Qualitative data Qualitative data processing and processing and

analyzing….analyzing….

What is Data?What is Data?

• Information collected from the world of study: Information collected from the world of study: • Record (interview transcript, discussion transcripts, filled Record (interview transcript, discussion transcripts, filled

observation form, field notes, focus groups, field observation form, field notes, focus groups, field observations, survey comments, historical records etc.).observations, survey comments, historical records etc.).

• Others work (secondary data: previously done research Others work (secondary data: previously done research findings, artifacts, pictures, photos, paintings, songs diaries, findings, artifacts, pictures, photos, paintings, songs diaries, official documents, news clips, etc.) official documents, news clips, etc.)

• Evidence and clue.Evidence and clue.– Memo: Memo: – Field note memo: themes, ideas or areas for further Field note memo: themes, ideas or areas for further

exploration. exploration. – Methodological memo: encounters during interviews, Methodological memo: encounters during interviews,

discussions, observations, etc. (e.g. nature/behavior of the discussions, observations, etc. (e.g. nature/behavior of the participants, rapport building, etc.) Memo can be participants, rapport building, etc.) Memo can be depersonalized writing.depersonalized writing.

• Reflective notes: Reflective notes: self-conscious, personalized writing.self-conscious, personalized writing.

When to analyze?When to analyze?

• During the field work (carefully During the field work (carefully designed and decided study which designed and decided study which limits to certain direction and avoids limits to certain direction and avoids spreading all over the places makes spreading all over the places makes this possible). Reflecting or this possible). Reflecting or contemplating on the findings.contemplating on the findings.

• After the completion of data After the completion of data collectioncollection

What is data analysis?What is data analysis?

• Search, identify and organize/arrange Search, identify and organize/arrange systematically (Record, other works, evidence, systematically (Record, other works, evidence, clue…)clue…)– Searching patterns (repetition of some events, Searching patterns (repetition of some events,

expressions, thinking, etc.)expressions, thinking, etc.)

• Eliminating the irrelevant Eliminating the irrelevant • Breaking, connecting, summarizing, synthesizing, Breaking, connecting, summarizing, synthesizing, • Interpretation (making meaning) Interpretation (making meaning) • Presenting the discoveries.Presenting the discoveries.

How?How?

CodingCoding

(Research question, objectives in mind)(Research question, objectives in mind)– Description of certain situation or place as told by the Description of certain situation or place as told by the

research participants research participants (e.g. describing how one sees (e.g. describing how one sees one's family and her/his experience in it. mother, father, one's family and her/his experience in it. mother, father, daughters and son's description)daughters and son's description)

– Perceptions and/or ways of thinking about people, event, Perceptions and/or ways of thinking about people, event, object, etc. object, etc. (e.g. what one thinks about the nature of the (e.g. what one thinks about the nature of the division of labor in the family? mother, father, daughters division of labor in the family? mother, father, daughters and son's perceptions) and son's perceptions)

– Process coding, normally applied in longitudinal studies. Process coding, normally applied in longitudinal studies. (e.g. how father's behavior towards daughter changed (e.g. how father's behavior towards daughter changed from first observation to the last one. Or a teacher's from first observation to the last one. Or a teacher's classroom practice. Changes observed over a period of classroom practice. Changes observed over a period of time)time)

Coding Coding

Contd…Contd…– Activity code. Activity code. (e.g. every day practice or regularly occurring (e.g. every day practice or regularly occurring

behavior. After cleaning and washing daughter picks up behavior. After cleaning and washing daughter picks up broom to sweep or bucket to fetch water in the morning; son broom to sweep or bucket to fetch water in the morning; son carries book and go for tuition.)carries book and go for tuition.)

– Event code Event code (e.g. all the family members referred to planting (e.g. all the family members referred to planting and harvesting while talking about the above).and harvesting while talking about the above).

– Strategy code Strategy code (e.g. daughters take books to kitchen when (e.g. daughters take books to kitchen when cooking, or teachers stand quietly in the front or ask question cooking, or teachers stand quietly in the front or ask question while students make noise and/or show disrespectful while students make noise and/or show disrespectful behavior)behavior)

– Social construction/structure and/or relationship code Social construction/structure and/or relationship code (e.g. (e.g. daughters follow mothers, sons follow fathers, girls hang out daughters follow mothers, sons follow fathers, girls hang out in groups, boys in pair, girls sit in one row and boy sit in in groups, boys in pair, girls sit in one row and boy sit in another; or caste wise, language wise grouping and pairing, another; or caste wise, language wise grouping and pairing, etc.) etc.)

– Predetermined code.Predetermined code.

ExampleExample

• Mrs. A said that she did not like Mrs. A said that she did not like the fact that both she and her the fact that both she and her husband were illiterate.husband were illiterate.

• She said that, “All children She said that, “All children must be educated at least until must be educated at least until Grade 10.Grade 10.

