fourth edition

G. Neil Martin Neil R. Carlson William Buskist

The fourth edition of psychology introduces students to the eld with its accessible, lively and comprehensive coverage. Fully revised and updated throughout, this book offers a rigorous and critical coverage. Key features:

Conceptual and historical issues in psychology are highlighted to encourage students to consider different perspectives and debates

Cutting Edge introduces novel and important research in the eld

Psychology in Action highlights how psychological ideas and principles apply to the real world

Controversies in Psychological science explores debates and issues within the eld

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About the authorsDr G. Neil Martin is Reader in Psychology at Middlesex University, UK

Dr Neil R. Carlson is Professor of Psychology at the University of Massachusetts, USA

Dr William Buskistis Professor of Psychology at Auburn University, USA

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The perfect balance between scientifi c rigour and comprehensiveness on the one hand, and fun stuff that will maintain students interest on the other. One of the best, if not the best, introductory textbooks available today. Dr Phil Higham, University of Southampton

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PsychologyFourth Edition

G. Neil MartinMiddlesex University, UK

Neil R. CarlsonUniversity of Massachusetts, USA

William BuskistAuburn University, USA

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Original edition published by Allyn and Bacon, A Pearson Education CompanyNeedham Heights, Massachusetts, USACopyright 1997 by Allyn and Bacon

First published by Pearson Education Limited in Great Britain in 2000Second edition published in 2004Third edition published in 2007Fourth edition published in 2010

Pearson Education Limited 2000, 2004, 2007, 2010

The rights of G. Neil Martin, Neil R. Carlson and William Buskist to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

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Brief contents

Preface to the fourth edition xvii

Guided tour xx

The authors xxvi

Acknowledgements xxviii

1. The science of psychology 2

2. Research methods in psychology 47

3. Evolution, genetics and behaviour 75

4. Psychology and neuroscience 113

5. Sensation 167

6. Perception 213

7. Learning and behaviour 257

8. Memory 291

9. Consciousness 337

10. Language 375

11. Intelligence and thinking 431

12. Developmental psychology 493

13. Motivation and emotion 553

14. Personality 609

15. Social cognition and attiudes 647

16. Interpersonal and group processes 679

17. Health psychology 727

18. Abnormal psychology 773

Appendix: Understanding research results A1Glossary G1

References R1

Indexes I1

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Preface to the fourth edition xviiGuided tour xxThe authors xxviAcknowledgements xxviii

1 The science of psychologyWhat you should be able to do after reading Chapter 1 3Questions to think about 3

What is psychology? 4Psychology defined 4Cutting edge: How much of a science is psychology? 5Controversies in Psychological Science:

Is psychology common sense? 6Explaining behaviour 7Established and emerging fields of psychology 8Psychology in action: How to detect a liar 10Cutting edge: Im your biggest fan ... What makes a celebrity

worshipper worship? 13Psychology in action: Psychology in the witness box 14Psychology An international perspective 16

Psychology: a European perspective 18Psychological training and status of psychology in Europe 18European views of psychology and psychologists 19

Psychology: the development of a science 20Philosophical roots of psychology 20

Modern psychology: from the Leipzig laboratory to the cognitive revolution 24

Structuralism: Wilhelm Wundt 24Memory: Hermann Ebbinghaus 25Functionalism: William James and James Angell 25Evolution and heritability: Charles Darwin and Francis Galton 26Psychodynamic theory: Sigmund Freud 27Behaviourism: Edward Thorndike and Ivan Pavlov 28Behaviourism: John B. Watson 29Radical behaviourism: Edward Tolman and Clark Leonard Hull 30Radical behaviourism: Burrhus Frederic Skinner 30Genetic epistemology: Jean Piaget 31Gestalt psychology: Max Wertheimer 31Humanistic psychology 32The personality psychologists: Gordon Allport,

Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, Walter Mischel, Paul Costa and Robert McCrae 32

The social psychologists 33

The cognitive revolution: beyond behaviourism 34The biological revolution 35Cognitive neuroscience: the future of the biology

of the mind? 38

Conceptual and historical issues in psychological science 39

Chapter review 40Suggestions for further reading 41Journals to consult 42Website addresses 42Addresses: major international professional psychology

organisations and societies 43

2 Research methods in psychologyWhat you should be able to do after reading Chapter 2 47Questions to think about 47

The process of discovery in psychology: the scientific method 48

Stages in experimentation 48Communicating the results of scientific research 48Cutting edge: Stories conquer statistics 49Controversies in Psychological Science: Psychology

and the media 50Identifying the problem: getting an idea for research 51Quantitative research methods: designing an experiment 52Psychology in action: The Barnum effect 55Controversies in Psychological Science: How representative

are samples in psychological research? 59Response bias An international perspective 60Correlational studies 63Single-case studies 64Generalising from data 64Application of psychological research 65Qualitative analysis 65

Ethics 68Research with human participants 68Informed consent 68Controversies in Psychological Science: Can research

with animals help us to understand human behaviour? 70Chapter review 71Suggestions for further reading 72Journals to consult 72Website addresses 73

Contents

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3 Evolution, genetics and behaviourWhat you should be able to do after reading Chapter 3 75Questions to think about 75

The development of evolutionary theory 76In the beginning: the voyage of the Beagle 77The Origin of Species 77Natural selection and evolution 78Human evolution 81Natural selection and human evolution 82

Heredity and genetics 84The basic principles of genetics 85Genetic diversity 87Influences of sex on heredity 87Mutations and chromosomal aberrations 89Epigentics 90Genetic disorders 90Psychology in action: The psychological consequences

of genetic counselling 92Heredity and behaviour genetics 93Controversies in Psychological Science: Are attitudes

genetically inherited? 95

Sociobiology 96Reproductive strategies and the biological basis of parenting 96Physical attraction An international perspective 98Cutting edge: Can I have your number? 100Cutting edge: Jealousy, infidelity and the brain 103Infidelity An international perspective 105Altruism and kin selection 106Sociobiology and evolutionary psychology as an

explanation for human behaviour? 108Chapter review 109Suggestions for further reading 110Journals to consult 111Website addresses 111

4 Psychobiology and neuroscienceWhat you should be able to do after reading Chapter 4 113Questions to think about 113

Psychobiology and neuroscience 114

The nervous system: the brain and its components 114

The central nervous system 114The peripheral nervous system 115Cells of the nervous system 117Neurotransmitters 117Myelination 118The action potential 118Synapses 119

Excitation and inhibition 120A simple neural circuit 122Neuromodulators: action at a distance 123

Techniques in psychobiology and neuroscience 124Lesioning 124Studying brain injury: clinical neuropsychology 126Rehabilitation after brain damage 126Psychology in action: Using brain activity to

overcome physical disability 128Psychophysiology: measuring CNS activity 129Psychophysiology: measuring activity outside the CNS 130Cutting edge: James Bond and the bloody consequences

of Mortal Kombat 133Neuroimaging techniques 134Cutting edge: Love, friendship and neuroscience 138Cutting edge: The magic of neuroscience 138Caveats 140Controversies in Psychological Science: Can brain

scanners detect deception? 140Modern brain stimulation: transcranial magnetic

stimulation (TMS) 141

Control of behaviour 143Organisation of the cerebral cortex 144Temporal sequencing of events 144Lateralisation of function 144Vision: the occipital lobe 146Audition: the temporal lobe 146Somatosensation and spatial perception: the parietal lobe 147Planning and moving: the frontal lobe 148

Control of internal functions and automaticbehaviour 149

The brain stem 149The cerebellum 149Subcortical structures 150

Drugs and behaviour 154Stimulating or inhibiting the release of transmitter

substances 154Stimulating or blocking postsynaptic receptor molecules 154Inhibiting reuptake 155Sedatives 155Controversies in Psychological Science: What is drug

addiction? 156Stimulants 158Drugs and altered states of consciousness 158Drug classification 160The psychology of cannabis use An international

perspective 160Chapter review 162Suggestions for further reading 164Journals to consult 165Website addresses 165

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CONTENTS ix

5 SensationWhat you should be able to do after reading Chapter 5 167Questions to think about 167

Sensation and behaviour 168

Sensory processing 168Transduction 168Sensory coding 168Psychophysics 170The principle of the just-noticeable difference 170

Vision 173Light 173The eye and its functions 173Transduction of light by photoreceptors 177Adaptation to light and dark 177Eye movements 178Colour vision 178Defects in colour vision 182Psychology in action: Red light = danger? 183Synaesthesia 184

