical sources of information.
• Propositional logic is determined by examining how various propositions are related.
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Exercise
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Exercise1
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Elephant is bigger than mouse Is this a statement? Y Is this preposition? Y What is the value of truth? T
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Exercise2
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“600 < 123” Is this a statement? Y Is this preposition? Y What is the value of truth of this preposition? F
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Exercise3
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“y>5” Is this a statement? Y Is this preposition? N What is the value of truth? Deppend on value y, but y is not specified). We call it propositional function or open sentence
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Exercise4
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“Today is Feb.16 and 99<5” Is this a statement? Y Is this preposition? Y What is the value of truth? F
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Exercise5
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“Please don’t sleep” Is this a statement? N This is a request Is this preposition? N Only statement can be a preposition
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Exercise6
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“x<y if and only if y>x” Is this a statement? Y Is this a preposition ? Y ... because the truth value not depend on the value assigned to x and y What is the value of truth of this preposition? T
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Not Preposition
1) Close the door
2) No Smoking
3) Number X is between 1 and 0
Reason :
• (1) and (2) can not be true or false
• (3) included in predicate logic because there is a variable x whose value has not been determined.
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Basics of Propositional Logic
• All arguments are reducible to symbols, which represent either elements of an argument or ways these elements are put together.
• All arguments contain statements, by definition. Each statement is represented by a “propositional variable” – p, q, r, s
• All arguments also contain connections, or ways in which individual propositions are related. Each of these connections are represented by one of five “operators”:
Putting propositional variables together with operators creates a “statement form,” or a symbolic blueprint identifying typical
structures of English expressions.
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Propositional Operators
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~ (“tilde,” negation)
v (“wedge,” either-or)
Ξ or (“biconditional,” if and only if)
or • (“dot,” conjunction)
> or (“implication” or “conditional,” if,then).
Not, it is false that, conjunctions like “don’t”
And, also, but, in addition, moreover
Or, unless
Is a sufficient (or necessary) condition of, if-then, implies, given that, only if
If and only if, is equivalent to, is a sufficient and necessary condition of
: “xor”, atau “exclusive or”
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Tips for Translation
• Use “clue words”:
• “If, then”; “on the condition that”: >
• Both; and; also; etc: ●
• Either, or; or maybe both: v
• If one, then the other; if and only if; always occur together:
• Negation; it is not true that, not: ~
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Note on the “Tilde”
Referensi : Rinaldi Munir 23 09/04/2017
1. All operators except the tilde must relate at least two propositions.
2. The tilde negates either a proposition directly, or an operator relating to propositions (by standing directly before a parentheses/bracket/etc.) .
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Examples of “Tilde” Functions
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~ p = not p; p is not true, etc
~ ( p ● q ) = not both p and q (maybe one is true and one false)
~ p ● ~ q = p is false and q is false; p and q are both false
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Simbolic Notation
• The letters A, B, C, D or P, Q, R, S (p, q, r, s) can be used as a variable Proposition
• The letters T and F are used to constant Proposition is True and False
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A A
T F
F T
Negation (not) If A is any proposition then the statement “not A" or "negation
A" will be worth False if value “A” is True (vice versa) and written by
A
( “” unary) and the Truth table is
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Conjunction (and)
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A B A B
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Conjunction is a binary operator or dyadic (dyadic). If A and B is a proposition, statement of A and B will be worth True if and only if both A and B have a truth value T, and written by A B
Truth table
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Disjunction (or) Disjunction (alternative corresponding) to the form
"One of the ... or ..." (Either .. Or ..).
The statement "A or B" is worth T if and only if either A
or B (or both) worth T, and is written:
A B
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A B A B
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
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Exclusive or Exclusive disjunction or exclusive or is a logical
operation that outputs true only when inputs
differ (one is true, the other is false) 09
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A B A B
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F
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The explanation is as follows:
If Herlina go abroad (T) and she has a passport (T), then it is legal (T)
If Herlina go abroad (T) and she didn’t have a passport (F), then it is illegal (F)
If Herlina not go abroad (F) and she had a passport (T), then it is legal (T)
If Herlina not go abroad (F) and he didn’t have a passport (F), then it is legal (T)
“If Herlina go abroad then she has a passport”
Implication A B
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1). “If A then B” 2). “A implies B” 3). “B if A” 4). “A if only B” 5). “B is a necessary condition for A” 6). “A is a necessary condition for B”
A B A B
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Implication
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Statement “ A equivalent with B” is T If only IF A and B has the same truth
A B in table truth use this symbol
Equivalency
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Equivalency
Sifat :
1) Commutative ( A B = B A)
2) Associative ( (A B) r = A (B r) )
3) Statement (A B) have the same table truth A B (show it)
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A B A B
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
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Equivalency
• Note: "A if and only if B"
• Statement A B is also called biconditional of A and B, because it always has a trurth table =
A B =T (A B ) (B A) or (A B) (A B)
• Written A B =T (A B) (B A)
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Resume
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A B A A B
A B A B A B
A B
T T F T T F T T
T F F F T T F F
F T T F T T T F
F F T F F F T T
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Exercise
Where that proposition?
• Ngawi is the capital of East Java.
• No smoking
• 119 is an integer
• open the door
• Logic informatics is easy
• Yogyakarta is a student city
• Eat a lot
• Make a list of statements by 50
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Exercise 2
Let A, B, and C are propositional variables A = You got the flu B = You study hard C = you take the exam D = you pass the exam
Change the following expression becomes a statement in Indonesian
1. A C 2. (B C) D 3. A B C D
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Exercise 3
Determine the value of the truth of the statements below:
• If Jakarta is not the capital of Indonesia, then 9 is not a prime number
• 2 + 2 = 2x2 only when 2 = 0
• Necessary and sufficient conditions that 7 is a prime number is located in East Java Kebumen.
• If 12 is divisible by 4 is equivalent to 12 numbers, the even number (a + b) ^ 2 = a ^ 2 + 2ab + b ^ 2
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Exercise 4
Write the truth table
1. ( A B)
2. A (A B)
3. (( A ( B C)) (B C)) (A C)
4. (A B) ((( A B) A) B)
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JAWABAN ( A B)
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A B A B A B ( A B)
T T F F F T
T F F T F T
F T T F F T
F F T T T F
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Thank you See you next week
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