psychology over life span of human life
DESCRIPTION
Psychology over life span of human lifeTRANSCRIPT
![Page 1: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Psychology and Human Development
This multimedia product and its content are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network.Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images.Any rental, lease or lending of the program.
![Page 2: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Chapter 8 Overview
• Theories of development• Prenatal development• Infancy• Early and middle childhood• Adolescence• Early and middle adulthood• Later adulthood• Death and dying
Kannan krishnamuirthy
![Page 3: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Theories of Development• Developmental psychology
• The study of how humans grow, develop, and change throughout the life span
![Page 4: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
What did Piaget find regarding stages of cognitive development?
• Piaget proposed that cognitive ability develops in four stages, each involving a qualitatively different way of reasoning and understanding the world
• Four stages of development• Sensori-motor stage• Preoperational stage• Concrete operational stage• Formal operational stage
![Page 5: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
What did Piaget find regarding stages of cognitive development?
• During the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), infants gain an understanding of the world through their senses and motor activities• Infants act on objects and events that are directly
perceived
• Major achievement of this stage is object permanence• The realization that objects continue to exist when
they can no longer be perceived
![Page 6: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
What did Piaget find regarding stages of cognitive development?
• During the preoperational stage (age 2-7), children acquire symbolic function• Understanding that one thing can stand for another
• During this stage, children exhibit egocentrism• Belief that everyone sees what they see, thinks what
they think, etc.
![Page 7: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
What did Piaget find regarding stages of cognitive development?
• In the concrete operational stage (7 to 11 or 12 years), children acquire the concept of conservation• Understanding that a given quantity of matter stays the
same despite rearrangement or change in its appearance, as long as nothing is added or taken away
• Conservation develops because children begin to understand reversibility• Realizing that any change in the shape, position, or order of
matter can be reversed mentally
![Page 8: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Piaget’s conservation of volume task
![Page 9: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
What did Piaget find regarding stages of cognitive development?
• In the formal operational stage (age 11 or 12 years and beyond) preadolescents and adolescents acquire the capacity for hypothetico-deductive thinking• The ability to apply logical thought to abstract and
hypothetical situations in the past, present, and future
![Page 10: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
What are some alternative approaches to Piaget’s theory?
• Information processing theorists argue that stage-like advances in cognition are due to improvements in processes such as working memory
• Vygotsky’s sociocultural approach emphasizes that cognitive development occurs within a sociocultural context in which parents and teachers provide age-appropriate guidance
![Page 11: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
What did Kohlberg claim about the development of moral reasoning?
• Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a stage theory of moral development
• He presented moral dilemmas to research participants and analyzed the moral reasoning that they described
• He classified moral reasoning into three levels, with each level having two stages• People progress through the levels and stages in a
fixed order• Each level has a prerequisite stage of cognitive
development
![Page 12: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
What did Kohlberg claim about the development of moral reasoning?
• Preconventional level• Lowest level of moral development• “Right” is whatever gains a reward or avoids
punishment• Conventional level
• Right and wrong are based on the internalized standards of others
• “Right” is whatever is approved by others or is consistent with the laws of society
• Postconventional level• Highest level of moral reasoning• “Right” is whatever furthers basic human rights
![Page 13: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Colby & Kohlberg’s longitudinal study of moral development
• Studied moral reasoning at different ages
• Conventional thinking (stages 3 and 4) is not predominant until after age 12
• Postconventional thinking (stage 5) first appears in adulthood, but is still rare in 30’s
![Page 14: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
How does Erickson’s theory describe the process of psychosocial development?• Erik Erikson proposed eight psychosocial stages that encompass the entire lifespan
• Each stage is defined by a conflict that must be resolved for healthy personality development to occur
![Page 15: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
How does Erickson’s theory describe the process of psychosocial development?• Basic trust vs. basic mistrust
• Birth to 1 year
• Autonomy vs. shame and doubt• 1 to 3 years
• Initiative vs. guilt• 3 to 6 years
• Industry vs. inferiority• 6 years to puberty
![Page 16: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
How does Erickson’s theory describe the process of psychosocial development?• Identity vs. role confusion
• Adolescence
• Intimacy vs. isolation• Young adulthood
• Generativity vs. stagnation• Middle adulthood
• Ego integrity vs. despair• Late adulthood
![Page 17: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Prenatal Development• The development from conception to birth
![Page 18: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
What happens during each of the three stages of prenatal development?
