questions dictionary of history

7/23/2019 Questions Dictionary of History

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f TheQuestions

Dictionary

of

S T O R Y

oy

A Palmer

P U L I S H I N

T H E

Q U S T IO N S P U B L I S H I N G C O M P A N Y

LT D

B I R M I N G H A M

2 0 0 1


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his page intentionally left blank


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TheQuestionsPublishingCompanyLtd

27 Frederick St,

Birmingham

B1 3HH

TheQuestions Publishing CompanyLtd2001

Textand

activity pages

in

this publication

may be

photocopied

for use by the

purchaser

or in the

purchasing institution only.

Otherwise, all

rights reserved

and

text

may not be

reprinted

or

reproduced

or

utilised

in any

form

or by any

electronic,

mechanical

or

other means,

now

known

or

hereafter invented, including photocopying

andrecording,or in anyinformation storageorretrieval system, without permissionin

writing from

the

publishers.

First

published in2001

ISBN:1-84190-034-6

Illustrationsby

M artin

C ater

Cover

design

by A l

Stewart/Martin Cater

Printed

in the UK


5/97

To

the teacher

Thisdictionary is intended to help young people understand the mean-

ing of

many

of the

words they

will

come

across

when studying history

and the

legacy

of our past. I t includes words relating to people and

events

of

times gone

by ;

also

words which relate

to our

understanding

of past civ ilisations and historic

thinking

and

ideas.

The

content

has

been chosen

to

include words

withinthe

capabilities

of

pupils in the primary and early

secondary years

of schooling. All words

are relevant

to the

teaching

and

learning

of

history

in the

N ational

Curriculum, notably at Key

Stage

2 level.

The

dictionary

will

make a va luable addition to any primary

classroom's

collection of

basic

reference books and to every

school's

library of

history books.

It may be

made available

for

teaching purposes

as a

book,

or as individual

word

entries, photocopied and fixed to A5 size

cards. The

book

as a

whole

and its

individual entries

may be used in a

widevariety of ways: by pupils independently or in groups,ortogether

withthe

teacher. Obv iously, individual words

or

groups

o f

words

may

be the focus of a particular

lesson

or line of enquiry, and the dictionary

a s

awhole can be a rich

source

for browsing

through

during

spare

moments.

W e

emphasisethat

this book is not simp ly a list of word s and

their

definitions. Many entriesg o beyond the straightforward

word

mean-

ingto provide som e explanation, contextorexampleasap propriate -

often through

the relevant illustrations. Many of the words are linked

or related to others and are

cross-referenced

where ap propriate at the

heard

of the

entries. Where

awordappears in an

entry

in

bold

type,

this

meansthat

it is defined elsewhere in the dictionary. So, if pupils

come acrossaword when studying historythat they are not sure

about,or

introduced

to in a lesson,

they

can

look

up what it meansand

be directed to other relevant words. They can

also

just pick out any

wordand be set on atrailof

learning

of

facts

and

ideas

relating

to

people, civ ilisations and m ajor events of the past.

It is

hoped

that

this book

will

lead

not

only

to

pupils'

better

under-

standing of past societies, peop le and events, but

also

to

increased

knowledge relating to how we know about our pastand the relevance

of history to our lives today.

Joy

A Palmer


6/97

Dictionary Entries


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Abdicate

Toabdicate meansto giveup thethroneand

cease

to be

monarch.

Edward

V IM s an

example

of a

British monarch

who

chose

to

abdicate.

Edward VIM,

son of

King George

V,

became

king

on his

father's

death

in

1936.

In

1937

he

chose

to

abdicate

so

that

he

could marry

a

divorced

Americanwoman, Mrs Wa llis Simpson.

ActofSupremacy

s e e also King HenryVIII and Reformation

King Henry VIII decided

that

it was in hisintereststo takecontrol of

the Churchof England.In 1534parliament passedthe Act of

Supremacy,

which

declared

the

king

the

supreme head

of the

Church

of England. People had to take anoath accepting Henry's heirs and his

supremacyin the church.Thesignificanceof this event isthatit

markedthe breakof theEnglish Churchwiththe Churchof Rome,the

Roman

C atholic C hurch. Henry VII I denied the authorityof the Pope as

leaderof the church.


