Developmental Psychology – Attachment

What you need to know : Understand what is meant by the term ‘attachment’. Describe the behaviours that show that an attachment has been

formed. Understand explanations that have been put forward for the

development of attachments-the learning explanation and the evolutionary explanation.

Evaluate these explanations of attachment in terms of research evidence.

Find out how babies differ in the types of attachment behaviours they show.

Investigate what behaviours are shown by babies with secure and insecure attachment types.

Explore 2 explanations given for these differences in attachment types.

Explore how attachment types vary in different cultures. Understand how these differences relate to the ways in which

children are brought up. Understand what is meant by separation, privation and

institutionalisation. Discover the range of effects these experiences have on children. Consider factors which influence whether these effects are

permanent or temporary. Find out what day care is and what different types are available. Explore the impact of different types of day care on children’s

positive social development, for example, their ability to make friends and cooperate with other children.

Consider the impact of day care on negative aspects of social development including aggressive behaviour.

Explore how research into attachment has influenced childcare practices.

Find out some characteristics of high quality day care.

Developmental Psychology – Specification

Explanations of attachment including learning theory and evolutionary perspective, and Bowlby.

Types of attachment including insecure and secure, and studies by Ainsworth.

Cultural variations in attachment. Disruption of attachment, failure to form attachment (privation) and

the effects of institutionalisation. The impact of different forms of day care on children’s development

including the effects on aggression and peer relations. Implications of research into attachment and day care for childcare

practices.

What is attachment?

An attachment is a _________________________________ tie that two people share which is _________________________________ in nature and ensures that they stay together. For example baby to mum and mum to baby.

A bond is strong _________________________________ that one individual has for another person. For example mum to unborn child.

Babies are born _________________________________ and completely _________________________________ on their parents to help them survive. An attachment is what leads to _________________________________ as it teaches us how to adapt to those around us, protect ourselves, feed ourselves and helps us form _________________________________ in later life.

Attachment is a reciprocal emotional relationship between two people so that a bond can be formed during the lifespan. It depends on the

_________________________________ between these two people rather than just the fact that they are in each others presence.

Maccoby (1980) believes that people have an attachment if:

_________________________________ – babies want to be physically close to their primary caregiver and will cry if he/she goes too far away.

Separation anxiety – _________________________________ Pleasure when re-united – _________________________________ _________________________________ – baby and caregiver participate in

activities together and seek each others attention.

Short term benefits Long term benefitsFood and care Sexual

Relationships – helps continue the genes and the father will stay and help raise the infants.

Protection Attachments to infants – _________________________________

Education in survival

Friendships and close-knit communities – this aids survival as people work together and look after each other.

Older people also experience these types of behaviours but they _________________________________ in different ways. For example saying good-bye to a loved one at the airport – _________________________________,

Long term consequencesRomantic relationships – Hazan and Shaver(1987) early security or insecurity is reflected in later romantic relationships.Friendships – Grossman and Grossman(1991) the quality of early attachment is reflected in the quality of close friendships in later life.Relationships with own children – Quintin et al.(1984) If an adult had a poor attachment with their primary care-giver then this will reflect on the kind of relationship they will have with their own children.

cuddling etc. and then when reunited –running into each others arms, _________________________________, giving presents etc.

How do human babies form attachments?

Conrad Lorenz(1935) investigated the rapid formation of attachment by dividing fertile goose eggs into 2 groups. Half were left with the mother to sit on and the other half were placed into an incubator. Lorenz wanted to be the first object that the geese saw when they hatched. He found that they attached to him instantly and followed him round as if he were their mother. After a while he put both groups of goslings into a container and then released them. They immediately separated into their 2 groups and each seeking their own ‘mother’. This became known as _________________________________. Further research has shown that it takes place in the first 13-16 and up to 32 hours after they hatch. He called this window of development a _________________________________.

The formation of bonds between parents and babiesAs human babies only start to crawl at around 8 months old, this is the first time in their lives that they become separated from the primary caregiver. By forming an attachment with their primary caregiver it provides them with security and protection from predators and therefore promotes survival.

Klaus and Kennell(1976) investigated the _________________________________. They found that if babies had skin-skin contact with their caregiver straight after birth they seem to form a stronger bond with each other. They called this time a _________________________________. Babies used to be kept in a nursery and were only brought to their mums for feeding whilst they were in hospital but after this study the hospitals changed their practice. Babies are now kept in the room with their mothers. Fathers are also now encouraged to be at the birth and hold the baby to their skin to help with forming a bond earlier on.

Bowlby (1969) believes there is a _________________________________ in which attachment takes place. He believes it is between 1 and 3 years old where the infant attaches to _________________________________ person.

Lozoff (1983) argues that the amount of early physical contact makes no difference to bonding from _________________________________ research.

Bowlby believes that infants have one _________________________________ attachment. This is known as the _________________________________ Hypothesis.Schaffer and Emerson believe that infants form one main attachment but after 6/7 months they start to form _________________________________ attachments.

The _________________________________ of an attachment is much more important than the _________________________________ of attachments that a child has. Babies attach to those who are _________________________________ to their needs and to those who give them love and care.