• Period of the zygote• Zygote attaches to the uterine lining• Ends 1 to 2 weeks after conception
• Period of the embryo• Major systems, organs, and structures of the body
develop• Ends when bone cells appear, 3 to 8 weeks after
conception• Period of the fetus
• Rapid growth and development of body structures, organs, and systems
• 9 weeks after conception until birth
![Page 19: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Infancy• A neonate, a newborn infant up to one month old, comes
equipped with an impressive range of reflexes, built-in responses to certain stimuli that they need to ensure survival in their new world
![Page 20: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
How do infants’ perceptual and motor abilities change over the first 18 months of life?
• Robert Fantz found that infants prefer to fixate on some objects over others
• Newborn infants can discriminate between objects
• Newborns’ visual acuity is about 20/600, but improves rapidly during infancy
![Page 21: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
How do infants’ perceptual and motor abilities change over the first 18 months of life?
• Most infants develop motor skills in the sequence shown in the figure
• Ages listed are averages• normal infants may reach any
milestone months earlier or later than average
• Motor development is largely determined by maturation
![Page 22: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Temperament
• A person’s behavioral style or characteristic way of responding to the environment
![Page 23: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
How does temperament shape infants’ behavior?
• Thomas, Chess, and Birch (1970) identified three general types of temperament• Easy
• Have pleasant moods, approach new people and situations positively
• Difficult• Have generally unpleasant moods, react negatively to new
people and situations
• Slow-to-warm-up• Tend to withdraw, are slow to adapt, somewhat negative in
mood• Infant temperament is strongly influenced by heredity and is
somewhat predictive of personality later in life
![Page 24: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
How do the four attachment patterns identified in infants differ?• Attachment is the strong affectionate bond a child forms with the mother or primary caregiver
• Harry Harlow found that contact comfort forms the basis of attachment in rhesus monkeys
• Human infants exhibit separation anxiety and stranger anxiety once attachment has formed, at about 6 to 8 months of age
![Page 25: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
How do the four attachment patterns identified in infants differ?
• Secure attachment• About 65% of infants• Use mother as a secure base for exploring• Distressed by separation from caregivers, greet
caregivers when they return• More cooperative and content than other infants• Display better social skills as preschool children
• Avoidant attachment• About 20% of infants• Not responsive to mother, not troubled when she
leaves• May actively avoid contact with mother after
separation
![Page 26: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
How do the four attachment patterns identified in infants differ?
• Resistant attachment• 10 to 15% of infants• Seek close contact with mother, and tend not to
branch out and explore• After separation, may display anger toward
mother; not easily comforted
• Disorganized/disoriented attachment• 5 to 10% of infants• Protest separation, but exhibit contradictory and
disoriented behavior when reunited
![Page 27: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Early and Middle Childhood• Mastery of language, both spoken and written, is just one
of several important developmental processes that happen in early and middle childhood.
![Page 28: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
What are the milestones of language development, and how do various theorists explain them?
• Babbling• Vocalization of basic speech sounds, which begins
between 4 and 6 months
• One-word stage• First words spoken at about 1 year• First words usually represent objects that move or
that infants can act on
• Two-word stage• Usually begins about 18-20 months
![Page 29: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
What are the milestones of language development, and how do various theorists explain them?
• Telegraphic speech• Between 2 and 3 years, children start using short
sentences that contain only essential content words
• Children follow grammatical rules in their speech, as indicated by overregularization• Misapplying a grammatical rule, such as adding
“ed” to form a past tense• Children say “goed”, comed”, “doed”, etc.
![Page 30: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
What are the milestones of language development, and how do various theorists explain them?
• Learning theories• Language is acquired in the same way as other
behaviors– through imitation and reinforcement• Noam Chomsky’s nativist position
• Language ability is largely innate• The brain contains a language acquisition
device• Most researchers endorse an interactionist approach• Acknowledging that infants have innate capacity
for acquiring language, but also recognizing environmental influences on language learning
![Page 31: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
What outcomes are often associated with the three parenting styles identified by Baumrind?
• Authoritarian parents• Make arbitrary rules, expect unquestioning
obedience, punish transgressions
• Authoritative parents• Set high but realistic standards, reason with the
child, enforce limits, and encourage open communication and independence
• Permissive parents• Make few rules or demands, allow children to
make their own decisions and control their own behavior
![Page 32: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
What outcomes are often associated with the three parenting styles identified by Baumrind?• Children with authoritative parents
• tend to be happier and have higher self-esteem, and be more self-reliant, socially competent, and responsible than their peers
• Children with authoritarian parents • tend to be withdrawn, anxious, and unhappy
• Children with permissive parents • tend to be the most immature, impulsive, and
dependent, and the least self-reliant and self-controlled
![Page 33: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
How do social learning, cognitive developmental, and gender-schema theorists explain gender role development?• Social learning theory
• Gender role development results from modeling and reinforcement
• Cognitive developmental theory• Development occurs in stages marked by
increasingly sophisticated reasoning about the permanence of gender
• Gender-schema theory• Children acquire schemas for maleness and
femaleness from their culture and use them to process information about gender
![Page 34: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Adolescence• The developmental stage that begins at puberty and
encompasses the period from the end of childhood to the beginning of adulthood
![Page 35: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
How does puberty influence adolescents’ self-concepts and behavior?
