Chapter 4: The psychology of Second Language Acquisition

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1. Language and the brain

2. Learning process: SLA

3. Differences among learners

Language and the brain

Left hemisphere Right hemisphere

Phonology Nonverbal (as babies’ cries)

Morphology Visuospatial information

Syntax Intonation

Function words and inflections Nonliteral meaning and ambiguity

Tone systems Many pragmatic abilities

Much lexical knowledge Some lexical knowledge

Principal hemispheric specializations (p69) also see Brown (2007):p125

Language and the brain

1. lateralization(側化現象 ) 2-puberty 2. Critical period hypothesis 3.Broca’s area/ Wernicke’s area- B&W 4. language activity /core linguistic processes 5. SLA-right hemisphere involvement L2-learnt by many means; use more

memorization /L1-learnt by single means

* Multilingual speakers

Coordinate bilingualism Compound bilingualism Subordinate bilingualism

Q1:When there is differential impairment or recovery in the brain, which language loses first and recovers first?

Learning processes

1. Information processing (IP) (訊息處理 )

(1) Attention-processing(2) Skill Learning Theory

(3)Restructuring

2. connectionism (聯結論 ) --PDP

Information Processing(訊息處理 ) Cognitive psychologists

language acquisition →storing, integrating, and retrieving information.

do not think that humans have a language-specific module (i.e. LAD) in the brain.

do not assume that ‘acquisition’ and ‘learning’ are distinct mental processes.

L2 acquisition→ the building up of knowledge → automatically

Stages of information ProcessingInput Central processing Output

Perception Controlled-automatic processing

Production

Declarative –procedural knowledge

Restructuring

noticed input→pay attention to it →intake (frequency, perceptual saliency…p75)

practice Fluency in speech and writing

McLaughlin’s Attention-Processing Model 注意力處理模式 (Brown. P299) Input: notice, pay attention→intake

Brown (2007):p300, 302 - Controlled processes - Automatic processes

McLaughlin’s Attention-Processing Modelalso see Brown (2007):p300,302

Attention controlled automatic

Focal(intentional attention)

Performance based on formal rule learning

Performance in a test situation

Peripheral Performance based on implicit learning or analogic learning

Performance in communication situations

From Brown (2007), p300

Anderson’s Skill Learning Theory

Declarative knowledge Procedural knowledge Three stages: (1) information is stored. (drowned-

drown+ed) (2) associative stage: (past tense…+ed) (3) autonomous stage

Question 2:

Anderson thinks that L2 learners do not reach full autonomy as L1 learners. What factors may influence the process of achieving autonomy in L2 acquisition?

Restructuring

L2 knowledge as continua of controlled-automatic and explicit-implicit

將訊息自動化需要重組的過程 from exemplar-based to rule-based Restructuring :because L is complex,

hierarchical, not (necessarily) linearly Restructuring doesn’t necessarily happen all

at once, but over time

Restructuring

U-shaped behavior is often evidenced during restructuring

Stage 1 Stage 3

Stage 2

correct utterances

incorrect utterances

feet feet

foots

Three psychological approaches

Multidimensional Model

Processability Theory

Competition Model

Multidimensional model 2 principal axes: developmental & variational grammatical structures (organized hierarchically) Individual variation Focus on the relationship between implicit knowledge

and output hierarchy: (1) Canonical order strategy (COS) (2) initialization /finalization strategy (IFS) (3) subordinate clause strategy (SCS)

Processability

Reorientation of Multidimensional model Hierarchy of processing skills (1) lemma/word access (ex:apple) (2) category procedure (ex: three apples) (3) phrasal procedure(ex: three big apples) (4) S-procedure (ex: There is an apple./ There are three apples) (5) Clause boundary

Competition model Functional approach: L1 form-function

mapping→SLA Competition among cues that signal functions Cue strength: task frequency/ contrastive

availability/ conflict reliability Language process involves “competition”

among the various cues Reminder to teachers that Ss do not only

depend on L2 formal linguistic features as their only tools for deciphering the target language L2 –(Brown 2007, p.255)

Competition model (form-function mapping) 1. horse -form: sounds [hors] -function: 4 legs/ hay eating animal 2. Horses eat hay. - Word order-form: horses + V + hay - Function: “horses” is S.; “hay” is O. - inflection- _s: form; function: more than one

horse (p79)

Connectionist approaches Focus on the increasing strength of associations between

stimuli and responses (IP: focus on the inferred abstraction of “ rules” or restructuring.)

Learning is change in the strength of these connections; learning is not dependent on UG or rule-formation.

Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP): a network of nodes (units)→ repeated patterns of units (input)→ extract regularities→ probabilistic association (connection strengths/patterns of activation)

Frequency influences learning

IP PDP

Attention is available for controlled processing vs. automatic processing

Not serial in nature

Attention is distributed in local pattern

Processing is parallel pattern

Knowledge is not stored in memory or retrieved as patterns

Connection strengths /Patterns being recreated

Question 3:

Why are some L2 learners more successful than others?

Differences in learners Age Sex Aptitude Motivation Cognitive style Personality Learning strategies (the last three are closely related to and interact

with each other.)

Difference in learners: age

Children are more successful L2 learners? 1. initial rate learning (success) / older

learners have an advantage (popular belief)/ learners who are introduced to the L2 in childhood (ultimate achievement)

Critical period hypothesis(Lenneberg hypothesis):Genie

Age difference in SLAYounger advantage Older advantage

Brain plasticity Learning capacity

Not analytical Analytic ability

Fewer inhibitions(usually) Pragmatic skills

Weaker group identity Greater knowledge of L1

Simplified input more likely Real-world knowledge

Differences in learners: sex

Female are better L2 learners? --verbal fluency --women’s brain may be less asymmetrically

organized than men’s for speech (Kimura 1992).

--women: better at memorizing complex forms/ men: better at computing compositional rules (Halpern 2000)

--differences related to hormonal variables

Differences in learners: aptitudes (1/2)• Phonemic coding ability: the capacity to

process auditory input into segments which can be stored and retrieved. If the hearer cannot analyze the incoming stream of speech into phonemes in order to recognize morphemes, input may not result in intake.

• Inductive language learning ability and grammatical sensitivity concerned with central processing.

Differences in learners: aptitudes (2/2)• Associative memory capacity: how linguistic

items are stored and with how they are recalled and used in output (speaker fluency).

• Skehan (1998 )concludes that language learning aptitude “is not completely distinct from general cognitive abilities.”

Differences in learners: motivation(1/2)• Significant goal or need/desire to attain the goal/

perception that learning L2 is relevant to fulfilling the goal or meeting the need/belief in the likely success or failure if learning L2/value of potential outcomes or rewards

Differences in learners: motivation (2/2)• 2 type of motivation(Brown 2007, p175)• --integrative motivation: based on interest in

learning L2; emotional or affective factors are dominant (learning by a member of the dominant group in a society)

• --instrumental motivation: involves perception of purely practical value in learning L2 (learning by a subordinate group member)

Differences in learners: cognitive style

Refers to individual’s preferred way of processing: (perceiving, conceptualizing, organizing and recalling information.)

Brown (2007):p120

Cognitive stylesField-dependent Field-independent

Global - Particular

Holistic - Analytic

Deductive (top-down)

- Inductive(bottom-up)

Focus on meaning - Focus on form

Differences in learners: personality Anxiety :most attention in SLA research. Low anxiety facilitates language learning. Instructional context or task influences

anxiety and reporting. (oral performance) Systematic cultural differences are found

between groups of learners. (face concept) Low anxiety and high self-confidence

increase Ss motivation to learn.

Personality traitsAnxious - Self-confident

Risk-avoiding - Risk-taking

Shy - Adventuresome

introverted - Extroverted

Inner-directed - Other-directed

Reflective - Impulsive

Imaginative - Uninquisitive

Creative - Uncreative

Empathetic - Insensitive to others

Tolerant of ambiguity - Closure-oriented

Boldface print means positive correlation with success in L2 learning.

Differences in learners: learning strategies (1/2)• Metacognitive : preview a concept/ decide

specific aspects of input in advance/ rehearse linguistic components/ self-monitoring of progress and knowledge states

• Cognitive: repeat or translate/ remember words by L1’s sounds/ create vivid images/ guess meanings through inferencing.

Differences in learners: learning strategies (2/2) Social/affective: seek chances to interact with

native speakers/ work cooperatively with peers/ ask Qs/ request repetition, explanation, or examples

Good learners traits (Ellis 1994):

Concern for language form (but also attention to meaning)

Concern for communication Active task approach Awareness of the learning process Capacity to use strategies flexibly in

accordance with task requirements

Question 4:

How do you feel about multilingualism so far?

The effects of multilingualism (1/2)

Positive effects: 1. foreign language study is good for “training the

mind.” 2. an essential characteristic of “educated” and

“cultured” members of society 3. on intellectual function based on “measures of

conceptual development, creativity, metalinguistic awareness, semantic development, and analytic skills” (p93)

The effects of multilingualism (2/2)

Negative effects: 1. negative impact on general intelligence

2. capacity limitations for language acquisition and maintenance, that simultaneous bilingualism in childhood may result in a narrower range of lexical development in either language and that intensive and continued use of L2 many reduce accessibility of L1

Thank you for your attention!!