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    ContentsInferential statistics...........................................................................4

    Types of data...............................................................................4

    Tests................................................................................................4To nd the critical value:.................................................................4

    Spearmans rank correlation:..........................................................4

    Wilcoon T Test:..............................................................................4

    !ann"Whitney # Test:.....................................................................$

    Comparisons...................................................................................$

    Si%nicance....................................................................................&

    'elia(ility and )alidity........................................................................*

    'elia(ility + consistency.................................................................*

    ,ternal 'elia(ility..........................................................................*

    Internal 'elia(ility...........................................................................*

    )alidity + Truthfulness....................................................................*

    Internal )alidity...............................................................................*

    Threats............................................................................................*

    ,ternal )alidity..............................................................................-

    eer 'evie/.......................................................................................-

    eer 'evie/ is essential (ecause0..................................................-

    Criticisms of peer revie/0...............................................................-

    Clinical symptoms and the issues /ith dia%nosis and classication..1

    Types of 2epression........................................................................1

    !ain 2omains.................................................................................1

    Symptoms0......................................................................................1

    2ia%nosis......................................................................................3

    'elia(ility of dia%nosis0.................................................................3

    ,valuation0.................................................................................3

    )alidity of classications0..............................................................3

    ,valuation0.................................................................................3

    2uration and 5re6uency............................................................3

    Causes..........................................................................................33

    ,valuation0.................................................................................33

    7ender..........................................................................................33

    ,valuation0.................................................................................33Cultural 8iases..............................................................................33

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    ,valuation0.................................................................................39

    ,thically correct0........................................................................39

    ,valuation0.................................................................................39

    8iolo%ical ,planations for depression: 8iochemistry......................39

    ,valuation0.................................................................................39

    Social earnin% Theory.....................................................................3;

    Social Co%nitive earnin% Theory.................................................3;

    ey ro"social 8ehaviours0.........................................................3&?uesman @ 2A

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    )alidity of dia%nosis...................................................................31

    Causes of 2epression................................................................31

    7ender0 2epression...................................................................31

    Cultural (iases0 2epression.......................................................9

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    'esearch !ethods

    Inferential statisticsLEVELSOFMEASUREMENT;

    Types of data Interval;e6ual intervals on a measurement scale e.%. 3"3 or

    the time.

    Ordinal;information or scores /here only the order in /hichthe participants ranked are provided e.%. 3st9nd;rd.

    Nominal;/hen the information collected is Dust ordered into

    cate%ories e.%. coloursE Do(sE %ender

    Tests

    Inferential statistics tests tell us if our results are statisticallysi%nicant enou%h to support the hypothesis.

    To do thisE calcualtions are performed on the collected results to/ork out the o(served value. The o(served value needs to (ecomparede to the critical value /hich is found in the critical valuesta(le. This comparison allo/s us to decide /hether to reDect oraccept the null hypothesis.

    There are four diFerent testsE (ut they al l /ork in the same /ay:

    " = calculation is completed on the data collected /hichproduces a sin%le num(er @ the o(served valueBteststatisticBrho. To see if this value is si%nicant it must (ecompared to another num(er @ the critical valueE this is thenum(er that the test value must reach in order to reDect thenull hypothesis.

    To nd the critical value:" ook at the num(er of participants GH (ut if the study uses

    independent %roups desi%n there are t/o values."

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    " Cannot (e used for nominal data." Calculates the diFerence (et/een participants scores in t/o

    conditions." It sho/s us /hether the result /as due to chance or not.

    ?o/

    =t the end of the test /e are left /ith an o(served value /hich/e call T.

    We then compare this num(er to the critical value on theta(le.

    Was it directionalBnon"directional one tailed or t/o tailed

    ?o/ many participants /ere there This is N.

    If the o(served value is e6ual to or less than the critical valueE/e reDect the null hypothesis and accept the alternative

    hypothesis.!ann"Whitney # Test:

    " = test of diFerence." Can only (e used for independent %roups desi%n eperiment." The data must (e least ordinal" Cannot (e used for nominal data

    ?o/

    =ssi%nin% a point score to each result (ased on ho/ many

    other results are %reater than or e6ual to that score. =s it is used for independent %roupsE the t/o sets of data may

    (e of diFerent siKes.