Audition 185Sound 185The ear and its functions 186Detecting and localising sounds in the environment 187The interaction between audition and vision 191Audition and the temporal cortex 191Cutting edge: Hearing voices 191Deafness 192

Gustation 193Taste receptors and the sensory pathway 193The four or more qualities of taste 195The development of taste preference 196

Olfaction 197Cutting edge: Cheese, body odour and the orbitofrontal cortex 198Odour perception An international perspective 198Anatomy of the olfactory system 199Controversies in Psychological Science: Do human

pheromones exist? 200The dimensions of odour 202Sex differences 203

The somatosenses 203The skin senses 204The internal senses 206The vestibular senses 206Chapter review 207Suggestions for further reading 208Journals to consult 209Website addresses 210

6 PerceptionWhat you should be able to do after reading Chapter 6 213Questions to think about 213

The nature of perception 214Definition of perception 214

Perception of form 214Figure and ground 214Organisation of elements: the principles of Gestalt 215Models of pattern perception 217Top-down processing: the role of context 220Direct perception: Gibsons affordances 221Face perception 222

Perception of space and motion 227Depth perception 227Psychology in action: CCTV and face perception 231Distance and location 232Constancies of visual perception 233Visual perception across cultures 233Controversies in Psychological Science: How does language

influence visual perception? 235Perception of motion 237Cutting edge: Content over style? 237Perception and the environment An international

perspective 239The psychology of art An international perspective 240Brain mechanisms of visual perception 241The primary visual cortex 241How different are imagining and perceiving visual stimuli? 242The visual association cortex 243Brain damage and visual perception 244Perceptual disorders 246Psychology in action: How does brain injury affect artists? 250Chapter review 252Suggestions for further reading 253Journals to consult 254Website addresses 255

7 Learning and behaviourWhat you should be able to do after reading Chapter 7 257Questions to think about 257

The purpose of learning 258

Habituation 258

Classical conditioning 258Pavlovs serendipitous discovery 259The biological significance of classical conditioning 260Basic principles of classical conditioning 260Conditional emotional responses 261What is learned in classical conditioning? 263Neurobiological correlates of Pavlovian conditioning 263

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After behaviourism 263Hulls computational approach to learning 264Tolman and the cognitive map 265

Operant conditioning 266The law of effect 266Skinner and operant behaviour 267The three-term contingency 267Reinforcement, punishment and extinction 268Other operant procedures and phenomena 270

Conditioning of complex behaviours 272Aversive control of behaviour 273Psychology in action: Flavour aversions 275Applications of operant conditioning to human behaviour 275Controversies in Psychological Science: What is insight? 276Recent approaches to learning: computational modelling

and neural networks 279

Learning in practice: being a student 281Deep v. shallow learning 281Learning style 282Cutting edge: Personality and academic success 282Confidence 283The best way to understand a textbook 283Can the internet be used to teach successfully? 284Studying psychology An international perspective 285Chapter review 286Suggestions for further reading 287Journals to consult 287Website addresses 288

8 MemoryWhat you should be able to do after reading Chapter 8 291Questions to think about 291

Memory: an introduction 292Types of memory 292

Sensory memory 292Iconic memory 293Echoic memory 293

Short-term memory 293Working memory 294Primacy and recency effects 297The limits of short-term and working memory 298Loss of information from short-term memory 299

Learning and encoding in long-term memory 300The consolidation hypothesis 300Levels of processing 300Mnemonics 301Cutting edge: Something to chew over 304

Long-term memory: episodic and semantic memory 304

Autobiographical Memory An international perspective 305Explicit and implicit memory 305

Remembering 306Psychology in action: Using odours to retrieve memories 307Reconstruction: remembering as a creative process 308Psychology in action: How long does memory last? 310The malleability of memory 312Eyewitness testimony 312Eyewitness identification 313Cutting edge: Unbelievable accents 315Interference 315State-dependent memory: the effect of mood on recall 316Flashbulb memories 317

The biological basis of memory 319Before memory: learning 319Where are long-term memories formed? 320Chemical modulation of long-term potentiation 320Amnesia 321Psychology in action: Memory at the movies ... 323The role of the hippocampus in memory 324Neuroimaging and memory 325Memory-enhancing drugs 328Controversies in Psychological Science:

Do smart drugs work? 329Chapter review 331Suggestions for further reading 333Journals to consult 334Website addresses 334

9 ConsciousnessWhat you should be able to do after reading Chapter 9 337Questions to think about 337

Consciousness: an introduction 338Philosophical approaches to consciousness 338The meaning of consciousness 338

Theories of consciousness 339Neurobiological theories 339Cognitive theories 342

Selective attention 342Dichotic listening 343The cocktail-party phenomenon 344Controversies in Psychological Science: Does mobile

phone use impair your driving? 345Background noise 347Noise An international perspective 348Models of selective attention 348Visual information 349Inattentional blindness 350

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Divided attention 350Brain mechanisms of selective attention 351Control of consciousness 352

Hypnosis 353Psychology in action: Attention and pain 353The induction of hypnosis 354Characteristics of hypnosis 354Theories of hypnosis 355Controversies in Psychological Science: Can hypnosis

reduce pain and stress? 356

Sleep 357The stages of sleep 357Cutting edge: Evening types are more creative

but are more maladaptive 360Functions of sleep 360Sleep deprivation 360Sleep-dependent memory consolidation 361Psychology in action: How sleep loss affects behaviour 362Dreaming 364Functions of dreams 364Role of REM sleep in brain development 366Brain mechanisms of sleep 366Sleep disorders 367Chapter review 369Suggestions for further reading 371Journals to consult 371Website addresses 372

10 LanguageWhat you should be able to do after reading Chapter 10 375Questions to think about 375

The use of language 376Psycholinguistics: the study of language acquisition

and meaning 376Perception of speech 377Recognition of speech sounds 377Production of speech 377Recognition of words: the importance of context 378Understanding the meaning of speech 379The relationship between semantics and syntax 381Knowledge of the world 381What is meaning? 381Is there a universal language? 381

Reading 383Psychology in action: Sex differences in communication 383Scanning text 384Phonetic and whole-word recognition 385The process of reading 386The dual-route model of reading 387Psychology in action: How children learn to read 389Understanding the meanings of words and sentences 391On the relative importance of consonants and vowels 391

Language acquisition by children 392Perception of speech sounds by infants 392The pre-speech period and the first words

An international perspective 393Infant communication 394How adults talk to children 394Acquisition of adult rules of grammar 395Acquisition of meaning 396Bilingualism 398Is there a language acquisition device? 398Controversies in psychological science: Can other primates

acquire language? 400

Brain development and language 403The case of Genie 403Plasticity and language development 403Is half a brain enough? 404

The neuropsychology of language and language disorders 404

Language disorders 404Aphasia 405Psychology in action: The man who lost his language 409Specific language impairment 411Dyslexia 413

Word recognition and production: neuroimaging studies 418

Is there a visual word form area? 419Cutting edge: Irony a look inside the brain 419Neuroimaging and language An international perspective 420Braille and Sign language 421Neuropsychological models of language: a summary 422Caveats and complications 423Handedness 424Chapter review 425Suggestions for further reading 427Journals to consult 428Website addresses 428

11 Intelligence and thinkingWhat you should be able to do after reading Chapter 11 431Questions to think about 431

What is intelligence? 432

Theories of intelligence 432Spearmans two-factor theory 432Evidence from factor analysis 433Sternbergs triarchic theory of intelligence 434Gardners multiple intelligences theory 436Emotional intelligence 436Estimating intelligence An international perspective 438Are there consistent sex differences in cognitive ability? 440Sex differences in general knowledge 444

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Intelligence testing 444Early intelligence tests 444Modern intelligence tests 445Reliability and validity of intelligence tests 447

The roles of heredity and environment 448Cutting edge: Do you have to be smart to be rich? 448The meaning of heritability 449Sources of environmental and genetic effects

during development 449Results of heritability studies 451If intelligence is inherited, how does inheritance occur? 453Giftedness 453Psychology in action: Can low intelligence be improved? 454IQ and nutrition 455Cutting edge: The effect of intelligence on health 455Controversies in Psychological Science: Is there a relationship

between race and intelligence? 456

Intelligence, thinking and ageing 457Ageing and cognitive ability 457What is ageing? 457Why does cognitive ability decline? 460Dementia 462Dementia of the Alzheimer type 462Clinical features of DAT 464Memory decline in Alzheimers disease 465Dementia and the novelist: the case of Iris Murdoch 467Treatment for DAT 468

