Putting Women on the research agenda - Why we did the Women Putting Women on the research agenda - Why we did the Women and Employment Survey.and Employment Survey.

Ceridwen RobertsCeridwen RobertsDepartment of Social Policy and Social WorkDepartment of Social Policy and Social Work

University of OxfordUniversity of Oxford

Presentation to Women and Employment Survey Presentation to Women and Employment Survey 25th anniversary conference25th anniversary conference

5th December 20055th December 2005DTIDTI

ContextContext

The position of women in the labour marketThe position of women in the labour market

The legislative backgroundThe legislative background

The research backgroundThe research background

Government research on women’s employmentGovernment research on women’s employment

The policy contextThe policy context

Reasons for the SurveyReasons for the Survey

The SurveyThe Survey

What it coveredWhat it covered

FindingsFindings

Women’s labour market position in Women’s labour market position in 1978/91978/9

A significant rise in women’s economic activity from 30.8% in 1951 to A significant rise in women’s economic activity from 30.8% in 1951 to about 40% in 1980about 40% in 1980Married women were having shorter periods out of the labour market Married women were having shorter periods out of the labour market after childrearingafter childrearingMost returned part timeMost returned part timeMost growth in employment had been in part time jobs- over 1,500,000 Most growth in employment had been in part time jobs- over 1,500,000 between from mid 60’s to end of 70sbetween from mid 60’s to end of 70sBUTBUTBy late 70s this increase had slowed downBy late 70s this increase had slowed downWomen’s registered unemployment was increasing faster than men’s Women’s registered unemployment was increasing faster than men’s from 1.2% in early 70s to 5.2% by 1980from 1.2% in early 70s to 5.2% by 1980Women’s pay and conditions at work were markedly less good than Women’s pay and conditions at work were markedly less good than men’s – men’s – NM women’s earnings rose from 49.7% of men’s in 1970 to 60.5% in NM women’s earnings rose from 49.7% of men’s in 1970 to 60.5% in 19751975Manual women’s earnings rose from 50% to 61.2% of men’s 1970-1978Manual women’s earnings rose from 50% to 61.2% of men’s 1970-1978

The legislative background in 78/79The legislative background in 78/79

Equal PayEqual PayFirst raised as a demand in 1888, The Equal Pay Act was finally First raised as a demand in 1888, The Equal Pay Act was finally passed in 1970 with full implementation by the end of 1975passed in 1970 with full implementation by the end of 1975

Sex discriminationSex discriminationSex Discrimination Act passed and came into effect in 1975 Sex Discrimination Act passed and came into effect in 1975 covering mainly discrimination in employment and some goods covering mainly discrimination in employment and some goods and servicesand services

Maternity Provisions of the Employment Protection Maternity Provisions of the Employment Protection Act 1975Act 1975 Maternity pay and job reinstatement rights were given to Maternity pay and job reinstatement rights were given to women who met the qualifying conditionswomen who met the qualifying conditions

The research backgroundThe research background

Interest in and research on all aspects of women’s Interest in and research on all aspects of women’s lives developed enormously in the late 60s and lives developed enormously in the late 60s and through the 70s.through the 70s.Its main focus was the relationship between home Its main focus was the relationship between home and work and how women’s position in society and and work and how women’s position in society and the labour market was influenced by and shaped the labour market was influenced by and shaped their reproductive role and the domestic division of their reproductive role and the domestic division of labourlabourBoth academic and more campaigning studies Both academic and more campaigning studies described and explained the consequent inequality described and explained the consequent inequality in the labour market women faced in the labour market women faced But many of the studies were small scale and But many of the studies were small scale and unrepresentative of women as a wholeunrepresentative of women as a whole

Government research on women’s Government research on women’s employmentemployment

Two previous surveys of women’s employment Women at Two previous surveys of women’s employment Women at Work- Thomas 1944Work- Thomas 1944 A Survey of Women’s Employment – Hunt 1968A Survey of Women’s Employment – Hunt 1968DE Manpower Papers 9-12 [1974- 1975]DE Manpower Papers 9-12 [1974- 1975]Management Attitudes and Practices towards women at work – Management Attitudes and Practices towards women at work – Hunt 1975Hunt 1975Occupational segregation- Hakim 1979Occupational segregation- Hakim 1979Equal Pay and Opportunities –Snell et al 1981Equal Pay and Opportunities –Snell et al 1981Others studies increasingly included womenOthers studies increasingly included women

AdditionallyAdditionallyThe establishment of a Social Science Branch within the The establishment of a Social Science Branch within the Department of Employment from the mid 1970s Department of Employment from the mid 1970s A programme of research on women in the labour market built A programme of research on women in the labour market built on these and began in 1978on these and began in 1978

The Policy contextThe Policy context

Enormous interest in the whole area of equal Enormous interest in the whole area of equal pay and opportunitiespay and opportunitiesPolitical and policy concern about rising Political and policy concern about rising female registered unemploymentfemale registered unemploymentConcern that registered unemployment was a Concern that registered unemployment was a crude indicator of unemployment for womencrude indicator of unemployment for womenAwareness of the undercount of women’s Awareness of the undercount of women’s economic activity economic activity And limitations of official statistics and And limitations of official statistics and classifications for womenclassifications for women