The formation of attachmentsSchaffer and Emerson studied 60 babies in Glasgow for the first year of their lives monthly and then again at 18 months. They based their data on the measurement of separation anxiety and stranger distress. Separation anxiety is when a baby shows distress when separated from the primary caregiver and stranger distress/anxiety is when the baby becomes distressed when approached by someone unfamiliar to them. They used interviews and observations to gain their data. They found that separation anxiety was most prominent from 6-8 months whereas stranger anxiety only occurred a month after this.

_________________________________ of babies formed their first attachment with their mothers, _________________________________ with their fathers, _________________________________ formed joint attachments with their mothers and fathers simultaneously. They also found that _________________________________ of babies did not form their first attachment with the person who fed and cared for them.

The Stages of Attachment (Schaffer and Emerson 1964)

Asocial Stage – (0-6 weeks) At this stage babies love human company and they don’t mind being passed from one person to the next. They will smile at anyone and everyone.Stage of Indiscriminate Attachments – (6 weeks -7 months) The infant will happily go to anyone but he/she will smile at familiar people mostly. Easily comforted by anyone and there is no _________________________________.Stage of Specific Attachments – (7-11 months) Most children at this stage become attached to one primary caregiver who looks after them most of the time. If the child is separated from them they experience distress which is known as _________________________________. They are weary and fear unfamiliar people this is known as stranger anxiety. After about 10 months the child will form strong attachments to other familiar people this is known as _________________________________ attachments.

+ Schaffer and Emerson used _________________________________ (a variety of techniques) to obtain their data which provides detailed information. + It had high _________________________________ as the babies were observed in their own environments and the parents were interviewed about a variety of the babies’ behaviours to separation in different everyday situations.

- These findings were _________________________________ as they reflect the rearing practices of the 1960’s where mothers

stayed at home to raise the children whereas today some men take up the role of staying at home and looking after the children while mothers go out to work.

Why do babies develop attachments?

Learning TheoryThis theory states that all behaviour is _________________________________ by the _________________________________ theory. This is through association known as _________________________________ Conditioning or through reward and punishment, known as _________________________________ Conditioning.

Classical conditioning was investigated by _________________________________ with dogs. He found that they were able to associate the sound of their owner’s footsteps with being fed. This can be related to attachment if we consider milk as an unconditioned stimulus which causes an unconditioned (automatic) response of relieving the baby from hunger pains and therefore giving them pleasure. As the child feeds from the mother, the mother (neutral stimulus) is associated with satisfaction of their needs and pleasure. So even when she isn’t feeding the child she is still associated with pleasure (conditioned response). Due to this she becomes a _________________________________ reinforcer. This is referred to as the ‘_________________________________’ hypothesis.

_________________________________ conditioning was investigated by Skinner(1938). He used cats and rats in his studies to observe what behaviours are repeated and those that are avoided and why.Behaviours that produce a _________________________________ (positive reinforcement) increase the chances of that behaviour being repeated. For example if a child says ‘please’ and then receives what they were asking for this would encourage them to say please the next time they want something (positive reinforcement/reward). Behaviours that prevent an unpleasant thing will also be repeated (_________________________________). For example if a child is constantly talking in class and the teacher keeps telling them off, they are still receiving attention even if it is negative so this will encourage them to continue talking in order to receive more attention. Whereas behaviours that result in punishment are not likely to be repeated. For example if a child is placed on the ‘naughty step’ for misbehaving they do not like it there and will therefore not repeat that behaviour.

This can be related to attachment by examining the baby and mothers responses to each other. If a baby is hungry or cold it will cry, the mother does not like her baby to cry and will pick the baby up or try to feed it to stop it from crying. This is rewarding for the baby as its uncomfortable feeling disappears and it will repeat this behaviour (positive reinforcement/reward). The mum notices that by feeding the baby or cuddling it the baby stops crying so the next time the baby cries these are

the first two things she will try to stop it from crying (negative reinforcement).Attachment is not a one way process; mothers receive _________________________________ reinforcement from their babies through smiles etc. and _________________________________ reinforcement when they can’t stop their babies from crying.

Research evidence_________________________________ (1959) carried out a variety of studies on baby rhesus monkeys, which do not support the learning theory. The aim of the study was to see if the monkeys preferred _________________________________ or _________________________________. He took baby rhesus monkeys, separated them from their mums and put each one in a cage with 2 _________________________________ mothers. One mother was made out of _________________________________ and the other one was made out of _________________________________. The monkeys would have to go to the wire ‘mummy’ to get their milk in some variations and the cloth ‘mummy’ in others. He found that the monkeys spent most of their time clinging to the cloth ‘mummy’ even if she was not the one with the milk. This demonstrates that they were seeking ‘_________________________________’ more than food. When he frightened them they jumped straight onto the cloth ‘mummy’. This study resulted in maladjustment of the monkeys when they became adults. They were indifferent or abusive to other monkeys and experienced difficulty with parenting. We can conclude from this that contact comfort is important but will not necessarily result in healthy development.

Schaffer and Emerson’s(1964) study found that babies attach to the person who is _________________________________ and _________________________________ towards them rather than the person who feeds them and changes their nappies.