Thinking 468Classifying 468Formal and natural concepts 469Deductive reasoning 471Syllogistic reasoning An international perspective 472Inductive reasoning 474Logical errors in inductive reasoning 474Cutting edge: Who believes in spoon bending? 477Cutting edge: How eBay works 478Psychology in action: Jury decision-making 478Problem-solving 480Where in the brain does decision-making occur? 481Reasoning and the brain 482Creative thinking 482Cutting edge: Creativity and romance 484Case studies in creativity 484Controversies in Psychological Science: Are creativity and

psychopathology related? 485Cutting edge: The key to creativity shut up! 487Chapter review 487Suggestions for further reading 489Journals to consult 490Website addresses 490

12 Developmental psychologyWhat you should be able to do after reading Chapter 12 493Questions to think about 493

Developmental psychology 494

Prenatal development 494Stages of prenatal development 494Threats to normal prenatal development 496

Physical and perceptual development in infancy and childhood 497

Controversies in Psychological Science: Does foetal learning exist? 497

Brain development 498Does the environment affect brain development? 499Motor development 501Perceptual development 501

Cognitive development in infancy and childhood 505Development of memory 505Knowing where things are spatial development

at 2 years old 507The development of cognition: Jean Piaget 508Vygotskys sociocultural theory of cognitive development 513Developmental models of information processing

in cognitive development 514

Social and emotional development in infancy and childhood 516

Infant attachment 516The nature and quality of attachment 518Predictors of secure attachment 519Relationships with siblings 520Relationships with others 520Social organisation An international perspective 521

Disorders of social cognition and emotion 521Autism 521Cutting edge: Loneliness and autistic tendency 523Aspergers syndrome 525Theory of mind An international perspective 525Conduct disorder/attention deficit hyperactivity disorder 526Disorders of emotional regulation 526

Development of sex roles in childhood 528Development of sexual identity 528

Moral development 530Piagets theory of moral development 530Kohlbergs theory of moral development 530Evaluation of Piagets and Kohlbergs theories of moral

development 531Alternative models of moral development 532

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Adolescence 533Physical development 533Sexual maturation 533Behavioural effects of puberty 534How do adolescents view puberty? 535Changes in leisure activities reflect the move into young

adulthood 535Psychology in action: Adolescence and the internet 536Social development, peer relations and delinquency 537Friendship 537Psychology in action: Bullying 538Relations with parents 539

Adulthood: beyond adolescence 540Middle adulthood: a period of contentment? 540Parenthood 541Work 542Late adulthood and the menopause 543Old age 544Death and bereavement 546Chapter review 547Suggestions for further reading 550Journals to consult 551Website addresses 551

13 Motivation and emotionWhat you should be able to do after reading Chapter 13 553Questions to think about 553

Motivation 554Biological needs 554Physiology of reinforcement 555

Ingestion: drinking and eating 557Thirst 557What starts a meal? 558What stops a meal? 559Sensory-specific satiety 560Obesity 562Psychology in action: The problem of obesity and its

treatment 562Controversies in Psychological Science: Can the bitter

gene cause obesity? 567How emotion affects food intake 567Cutting edge: Mood food 568Anorexia nervosa 568Bulimia nervosa 569Aetiology of anorexia and bulimia nervosa 569Body dissatisfaction in healthy and eating-disordered women 569Cutting edge: Body size, television size and other peoples

attractive size 571Eating disorders An international perspective 572

Sexual behaviour 572Effects of sex hormones on behaviour 572Sexual orientation 573Neurobiological correlates of sexual behaviour 575

Aggressive behaviour 576Ethological studies of aggression 576Hormones and aggression 576Testosterone: status, relationships and empathy 578Imitation and aggression 578Psychology in action: Aggression at work 579

Emotion 580Basic emotions 580The biology of emotion 581Controversies in psychological science:

What is the key to enduring happiness? 582Emotion An international perspective 583Emotional experience: anger and disgust 591Using display rules 592Facial feedback hypothesis 593Cutting edge: A slump in mental fortune 594Facing emotion 595

Theories of emotion 595Physiological theories 595Evolutionary theories 597Cognitive theories 598Cutting edge: Keeping your emotional distance 599Controversies in Psychological Science:

Dark clouds gathering, sunny spells later ... 602Emotion without cognition? 603Chapter review 603Suggestions for further reading 605Journals to consult 606Website addresses 607

14 PersonalityWhat you should be able to do after reading Chapter 14 609Questions to think about 609

Towards a definition of personality 610

Trait theories of personality 610Personality types and traits 610Identification of personality traits 611Cutting edge: Personality and music preference 612Cutting edge: How extraverted is

honeybunny22@hotmail.de? 613Personality An international perspective 615Stability of personality traits across the lifespan 616Cutting edge: Sex and profession differences in personality 617How we view ourselves in the past and the present 617Cutting edge: Do you get better looking each day? 617

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Heritability of personality traits 618Neurobiological basis of personality 619Cutting edge: Personality and birth order 619Controversies in Psychological Science: The state youre in 621

The social learning approach 625Expectancies and observational learning 625Reciprocal determinism and self-efficacy 625Person variables 626Locus of control 626Controversies in Psychological Science: Do traits or

situations best predict behaviour? 627Psychology in action: Personality and romance 629

The psychodynamic approach 630The development of Freuds theory 630Structures of the mind: id, ego and superego 631Defence mechanisms 632Freuds psychosexual theory of personality development 633Further development of Freuds theory: the neo-Freudians 634Evaluation of psychodynamic theory and research 635

The humanistic approach 636Maslow and self-actualisation 636Evaluation of the humanistic approach 638

Assessment of personality 639Objective tests of personality 639Projective tests of personality 640Controversies in Psychological Science: Are projective tests

reliable and valid? 642Chapter review 643Suggestions for further reading 645Journals to consult 645Website addresses 645

15 Social cognition and attitudesWhat you should be able to do after reading Chapter 15 647Questions to think about 647

Social psychology 648Doing social psychology 648

Social cognition and social knowledge 648Forming impressions of people 649Schemas and categories 651Group schemas and stereotypes 652When good intentions backfire: stereotypes,

influence and behaviour 654Facing racial stereotypes 655Cutting edge: Sexist humour: does it make you sexist? 656

Conceptual and historical issues in psychological science 656

Self and identity 657Self-knowledge 657Orientations of self-knowledge 657Self-awareness 659Types of self and identity 659Social identity 659Self motives 660Self-esteem 660Cultural differences in self and identity

An international perspective 660

Social inference 661Causal attribution 661Implications and extensions of attribution theory 662Attributional biases 662Psychology in action: Attributional processes in

relationships 665Heuristic judgements 666

Attitudes and attitude change 668The nature of attitudes 668Attitudes and behaviour 669Attitude change and persuasion 670Cognitive dissonance 672Self-perception 674Chapter review 675Suggestions for further reading 676Journals to consult 677Website addresses 677

16 Interpersonal and group processesWhat you should be able to do after reading Chapter 16 679Questions to think about 679

Social influence 680Compliance 680Obedience 682Cutting edge: Milgram and obedience to authority, 2007 683The social psychology of attribution An international

perspective 684Conformity 685The Stanford Prison experiment 687Minority influence 688

People in groups 689The treatment of marginal group members and deviants 690Which is more important the individual or the group? 690Social facilitation 691Social loafing 692Group decision-making 693Cutting edge: Creativity and brainstorming 694

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CONTENTS xv

Psychology in action: The social psychology of drinking 696Leadership 697Negotiation, teamwork and leadership An international

perspective 698Crowds and social movements 699When crowds go wrong: football hooliganism 700

Intergroup relations and prejudice 701Intergroup behaviour 701Prejudice 704Cutting edge: Being left out in the cold 704Under-representation of women in academia

An international perspective 706Cutting edge: Shoot me, Im black 707Can we reduce prejudice? 709

Aggression and helping behaviour 712Aggression 712Prosocial and helping behaviour 713Controversies in Psychological Science:

What did Kitty Genoveses witnesses really witness? 714

Attraction and relationships 716Interpersonal attraction 716Loving 718Maintaining and ending relationships 718

Communication and language 719Speech and language 719Computer-mediated communication 719Non-verbal communication 720Cutting edge: Whats in a name? 720Speech style 721The social psychology of gossip 722Cutting edge: I dont mean to be rude, but ... 722Chapter review 723Suggestions for further reading 724Journals to consult 725Website addresses 725