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AD

see

al so

B C a n d VenerableBede

Theletters

AD

stand

for the

Latin words Anno Domini, meaning'in

the

year

of our

Lord'.

The

abbreviation

AD is

used

to

refer

to

dates

(years)

since

the

birth

of

Jesus.

There

is no

year

0 , so the

year after

1BC

is the

yearAD1. Thissystem of datingyears,

called

th e Christian chronological

system,was first adopted in the 8

th

century by the VenerableBede.

Generally,

years

before the Birth of Christ arewrittenas the year or

century BC . Foryearsafter the Birth of Christ,the year orcenturyis

writtenwithoutusing

the

letters

AD. In

other words,

it can be

taken

that 'the

8

th

century'

or

'1512'

are AD.

Agricultural revolution

Theterm agricultural revolution refers

to the

great changes

thattook

place inBritish agriculture between the mid18

th

and the mid19

th

centuries.

It was a

time

of rapidly expanding population and

increased

demand

for

food.

New

farming methods were introduced,resulting

in

enhanced cropproductionand improved breedsof livestock.

Important

developments included

the

invention

of new

ploughs

and

seeddrills

and

the

farming

of

blocks

of

land instead

of

thinstrips

indifferent

f ields.Further majoradvances

took

place in agriculture as aresult of

mechanisation

in the late

19

th

century. The first petrol driven tractor was

developed

in the United StatesofAmericaat the end of the

19

th

century.


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Alexander the Great

Alexander

the G reat, born inAD356 the son of P hilip of Macedon ia,

became

king

of

Macedonia

at the age of

twentywhen

his

father

w as

murdered.He was a man of

tremendous courage

and

military skill.

By

the time he died of a feve r at the age of

thirty

two, A lexan der had

conqueredhalf

of the

known world.

Alfred

the

Great

s e e also

Anglo-Saxons

Alfred,one of the bestknown f igures of Saxontimes , was born in

AD849at W antage.He was the youngest son of King Aethelwulf of

Wessex.

He

ruled

as

king

of

Wessex

from

871 to

899. A lfred engaged

in

a long battlewithViking invaders and ev entually defeated them,

saving Wessex.He adopted thetitle 'King of allAnglo-Saxons'.He is

the only king of Englandto have been labelled

'theG reat'.

Apa rt from

his success

against invaders,

Alfred

is also

well known

for

burning

some

cakes

that

he left in the oven too long.


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Allied

Powers

see a l s o First W orld W ar andSecond W o r l dWar)

TheAllied Powersis the term usedto describe thetwenty three

countries

who

were

united

(allied) against

the

Central

P owersof

Germany,

Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria in the

First

World War,

andtheforty

nine countries

united

against

the Axis

Powers

of

Germany, Italy andJapanin the SecondWorld War. The

twenty

three

Allied Powersof the FirstWorld War included France,Italy, Russia, the

UK,

other

nations

of the

Commonwealthand,

for

later parts

of the

war, the USA. Thefortynine Allied Powers of the SecondWorld War

included France,the UK, Australia andother Commonwealth nations,

the USA and the

USSR.

CHURCHILL

STALtsl

American

civilwar

TheAmerican civil war, or the War Between the States,took place

from

1861to1865.It was a war between thesouthern orconfederate states

ofAmerica,and the

northern

or

union

states.Thesouthern states

wishedtokeep certain rights, for example,therighttodetermine state

law onslavery. Theyalsowishedto havethe rightto secede

(withdraw)from

the union. The northern

states

foughtto

maintain

the

union.

It was abitterandferocious war.Thefirst majorbattlewas the

Battle

of

Bull Run, which

took placein

Virginia

in

July 1861.There,

the

confederate army, under generals

P G T

Bureaugard

and

Thomas

'Stonewall'

Jackson,forcedthe unionarmyto retreat to Washington

DC .

Other major conflicts include

the

Battle

of

Shiloh (April 1862),

the

Battle

of

Antietam (September

1862),the

Battle

of

Fredericksburg

(December1862), the Battle of Gettysburg (July1863), and the Battle

of Cold Harbour (June 1864). Over 600,000

soldiers

were killed

during

thewar.The

union

statesclaimed victory when the confederate troops

surrendered

in May

1865.


