Quaternary EnvironmentsQuaternary EnvironmentsEcosystem Pattern and ProcessEcosystem Pattern and Process

Conservation IssuesConservation Issues

Patterns on the LandscapePatterns on the Landscape

Patterns of vegetation distributionPatterns of vegetation distribution Scale IssuesScale Issues Modern IssuesModern Issues

FragmentationFragmentation Barriers to migrationBarriers to migration Barriers to propagationBarriers to propagation

Patterns on the LandscapePatterns on the Landscape

Fig. 1-1 p. 2

World PopulationWorld Population

Human DisturbanceHuman Disturbance

Tropic of Capricorn

Equator

Predominantly naturalPartially disturbed

Human dominated

AntarcticCircle

Tropic ofCancer

ArcticCircle

North America by NightNorth America by Night

Food WebsFood Webs

Trophic LevelsTrophic Levels Food ChainsFood Chains Food WebsFood Webs

Food WebFood WebHuman

Blue whale Sperm whale

Crabeater seal

Killerwhale Elephant

seal

Leopardseal

Adéliepenguins Petrel

Fish

Squid

Carnivorous plankton

Krill

Phytoplankton

Herbivorouszooplankton

Emperorpenguin

Food ChainFood ChainFood ChainFood Chain

Deciduous Forest AnimalsDeciduous Forest AnimalsProducer to primaryconsumer

Primaryto secondaryconsumer

Secondary tohigher-levelconsumer

All producers andconsumers todecomposers

Bacteria

Fungi

Wood frog

Racer

Shagbark hickory

White-taileddeer

White-footedmouse

White oak

Graysquirrel

Hairywoodpecker

Broad-wingedhawk

Long-tailedweaselLong-tailedweasel

May beetleMay beetle

MountainwinterberryMountainwinterberry

Metallic wood-boringbeetle and

Metallic wood- boring beetle and larvae

1500

1850

1870

1880

1906

The Demise of BisonThe Demise of Bison

Effects of Experimental Logging on Nitrate Effects of Experimental Logging on Nitrate Levels (Hubbard-Brook Experimental Forest)Levels (Hubbard-Brook Experimental Forest)

11

9

7

5

3

1

0J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M

1965 1966 1967 1968

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n(m

g/li

ter

-1)

Time ofdeforestation

Losses fromdisturbed watershed

Losses fromundisturbed watershed

Atmospheric CO2 for the Past 150,000 Atmospheric CO2 for the Past 150,000 YearsYears

Gross Primary ProductivityGross Primary Productivity

Preserve BoundariesPreserve Boundaries

Public LandsPublic LandsPublic LandsPublic Lands

Natural Resource Depletion; AmericansNatural Resource Depletion; AmericansGrizzlybear

NORTHAMERICA

Spottedowl

Black-footedferret

Kemp’sridleyturtle

Californiacondor

Goldentoad

Columbia haslost one-third ofits forest

Black liontamarin

SOUTHAMERICA

More than 60% of thePacific Northwestcoastal forest hasbeen cut down

40% of North America’srange and croplandhas lost productivity

Hawaiianmonk seal

Half of the forestin Honduras andNicaragua hasdisappeared

Mangrovesclearedin Equador for shrimp ponds

SouthernChile’s rainforest isthreatened

Little of Brazil’sAtlantic forestremains

Every year 14,000square kilometers ofrain forest is destroyedin the Amazon Basin

Coral reef destruction

Much of Everglades National Park has dried outand lost 90% of its wading birds

ATLANTICOCEAN

PACIFICOCEAN

Manatee

Chesapeake Bay is overfished and polluted

Fish catch in the north-west Atlantic has fallen42% since its peak in 1973

Humpbackwhale

St. Lawrencebeluga whaleEastern

cougar

Floridapanther

Environmental degradation

Vanishing biodiversity

Endangered species

6.0 or more childrenper woman

Natural Resource Depletion; Old WorldNatural Resource Depletion; Old World

EUROPE

Mediterranean

Liberia

AFRICA

Imperial eagle

640,000 square kilometerssouth of the Sahara haveturned to desert since 1940

Mali

BurkinaFaso

SierraLeone Togo

Sao Tome68% of theCongo’srain forestis slatedfor cleaning

Fish catches inSoutheast Atlantichave dropped by morethan 50% since 1973

Blackrhinoceros

Zambia

Angola

CongoRwandaBurundi

UgandaSomalia

Nigeria

ChadNigerBenin Golden

tamarin

Ethiopia

Eritrea

Madagascar haslost 66% of itstropical forest

Aye-aye

YemenOman

SaudiArabia

Poland is one ofthe world’s mostpolluted countries

Many parts offormer Soviet Unionare polluted withindustrial and radio-active waste

Area ofAral Sea hasShrunk 46%

Central Asia from theMiddle East to Chinahas lost 72% of rangeand cropland

ASIA

Asianelephant

India andSri Lankahave almostno rainforest left

In peninsular Malaysiaalmost all forests havebeen cut

INDIAN OCEAN

Indonesia’scoral reefs arethreatenedandmangroveforestshave beencut in half

Giantpanda

Kouprey

Queen Alexandra’sBirdwing butterfly

Nail-tailedwallaby

AUSTALIA

Much ofAustralia’srange andcroplandhave turnedto desert

90% of the coral reefsare threatened in thePhilippines. All virginforest will be goneby 2010

Deforestation in the Himalayacauses flooding in Bangladesh

Japanese timber importsare responsible for muchof the world’s tropicaldeforestation

Blue whale

ANTARCTICA

A thinning of the ozone layer occursover Antarctica during summer

Snow leopard

Ecological PyramidsEcological Pyramids

Primary Productivity of EcosystemsPrimary Productivity of EcosystemsPrimary Productivity of EcosystemsPrimary Productivity of Ecosystems

Gross primary productivity (GPP) Gross primary productivity (GPP) Net primary productivity (NPP) Net primary productivity (NPP)

Community Structure: Appearance and Species Community Structure: Appearance and Species DiversityDiversity

Community Structure: Appearance and Species Community Structure: Appearance and Species DiversityDiversity

Stratification

Species diversity

Species abundance

Niche structure Edge effects

Primary SuccessionPrimary Succession

Secondary SuccessionSecondary Succession