17 Health psychologyWhat you should be able to do after reading Chapter 17 727Questions to think about 727

Health psychology: a definition 728

Health and ill health 728Nutrition 728Heart disease and eating explaining the French paradox 729Physical fitness 730Controversies in Psychological Science:

Can exercise improve mood? 731Cigarette smoking An international perspective 732Psychology in action: How to stop smoking 736Alcohol use 740Sexually transmitted diseases and AIDS 745

Stress and health 749Selyes general adaptation syndrome 750The biological basis of stress 750Physiological mechanisms involved in stress 751Cognitive appraisal and stress 752Cutting edge: Going off the rails? 753Psychoneuroimmunology 753Cutting edge: Telomeres what are they and can

they predict stress? 755Stress and the immune system 756Controversies in Psychological Science:

Can humour reduce stress? 757Psychology in action: The health benefits of saintliness

when it is better to give (and forgive) ... 762

Coping with everyday stress 764Sources of stress 764Coping styles and strategies 765Do psychological interventions reduce stress? 767Chapter review 768Suggestions for further reading 769Journals to consult 770Website addresses 770

18 Abnormal psychologyWhat you should be able to do after reading Chapter 18 773Questions to think about 773

CLASSIFICATION AND DIAGNOSIS OF MENTAL DISORDERS 774

What is abnormal? 774

The causes of mental disorders 774The psychodynamic perspective 774The medical perspective 775The cognitive behavioural perspective 775The humanistic and sociocultural perspective 775The diathesis-stress approach 775

Classification of disorders 776DSM-IV TVR classification 777Controversies in Psychological Science:

How valid and reliable is the DSM? 777

The need for classification 779Lay knowledge of mental illness 780Mental illness An international perspective 780

THE TREATMENT OF MENTAL DISORDERS 782

The evolution of interventions 782Controversies in Psychological Science:

How violent are the mentally ill? 783

The development of modern treatment 784

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Current treatment: the eclectic approach 784

Types of treatment 785Psychoanalysis and psychodynamic therapy 785Modern psychodynamic therapy 786Humanistic therapies 787Behavioural and cognitive behavioural therapies 789Psychology in action: How instructions to express

reduce distress 792Other forms of psychotherapy 793Controversies in Psychological Science:

Does psychotherapy work? 794Biological treatments 797

MENTAL DISORDERS 798

Anxiety, somatoform and dissociative mentaldisorders 798

Anxiety disorders 798Generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) 799Panic disorder 800Phobic disorders 801Cutting edge: Phobias and reduction in cortisol 803Psychology in action: Virtual planes can relieve

real fear of flying 804Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 805Obsessive-compulsive disorder 806

Somatoform disorders 808Somatisation disorder 808Conversion disorder 808

Dissociative disorders 809

Personality disorders 810Antisocial personality disorder 810

Schizophrenic disorders 814Types of schizophrenia 815Psychology in action: Treating paranoid schizophrenia 815Aetiology 816Treatment 819Mood disorders 820

Mania 820

Depression 821Description 821Aetiology 822Cutting edge: Cold summers, depressed Swedes and

antidepressants 825Suicide An international perspective 825Treatment 827

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) 829

Sexual dysfunctions 829

Paraphilia 829Psychology in action: Treating exhibitionism 830Chapter review 830Suggestions for further reading 833Journals to consult 834Website addresses 834

Appendix: Understanding research resultsDescriptive statistics A1Inferential statistics: are the results significant? A4

Glossary G1References R1Indexes I1

CONTENTSxvi

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Preface to the fourth edition

Heres an apparently simple question: What made you pick up thisbook and read it? You might be a psychology student and spotted thisbook in your library or bookshop. It might be the recommended texton your course. You may have been at a friends house, becomebored and begun leafing through this book lying on a table. You mayhave been attracted to the cover. You may even have liked theauthors other books so much that you had to read this one as well.

This simple exercise illustrates the essence of psychology thescientific study of why and how humans (and animals) behave in theway that they do. Psychology is the science of behaviour and, being ascience, it approaches the understanding of behaviour in a specificway. Everyone has an opinion on psychology and on what motivatespeople and what brings people to react and behave in the way thatthey do. We are all quasi-psychologists, in a way. Trainedpsychologists, however, attempt to understand behaviour throughcareful experimentation and empirical observation. They do thisbecause it is the best method of gaining useful and reliableinformation about behaviour and the causes of behaviour. This book,the fourth edition of Psychology, introduces you to the scientificapproach to understanding human behaviour and each chapterreviews the current state of knowledge about behaviour fromintelligence and emotion to child development and prejudice basedon sound scientific study.

Lets go back to the opening paragraph. The reason you arereading this book is probably because it was recommended on yourpsychology course or because you have spotted it in the library orbookshop and think that it will give you good value for money. As astudent of psychology, you are studying the most fascinating andcomplex subject matter in science human behaviour. You study notjust how individuals develop language, perceive visual images,reason, feel, respond to others and learn, but also the biologicalbases of these behaviours. You will learn about the various methodsthat psychologists adopt when studying behaviour and how peopleevolved to do the things that they do (although scientists do havedisagreements over the best method of study to adopt the onecertain fact you will learn in psychology is that no finding is ever cutand dried, there is always discussion and controversy).

Psychology is one of the most popular degree courses in Europeand in North America it is the third most popular degree subject inthe UK, based on student applications to study. The subject matter isintrinsically interesting and its study allows students to develop whatare called, in management-speak, transferable skills skills such asoperating a computer, writing laboratory reports, producing clear andevaluative written work, performing statistical operations, usingstatistical software packages, designing projects, communicating,

material to an audience ... all of these, in addition to understandingspecific aspects of human behaviour such as how children learn toread, why we perceive in the way that we do, how we influenceothers, how the brain works, how we reason and so on.

The fourth edition pedagogical features

The fourth edition of Psychology continues where the last threeeditions left off. It is designed to give you a flavour of what modernpsychology is about. It describes every major field of psychology andincludes up-to-date information and clear evaluation of controversialfindings, theories and models in psychology. One of the best ways tolearn about psychology is to keep abreast of new developments inthe field. As a beginning student, you clearly need to know andunderstand the basics, but you also need to know how those basicfindings are being modified and challenged. As a result, the newedition has over 430 new references, reflecting the extensive natureof the updated content and its emphasis on presenting you with up-to-date information from the psychology research literature (it alsoreflects how prolific psychologists are).

This fourth edition, like the previous three, has several features tohelp you understand the applications and controversies inpsychology and to make you think more deeply about psychologicalissues and psychological research. Heres a brief summary:

Conceptual and Historical Issues in PsychologicalScience

Understanding the history of a discipline and the context in whichresearch emerged is important for any discipline. Throughout thebook, at the relevant point, a CHiPS symbol will appearnext to the text which will flag up any issues related to amajor conceptual or historical milestone in psychology.When you come across one of these icons, pause and think aboutissues surrounding the topic being described and evaluated.

An International Perspective

Every chapter has a section headed An International Perspective,which allows you to see how psychology is, and has been, studiedacross nations and cultures. An important issue in psychologicalresearch is whether findings are universal or specific to a group beingstudied. If you find that someone behaves in a particular way in onegroup in one culture or country, would a similar person behave in thesame way, under the same conditions in another culture or country?This section provides an international perspective on topics such as

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PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITIONxviii

emotion, personality, memory, cannabis use, physical attraction,infidelity, sex bias, language and brain activation, prejudice, eatingdisorders, mental illness and many others.

MyLab

At various points in the text, youll find this symbol: .

This will alert you to one of the major interactivities in MyLab, youronline course in introductory psychology that helps you test yourknowledge and understanding of the material in each chapter. Theinteractivities come in various forms multiple choice questions, trueor false questions. Most, however, will involve you applying yourknowledge and understanding via interactive exercises.

The chapters in MyPsychLab correspond to those in your book.When you are ready to explore the resources for a chapter you willneed to log in to MyPsychLab, to the relevant chapter and click on tothe study guide. From here, you can watch and work throughanimations, exercises, interactions, tests and much more to helpfurther and consolidate your understanding.