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American

war of

independence

The

A me rican war o f independence, otherwise knownas the A me rican

revolution,

took

place between

1775and

1783.

Ittooktheformof a

revolt

or

up rising

of the

thirteen

British

north

Am erican colonies

that

were opposedto var ious aspectsof British rule overthem.The

colonists'

rev olution brought

about

independence

and

resulted

in the

establishmentof the United StatesofAmerica. George Washington

waselected as the first president of the USA .

Ancient

Egypt

s e e also

Tutankhamun, pharaohs

and

hieroglyphics

The

civil isation of A ncient Egypt began 7,000 years ago on the banks

of the great River N i le. Early farming comm unities developed into

tribesand established v illages. In

3118BC,

tribes

united

under the first

Egyptian

king, Menes. Ancient Egypt progressedfrom

the

'old'

Egyptian

civ il isationinto

the New

Age,

or New

Kingdom

of

Egypt

as it

isoften referred to by historians. The so-called N ew Age began around

1560BC and was the

time

when warrior pharaohs

went

into

battle

to

win anempire.It was an age of war and religious conflicts, whichsaw

the building of hugewealthas seen in temp les, py ramids and

treasures.


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Ancient Greece

The

first

Greek civilisation was

known

as the Mycenaean, which lasted

from around 1600to

1200BC.

Fromthe 14

th

centuryBC,

further

invasions

took

place,for example,by theDorian people in

1100BC,

who founded

thetownof

Sparta.

Between

the years750 to 550BC,the Greeks

becamegreat traders

and

founded manycolonies around the coastsof the Mediterranean and

th e Black

Sea.

Keycities in the

world

of Ancient Greeceinclude Athens, Sparta,Pylos,

Argos,

Thebes

and

Corinth.

Such

towns were isolated, divided

by

mountains,withonly rugged pathways between them. Towns,

surrounded

by

farmland

and

barren countryside, formed

what is

known

as'city

states'.

Often,

thecitieshad a

temple

dedicatedto the

patron

god of the city,builton high ground, calledan acropolis.

Themodern

world

hasgainedagreat legacy from Ancient

Greek

civilisation. It has had amajor influenceon

such

thingsas the thinking

of

philosophers, architecture, language, sport,

scienceand

politics.

Anglo-Saxons

Anglo-Saxon s is ageneral term used to describeAngles,Saxons and

Jutes;

G ermanicinvaders who conquered much of Britain between the

5

th

and 7

th

centuries. They were fierce warriors

and won

most battles

easily.The

Angles,

Saxonand

Jutes divided Englandinto

seven

kingdoms: Northumbria, Mercia,EastAnglia,

Essex,

Kent,

Sussex and

Wessex,witharuler inchargeof

each.


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Archaeology

se e

also

evidence

Archaeology meansthe studyanddescription ofantiquities,that

is,

the

people,

relics, customs, records and monuments of ancient times.

Discoveries

of

past remains

and the

scientific study

of

ancient

monuments byarchae ologists provide vitalevidenceof

prehistoric

society.

Archa eologists conduct'digs' in the ground inorder to

unearth

evidence. Every

fragment

found on a dig is numbered and recorded.

Various items, such as pots and pieces of

furniture,

can be

reconstructed byputtingtogetherthe separate piecesthat once made

thewhole object. A rchae ologists also use a va riety of scientific

techniques.

One of

these

is

carbon

dating.By

measuring

how

much

radioactive carbon isleft in the remains o f a previously living

substance,

such

as

wood

from

a

tree,

it is

possible

to

work

out

when

the tree

died.

Archive

se e

also

evidence

Thetermarchive refers to a historical record or document thathas

been preserved. Archives are cru cial evidenceof happenings of the

past.

T he

word

archive

is

also

used

to

describe

the

place

in

which

public

records

or

historic documents

are

kept. Examples

of

archives include

well-knowndocuments of the past such as theDomesdayBook,

throughto

present

day

items,such

as

comp uter records

an d

videos

of

events.