    The points for each set of data are added upE the lo/er of thescores is the U.

    =t the end of the test /e are left /ith an o(served valueE U.

    Was it directionalBnon"directional one tailed or t/o tailed

    ?o/ many participants in each %roup N1and N2.

    We then compare the o(served value /ith the critical value onthe ta(le.

    If the o(served value is e6ual to or less than the critical value/e reDect our null hypothesis and accept the alternative one.

    ComparisonsTo compare the o(served value and the critical value use L'. Thetests that have L' in the name then the o(served value needs to (e%'eate' than the critical value for it to (e si%nicant e.%.Spea'mans rankE chi"s6ua'e. If an ' is not present the o(servedvalue must (e less than the critical value for it to (e si%nicant e.%.!ann"Whitney # testE Wilcoon test.

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    Si%nicanceercenta%e certainty that results are due to the inMuence of thevaria(les.

    3N 9$N $N *$N 3N

    =ll results leadin% to acceptin% the nullhypothesis.

    We /ork atP>0.05@ 5%chance.

    P+ statistical pro(a(ility that the results /ere formedthrou%h chance.

    0.05+ the percenta%e pro(a(ility.

    It is the most common amount of assurance /e look for1$NE hence a level of si%nicance of $N G.$ is applied tomany scientic tests.

    =ll results leadin% toreDectin% the nullhypothesis

    =ll results leadin% toacceptin% the null

    hypothesis

    =ll resultsleadin% toreDectin%the nullhypothesis

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    'elia(ility and )alidity'elia(ility + consistencyCan /e measure or o(serve somethin% time after time and %et the

    same or similar results,ternal 'elia(ility

    The a( ili ty to replicate the results of a study.

    The most important type of relia(ility to most studies. #sually assessed usin% the test"retest methodE replicatin% the

    same test several times and seein% if the results are similar. Can also use a correlation to determine ho/ hi%hly correlated

    diFerent sets of scores are.

    Internal 'elia(ilityThe consistency of a measure /i th in a test .

    #sually involved /ith methods such as 6uestionnaires thatattempt to measure a personality characteristic Gpsychometrictests.

    Simply re6uires the participant to score consistentlythrou%hout the test.

    =ssessed (y the split"half methods.

    )alidity + Truthfulness

    =re the conclusions dra/n valid and can /e trust the data torepresent /hat /e intended it to

    Internal )alidityThe a(ility of the study to test the hypothesis that it /as desi%nedto test.

    2oes the dependent varia(le measure /hat /e /ant it to andin an eperiment are /e measurin% the eFects of theindependent varia(le on the dependent varia(le

    ro(lems /ith validity are often related to theoperationaliKation of varia(les.

    To test this:

    Face validity@ does it look valid 8y checkin% other measures of the same varia(le /e can see

    if /e have chosen an appropriate method of measurin% it. Predictive validity:can /e use it to measure future

    performance

    Threats

    " Participant variables;o 2emand characteristics

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    o Scre/ you eFecto ?a/thorne eFect

    " !perimenter bias" !perimental desi"n issue" Situational variables

    ,ternal )alidity?o/ /ell the results of a study can (e %eneralised (eyond the studyitself.

    Population validity:can /e %eneralise from the sample to thepopulation

    colo"ical validity:can /e %eneralise from the population toother situationsE places and conditions

    )alidity is therefore linked to relia(ility. !easures must (e relia(le to(e valid (ut do not need to (e valid to (e relia(le.

    To test this:

    Complete the study in a diFerent settin% /ith a diFerentsample etc.