Cutting Edge

The Cutting Edge feature reviews a recent study or series of studiesthat are novel, important or make a really significant contribution toour knowledge and understanding of psychology. Some of theseinclude research on: why celebrity worshippers worship (Chapter 1),how stories are more persuasive than statistics (Chapter 2), whethera womans fertility influences her acceptance of a date (Chapter 3),jealousy and brain activity (Chapter 3), the neurobiological correlatesof behaving like James Bond (Chapter 4), predictors of universitysuccess (Chapter 7), the effect of chewing gum on memory (Chapter8), how evening and morning types differ (Chapter 9), the role of thebrain in interpreting irony (Chapter 10), the effect of intelligence onwealth and health (Chapter 11), how eBay works (Chapter 11),loneliness and autistic tendency (Chapter 12), how postureinfluences emotion (Chapter 13), how emotion affects food intake(Chapter 13), whether your email address reflects your personality(Chapter 14), whether different States show different personalities(Chapter 14), whether sexist humour makes us sexist (Chapter 15),how obedience to authority has not changed for decades (Chapter16), the relationship between ostracism and our perception of ourenvironment (Chapter 16), the relationship between your name andyour success (Chapter 16), the role of telomeres in stress (Chapter17), and the effect of commuting distance on stress (Chapter 17).There are 44 new Cutting Edge sections in this edition.

Controversies in Psychological Science

Each chapter contains at least one section which focuses on acontroversy in psychological science. The best advice I was given byone of my tutors as an undergraduate was, question everything. Bythis, he did not mean criticising studies or theories for the sake of it.He meant that psychology was a live, constantly evolving science

which, like all sciences, progresses by contradiction: somebodyreports a finding; another refines this finding by showing that itapplies only to certain contexts, people, conditions and so on. Mostintroductory texts can appear biblical: unquestionable towers ofknowledge. But, although a great deal of fact is presented in this text,it also shows you how facts can be interpreted in different ways.

The Controversies in Psychological Science sections are made upof three parts. The first part (the issue) outlines the controversy; thesecond part (the evidence) describes and evaluates the data that giverise to the controversy; finally, the third part (conclusion) brieflysuggests what we can conclude from the evidence available. One aimof the Controversies in Psychological Science sections is to engageyou in critical thinking by presenting you with a controversial topic,theme or idea in psychology and take you through evidence for andagainst a topic, theme or idea. Some of these controversies are wellknown: Is intelligence racially determined? Can primates learnlanguage? Are psychiatric patients violent? Others are not so wellknown but cast some light on some aspect of psychology andbehaviour: Is psychology common sense? Does the weather influencemood and thinking? Do smart drugs work? Can neuroimaging detectdeception? And so on. The material covered in the Controversiessections will give you a hint of the liveliness of debate surroundingsome issues in psychology and could form the basis of discussionwith your fellow students or with colleagues in tutorials or seminars.

Psychology in Action

Research in psychology is aimed at exploring, defining and predictingthe causes of behaviour. Some of it is also aimed at using suchresearch in an applied, practical setting. The Psychology in Actionsections review the evidence for the application of psychologicalprinciples to a real-life issue: for example, using closed-circuittelevision (CCTV) to identify criminals; jury decision-making; roadtraffic accident reduction; the use of brain technology to help theseriously ill to communicate; differences between men and women inthe ways they use language, and so on. Chapter 18 on mentaldisorders is almost a whole PiA section in itself because it describesthe study and treatment of mental illness. These sections aim toshow you how principles from psychology can be used to help us tounderstand why we behave in the way that we do.

What you should be able to do after reading thechapter

At the beginning of each chapter there is a brief description aboutwhat you should be able to do after reading the chapter. This sectionprovides you with a set of goals that you should try to achieve duringthe course of reading the chapter. The items in these sections are, inessence, your learning objectives.

Questions to think about

The beginning of each chapter also presents you with a series ofquestions to think about. The Questions to Think About feature hasbeen designed to help you ask questions about your knowledge of

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PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION xix

psychology and to probe what you have learned from the topic youhave read. There are further questions for you to think aboutembedded throughout each chapter.

Chapter reviews

At the end of each chapter there is a summary of the information thathas gone before. The summary has been bullet-pointed to make iteasy to read and understand.

Glossary

Important terms that are defined in the text and which appear in boldalso appear, alphabetically, in a glossary at the end of the book.

Suggestions for further reading

As an intelligent reader of an introductory textbook you will be hungryfor more psychological knowledge after having tasted this starter. Thesuggestions for further reading are designed to satisfy your appetite.All the recommended readings come with comments and theseshould help you to decide on what further reading is best for you.Some of the reading is quite advanced; other readings are lessdemanding. You should try to consult at least a few of these perchapter because the further reading will lead you into more detaileddescription and discussion of psychological topics.

Journals to consult

In addition to the further reading, we have added a list of journals foryou to consult. About 90 per cent of the facts, theories and ideas thatyou read about in this book have been published in science journalsand there are many different types of journals in psychology. This iswhere original research, theories and methods in psychology arepublished. If you want to go direct to the source of psychologicalresearch then journals are the place to go. You might find much of thematerial in them deeply unattractive, incomprehensible or abstruse.However, you will also find material that is original and new. Textbook

authors are a little like journalists reporting the events and peoplethat they think readers will be interested in. Of course, textbookauthors have few of the failings of journalists but they can only giveyou a brief glimpse of the events that they report. The beauty ofpsychology is that you can consult the source yourself, and thejournals listed should help you do this.

Website addresses

Following the annotated suggested reading, we have included, foreach chapter, the internet addresses of some websites which areworth visiting. Some of these give you more information about thegeneral or specific issues raised in the chapter; some provide youwith online tutorials, experiments, virtual libraries or bibliographies.

All of these features, together with the extensive revision of the textto make it up-to-date and comprehensive, should provide you with aneffective learning tool. To familiarise yourself with these features andhow they will benefit your study of this text, they are reproduced anddescribed in the guided tour which follows.

I very much hope that you will learn a lot about psychology fromthe fourth edition of Psychology. I also hope that you enjoy what youlearn and that the book will take you to places you had not thought ofexploring. This is the beauty of psychology. Opening one door will leadyou to several others. If you like what you have read, then please dolet me know. One of the joys of teaching and researching is obtainingfeedback about the work that you produce. If you have any commentto make or suggestion for improvement, then please write to me, G.Neil Martin, Department of Psychology, School of Health and SocialSciences, Middlesex University, The Burroughs, Hendon, London,NW4 4BT, UK, or email me at: n.martin@mdx.ac.uk. You can also visitmy website at: http://www.mdx.ac.uk/hssc/staff/profiles/academic/martinn.htm.

G. Neil Martin, FRSALondon, 2009

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This book is accompanied by MyPsychLab, which contains awealth of interactive learning tools to enrich your experience ofthe text, including a study plan, multiple choice questions,animations, interactions and questions. Log on tohttp://www.mypsychlab.co.uk and follow the registrationinstructions inside the access card at the back of this book toaccess these valuable resources.

Guided tour

The role of the hippocampus in memory

The hippocampus, like many structures of thebrain, is not fully mature at birth. In fact, it is notuntil a child is 23 years old that most of these

structures are fully developed. As a result, many cognitiveactivities, such as the formation of semantic memories, arenot particularly well developed until this age (Liston andKagan, 2002). One reason that few people rememberevents that occurred during infancy may be the immaturityof the hippocampus.

The hippocampus receives information from all associ-ation areas of the brain and sends information back tothem. In addition, the hippocampus has two-way connec-tions with many regions in the interior of the cerebralhemispheres. Thus, the hippocampal formation is in aposition to know and to influence what is going onin the rest of the brain (Gluck and Myers, 1995).Presumably, it uses this information to influence theestablishment of explicit long-term memories.

The structure appears to be very important for navigat-ing or exploring our way around a spatial environment or

in forming representations of the locations ofobjects (OKeefe and Nadel, 1978). Morris et al.(1982), for example, placed rats in a pool of milky

water that contained a platform just underneath the water.

In order to avoid swimming constantly, the rats had to findthe platform hidden beneath the milky water.

Eventually, through trial and error, the rats would findthe platform. Then, the researchers performed a series ofexperimental ablations. One group of rats receivedlesions to the hippocampus, another received lesions tothe cerebral cortex and another received no lesion. Whenthe rats were then allowed into the pool, the pattern ofbehaviour seen in Figure 8.21 was observed. Notice howthose rats with the hippocampus lesion had extremelypoor navigation compared with the cortex lesion andcontrol group. Similarly, when rats had learned that therewas a platform under water and were then allowed toexplore the water with the platform removed, those withan intact hippocampus would spend longer in the part ofthe maze where the platform had been previously posi-tioned. Those rats with hippocampal lesions, however,did not engage in this dwell time in the quadrant wherethe platform once was (Gerlai, 2001). This suggests animportant role for the hippocampus in spatial learning.