A further development of this theory was the _________________________________ theory by Hay and Vespo(1988) who wanted to show that social learning plays a role in attachment.Bandura(1977) developed the social learning theory which states that people learn through _________________________________ and _________________________________ of others acting as _________________________________. Hay and Vespo believed that parents are role models to their children with regards to _________________________________ (how they relate to their partner in front of the children and how they relate to their children which the child learns to imitate). There are 3 aspects involved; role modelling – parents demonstrating how to be affectionate by cuddling and kissing, _________________________________ – where parents teach children through instruction how to be affectionate eg: “where’s mummy’s kiss?, Give daddy a kiss hello….etc” and _________________________________ facilitation – parents teach their children how to behave when playing with other kids eg: “Give Johnny a kiss to say sorry. It’s not nice to kick.”.

This theory does not take into account instinctual behaviour of attachment. Hay and Vespo also do not explain why attachments are so emotionally intense for both parties.

Evolutionary explanations

Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment

Bowlby(1940) was influenced by the Evolutionary theory and his belief was that attachment behaviour is _________________________________ and is _________________________________. He believed that it served to promote survival. He presented 2 key theories the _________________________________ hypothesis and his _________________________________ theory. His explanation is as follows:

Babies are born with certain social releasers and these cause a variety of responses in adults eg: _________________________________, crying etc.

Attachment is _________________________________ and carers are preprogrammed to respond to infants.

Attachment takes place in a _________________________________ period which is in the first 3 years of the child’s life. He developed this concept through the work of _________________________________.

When a baby starts to crawl this is when attachment occurs as this is the first time the baby is separated by a far distance from the mother.

The bond formed with the main caregiver is a special bond that is different to all other ones formed and is known as _________________________________.

This relationship serves as a basis for future relationships in terms of boundaries and regulations as well as expectations.

Attachment behaviours have developed through _________________________________ to ensure survival of the infant and thereby _________________________________ and the passing on of genes.

Babies use this attachment figure as a secure base to explore the world around them. If attachment is poor the child will not move very far from the caregiver due to its insecurity.

Bowlby believes that if attachment is not secure the implications and problems are _________________________________.

Bowlby agreed with Freud that the _________________________________ relationship is very important for future relationships. This first attachment provides the child with an _________________________________ model for future relationships. He believed that the internal working model starts in early childhood and continues to influence the child’s relationships even in

adulthood. This is known as the _________________________________ hypothesis.

Research evidenceBlack and Schutte(2006) tested the continuity hypothesis. 205 young adults were asked to complete 3 assessments to provide information about their childhood and adulthood attachment types.

1. _________________________________ – they were questioned about their feelings in relationships in the past as well as present day ones.

2. _________________________________ – explaining their relationships with both parents in childhood.

3. _________________________________ – explaining their experiences of celebrations and important events in their lives and this gave a good description of their relationships with their parents.

They found a link between childhood and adulthood relationships just like Bowlby. This suggests that attachment does continue and influence from childhood to adulthood relationships.

Studies that do not support Bowlby’s theory of continuity are Zimmerman et al.(2000) did a study on 44 children where he looked at their attachment type between 12 and 18 months (response to _________________________________ and _________________________________) and then interviewed the same children at 16 asking questions about their relationship with their parents as well as taking note of any _________________________________ that occurred during this time (divorce, _________________________________, institutionalisation etc.). They found that attachment type in childhood did not show what types of attachment they had in adolescence; the focus was more on the serious life events which had affected them.

Main and Goldwyn(1984) believe that some people have experienced difficult childhoods but have still managed to turn out with positive and secure relationships in adulthood. They term this ‘earned security’. This usually occurs as the child experiences strong attachments as adults and positive exposures at school during adolescence. Rutter and Quinton(1988) supported this.

Bowlby was criticised for his montropy ideas by Schaffer and Emerson in their study of 60 Glasgow babies who had _________________________________. They found that at 7 months, 29% had multiple attachments, by 10 months 59% and by 18 months it had risen to 87%. They also found that at 18 months half the babies were strongly attached to their _________________________________ while the other half was strongly attached to their _________________________________. This contradicts Bowlby who says that babies are strongly attached to their mothers only.

Bowlby’s phases in the development of attachment

Phase 1 (Birth-8 weeks)

Orientation and signals towards people without discrimination.

The infant behaves in a friendly manner to all people, at this stage they may only recognise familiar voices and smells.

Phase 2 (8/10 weeks-6 months)

Orientation and signals to one / more special people.

Infants are friendly to anyone but they do prefer to be with their primary care-giver and it is evident during this stage.

Phase 3 (6 months-1/2 years old)

Maintenance of proximity to a special person by means of movements and signals.

Infant becomes very close to the primary care-giver now follows them around, uses them as a base from which to explore, greets them when they return. But at this stage the infant becomes more weary of strangers and treats them with caution.

Phase 4 (+/-2) Formation of a goal-corrected partnership

Infant develops an understanding of the primary care-givers behaviour and in this new relationship the infant can consciously influence how the care-giver responds. This is the first partnership.