• ””She also said that she cannot She also said that she cannot send her children to school. send her children to school. “How can I? We are hardly “How can I? We are hardly ever there in the village and ever there in the village and education has no value for education has no value for street sellers.street sellers.

• ””Her husband also said, Her husband also said, “Moreover, the village school is “Moreover, the village school is hardly functional. Teachers hardly functional. Teachers come and go as they please. come and go as they please. The government hardly has any The government hardly has any control over them.control over them.

• ””Their daughter also said that Their daughter also said that education is not relevant in her education is not relevant in her life.life.

• ““I’m needed to work at home I’m needed to work at home and care for my younger and care for my younger brother so my parents can brother so my parents can work. I have no time for work. I have no time for school”school”

Text/Transcript

• PRNT_LITPRNT_LIT(short for (short for ”parental literacy”)”parental literacy”)

• CHIL_ED/GIRL_EDCHIL_ED/GIRL_ED(short for (short for “child education or girls’ “child education or girls’ education”)education”)

• PRNT_VALU_EDPRNT_VALU_ED(short for (short for “parental value of “parental value of education”) education”) PRNT_OCCUPPRNT_OCCUP(short for (short for “parental occupation”)“parental occupation”)

• SCHL_QUALSCHL_QUAL(short for (short for “school quality”)“school quality”)

• CHLD_VALU_EDCHLD_VALU_ED(short for (short for “child value of education”“child value of education”

• GRL_FAMRESPGRL_FAMRESP(short for (short for “girls’ family “girls’ family responsibilities”)responsibilities”)

Code (indexing category)

Data management: creating filesData management: creating files

Creating analytical fileCreating analytical file• Keeping all the responses together Keeping all the responses together

according to specific topic of interest and according to specific topic of interest and purpose. Even if the same information is purpose. Even if the same information is given by two or more different people or given by two or more different people or FGD session, each response will be written FGD session, each response will be written down separately. Helps keep track of how down separately. Helps keep track of how many times this response is made, making many times this response is made, making it easier to identify common patterns and it easier to identify common patterns and themes. themes.

• Pattern: recurrence of similar information. Pattern: recurrence of similar information.

• Theme: recurring topic or categoryTheme: recurring topic or category

Data management: creating Data management: creating filesfiles Contd…Contd…

Journal or field work fileJournal or field work file• Step-by-step procedures used in Step-by-step procedures used in

collecting information, personal collecting information, personal experiences, feelings and observations experiences, feelings and observations of the researcher. Help write the of the researcher. Help write the research methodology section of the research methodology section of the final report.final report.

Data management: creating Data management: creating filesfiles Contd…Contd…

Background fileBackground file• Information/data related to people (e.g. Information/data related to people (e.g.

interview or FGD participants), interview or FGD participants), community, and institution (e.g. school) community, and institution (e.g. school) of study. of study.

Making connection, making Making connection, making meaning (analyzing, meaning (analyzing,

interpreting)…interpreting)…

Examine the responses in each Examine the responses in each analytical file and seek connection analytical file and seek connection

through questioning through questioning

Examples…..Examples…..

• "Chopping the fuel wood is done by brothers. This is their work. "Chopping the fuel wood is done by brothers. This is their work. Fodder collection is done by us"…."this has been the tradition for Fodder collection is done by us"…."this has been the tradition for long so people will say she is lazy, don't work, and this is not long so people will say she is lazy, don't work, and this is not good."…"they also do their tasks". good."…"they also do their tasks".

Code: Division of labor in the family, gender stereotype Code: Division of labor in the family, gender stereotype

• "My parents treat both son and daughter equally. All my elder "My parents treat both son and daughter equally. All my elder sisters and brother have received equal facilities. My younger sisters and brother have received equal facilities. My younger brother do not assist mother in kitchen whereas I do. But it is brother do not assist mother in kitchen whereas I do. But it is good for girls to learn kitchen work. I don't feel it discrimination". good for girls to learn kitchen work. I don't feel it discrimination".

Code: Girls' household responsibility, gender stereotypeCode: Girls' household responsibility, gender stereotype

• "I keep my books at the side even while working in the kitchen so "I keep my books at the side even while working in the kitchen so that I can read when I got time." that I can read when I got time."

Code: Girls' household responsibility, girl value education.Code: Girls' household responsibility, girl value education.

Examples…..Examples…..Contd…Contd…• Teacher said, "some girls stay late at school and Teacher said, "some girls stay late at school and

complete the homework before going home". complete the homework before going home". Code: Girl value of educationCode: Girl value of education

• "When we ask boys make fun of us saying that we don't "When we ask boys make fun of us saying that we don't even know that much" even know that much"

Code: Harassment, classroom interactionCode: Harassment, classroom interaction

• "In the afternoon at five o'clock tutor comes at home for "In the afternoon at five o'clock tutor comes at home for tuition". tuition".