Both rodents and primates show deficits in what hasbeen called spatial memory (Redish and Touretzsky,1997). Spatial memory, the ability to encode and retrieveinformation about locations and routes is, like memoryitself, not a unitary function. Kessels et al. (2001), forexample, note that there is a difference between memory

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sticky strings spurting from his wrists, to cheer for a group ofhobbits, to boo an asthmatic, black-helmeted villain, or to seea boy in spectacles racing on a broom in a flying contest.Reality becomes important, however, if the reality is meant tobe accurately portrayed. Dustin Hoffmans character in RainMan, for example, although an extreme example, is an

attempt at a serious portrayal of the social debilitation experi-enced by a person with Aspergers Syndrome. (The man whoinspired the Hoffman character appears in Chapter 12.)

The general lesson, however, is this: dont go to the moviesexpecting to learn much about psychology. In fact, as this sec-tion demonstrates, you might as well forget it. . .

324 CHAPTER 8 MEMORY

(a) Leonard Shelby, played by Guy Pierce in the film Memento, is one of the few successful cinematic portrayals of amnesia. The mostsuccessful, however, appears to be Dory (b) , in Finding Nemo.Source: (a) Summit Entertainment/The Kobal Collection Ltd; (b) W. Disney/Everett/Rex Features.

Psychology in action Continued

Each chapter of Psychology begins with an extract introducingyou to the topic by using a real world example. Questions tothink about encourage you to reflect on the key issues in thechapter, while the list of What you should be able to do helpsyou to track your learning as you read. The MyPsychLab featurealso suggests some of the interactive resources available tosupport your understanding of these topics. [

Throughout the text youll see this icon, which indicates that there is a relevantresource in MyPsychLab to enable fullerunderstanding of the topic.

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WHAT YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO DO AFTER READING CHAPTER 7

Do different aspects of learning have different underlyingprinciples? Is learning to ride a bike governed by differentprinciples from those used for learning to find your wayaround college or university or learning a foreign language?

Does all learning have to be intentional? Can you learnsomething without knowing it or without wanting to learn it?

Is learning a process that depends on innate ability, theability to adopt successful learning strategies or both?

What factors do you think enhance and promote theprocess of learning?

What psychological factors can enhance (or impair) youracademic learning?

In what way is the brain like a computer (and vice versa)?

Describe the concept of habituation and the phenomenaof classical conditioning and operant learning.

Understand the principles underlying classicalconditioning.

Understand the principles underlying operantconditioning.

Describe and explain conditioned aversions. Describe the nature of insight. Apply the principles of learning theory to behaviour. Describe some of the factors that influence academic

learning.

CHA

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R 7Luck can change your lifeMs V is a compulsive gambler. It wrecked her marriage and drained her wallet long ago. Her kids dont like her

because she is always barely scraping by and borrowing money from them waiting for the next big win

that she hopes will give her all the cash she needs to escape her current mess.

How did it all begin? The answer lies in the schedules of reinforcement. At college, one of her boyfriends

liked to bet on the horses and V went along one day. She bet 10 on a filly named Flo and won 300. What

a rush! Luck brought her a giant reinforcer without much effort with no down side in sight. Her boyfriend

was excited, too. V saved the money and went back to the track several more times over the next several

weeks sometimes alone, sometimes with her boyfriend making more 10 bets. Most lost. A few made

small wins. But the betting was exciting, and there was lots of sensory stimulation when her horse took one

of the front positions.

When Vs 300 was about half gone, she bet on a long shot with big odds. No one expected Viceroy to

win, but V put down 75 on a hunch. Viceroy. . . won by a nose. V walked away with 4,500 in her pocket.

Early periods of generous reinforcement can have a big effect on our later behavioural decisions.

Source: adapted Baldwin and Baldwin (1998)

QUESTIONS TO THINK ABOUT

Explore the accompanying video, simulations, and animations on MyPsychLab. This chapterincludes activities on: Acquisition of conditioned responses Stimulus generalisation and stimulusdiscrimination Classical conditioning of Little Albert Schedules of reinforcement Check yourunderstanding and prepare for your exams using the multiple choice, short answer and essay practice tests also available

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This new edition is richly illustrated with diagrams andphotographs.

Psychology in action uses fascinating, real-life examples to showhow psychology is applied in the real world.

dimension to their colour vision. A study of women witha phenotype expressing four photopigments found thatthis was the case: these people perceived more chromaticappearances than did male or female trichromats(Jameson et al., 2001).

Two of the three colour defects described belowinvolve the red/green system. People with these defectsconfuse red and green. Their primary colour sensations

are yellow and blue; red and green both look yellowish.Figure 5.22 shows one of the figures from a commonlyused test for defective colour vision. A person who con-fuses red and green will not be able to see the 5.

The most serious defect, called protanopia (literally,first-colour defect), appears to result from a lack of thephotopigment for red cones. The fact that people withprotanopia have relatively normal acuity suggests that

183

According to some anthropologists, the colour red is seen as asign of dominance in non-human species. Of course, whatapplies in the animal kingdom does not necessarily apply tothe human kingdom. A study from researchers at theUniversity of Durham, UK, however, suggests that it might.

In a novel study, the researchers examined the success andfailure of sportsmen and women who wore red or blue cos-tumes (Hill and Barton, 2005). In the 2004 Olympic Games,contestants in the combat sports, boxing, tae kwon do, Greco-Roman wrestling and freestyle wrestling, were randomly giveneither red or blue costumes to wear. When Hill and Barton(2005) analysed the win rate of contestants, those in red cos-tumes won more fights than those in blue costumes.

They then further extended this research by examining thewin rate of players in the Euro 2004 international football com-petition. The performance of five teams that wore red wascompared with the performance of the same teams when theywore a different colour. Again, the studys finding was novel:the team won more often when wearing red shirts.

According to the authors, given the ubiquity of aggressivecompetition throughout human societies and history, ourresults suggest that the evolutionary psychology of colour islikely to be a fertile field for further investigation.

The effect of the colour red even seems to extend to cogni-tive test performance. Researchers exposed students to eitherthe colour red, green or black before giving them a test.Participants who were exposed to red even if participantswere not consciously aware of it performed less well on atest than did those who were not (Elliot et al., 2007). Theeffect was found even when a number was written in red ink atthe top of a sheet of paper. When participants brain activa-tion was examined, there was greater activation in the rightside of the frontal lobe when seeing the colour red (a theory,described in Chapter 13, argues that the left and right frontparts of the brain mediate different kinds of emotional experi-ences, positive and negative respectively).

But some psychologists have questioned this influence ofred, especially that seen in the sport studies. For example, itcould be argued that the colour itself did not influence thechances of winning but that fact that red was more highly visible

in the sports studied (Rowe et al, 2005). Some have also ques-tioned the bias of the referee. The colour might influence theperception of performance, regardless of actual performance.

In an ingenious test of this hypothesis, Hagemann et al.,(2008) asked 42 experience tae kwon do referees to watch avideotape of five different sparring competitions. The competi-torss heads and trunk were covered in red or blue material.When asked to award points to these competitors, the redones were given 13 per cent more points (as previous researchwould predict). Then, and this is the ingenious twist, theexperimenters electronically switched the colours of the com-petitors the actual competitors remained the same, as didtheir performance, but the colour they wore changed. Whenthis happened, the points awarded to the red competitorsincreased. Those who had been given the points in the previ-ous study (and were now dressed in blue) were awardedfewer. These results, according to the authors, suggest need achange to the rules (i.e., to forbid red sports attire) and sup-port referees by providing electronic-decision making only.

Psychology in action Red light = danger?

VISION

Does the colour of a teams kit influence their success?Source: Chris Coleman/Manchester United

Suicide attempts in adolescence are associated with heavy orfrequent drinking and illegal drug-taking (Shaffer and Pfeffer,2001; Gould et al., 2003). A group of Norwegian researchersmonitored the correlation between substance use and suicide intwo surveys (in 1992 and 2002) of 23,000 1319-year-olds

(Rossow et al., 2005). There was a significant relationshipbetween increased substance use and suicide, but only in girls.For boys, the effect of substance use seemed to be less pro-nounced in 2002 than in 1992. For both sexes, the substancemost significantly associated with suicide attempts was alcohol.