Research has demonstrated that children’s relationship with their father is very important. However this will depend on how much _________________________________ he has in their upbringing and how much time is actually spent with their father.Ross et al.(1975) found a strong _________________________________ correlation with the amount of nappies that the father has changed and how strong their attachment is with the child.Lamb(1983) found that children prefer to play with their fathers as they are more physical than their mothers.Schaffer(1996) spoke about _________________________________ and _________________________________ relationships. Vertical relationships are those that we have with people who are older than us and have more

power (teachers, aunts, parents etc.) whereas horizontal relationships refer to those that we have with people on the same or similar level to ourselves (friends, sisters, brothers etc.)Bee(1995) distinguished between two types of sibling attachments. The ‘buddy’ where pairs of brothers or sisters copy one another and get on well together and the ‘_________________________________’ when an older sibling looks after and out for a younger sibling.Bowlby ignored other relationships in terms of attachment. However, he did set the foundation for further research.

The _________________________________ hypothesis states that there is an _________________________________ need for a warm and caring relationship that is _________________________________. If this bond is broken in the child’s early years then this will be detrimental to the child’s _________________________________, social and _________________________________ development in later years. If continuous separations occur _________________________________ or despair will continue in to later life and could develop into _________________________________ or psychopathy. Maternal deprivation causes problems such as:

Emotionally disturbed behaviour such as _________________________________

_________________________________ which is an undergrowth physically in children

Depression _________________________________ _________________________________ which is an inability to form

relationships.

Applications of the Maternal Deprivation HypothesisDue to Bowlby’s theory a number of real life applications have been made;

_________________________________ – The focus used to be only on physical care of children now because of this theory childcare manuals strongly recommend lots of love.

_________________________________ – In orphanages now they have to take account of emotional needs, fostered children have to be kept in one stable home rather than being moved around, in maternity units mothers are now allowed to spend more time with their babies as well as if they have a sick child the visiting hours have been extended, parents can even stay overnight if they wish.

_________________________________ – The most criticised part of Bowlby’s theory is that mothers were encouraged to stay home with children under the age of 5. This was an interpretation made by the government of Bowlby’s theory to prevent women from working when the soldiers returned from the war to ensure there were vacancies for them. But Bowlby did state that the best thing for young children was to spend most of their time with their mothers.

Types of attachment including secure and insecure attachments

Ainsworth and Bell (1970) investigated this using “_________________________________”. This was a controlled observation of how an infant (12-18 months) would respond to a variety of situations with unfamiliar circumstances (_________________________________). She measured the child’s response to the mother leaving (_________________________________), their response when a stranger entered the room (_________________________________) and how the child reacted to the mother on her return (_________________________________).

She found three different types of attachment (B, C, A) and Solomon and Main (1986) believed that infants displayed an extra type known as the disorganised attachment (D).

Secure Attachment (Type B)

An infant will freely explore the room and use her mother as a secure base when the stranger enters, she shows distress when her mum leaves the room and happily greets her on her return, is easily comforted by her mum and soon is content to continue playing. This is the best type of attachment, it is present in about 70% of infants.

Insecure Anxious/Resistant Attachment (Type C)

The infant isn’t so confident to explore the new toys, remains close to their mum, become very distressed when she leaves and cling to her on her return sometimes even pinching and hitting her. They are angry and anxious as she does not provide a secure and consistent base. 15% of babies fell into this type.

Insecure Anxious/Avoidant Attachment (Type A)

The infant isn’t so concerned when mum leaves, doesn’t really care when she returns and has no sign of stranger anxiety. They don’t prefer their mum over the stranger. Avoid closeness in relationships. 15% were in this type.

Disorganised Attachment (Type D)

Children who show a variety of mixed responses in the strange situation fit in here as they show no set pattern of behaviour when mum leaves nor when she returns. This type is usually associated with children who have been abused or those with chronically depressed mothers.

The procedure to find the different types of attachment consisted of a variety of situations;

Mother sits on a chair reading a magazine and child is free to explore the room and toys.

3 minutes later a stranger enters and sits next to the mother and starts talking.

Stranger tries to play and interact with the child. Mother gets up and leaves the child with the stranger. Stranger

comforts baby and plays with them. 3 minutes later mum returns and stranger leaves. 3 minutes later mum leaves baby alone in the room. Stranger re-enters and attempts to comfort the baby and play with

them. Mother returns and stranger leaves.

The strange situation was a good way to _________________________________ attachment and provide _________________________________ on this topic. This is a highly controlled situation and is therefore easily _________________________________. It has been used to investigate cultural variations. However, because it is so controlled it lacks _________________________________. The room is unfamiliar to the babies but on the other hand it does represent the same scenario that the baby would experience if they went to a _________________________________ or childminder. Another criticism of this method was the ethical issue of stress to the baby by being separated from their mother in a strange setting as well as introducing a stranger.

Differences in attachment typesAinsworth found that babies whose mothers were sensitive to their needs and responded appropriately to them were securely attached. Those who weren’t produced insecurely attached babies.

De Wolff and van Ijzendoorn(1997) investigated the relationship between _________________________________ and _________________________________ of attachment. They found a weak _________________________________ (0.24) between parental sensitivity and attachment.

Kagan argued that the focus was too much on the _________________________________ rather than looking at the

_________________________________ of the baby. Temperaments can differ on activity which is how long the baby is awake or alert for, _________________________________ which is how upset or aroused the baby gets from situations, and their _________________________________ which is how much the baby seeks human contact.