    8e a/are of issues /ith samplin%E as these can often lead topro(lems /ith eternal validity.

    eer 'evie/The process of su(Dectin% a piece of research to independentscrutiny (y other psycholo%ists /orkin% in a similar eld /hoconsider the research in terms of its validity GtruthfulnessEsi%nicance G/hether /e accept or reDect the null hypothesis andori%inality Gif its (een done (efore.

    eer 'evie/ is essential (ecause0 It is diOcult for authors and researchers to spot every mistake

    in a piece of /ork. Sho/in% the /ork to others increases thepro(a(ility that /eaknesses /ill (e identied and addressed.

    It helps to prevent the dissemination of irrelevant ndin%sEun/arranted claimsE unaccepta(le interpretationsE personalvie/s and deli(erate fraud.

    eer revie/ers also Dud%e the 6uality and the si%nicance ofthe research in a /ider contet.

    This process ensures that pu(lished research can (e takenseriously (ecause it has (een independently scrutinised (yfello/ researchers.

    Criticisms of peer revie/0 It is diOcult to nd people to Dud%e the /ork @ It isnt al/ays

    possi(le to nd an appropriate epert. = lack of o(Dectivity @ revie/ers should (e un(iased (ut rivalry

    or friendships may inMuence this.

    Publication bias@ positive results are favoured as editors /antresearch /ith important implications to appear in their Dournal

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    Preservin" t#e status $uo@ peer revie/ often results in apreference for /ork that %oes /ith eistin% theory

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    2epressionClinical symptoms and the issues /ith dia%nosis

    and classication2epression0 an eample of a mental illness.

    It is a mood or aFective disorder.

    It involves a prolon%ed and fundamental distur(ance or mood

    and emotion.

    2epressive disorders are the most common of allpsychopatholo%ical disorders.

    In 8ritain it is estimated that 3 in 3 adults G3N can suFerfrom depressionBdepressive illnesses at any one time.

    There are no la(oratory tests to dia%nose depression asdoctors dia%nose from (ehaviour and /hat patients tell them.

    It is diOcult for doctors to distin%uish (et/een the least

    severe cases of depression and a (ad attack of the L(lues

    Types of 2epression %linical depression@ /hen everyday functionin% is impaired.

    &nipolar'(DD@ re%ular depression

    Dyst#ymia@ not as severe (ut lon% lastin%

    Post)natal@ after %ivin% (irth

    *ipolar @ !anic depressionBspurts of each emotion

    S+D@ seasonal aFected depression

    !ain 2omains" P#ysical@ Chan%es in bodilystates e.%. sleepE appetite." *e#avioural@ Social/ithdra/alE restlessness." %o"nitive@ feelin% %uiltyE thi!i"of self as /orthless." +,ective@ depressed #oodE sadnessE feelin% lo/

    Symptoms0 2iOculties in sleepin%

    Shift in activity levelE (ecomin% lethar%icBa%itated

    oss of ener%y and %reat fati%ue

    oor appetite and /ei%ht loss or increased appetite and/ei%ht %ain.

    o oss of interest and pleasure in usual activities.

    " He%ative self"conceptE feelin% /orthless of%uilty.

    " 2iOculty in concentratin%

    " 'ecurrent thou%hts of death or suicide.

    P#ysical

    *e#avioural

    %o"nitive

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    SadE depressed mood.+,ective

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    2ia%nosis ook for the core symptoms0

    SadE depressed mood for most of the day.

    oss of interest in usual activities.

    $ out of the 1 symptoms must (e present

    These symptoms must also (e causin% distress or impairment

    in functionin% and have lasted lon%er than 9 /eeks. 2ia%nosis shouldnt (e made if the persons depression is a

    secondary symptom of a (i%%er medical pro(lem or is the sideeFect of the other medicationsE dru%s or alcohol.

    'elia(ility of dia%nosis0To ensure each dia%nosis uses a consistent procedure for everypatient.

    " Interrater reliability@ consistent results from a variety of 7s." -est retest@ consistency in results from the same 7 over aperiod of time.

    E$alatio;" &'ll'( 't al

    Inter"rater + Lfair to %oodTest retest + Lfair at (est

    " )aa((iiInterrater relia(ility + .-B3

    Test retest + .&3B3

    This could (e eplained (y the $ out of 1rule causin% one symptom to s/in% adia%nosis.