Suicide Continued

826 CHAPTER 18 ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY

1950(11 countries)

Age distribution of suicidebetween 1950 and 1998

1988(50 countries)

60%

40%

544 years

45%

55%

45+ years

Figure 18.9 World Health Organisation statistics for suicide rates across the worldSource: World Health Organisation

Reported (19501995) and estimated (2020)suicide rates in reporting countries

01950

Women

Men

5

1995 2020900,000

deaths reported1.53 mio. deaths

estimated

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35

Psychology is a young science and the discipline has triedhard to earn and demonstrate its scientific spurs. Chemistry,physics or biology seem to have no such problems: their his-tory is testament to their status as a science. A new study,however, suggests that psychology is gaining ground.

Simonton (2004) compared the scientific status of psychol-ogy with that of physics, chemistry, sociology and biology. Heidentified a number of characteristics that typified a generalscience including:

the number of theories and laws mentioned in introductorytextbooks (the higher the ratio of theory to law, the softer i.e. less scientific the discipline);

publication rate (the more frequent, the more scientific thediscipline);

the appearance of graphs in journal papers (the harder thediscipline, the greater the number of graphs);

the impact made by young researchers (the more scientificthe discipline, the greater the agreement that a researcherscontribution is significant);

how peers evaluated 60 of their colleagues in their own disciplines, and how often single papers are cited (referredto in research papers).

Simonton also looked at other measures of scientific stand-ing: lecture disfluency (the number of pause words such asuh, er and um: these are more common in less formal, lessstructured and less factual disciplines); the extent to which

references in journal articles were recent; the age at which aperson received the Nobel prize; and perceived difficulty ofthe discipline. Simonton combined these measures to providea composite measure of scientific status.

Based on the first set of indicators, Simonton found thatthe natural sciences were judged to be more scientific thanwere the social sciences. Psychology fell right on the mean at the junction between natural and social sciences, as Figure1.1 shows. However, psychologys score was much closer tobiology than to sociology. The biggest gap in scores was foundbetween psychology and sociology, suggesting that the disci-pline is closer to its natural science cousins than its socialscience acquaintances.

British psychologist Hans Eysenck noted in this chaptersopening quote, most people believe that they are expertsin human behaviour. And to some extent we are all layscientists, of a kind, although generally unreliable ones.

Psychological research, however, frequently contradictspeoples assumed expertise as the Controversies section-below illustrates.

5WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Cutting edge How much of a science is psychology?

Psychology

1.11.00.90.80.70.60.50.40.30.20.1

0.00.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.91.01.11.21.31.41.5

Biology

Chemistry

Physics

Sociology

Com

posi

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core

1 2 3 4 5

Rank in hierarchy

Figure 1.1 According to Simontons study, psychologys scientificstatus was more similar to that of biology than other disciplinestraditionally associated with it, such as sociology.

Source: D.K. Simonton, Psychologys status as a scientific discipline: itsempirical placement within an implicit hierarchy of the sciences, Review ofGeneral Psychology, 2004, 8, 1, p. 65 (Fig. 2).

The stereotypical image of a psychologist (a) and a traditionalscientist (b).

Source: (a) Pelaez Inc./Corbis; (b) Tomas de Arno/Alamy Images.

(a) (b)

Cutting edge introduces you to some of themost interesting new subjects of study incontemporary psychology.

To be a true psychologist it is vital to understand theconceptual and historical issues that shapethe field. Watch out for this icon as you read,which will help you remember key milestonesin the development of psychological science.

An International Perspective allows you to explore globaldifferences in psychological research, attitudes, policies andmethods.

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The extensive Chapter review enables you toconsolidate what youve just learnt and is a great toolto help you revise.

At the end of each chapter, Suggestions for furtherreading, Journals to consult and Website addressesprovide links to further sources of information,allowing you to broaden your understanding of thetopic and providing a great starting point for your ownresearch.

547

Chapter review

Prenatal development

The three stages of prenatal development span the timebetween conception and birth. In just nine months, the zygotegrows from a single cell, void of human resemblance, into afully developed foetus, complete with physical features thatlook much like yours and mine, except in miniature.

Sex is determined by the sex chromosomes. Male sex organsare produced by the action of a gene on the Y chromosome thatcauses the gonads to develop into testes.

The testes secrete androgens, a class of hormones thatstimulates the development of male sex organs. If testes arenot present, the foetus develops as a female.

The most important factor in normal foetal development is themothers nutrition; malnutrition leads to abnormaldevelopment and impaired cognition.

Normal foetal development can be disrupted by the presenceof teratogens, chemicals which can cause mental retardationand physical deformities; one teratogen is alcohol whenconsumed by a pregnant woman, this may lead to foetalalcohol syndrome.

There is evidence that the human foetus is capable ofdiscriminating between sensory stimuli while in the womb,suggesting that it is capable of a rudimentary form of cognition.

Physical and perceptual development in infancy and childhood

A newborn infants first movements are reflexes that are crucialto its survival. For example, the rooting, sucking and swallowingreflexes are important in finding and consuming food.

Sophisticated movements, such as crawling and standing,develop and are refined through natural maturation and practice.

A newborns senses appear to be at least partially functional atbirth. However, normal development of the senses, like that ofmotor abilities, depends on experience.

The brain appears to develop throughout infancy andadolescence, with myelination being the key characteristic of maturation.

Because the infant lacks language, most studies of motor andperceptual development examine the childs non-verbalresponse to stimulation. These responses include movementsinvolving the head, mouth and eyes.

If an infant is deprived of the opportunity to practise themduring a critical period, these skills may fail to develop, whichwill affect the childs performance as an adult.

Before the age of 2 years, infants seem to be more concernedwith the contours of visual stimuli a phenomenon called theexternality effect.

Cognitive development in infancy and childhood

The first step in a childs cognitive development is learning thatmany events are contingent on its own behaviour. Thisunderstanding occurs gradually and is controlled by thedevelopment of the nervous system and by increasinglycomplex interactions with the environment.

By around 3 months, the infant shows awareness of changes inits environment; by 6 months, it is able to remember temporalorder of stimuli. At 8 months, it is able to recognise wordsspoken in a story that it heard a while before.

Over the course of development from 1 to 2 years the number ofsequences of actions that the child can remember increases.

Three factors seem to account for the childs ability to recallinformation better with age: the formation of memory-relatedstructures, the development of language, and the developmentof metamemory the realisation that using memory strategieswill help the child to think and behave.

According to Piaget, as children develop they acquire cognitivestructures mental representations or rules that are used forunderstanding and dealing with the world and for thinkingabout and solving problems. The two principal types ofcognitive structure are schemata (mental representations orsets of rules that define a particular category of behaviour) andconcepts (rules that describe properties of environmentalevents and their relations to other concepts).

According to Piaget, two processes help a child to adapt to itsenvironment: assimilation, the process by which newinformation is modified to fit existing schemata, andaccommodation, the process by which old schemata arechanged by new experiences.

Piaget divided a childs cognitive development into fourperiods a system that is widely, if not universally, accepted.These periods are determined by the childs experiences andthe maturation of its nervous system.

An infants earliest cognitive abilities are closely tied to theexternal stimuli in the immediate environment; objects exist forthe infant only when they are present (the sensorimotor period).

Gradually, infants learn that objects exist even when hidden.The development of object permanence leads to the ability torepresent things symbolically, which is a prerequisite for theuse of language (the preoperational period).

Next, the ability to perform logical analysis and to understandmore complex cause-and-effect relations develops (the periodof concrete operations).

Around the age of 11 years, a child develops more adult-likecognitive abilities abilities that may allow the child to solvedifficult problems by means of abstract reasoning (the periodof formal operations).

CHAPTER REVIEW

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Suggestions for further reading

Personality general reading

Allen, B. (2006) Personality Theories: Development, growth anddiversity (5th edn). Harlow: Pearson Education.

Carver, C.S. and Scheier, M.F. (2008) Perspectives on Personality(6th edn). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Cloninger, S.C. (2008) Theories of Personality (5th edn). Boston:Prentice Hall.

Costa, P.T. and McCrae, R.R. (2005) Personality in Adulthood. NewYork: Guilford Press.

Gregory, R.J. (2007) Psychological Testing (5th edn). Boston: Allyn& Bacon.