Thomas and Chess(1989) studied 138 American babies and found that just below _________________________________ fell into the category of _________________________________ (those who ate and slept regularly and adapted to new experiences easily), 1 in 10 were placed in the ‘_________________________________’ category (took longer to get used to change and lastly 15% were classed as ‘_________________________________’ (ate and slept irregularly and actively rejected new experiences.

Fox(1991) found that there were _________________________________ attachments between mothers and fathers and this attachment could reflect the babies temperament.

Belsky and Rovine(1987) brought both attachment type and temperament together by explaining that different temperaments will bring out different responses by the caregiver. The way the caregiver _________________________________ to the babies’ _________________________________ will determine what type of attachment the child will develop.

Cultural variations in attachmentAttachments may differ due to ____________________________ differences as well as across ____________________________. Within each culture children are brought up with different ____________________________ and ____________________________ which are usually based on that cultures values and beliefs. Sometimes there are even variations within one type of culture based on the way that the children are brought up.

Fox(1977) investigated child rearing on Kibbutzim in Israel. When the baby is about 4 days old it is placed into ____________________________ childcare. Parents visit their babies for about 3 hours a day just to cuddle and play after work. When the baby is 4 months it goes to another nursery where it is still reared as a ____________________________ by a nurse. In this type of situation the child will have more ____________________________ interaction and less ____________________________ attention.

Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg(1988) looked at the results of 32 separate studies carried out in 8 countries using Ainsworths ‘strange situation’ to see if there were differences in attachment types between and within cultures. They found

Country No. of studies

Secure attachment (%) (B)

Avoidant Attachment (%) (A)

Ambivalent Attachmen

t (%) IChina 1 50 25 25Great Britain

1 75 22.2 2.8

Japan 2 67.7 5.2 27.1Israel 2 64.4 6.8 28.8Netherlands

4 67.3 26.3 6.4

Sweden 1 74.5 21.6 3.9US 18 64.8 21.1 14.1West Germany

3 56.6 35.3 8.1

This demonstrates that the secure attachment was the most common type in all the cultures. Type A was most common in West Germany and the Netherlands. Type C was most common in Israel and Japan. They found that the intra-cultural variations (within) was almost 1 and a half times more than the cross cultural variation.

_______out of ________studies were done in the US. Ainsworth’s study was developed in the US and so it might be biased to use it on other cultures. 27 of the studies were done on ____________________________ cultures and only 5 on ____________________________ cultures. Therefore this sample is not a true representation of the general population.

This relates to child-rearing methodsThe way that the child responds to the ‘strange situation’ will reflect their ____________________________ which is specific to their culture. Babies in Japan are not used to being separated from their mums and therefore experienced ____________________________ in the investigation, whereas those from Israel are used to being with a variety of different people other than their mum but aren’t exposed to strangers etc. However this can be considered as a ____________________________ example as the ‘strange situation’ was based on the American child-rearing method and they were judged according to it.

Aviezer et al.(1994) found when examining the kibbutz way of life that babies and children slept ____________________________ in a dormitory. He stated that this could result in an ____________________________ attachment and now Kibbutzim are trying to arrange for children and babies to go home and sleep as a family with their parents rather than as a communal family.

Disruption of attachmentDeprivation is where a bond is formed and broken usually through separation.Privation is where no bond was present as children were institutionalised. (Rutter).

The short and long term effects of separationShort term effects of Separation

Robertson and Bowlby(1952) introduced a model called the “protest-despair-detachment model” (PDD). It consists of 3 stages:

Stage 1 : ProtestWhen the mother leaves the room the child starts to scream, cry and kick. They will do anything to bring her back and this can go on for ages after she has left.

Stage 2 : DespairThe child reaches a stage where they seem to be calm however they are still distressed. They don’t respond, act with a lack of curiosity exploding occasionally in temper in their final phase of desperation.

In order to avoid this process, children should be introduced to their new ____________________________ before the separation takes place so that they are familiar with their surroundings. Their ____________________________ should rein as close to the normal one as possible. Lastly the carer should constantly talk about their ____________________________ so that they don’t feel like she has abandoned them forever.

Stage 3 : DetachmentWhen this separation continues the child begins to interact again with others warily but when the caregiver returns they might reject her and respond to her with aggression.

Evidence for this model comes from Barrett (1997) and Robertson and Robertson. They did a study on John who was 17 months old when he was placed in a nursery for 9 days because his mother went into hospital to have a baby. Rutter et al. (1976) The Isle of Wight Study – relationship between ____________________________ and ____________________________. Cockett and Tripp (1994).

Long term effects of separationIf a child was separated from their caregiver and experienced ____________________________ this could lead to a variety of behaviours:

The child believes that every time the caregiver leaves they will not be coming back, so they will ____________________________ to her just before she is about to leave (separation anxiety).

The child acts ____________________________ to the caregiver and refuses to show ____________________________. This acts as a form of protection to avoid getting hurt again (detachment).

The child acts ____________________________ and ____________________________ when they are with their caregiver.

Factors that affect responses to separation

____________________________ affect how the child responds to separation such as;

Age – a child under 7 months will adjust well, between the ages of 12-18 months they will experience the most upset. Schaffer and Callender(1959) examined 76 babies between 0 and 4 years old admitted to a children’s hospital. They found the most affected children were between 12-18 months. Maccoby(1980) said that this could be because the child does not understand that the caregiver will come back they are not leaving forever.