    Symptoms (et/een the classication

    systems are %enerally a%reed upon the IC2 GInternationalClassication 2isorders (ut re6uires only 4 out of 3compared to 2S!s $ out of 1.

    )alidity of classications0The accuracy of each dia%nosis.

    There are lots of diFerent types of depression that could lead toinvalid dia%nosisE each /ith specic com(inations of symptoms andfeatures. !isdia%nosis could lead to issues /ith treatment e.%.8ipolar disorder /ould not (e treated /ith anti"depressants.

    E$alatio;" %oryel et al@ 3N dia%nosed /ith !22 %o on to suFer from

    8ipolar." eller @ 9$N of individuals /ith dysthymia %o onto to suFer

    from !22.

    Similarresults

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    *(atio ad F('+'cyS=2 could (e a valid disorder in its o/n ri%ht.

    Causes

    There are many diFerent factors that could cause the symptoms ofdepression other than depression itself.

    ,ndo%enous GmelancholicE more (iolo%ical symptoms /ith

    hi%her responses to some forms of treatment such as ,CT.This is /here the depressive personality is in(orn into thepatient @ %enetic /ith no real cause.

    2ru%s

    =lcohol

    hysical illness

    =naemia

    =niety disorders

    =noreia

    Traumatic events

    ife chan%es

    E$alatio;" Psyc#oactive dru"se.%. alcohol. 2iOcult

    to separate the t/o as depressivesoften drink to self" meditate.

    " +n!iety overlap (et/een the

    symptoms of some aniety disorders e.%. anoreiaE dementia." Illness /hich could (e causin% the same psycholo%ical

    symptoms as depression e.%. dysfunctions of the (rainEchemical or hormone im(alances.

    o =naemia is an eample of an illness that is often

    mistaken for depression.

    %omorbidity:/hen an individual is eperiencin% a com(ination ofdiFerent mental disorders at the same time. Therefore it is hard todia%nose and hence treat.

    7ender!en are under dia%nosed and /omen are over dia%nosed /ithdepression.

    E$alatio;o Women are statistically t/ice as likely to (e dia%nosed /ith

    depression as men.o Studies found physicians in6uire more a(out depressive

    symptoms in females.o Women have also found to (e more likely to epress their

    emotions than males and seek professional advice.

    +ddictivemisuse

    /rie

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    Cultural 8iasesWestern vs non"/estern cultures.

    Some cultures are more /illin% to seek help for depression thanothers /ith mental disorders (ein% seen as a sti%ma.

    E$alatio; ua et al@ a study of Chinese individuals found that $N of

    those individuals dia%nosed /ith depression present physicalsymptoms to their doctor.

    arat1 2003@ vi%nette descri(in% depressive symptoms %iven

    to south =sian or ,uropean =mericans. atter %roup sa/pro(lem as (ein% (iolo%ical and needin% professional help.

    Ethically co(('ct;?avin% a ran%e of moods is normal and naturalE therefore it is notri%ht to la(el individuals /ith more etreme moods as (ein% ill.

    E$alatio;" a(ellin% patients /ith depression may aFect practitioners

    perception of them." atients may act the la(el they have (een %iven Gself"fulllin%

    prophesy." It simplies a pro(lem that is in fact hi%hly comple." The opposin% medical vie/ says that there are etreme

    (iolo%ical manifestations that can cause severe impairmentsof functionin%.

    8iolo%ical ,planations for depression:8iochemistryChemicals in the (rain:

    The lim(ic system is responsi(le for the transfer of emotionalmessa%es. It does this (y passin% electrical messa%es do/nneurones and across the synapse.

    Neurotransmitters;chemicals that are transmitted from thesynapseE they produce short lived responses and stimulate the

    receivin% neurone to ensure the messa%e can (e carried across.

    They are also kno/n as amines Gmonoamine hypothesis" Serotonin" Horadrenaline" 2opamine

    (onoamineactivity is si%nicantly less in a depressed individualcompared to a non"depressed individual.