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15/97

Armour

Armour is the name given to body protection wornby people

fighting

inbattle.People of

AncientGreece

and

Rome

wore armour. During

the

Middle

Ages,

armour

called

ch ain mail, made from interlocked

chainsor rings, was wo rnand, by the14

th

century, knightswentinto

battle completely

encased in

plate (metal) armour. This

was

ex tremely

heavy

and so not

very practical. Today

soldiers

are

protectedwith

much lighter bullet-proof clothing.

Artefact

se e

also

Archaeology

and

Evidence

An

artefact

(or

artifact)

is an

artificial

or

man-m ade product. A rtefacts

are crucial sources

of

evidence

of

past societies.

It is

possible

to

date

ancientsettlements by the artefacts found on

their

sites.

For example,

artefacts

dating from the time of the

Romans

would be different from

those

of the Bronze

Age.

The

discoveries

of

archaeologists, such

as

pieces

of

pottery, glass,coins

and

jewellery,

a re

vital artefactsthat help

inform

us

about

past

times .


16/97

Assyrian

Empire

s e e

also Iron Age andSumerians

The Assyrian Em pire is one of W estern Asia's great Iron Age empires. It

lasted f rom around 2500to 612BC inN orthern M esopotamia,now the

country called Iraq. The

Assyrians

adopted the Sum erian structure of

societyand the religionthat had been p ractised by the Sumerians.The

chief

god of the

Assyrians

w as

named Ashur.

The

emp ire's capital

city,

Ashur,

wasnamed after him. By670BC the empirewas too largeto be

ruled effectively.

Areas

such as Egypt a nd Babylon broke awayfrom it .

In609BC the empire collapsed completely.

Azteccivilisation

s e e also

Spanish

Conquest

The

Az tecs were originally wandering, hunting

and

farming people

who

arr ived

on the shoresof

Lake Taxoco

in the

Valley

of

Mexico

in

about AD1300. Twohundred

years

later,

they ruled a

vast

empire

stretching from the Pacific coast to the Gulf of Mexico. This areawas

inhabited by

fifteen

m ill ion people. The Az tec Empire possessed great

power for about 100

years,

untilmostof the civil isationwasdestroyed

by

the Spanish in the early 1500s. T he Az tecs are noted for the

architecture, jewellery, sculptureandtextiles,the stylesof which have

continuedto be of influence

until

the present day.


17/97


18/97

Bayeux

Tapestry

see a ls o Norman Conques t

an d

Batt le

o f

Hast ings

The Bayeux Tapestry is a large tapestry (woven

fabric),

which records in

picturesthe N ORMAN invasionof England in 1066.Workon the

tapestry began

in

1080.

It

represents

a

very

important

source

of

historicevidencethat helps

us understand

events

of the

Norman

invasion

and

conquest. Today

the

tapestry

may be

seen

in the

Bayeux

Museum.

BC

see a l s o

AD )

The

letters BC stand for 'beforeC hrist'. They are used to denote

years

or centuriesin the Christian chronological system of

numbering

years

that

were before

the

Birth

of

Christ.


19/97

Benin

Benin is the nameof aformer important African Kingdom.T he

Kingdom

of

Benin lasted from 1200until 1897.

It was at the

height

of

its

power between 1400and the mid

17

th

century, when it ruled the

area

between

the

Niger Delta

and Lagos.The

kingdom traded

in

ivory,

palm

oil,

spicesandslaves.Whenthe kingdom declined,it

became

a

province of

Nigeria.

The

ruler

of

Benin today, known

as the

oba,rules

as asupremeor divine

monarch.

BlackDeath

see

a l s o Great

Plague

In 1348 agreat epidemicof adeadly

disease

known as the

Black

Death,orbubonic plague, beganto sweepacrossEurope.InBritain,

around a

third

of the population died from the

Black

Death in

eighteen months.The

cause

of the plaguewas abacteriumthatwas

transmitted by

f leas

thatwere

carried

into

Europe

bymigrating

black

rats

from

Asia.


20/97

Blitz

s e e a l s o Batt le of Bri tain

Whenthe BattleofBritainwasover,Germanbombers begannight-

time raidson Britain.Thisperiod wasknownas the Blitz. It continued

until

the spring of 1941. In retaliation, Britain and the USA bombed

Germanyandtargetsin Germanoccupied territories.A

second

blitz

took place between 1944and1945, whenthe southof Englandwas

bombed

by

Germany.