____________________________ of attachment – A securely attached child will cope better than an insecurely attached child because they trust that their caregiver will come back (Barrett, 1977).

____________________________ – Girls respond less to separation than boys however, again there are individual differences within each sex as well as between them (Gross and McIlveen, 1977).

Who and ____________________________ of care – If the baby is left with someone they know and love and maybe even have an attachment with, there will be less negative effects.

____________________________ – If a child is used to being separated from their caregiver for brief amounts of time eg: left at a grand parents’ house, play groups, childminder etc., they are less likely to respond negatively than a child who has never been separated from their caregiver.

Rutter (1972) proposed that separation can occur in ____________________________ or non-stressful situations and depending on the amount of stress experienced was what caused later problems rather than the separation itself. Children who come from stressful homes where there is lots of upheaval and ____________________________ are more likely to experience long term Pathology.

The Effects of Privation

Rutter believed that most of Bowlby’s participants had experienced a variety of changes of home and carer that no bond was formed at all. He believed that these children were far more likely to become ____________________________. He argued that privation was ultimately much worse than deprivation.

Evidence to support this comes from: Koluchova (1972, 1977 and 1991) with the Koluchova twins who born in 1960 in Czechoslovakia. They were put into care after the death of their mother but were returned to their father and step-mother at 18 months where they were abused badly until the age of 7 (kept in a cellar, starved and beaten), they had no intellectual skills, were fostered by 9, and by 14 their behaviour and intellect were normal. By 20 they were above average intelligence and experienced loving relationships with their foster parents. These twin boys had the ____________________________ of each other during their early years of life. In a follow up study by Koluchova in 1991, it was found that all the

previous damage had been repaired because of the new loving home that they were fostered by.

Skuse(1984) examined a case where two sisters had undergone extreme social and emotional privation as babies. Their mother suffered extreme learning disabilities and kept them tied to the bed in a small room to keep the flat clean and stop them from falling off the balcony. If they were too noisy she covered them with a blanket. Social services found them when one was 3 and a half and the other 2 and a half. They had no speech and did not really play. After some speech therapy the 3 and a half year old had normal language but the 2 and a half year old didn’t and had to be moved to a unit for autistic children at the age of 7 and a half. There was also a brother found with them who was raised by a different family. He was autistic and had severe learning disabilities.

Case studies such as these provide an in depth ____________________________ for us however, by following their development we may cause long lasting damage. They might not be able to give fully ____________________________ consent as they are too badly affected by their experience. It is sometimes difficult to assess the damage done to their development due to their experiences. Studies such as these are done in ____________________________ which means after the event has taken place so details could be omitted (due to ____________________________) or added in (false ____________________________ syndrome) and it is hard to distinguish what really happened.

Therefore we look at Tizard and Hodges(1984 and 1989) who researched children living in an institution. All of their experiences were documented and the only form of privation they experienced was ____________________________.

This was a ____________________________ experiment looking at the long term effects of emotional privation on 65 children who were raised in a home until the age of 4. Staff was encouraged not to form ____________________________ with the children so if either of them left there would be no upset. When the children were 2 they had had about 24 carers and by 4 about 50 carers. At the home they were given good ____________________________ stimulation and ____________________________ care. These children developed a ‘____________________________’ which means that any adult who entered the room was forced to pay them attention and if they left the room the child would cry.By the age of 4, 25 of the children were returned to their biological parents, 33 were adopted and 7 still remained in care and being fostered from time to time (____________________________ variable). Tizard and Hodges interviewed the children in their homes at 8 and 16 with their key adult present. With permission they contacted the schools and questioned teachers and friends to assess their ____________________________ behaviours (____________________________ variable). They found that 7/13 of

the children returned to their biological parents and 21/22 of the adopted children had formed ____________________________ relationships with their parents by 8. This remained the same at 16. All the groups who remained in the institution had difficulties with ____________________________ and belonging. Teachers claimed that they would seek more ____________________________ attention whereas those who returned to their biological parents were said to be more ____________________________. From this they deduced that the adopted children fared the best, children returned to their original homes had problems with ____________________________ and family relationships. Both demonstrated problems with peers.

A problem with this kind of study is that participants might drop out along the way and therefore it would not be a ____________________________ sample. There were 65 children in the original study and only 51 by the age of 8. As this was a natural experiment the researchers had no ____________________________ over which children were adopted and which were left at the institution. They could have been chosen based on certain ____________________________ which would make this experiment biased in some form.

Rutter’s conclusion was that maternal deprivation increases a child’s vulnerability to becoming disturbed but it doesn’t mean that maladjustment is inevitable.

The effects of institutionalisationEffects on emotional developmentAs previously stated by Tizard and Hodges children raised in an institution who do not form attachments develop a ____________________________ attachment (any adult who walks into the room is forced to give them attention and if that adult leaves the room the child will cry…).