    E$alatio;

    2epressed people havin% a(normal levels of monoamines.

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    ,vidence that lo/erin% an individuals neurotransmitteractivity level (rin%s on depressive symptoms.

    ,Fectiveness of antidepressants.

    Cause and eFect0 depression causes lo/ levels ofmonoamines or lo/ levels of monoamines lead to depression

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    !edias InMuence

    Social earnin% Theory The process of reinforcin% certain (ehaviours throu%h the use

    of re/ards and punishments. The aim is for the participant toimitate the model (ehaviour and eventually learn that it is anaccepta(le (ehaviour.

    ?o/everE as /e %ro/ older /e develop the capa(ility to %oa%ainst the modelled (ehaviour is "oal o(i'tat'd/e still/itness (ehaviour from models (ut /e choose to imitate it if/e (elieve it /ill help achieve our %oals.

    Social Co%nitive earnin% Theory

    = development of the Social earnin% Theoryo It takes into account criticisms of the Social earnin%

    Theory and ackno/led%es the role of co%nitive factors.o It (elieves that children develop /ays of thinkin% and

    (eliefs a(out (ehaviour from the pro%rammes they see.

    O$'($i',Children are in(uilt to learn throu%h o(servation as opposed toeperience (ecause they dont kno/ ho/ to do anythin% unless theyare sho/n.

    = model

    " = similar a%e" Same %ender" 8e lovin%Bcarin%" 8e in apposition of authority" ,ither0

    o 4ive model@ someone in front of youo Symbolic model @ someone throu%h the media e.%. on

    T)

    )icarious eperience

    The model receives a re/ard for a particular (ehaviour /hilst thesu(Dect /atches. They /ill then imitate the (ehaviour assumin% they/ill receive a re/ard. )ice versa for punishments.

    8anduras 4 sta%es of the Social earnin% Theory3. +ttention;payin% attention to the model to o(serve their

    (ehaviours.9. etention;remem(erin% the (ehaviour and /hether they /ere

    re/arded or punished.

    ;. (otor reproduction;imitatin% the o(served (ehaviour.4. (otivation;receivin% a punishment or a re/ard for it.

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    Types of Conse6uences for

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    " Scripts;/atchers of violence may develop a%%ressive scriptsin /hich a%%ression is used as a /ay of solvin% interpersonalpro(lems and conMicts.

    ro"social 8ehaviourThese are (ehaviours that have %ood conse6uences e.%. deemedaccepta(le.

    " Sharin%" ?elpin% someone out" ,ercise" 8ein% politeBmanners" Complimentin%

    =nti"social 8ehavioursThese are (ehaviours that are not accepted (ysociety and have (ad conse6uencese.%. deviant (ehaviour.

    " =%%ression @ %htin%Bar%uin%" Smokin%" Crime" )andalism" in%

    Some pro" social

    (ehaviours can (e seen asanti"social (ehaviour. =neample of this iscompliments. They are seen as a positive actE (ut can (e seenas harassment. 2rinkin% is another eample.

    To desi%nate (ehavioursE maDority inMuenceE la/sE socialnormsE all help us perceive /hich (ehaviours %o into /hichcate%ory.

    The contet of the (ehaviours also help us to desi%nate

    (ehaviours.

    E3o-(';" Childrens pro%rammes have a lot more pro"social (ehaviour

    than anti"social (ehaviour acts." !ost a%%ressive or ar%umentative scenes are /orked out (y

    talkin% and discussin% feelin%sE /ith characters (ecomin%friends in the end.

    " Parental inuence@ it is their choice as to /hat their childrenare eposed toE the media can only do so much.

    SocialNorms

    Ne"ative impacts on ot#erpeople.

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    Ac+i-itio;" !ost pro"social (ehaviours are closer to social norms than the

    anti"social (ehaviour seen in the media." 8ehaviours like helpin%Bsharin% and (ein% kind are normally

    sho/n to children throu%h modelsE children /ill learn these

    (ehaviours 6uicker than anti"social ones as they see themthrou%h (oth live acts and the media.