• A period of rapid physical growth and change that culminates in sexual maturity
• Puberty and self-concept• Early maturation in boys is associated with higher
self-esteem• But may also be associated with greater aggression and
hostility
• Early maturation in girls is associated with higher risk of eating disorders, earlier sexual experiences, more unwanted pregnancies, and earlier exposure to alcohol and drug use
![Page 36: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
How does puberty influence adolescents’ self-concepts and behavior?
• Incidence of sexual activity increases dramatically through teen years
• Factors associated with later onset of sexual activity include
• Living with both biological parents
• Higher academic achievement• Involvement in sports• Frequent attendance of religious
services
![Page 37: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
In what ways do parents and peers contribute to teens’ development?
• Most adolescents have good relationships with their parents
• Parenting style affects adolescent behavior• Permissive parenting is associated with higher
incidence of drug and alcohol use and lower motivation for academic success in adolescents
• Authoritative parenting is associated with more psychological distress and lower self-confidence in adolescents
• Peer groups provide adolescents with standards of comparison and a vehicle for developing social skills
![Page 38: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
What are the neurological and psychosocial characteristics of emerging adulthood?
• Neuroimaging studies indicate that parts of the brain involved in decision making and self control mature between the late teens and early twenties
• Jeffrey Arnett has proposed that this age-range is a unique developmental period, which he calls emerging adulthood• A period when individuals explore options and
develop new skills in work and romantic domains before committing to adult roles
![Page 39: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Early and Middle Adulthood• Early adulthood
• Ages 20 to 45 or 45
• Middle adulthood• Ages 40 or 45 to 65
• Late adulthood• After age 65 or 70
![Page 40: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
How does the body change in the early and middle adult years?• Presbyopia
• Lens of the eye can longer accommodate adequately for near vision
• Occurs almost universally in mid to late 40s
• Menopause• Cessation of menstruation, signifying end of
reproductive capacity in women• Usually occurs between 45 and 55
• Gradual decline in testosterone in men• From age 20 until about 60
![Page 41: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
In what ways does intellectual capacity improve and decline in adulthood?• Young adults outperform older adults on tasks requiring speed or rote memory
• But older adults outperform younger ones on tests measuring general information, vocabulary, reasoning ability, and social judgment
![Page 42: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
What are two themes of social development in early and middle adulthood?
• Establishment of an intimate partnership• Majority of adults marry and have children• But they do so at later ages today than in past
generations
• Career development• Job satisfaction is strongly related to satisfaction
with other aspects of life, such as romantic relationships
![Page 43: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Later Adulthood• The life expectancy in the United States has increased
from 49 to 76 years from the beginning to the end of the 20th century
• People older than age 65 constitute about 15% of the U.S. population
![Page 44: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
How does the body change in the later adult years?• General slowing, the reduction in the speed of neural transmission leading to a slowing of physical and mental functions
• Decline in sensory capacity• Development of chronic conditions such as arthritis, heart disease, high blood pressure
• But, physical exercise can improve strength and mobility in older adults
![Page 45: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
What happens to cognitive ability in later adulthood?• Crystallized intelligence tends to increase over the lifespan• Verbal ability and accumulated knowledge
• Fluid intelligence peaks in early 20s and declines slowly as people age• Reasoning and mental flexibility
![Page 46: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
What are some of the adjustment challenges in the social lives of older adults?• Retirement• Loss of a spouse• Altered living arrangements• Most older adults cope with these adjustments and maintain a sense of life satisfaction
![Page 47: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
What are the components of successful aging?• Maintaining one’s physical health, mental abilities, social competence, and overall satisfaction with life• An optimistic outlook• Eating a healthy diet• Staying active cognitively and socially
![Page 48: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
Death and Dying• A developmental task for every elderly person is to accept
the inevitability of death and to prepare for it
![Page 49: Psychology over life span of human life](https://reader036.vdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062312/554fd16ab4c90516478b456c/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
How do individuals with terminal illnesses respond to their circumstances?
• Elisabeth Kübler-Ross identified 5 stages people go through in coming to terms with death• Denial• Anger• Bargaining• Depression• Acceptance
• But, critics doubt the universality of these stages, and argue that reactions to impending death vary widely between individuals and across cultures