Code: Family value of girl's education.Code: Family value of girl's education.

Examining the responses and Examining the responses and seeking connectionseeking connection

• Ask “What does each mean? What does each tell Ask “What does each mean? What does each tell about, for instance, girls’ learning environment?” about, for instance, girls’ learning environment?” How does the information in the file How does the information in the file Division of Division of labor in the family labor in the family fit with or relate to the fit with or relate to the information in the file information in the file Girls' household Girls' household responsibility/ gender stereotyperesponsibility/ gender stereotype as well as as well as the file the file Girl value of educationGirl value of education and and harassment/ classroom interactionharassment/ classroom interaction

• Asking questions and seeking connections make Asking questions and seeking connections make us work back and forth between our information us work back and forth between our information and our own perspective and understanding in and our own perspective and understanding in order to make sense of the information. order to make sense of the information.

Connection with Connection with Background…Background…

• Who is saying it or who is doing it? Who is saying it or who is doing it? Depending on the purpose or objective: Depending on the purpose or objective: sex, network (membership), educational sex, network (membership), educational status (grade, position, etc.,), religion status (grade, position, etc.,), religion (if identified), mother tongue, caste, (if identified), mother tongue, caste, age, number of and among siblings age, number of and among siblings (first, second, third, etc.), single parent, (first, second, third, etc.), single parent, working mother/father, location working mother/father, location (migrant, rural, urban, nature of (migrant, rural, urban, nature of settlement, etc.settlement, etc.

Pattern and theme and more Pattern and theme and more question…question…Pattern:Pattern: Almost all believe that the girls are the Almost all believe that the girls are the

ones responsible for household chores especially ones responsible for household chores especially kitchen work kitchen work

Theme:Theme: A recurring topic or category; for instance, A recurring topic or category; for instance, “gender stereotype.”“gender stereotype.”

Did all the respondents irrespective of their caste, Did all the respondents irrespective of their caste, ethnicity, religion, economic status, family ethnicity, religion, economic status, family circumstance, parental education status, etc circumstance, parental education status, etc expressed similar view point? expressed similar view point?

If not who was different from who and why? If not who was different from who and why?

ReliabilityReliabilityReliabilityReliability

•Concept extensively used in Concept extensively used in Quantitative research Quantitative research •Reliability is stability, dependability or Reliability is stability, dependability or predictability and is related with data predictability and is related with data collection toolscollection tools•  It is consistency in measurement. A It is consistency in measurement. A measuring instrument is reliable if it measuring instrument is reliable if it produces same result again and again produces same result again and again

•  An unreliable test will give different An unreliable test will give different results each time we take itresults each time we take it

  

ReliabilityReliability

• Reliability is a crucial concept in Reliability is a crucial concept in research. If we do not have reliable research. If we do not have reliable measurement tools, we cannot have measurement tools, we cannot have confidence in our results. confidence in our results.

• The extent to which data relate to The extent to which data relate to objective criteria will improve objective criteria will improve reliability. Because objective data can reliability. Because objective data can be measured reliably. But measuring be measured reliably. But measuring subjective data reliably is difficult.subjective data reliably is difficult.

ValidityValidity

Validity is the extent to which what we measure Validity is the extent to which what we measure reflects what we expected to measure. It is reflects what we expected to measure. It is the strength of our conclusion. Validity check:the strength of our conclusion. Validity check:

• Internal validity: rigor with which the study Internal validity: rigor with which the study was conducted (e.g., the study's design, was conducted (e.g., the study's design, method, processes, etc.) and the extent to method, processes, etc.) and the extent to which the causal relationships are explored . which the causal relationships are explored . E.G. majority of people in ‘A’ village visit E.G. majority of people in ‘A’ village visit temples regularly. Conclusion: that people in temples regularly. Conclusion: that people in village ‘A’ are religious. Is this a village ‘A’ are religious. Is this a validvalid conclusion? The reasons for temple visit might conclusion? The reasons for temple visit might be something else, not the religiousness. be something else, not the religiousness.

ValidityValidity

• External validity: extent to which the External validity: extent to which the results of a study results of a study are generalizable or transferable. are generalizable or transferable. Many qualitative research are not Many qualitative research are not designed to be generalizable. designed to be generalizable.

Comparing and connecting Comparing and connecting

• Comparing the findings with the existing Comparing the findings with the existing literature. literature.

• Using theories and past literature to assess Using theories and past literature to assess and explain the findings. and explain the findings.

Example…Example…

"labeling theory says that if children are "labeling theory says that if children are labeled as dumb they grow dumb. But in my labeled as dumb they grow dumb. But in my research I found that ‘B’ who was labeled as research I found that ‘B’ who was labeled as dumb by the teachers excelled in SLC dumb by the teachers excelled in SLC examination." Or "it was true in my case as examination." Or "it was true in my case as well.“well.“