    " Children see these (ehaviours outside of the media tooE theyare reinforced as (ehaviours are likely to %et a %oodconse6uence.

    " Parental mediation." Hot all pro"social (ehaviours are relevant to all children." )eryE very youn% children /ill not yet understand empathy or

    moral reasonin% ho/ever thin%s like sharin% are accessi(le." 2iFerent childrens pro%rammes need to match their pro"

    social (ehaviours sho/n to the relevant a%e of the audience." Poun%er children G;"4 years /ill (e less aFected (y the pro"

    social (ehaviours aimed at children of &"* years old.

    &'y P(o4-ocial 'ha$io(-;

    'esistin% temptation

    5or%iveness

    Cooperation and confrontation

    =nti"stereotypin% G%ender

    ?uesman @ 2A

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    !ample:if violence it on T) or video %ames %oes un"punished oreven re/ardedE it Dusties the actE the actors or players (ecomeeamples of vicarious reinforcement.!ample:If children are a%%ressive or an%ry and feel %uilty a(outtheir actions or thou%hts (ut /atch violent acts performed (y

    othersE they /ill feel less %uilty as it seems normal. Children /ill(e%in to think that (ein% a%%ressive and violent is okay and notsomethin% to (e ashamed of.

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    )ideoBComputer 7amesositive eF ects

    'l3i" 'ha$io(

    "

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    ,atin% (ehaviour'esearch for attitudes to eatin%

    9at'"o(y R'-'a(ch'( StdySocial 4earnin"

    -#eory8ro/n and

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    used to manufacture serotonin.Gchocolate + happy

    (ood 8enton S/eet foods can reduce an infantsdistress.

    (ood 8irch and !arlin Takes -"3 times to chan%e a

    dislike into a preference.Contradicts innate theoryEreinforces parental role theory.

    The (oundary model @ evaluation?erman and !ack

    4$ female participants Gstudents. They /ere told it /as a studya(out the taste eperience.

    M'thod

    7roup 3 + no preload 7roup 9 + 3 milkshake

    7roup ; + 9 milkshake

    7roups 9 =nd ; /ere asked to rate the taste 6ualities of themilkshake.

    =ll participants /ere then %iven ; tu(s of diFerent Mavoured

    ice cream.

    They /ere %iven 3 minutes to rate them.

    They /ere told they could eat as much as they liked.

    =ll pps /ere %iven a 6uestionnaire o assess their de%ree of

    dietary restraint.

    R'-lt-5or each %roupE pps /ere divided into hi%h restraint and lo/restraint.They found that lo/ restraint pps ate less than 3 tu( ice cream inthe 9 preload condition than in the 3.?i%h restraint pps ate si%nicantly more in the 3 and 9 preloadconditions. ?erman and !ack found si%nicant positive correlationacross all pps (et/een their score on the eatin% restraint6uestionnaire and the amount they ate. ,.%. the hi%her the restraintscoreE the more they ate after 9 milkshakes.

    9ocl-ioThe results support the (oundary module of dietary restraint.'estrained eaters have Lco%nitive dietin% (oundary for food intake.

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    study. 8ut they felt this mi%ht have alerted them to the real aim ofthe test. ?ere /as therefore an uneven pattern across the %roups/hich meant the relia(ility of the ndin%s /as reduced.The correlation they found /as only su%%estiveE they cannot sho/cause and eFectE other varia(les may have (een involved.

    Ho account /as taken of individual diFerences. The %roup siKes/ere 6uite small.

    Ethical i--'-ps received course credit for takin% partE this could (e consideredcoercion. The stuF did not involve any unethical procedures. There/as an element of deception (ut they /ere %iven a full de(riefafter/ards.

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    Theory Support Disproves

    Lower physiologicalarousal

    @atc#in" violence leadsto increased arousal t#usmore a""ression. -#e

    e!citation)transer modelsu""ests arousal createsreadiness to a""ress it#ere are appropriatecircumstances A

    Zilmann 1988

    @atc#in" some violence#as benecialB cat#artice,ects A arousal alloCs

    one to release pent)upa""ressive ener"ies.