Rutter et al.(2007) researched Romanian orphans adopted by UK families with UK born adoptees who were adopted before they were 6 months old. The Romanian babies were one or two weeks old when they entered the institution which was in a bad condition. 58 babies were adopted before 6 months old and 59 between the ages of 6-24 months old. 48 babies were adopted late between 2-4 years old. These were the 3 conditions Rutter et al. used in their study. When the babies were adopted the Romanian babies were extremely ____________________________ and were in the bottom percentile for both ____________________________ and head size of the population. They interviewed and observed some of these children at 4, 6 and 11 years old.

Around the age of 6 the children were demonstrating disinhibited attachments. This was mainly evident in the Romanian children that were adopted at a ____________________________ age (21.6%), in the UK adoptees

this behaviour was rare (3.8%) and in the early adopted children it was 8.9%. They concluded from this that children who spend ____________________________ time in an institution develop a disinhibited attachment. It was also found in a later follow up study of the children at 11 years old that this behaviour had ____________________________. Out of 83 Romanian children showing disinhibited attachments both mild and marked at age 6, 45 (54%) were still displaying it at 11, even though they were receiving special education or services for mental health.

This study provided ____________________________ measurements through the use of ____________________________ and observations of the children’s behaviours. The problem is that it is not easy to find out information about the institutional experience for the child and therefore we don’t know the ____________________________ of early privation experienced by these children. Another problem with this type of study is that once the children were adopted they may not wish to take part in the study anymore so the results would not be representative.

Chisholm(2000) examined two babies using a form of Ainsworth’s strange situation and found that ____________________________ can affect how the child responds to early privation and some children might be able to develop good relationships with their adoptive parents.

Can children recover from institutionalisation and privationStudies have demonstrated that it is possible to recover but it depends on certain factors:

Quality of care – children who have been able to form an attachment with a caregiver in an institution between 7-12 months usually don’t show evidence of a disinhibited attachment for example in Dontas et al.(1985) two studies on babies in a Greek orphanage to see if children in an orphanage could develop attachments in the normal way.

Age of child at time of removal from privation or institutionalisation – As shown by Rutter et al. children who are adopted at a young age tend to make better developmental progress than those adopted at a later age. This relates specifically to language development.

Quality of care after privation or institutionalisation – Children placed in a loving and supportive environment where they are given one to one attention are more likely to form a strong attachment with their adoptive parents as shown in the study by Koluchova(1972 and 1991).

Follow on experiences in later life – Not only early experiences impact on later development. If they have positive experiences at school, in marriages etc. the damage caused in their early life can be reversed. ____________________________ (1984/1988) looked at two groups of women one group who had been in care the other group was from the same area but had not been in care. They found that

those that had had positive experiences in later life actually fared better even if they had been in care in their early years.

Attachment in everyday lifeHow does day care affect children’s social developmentPositive social development Negative social developmentRelationships with peers Use of aggressive behaviourAbility to make friends and mix Social withdrawalCooperate No mannersShare toys and empathise

There are 2 types of day care:1. Nursery based care – Nurseries have ____________________________

staff with a variety of resources funded by the government and it is free from the age of 3. They are inspected by Ofsted and required to plan out each activity. They are often attached to a school whose ____________________________ they can use.

2. Family based care – Children receive more one to one ____________________________ and they do not have to compete with other children. However, there are fewer children to ____________________________ with than in a nursery setting.

Registered childminders – They are regulated by Ofsted but look after children in their ____________________________ home. Usually there are a number of other children to play with as well as the childminder may have some children of their own.

Nanny/Au pair – This is where the child is looked after in their own home with the company of their sisters and brothers.

Informal childcare – The parents organise for the children to be looked after by a ____________________________ or family members who are not ____________________________ to do it. Not much research has been done on this form.

The effects of day care on social developmentA variety of studies have demonstrated how ____________________________ day care (childminder and nursery) can be as it helps children to learn to socialise, share and ____________________________ with others.

Andersson(1989,1992) studied a variety of children attending day care in Sweden and found that they were more sociable, ____________________________, and got along better with their peers.

Clarke-Stewart(1991) looked at children who had experienced a variety of different types of day care and ____________________________ their progress. The findings were that those that had attended nursery had better social development than those cared for in family settings.

Schindler et al.(1998) found those who attended day care for ____________________________ periods were able to play more ____________________________ with other children.

Field et al.(1988) found that those who attend day care ____________________________ play more cooperatively than those who only go part time.

On the other hand Dilalla(1988) found a ____________________________ relationship between those children that had spent time in day care and the amount of pro-social behaviour. Those who spent more time in day care tended to be ____________________________ cooperative in their other relationships.

As we can see these studies are ____________________________ and according to Campbell, Lamb and Hwang(2000) this is because most of the studies done focused on ____________________________ of day care rather than ____________________________. The results showing positive social development could be due to the quality in those day care facilities that were researched. These studies are also done ____________________________ and therefore rely on memory of the child’s experiences at day care. Campbell et al.(2000) therefore carried out a study on children from Sweden who went to day care continuously between 18 months and 3 and a half years. 9 of these children attended a childminder and 30 attended nursery. Another 9 changed from childminders to nursery during the study. He compared these children with those that had applied to nursery but hadn’t been accepted. Before the children started day care they were ____________________________ at home playing with peers and their care was assessed using the ____________________________ (measures quality). Once in day care they were observed for 30 minutes playing with peers. This was utilised as a baseline to assess their ____________________________ at 18 months. These were repeated at 2 and a half and then again at 3 and a half.When the child was 6 and a half the care provider described the child’s social skills. At 8 and a half the teachers explained their ____________________________ of the child’s social behaviour. At 15 they were asked to fill in two questionnaires of ____________________________ regarding their social development, quality of friendships and social style.