Lombardo, G.P. and Foschi, R. (2002) The European origins of personality psychology. European Psychologist, 7(2), 1435.

Mischel, W. (2004) Toward an integrative science of the person.Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 122.

Monte, C.F. and Sollod, R.N. (2002) Beneath the Mask (7th edn).Chichester: Wiley.

Pervin, L.A. (2002) The Science of Personality. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press.

Each of the titles in these two sections is a very good introduction topersonality.

Issues and controversies in personality research

Canli, T. (2006) Biology of Personality and Individual Differences.Hove: Psychology Press.

Eysenck, H. (1985) Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire.London: Pelican.

Matthews, G., Deary, I.J. and Whiteman, M.C. (2003) PersonalityTraits (2nd edn). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

McCrae, R.R. (2004) Human nature and culture: A traitperspective. Journal of Research in Personality, 38, 314.

Pervin, L. (2002) Current Controversies and Issues in Personality(3rd edn). Chichester: Wiley.

Zimmer, C. (2005) The neurobiology of the self. ScientificAmerican Mind, 93101.

Zuckerman, M. (2005) Psychobiology of Personality (2nd edn).Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Special issue of The Psychologist on Freuds Influence, 2006, 19, 9.

WEBSITE ADDRESSES

Journals to consult

British Journal of Psychiatry

British Journal of Psychology

European Journal of Personality

European Psychologist

International Journal of Psychology

Journal of Personality

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Journal of Research in Personality

Perceptual and Motor Skills

Personality and Individual Differences

Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

Psychological Reports

Psychological Science

Website addresses

http://pmc.psych.nwu.edu/personalityThe Personality Project at Northwestern University website. This excellentsite has links to further reading, personality descriptions, relatedwebsites and much more.

http://www.personalityresearch.org/The Great Ideas in Personality website provides an account of exactly that.

http://www.psychology.org/links/Environment_Behavior_Relationships/Measurement/A collection of links to psychological testing and test sites.

http://www.psychology.org/links/Environment_Behavior_Relationships/Disposition-Personality/A collection of links to personality sites.

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The issueThe sale of mobile phones has been one of the marketing suc-cesses of the past few years: approximately 1 billion of themwere in use worldwide in 2002 and it is estimated that 2.6 billionwill be in use by the end of 2009. Mobile phones are portable,convenient and handy. So handy, that people often use themwhile doing other things. Surveys suggest that around 80 percent of mobile phone users report having used the device whiledriving, despite the use of such devices being illegal in manycountries (Goodman et al., 1999). In 2003, for example, the UKpassed an amendment to the Road Vehicles Act which made it anoffence to drive a motor vehicle on a road while using a hand-held telephone (although not hands-free sets). The rationale forthe ban is that factors such as holding the phone or dialling anumber cause significant distraction and lack of control over thevehicle. Is there scientific evidence for this assumption?

The evidenceStrayer and Johnston (2001) have suggested that it is not thephysical handling of mobile phones that leads to accidents butthe conversations people have on them. They measured theerrors made by drivers in a simulated driving task. These driverseither listened to a radio, listened to a book on tape, performed aword shadowing exercise on a mobile phone, held a conversationon a mobile phone or held a conversation using a hands-free set.

The authors cite previous studies that have shown a relation-ship between phone use and driving accidents. Redelmeier andTibshiranis study (1997) of the phone records of those involvedin driving accidents found that 24 per cent of people used their

phones within the 10 minutes before the accident. They arguedthat this rate suggested a danger that was as great as havingexcess alcohol in your bloodstream. Strayer and Johnston sug-gest that while the relationship appears causal, there may beother factors, such as the personality and disposition of thedrivers, which caused the accident. Furthermore the study didnot consider the conversational aspect of telephone use,although a study by Briem and Hedman (1995) suggested thatholding a simple conversation did not significantly impair theability to stay on the road.

Strayer and Johnston tested two hypotheses. The periph-eral-interference hypothesis attributes driving accidents tonon-conversational uses of the mobile phone such as holdingand dialling. The attentional hypothesis attributes any drivingimpairment to the nature of the conversation taking place onthe mobile phone.

In their simulated driving experiment, 48 undergraduatesused a joystick to operate a cursor which they moved to followa moving target on a computer screen. The target would moveunpredictably, although not suddenly. Sporadically a green orred light would appear. If a green light appeared, the partici-pant was asked to continue; if the red light appeared theywere told to press a button which represented the brake onthe joystick. The participants either conversed with a confed-erate on a mobile phone they discussed President BillClintons potential impeachment, and the Salt Lake CityOlympic Committee bribery scandal or conversed with ahands-free set or listened to a radio broadcast (which theycould choose). The researchers found that the probability ofmissing a red light almost doubled when participants talkedon the phone whether hands-free or hand-held comparedwith when they listened to the radio. There was no significantdifference in the error rate between the two phone groups. Notonly was the miss rate higher in these two groups, they werealso slower to respond to the lights, as Figure 9.5 shows.People drove more poorly during the talking portion of theconversation than the listening portion.

To check that participants were listening to the material in thecontrol condition the authors did not assess this in their firstexperiment and to ensure that the control condition wasspeech rather than music and speech-based, a second experi-ment required participants to complete the same simulateddriving task but one group listened to a book on tape. This groupdid not perform significantly worse than the phone groups, sug-gesting that attending to verbal material is not enough to impairdriving: active engagement in conversation is necessary for errorsto be committed.

Controversies in Psychological Science Does mobile phone useimpair your driving?

SELECTIVE ATTENTION

A hands-free set causes less distraction than a hand-held phone,when driving, but research suggests that it is the conversation youhave that causes inattention

Source: Corbis/Juice Images

New Controversies in Psychological Science examinerecent reports and beliefs about psychologicalfindings, to help develop your skills in critical analysis.

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MyPsychLab walkthrough

Study PlanThe Study Plan section of MyPsychLab is a comprehensive self-test and revision centre. When you log in to MyPsychLabyou can select any chapter and take a pre-test, to check howwell you understand the topics in that chapter. This identifiesany areas you need to work on and generates a personal studyplan to help you learn. You can then take a post-test afterrevising the study materials in more depth, to check yourprogress. The study plan includes:

Pre-test and post-test questions Learning resources including simulations, animations

and video Quick review revision questions eText Also accompanying the Fourth Edition of Psychology are a range

of additional resources to help you learn and revise, such astwice-yearly research updates to provide access to the latestpsychological literature.

Each chapter contains a large bank of multiple choice questionsallowing you to test your knowledge of every topic within thebook.

Flashcards are available for all key terms in the book, as well asan easy-to-access online glossary.

Log in to http://www.mypsychlab.co.uk to access all theadditional learning materials that accompany Psychology,Fourth Edition.

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VideoWatch video clips of key experiments and phenomena inpsychology and test yourself on what you have observed.

Simulations Interactive activities that test your understanding in a practical way.

AnimationsFun and interesting animations allow you to watch psychologyin action.

Media LibraryThe MyPsychLab Media Library contains a wealth ofchapter-specific, rich learning resources to help youassess your knowledge and master key concepts.

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The teaching package

For lecturers a range of supplementary materials isavailable to help you to plan lectures, createcustomised tests and set additional, trackedassignments for students. This package includes:

Instructors Manual

PowerPoint Slides

MyPsychLab with additional assignments

MyTest testbank

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The authors

Dr G. Neil Martin is Reader inPsychology at Middlesex University,UK, a Chartered Scientist, and a Fellowof the Royal Society of Arts. He waseducated in Wales, Scotland andEngland, graduating with a first-classMaster of Arts degree in psychologyfrom the University of Aberdeen,where he also won the annual HenryPrize for outstanding undergraduateachievement in psychology. Hecompleted his Ph.D. onpsychophysiology and olfactory

perception at the University of Warwick, England.He is the author of Psychology A Beginners Guide (Oneworld,

2008); Human Neuropsychology, the first European textbook in thefield now in its second edition (Pearson Education, 2006); EssentialBiological Psychology (Hodder Arnold, 2003); Study Guide Psychology, with Nicky Brunswick (Pearson Education, 2005); and the6th and 7th international editions of Psychology, with Neil Carlsonand colleagues from the US and Canada (Allyn & Bacon, 2006, 2009).With Nicky Brunswick, he wrote the first European online course inintroductory psychology (Pearson Education, 2001, 2003), now in itsthird edition (Pearson Education, 2006). He is the author of over 150articles on psychology, has contributed to the Oxford Companion toFood, and acts as