    Media violenceeuals aggressive

    !ehaviour

    (eta)analysis su""estsc#ildren e!posed tomedia violence be#avemore a""ressively

    aterCards. !amined27 studies o t#erelations#ip in 785A7880 on participantsa"ed E)0. i"#lysi"nicant relations#ipCas ound. /reateste,ect Cas on presc#oolc#ildren A Pai" and#omstoc" 199$

    +nti)a,ects lobby.vidence or violentmedia a""ression doesnot universally support

    t#e #ypot#esis.IntervieCed 7500adolescent boysB t#oseC#o Catc#ed least -GC#en youn"er Cere leasta""ressive in teena"eryears. *oys C#o Catc#edmost -G Cere lessa""ressive by 50H t#ant#ose C#o Catc#ed amoderate amount.

    &npredictable lin? A%elson 19&8

    're !a!ies reallyta"ing in what is in

    T()

    (any -G pro"rammesaimed at very youn"c#ildren.

    -#e opposite e,ect#appenedB t#ose babiesC#o Catc# t#e DGDs

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    o violenceB t#ey do notalCays becomeri"#tenin"

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    +usti,cationI c#ildren t#in? t#ey Cillbe punis#ed or bein"violent t#ey Cill not do itA *uesman

    -#ere are lots oincidences on -G C#ereviolence is perormed byt#e K"ood "uy. Super#erolms and -G

    pro"rammesB cartoonsand comic boo?s all s#oCt#e "ood "uy Cinnin"a"ainst t#e bad "uyst#rou"# t#e use oviolence A -einhardt

    R'liability o/dia"o-i-

    Inter"rater + Lfair to%oodTest retest + Lfair at (est".eller et alInter"rater relia(ility +.-B3Test retest + .&3B3 @Zanarrini

    This could (e eplained(y the $ out of 1 rulecausin% one symptom tos/in% a dia%nosis.Symptoms (et/een theclassication systems are%enerally a%reed uponthe IC2 GInternationalClassication 2isorders(ut re6uires only 4 out of3 compared to 2S!s $out of 1.

    (alidity o/ diagnosis3N dia%nosed /ith !22%o on to suFer from

    8ipolar " %oryel et al9$N of individuals /ithdysthymia %o onto tosuFer from !22 @ eller

    There are lots of diFerenttypes of depression that

    could lead to invaliddia%nosisE each /ithspecic com(inations ofsymptoms and features.!isdia%nosis could lead toissues /ith treatment e.%.8ipolar disorder /ould not(e treated /ith anti"depressants.

    #auses o/

    Depression

    There are many diFerentfactors that could causethe symptoms ofdepression other thandepression itself.

    sychoactive dru%s e.%.alcohol. 2iOcult toseparate the t/o asdepressives often drink toself"meditate.=niety overlap (et/eenthe symptoms of someaniety disorders e.%.anoreiaE dementia.Illness /hich could (ecausin% the samepsycholo%ical symptoms

    as depression e.%.dysfunctions of the (rainE

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    chemical or hormoneim(alances.=naemia is an eample ofan illness that is oftenmistaken for depression.

    0ender Depression!en are under dia%nosedand /omen are overdia%nosed /ithdepression.Women are statisticallyt/ice as likely to (edia%nosed /ithdepression as men.Studies found physiciansin6uire more a(outdepressive symptoms infemales.Women have also foundto (e more likely toepress their emotionsthan males and seekprofessional advice.

    #ultural !iasesDepression

    Some cultures are more/illin% to seek help fordepression than others/ith mental disorders

    (ein% seen as a sti%ma.= study of Chineseindividuals found that$N of those individualsdia%nosed /ithdepression presentphysical symptoms totheir doctor " ua et al

    )i%nette descri(in%depressive symptoms%iven to south =sian or,uropean =mericans.

    atter %roup sa/ pro(lemas (ein% (iolo%ical andneedin% professional help" arat1 2003