The findings were that children who attended day care from 8am to 6pm under 3 and a half were ____________________________ socially competent. Those attending more days a week but for less time each day were ____________________________ socially competent. This could be due to the fact that when the kids spend less time each day at day care the quality of their experience is more ____________________________. Children who had high quality day care before 3 and a half were more socially competent. It was also suggested that from 3 and a half ____________________________ is quite ____________________________. Therefore it is highly ____________________________ that children receive high quality day care up to the age of 3 and a half.

+This study was ____________________________ as it observed the children through each experience from 18 months to adolescence.+The ____________________________ was measured before they started day care so it was easy to see the effect that day care had on the child’s social development.+By gaining information from a variety of ____________________________ rich data was obtained.-These results may not be ____________________________ outside of Sweden as day care is well funded there and may not be in other countries.-Fully ____________________________ consent is imperative in a study like this one which may have been difficult to obtain.

What are the negative effects of day careBelsky(2006) performed a study in the US involving over 1000 children from birth. Findings were that children who attended day care were advanced ____________________________ and in their ____________________________ development but were often aggressive with their peers. Another problem behaviour found was that they became less ____________________________ to adult figures as they grew up.

Maccoby and Lewis(2003) supported this with their findings which were that the more hours a child spent at day care before 4 and a half the higher the range of negative social outcomes. These came in the form of problem behaviours at school, lower social skills and more conflict with teachers.

Another supporter was Field(1988) who found that teachers rated children at full time day care as more ____________________________ and ____________________________ with their peers.

The positive side of this is that children attending day care need to develop ____________________________ at a much younger age and are therefore more ____________________________ when dealing with social situations but this could result in them being more ____________________________ towards adults. Clarke-Stewart(1990,1992) states that this is just a sign that young children can look after and think for themselves at an earlier age.

Borge et al.(2004) found that aggression was more prominent in children who had been ____________________________ than in those who had attended ____________________________ in their study on 3,431 2-3 year olds from Canada. They used ____________________________ questionnaires to enquire about the child’s level of aggression, and also considered the ____________________________ background of the parents as well as the mother’s education, ____________________________ and family functioning.

Comparing different types of day care :

Melhuish(1990) carried out a quasi-experiment comparing 3 groups of children in London who started day care before 9 months of age.

Care by relatives Care by childminder

Private nursery

Highest adult-child ratio.

Lowest adult-child ratio.

Lowest contact with other children.

Highest contact with other children.

18 months – highest level of language skills.

18 months – least developed language skills.

3 years old – slightly more advanced than nursery in language skills but lower level of pro-social behaviour than nursery children.

3 years old – slightly less advanced in language than relative care group but higher level of pro-social behaviour (ie: sharing, cooperating and ability to empathise)

This demonstrates that there are both pros and cons in each setting and consideration should be taken relating to each specific child when making a decision of where to send him/her.

It can be difficult to test the effects of day care on a child’s social development because:

1. There are a variety of day care ____________________________ which vary in adult-child ratio.

2. The amount of ____________________________ the child spends in day care. This refers to age that they start, the hours they spend there a day and a week.

3. The ____________________________ of the day care.4. The child’s ____________________________ will determine their

individual experience.5. The ____________________________ in families who use nursery child

care and relative child care. Some mothers believe in working and would probably have high status jobs whereas family based care would be used by those who have a strong identity as a mother.

Implications of research into attachment and day care for child care practices1997 – free nursery places for all 4 year olds (state or private).2004 – National Childcare Strategy – free state nursery for all 3 and 4 year olds.Sure Start – supports families with children under 3 in economically deprived areas.

This has influenced childcare practices by:

1. Bowlby’s and other research have stated that children need to have a secure attachment with an ____________________________, they can have ____________________________ attachments and that the child should be able to use the attachment figure as a ____________________________ to explore their environment and ____________________________ security.

2. Steele(2001) and Watamura et al.(2006) found that children put into the position of the strange situation eg: going to nursery had ____________________________ levels of cortisol, suggesting that they found it ____________________________. To reduce stress nurseries now have a key worker scheme, which is when an adult is assigned to each child whilst at nursery that they can use as their attachment figure in times of stress. This helps them settle into nursery each day.

Good quality day careCampbell et al.(2000) state that there are certain structural characteristics in good quality day care:

____________________________ ratio to make sure they receive adult attention and stimulation. There is a recommended ratio for each age group.

____________________________ groups to make it less intimidating for the children.

____________________________ young and older children to provide differentiation. The older children can model by example to the younger children how to behave pro-socially.

Low staff ____________________________ and staff that are well qualified in their field. This provides ____________________________ and security to the children.

Provide the child with a secure and stable ____________________________ that they can use in times of stress. The staff member can provide this for the child by being warm and ____________________________ to the child and their needs eg: key worker.

The time at day care should be carefully ____________________________ and organised to ensure that the child has a ____________________________ routine that also contributes to their feelings of safety.