Reasons for the SurveyReasons for the Survey

No existing data sources focussed on women No existing data sources focussed on women directly or looked at why and when women take paid directly or looked at why and when women take paid work, with what consequences and how this relates work, with what consequences and how this relates to the wider issue of men and women’s roles in the to the wider issue of men and women’s roles in the familyfamilyTo understand the extent, meaning and To understand the extent, meaning and consequences of female unemployment we needed consequences of female unemployment we needed to have a representative sample of all “unemployed” to have a representative sample of all “unemployed” women and compare them with other women women and compare them with other women We also needed to have details of women’s lifetime We also needed to have details of women’s lifetime moves in and out of the labour market so the moves in and out of the labour market so the consequences of not having a paid job could be consequences of not having a paid job could be better understoodbetter understoodSo a national survey became inevitableSo a national survey became inevitable

The SurveyThe Survey

Nationally representative survey of women of Nationally representative survey of women of working age ie 16-59 ; GBworking age ie 16-59 ; GBAchieved sample of 5588 women and 799 Achieved sample of 5588 women and 799 men –response rates of 83% and 81% men –response rates of 83% and 81% respectivelyrespectivelyFace to face structured interviews- Face to face structured interviews- Cross sectional data and retrospective work Cross sectional data and retrospective work historieshistoriesEnormous amount of material was collected Enormous amount of material was collected and some interviews were longand some interviews were long

What it coveredWhat it covered

The survey The survey explored all the factors which affect women’s explored all the factors which affect women’s economic activity rateseconomic activity rateslooked at women’s occupations and occupational looked at women’s occupations and occupational segregationsegregationanalysedanalysed the hours women work and the length and the hours women work and the length and pattern of working days and weeks;pattern of working days and weeks;described the pay and conditions including TU described the pay and conditions including TU membership, training and promotion opportunitiesmembership, training and promotion opportunitiesexplored working women’s attitudes to work and explored working women’s attitudes to work and their jobstheir jobs

… … and it and it

analysedanalysed the concept of unemployment for women the concept of unemployment for women and its extent and consequencesand its extent and consequenceslooked at the interplay between domestic demands looked at the interplay between domestic demands and employment, for both women and their and employment, for both women and their husbands and for lone mothershusbands and for lone mothersoutlined the lifetime patterns of women’s movement outlined the lifetime patterns of women’s movement in and out of employmentin and out of employmentidentified lifetime job changes and occupational identified lifetime job changes and occupational mobilitymobilityconsidered how women looked for jobs and their job considered how women looked for jobs and their job priorities and search strategiespriorities and search strategiesexplored women’s and their husbands views about explored women’s and their husbands views about women’s roles at home and work and in societywomen’s roles at home and work and in society

Findings 1Findings 1

Women’s patterns and hours of work and childcareWomen’s patterns and hours of work and childcareA 7 day, 24 hour grid identified when women workedA 7 day, 24 hour grid identified when women workedThe wide range of working hours were analysed by The wide range of working hours were analysed by women’s domestic situation and childcare women’s domestic situation and childcare arrangement.arrangement.There was a clear association between the time of There was a clear association between the time of day women worked and the ages of their children; 38 day women worked and the ages of their children; 38 % of mothers of a child under 5 worked in the % of mothers of a child under 5 worked in the evening evening Fathers were the most important source of childcare Fathers were the most important source of childcare after mothers, followed by grandmothers. after mothers, followed by grandmothers. Paying for childcare was rare: 30% of pre-schoolers; Paying for childcare was rare: 30% of pre-schoolers; 10% of schoolchildren - average weekly sum for both 10% of schoolchildren - average weekly sum for both groups - £8.70.groups - £8.70.

Findings 2Findings 2

Women as employees Women as employees Data collected on pay, holidays, sick-leave, training Data collected on pay, holidays, sick-leave, training and promotion opportunities and presence of a TU.and promotion opportunities and presence of a TU.This was analysed by occupational status, level of This was analysed by occupational status, level of occupational segregation, full or part timeoccupational segregation, full or part timeHeterogeneity of women’s situation revealed; full Heterogeneity of women’s situation revealed; full time workers in white collar jobs also done by men time workers in white collar jobs also done by men enjoyed much better pay and conditions - were in enjoyed much better pay and conditions - were in the primary sector the primary sector These women not only had better pay but were more These women not only had better pay but were more likely to have training and promotion opportuniteslikely to have training and promotion opportunitesBut the majority of women were in the secondary But the majority of women were in the secondary sectorsector

Findings 3Findings 3

Who was unemployed? Who was unemployed?

About a third of women [35%] were “not working” About a third of women [35%] were “not working” A scale of attachment to the labour market was A scale of attachment to the labour market was generated through comparing women’s answers to generated through comparing women’s answers to several questionsseveral questions5 groups of “non-working” women along a 5 groups of “non-working” women along a continuum; almost none never intended to work or continuum; almost none never intended to work or look for work again though only 14% met the look for work again though only 14% met the definition of “unemployed”definition of “unemployed”Registered unemployed were scattered across all Registered unemployed were scattered across all groupsgroups

Findings 4Findings 4

Job changing and searchingJob changing and searchingOn average women worked for 4-5 employers over On average women worked for 4-5 employers over their lifetheir lifeMore women left employers to change jobs than for More women left employers to change jobs than for domestic reasons contrary to myths – about 60%domestic reasons contrary to myths – about 60%But the reason for leaving the labour market might But the reason for leaving the labour market might not remain the reason for staying out; not remain the reason for staying out; Not all women who got a job looked for it – some Not all women who got a job looked for it – some were offered it. Domestic returners were often were offered it. Domestic returners were often “pulled back” into part-time work this way“pulled back” into part-time work this wayWhile financial reasons for working were paramount, While financial reasons for working were paramount, domestic returners were more likely to mention the domestic returners were more likely to mention the sociability of work as a reason for returningsociability of work as a reason for returning