Many

civ i l iansdied or were injured during the

blitz

when areasof

largeBritishcities,such

as

London

and

Coventry, were destroyed.

During the

raids,

peopletookrefuge in air raid

shelters

where they

were

less

likely

to be

killed than

in

rooms

of

their

houses.

British

Empire

s e e also

Empire,

Colonies

andCommonwealth

The

British

Emp ire is the

term used

to describeall of the

various

territories aroundthe worldthatwerewon inconquestorcolonised

by

Britain from around 1600 onwards.TheBritish

Emp ire

was at its

largest

around 1920,when

it

included over

a

quarter

of the areaand

population

of the

world.

The

Commonwealthcomprises

some

of the

former

and

remaining

Empire

territories. Most original British

Empire

territoriesare now either independent states,or areruledbyother

powers.


21/97

Bronze

Age

TheBronze

Age

describes

he

period

of

time from about 2100BC when

people used bronze.Thisis a

metal,

made by mixing copperwith tin.

Bronze

was an

important

discovery as it enabled metalsmiths to make

much

stronger tools, weaponsandother implements, including those

used in

agriculture. During

the

Bronze Age, people lived

in

small

vi l lages

in

huts made

out of

interwoven twigs coveredwithmud. Many

of the small

settlements belonged

to a

larger community, ruled

by a

chief.

Buddhism

Buddhism

is the name of a religion thatoriginated in India

about

500BC.

Buddhism derives

fromthe

teachings

of the

Buddha. Buddhists

do not worship gods. The central belief is Karma or destiny. Good or

evil deeds performed bypeople arerewarded or punishedeither in

this life

or in afuture

life.


22/97

Byzantine

Empire

The Byz antine Empire, or the Eastern Rom an Emp ire, lastedfrom395

to

1453.

I ts

capital

was at

C onstantinople,

formerly

called Byzantium,

and

today

Istanbul.

The

Byzantine Empire reached

the

height

of its

influenceandprosperity under the Macedonian dynasty,from867 to

1056.

Thelegacyof the

empire includes many works

of art and

architecture foundthroughout Europe.

Caesar,Julius

se e also Romans andRoman conquest

Gaius Julius Caesar was a

Roman statesman

and

general,

who

lived

from 100BC to 44BC.In55BChe led the invasion into

Britain, which

marked

the

beginning

of the

Roman conquest.

On 15 March 44BC,C aesar was stabbed to death by conspirators at the

footof thestatueof his former

rival Pompey,

in

Rome.

Caesar'sadopted

so n

Augustus assumed

the

name

of

Caesar

an d

passed it on to his adopted son

Tiberius. From

thenon it was

used

by

successive emperors

and it

became

thetitleof the

Roman rulers.


23/97

CaptainCook

CaptainJames Cook was a British explorer who lived from

1728

to

1779.He

made

three

expeditions:

the firstin the

ship

the

Endeavour

to

Tahiti,

New

Zealand

and

Aus tralia (1768

to

1771);

the

second

in the

ResolutionandA dventure to the South Pacific (1772to

1775);

and the

thirdin the

Resolution

and

Discovery

to the

South

andNorth

Pacific

(1776

to 79). [AUTHOR NOTE:

HOW DID HE

MANAGE

TO

SAIL

IN

TWO SHIPS AT

ONCE?]

Cook's detailed exp loration of the east coast

of Australia led to the naming o f New South W alesand Botany Bay. He

waskilledin Hawaiiin 1779on hisreturn fromthethird expedition.

Castles

A castle is a largefortifiedbuildingor set of buildings. Most castles

were

builtas the

private fortress

of asovereignor

member

of the

nobility.

In Britain, the

earliest

castles

were

built

during the

time

of

the

Normanconquest.

They consistedof anearth mound

with

wooden buildings surrounded

by a

wall

and a

ditch.Later

castles

were

builtof stone.

Castle

buildingin Britainwas at itspeakin the 13

th

century.

Remains of

many

castlescan be

v isitedtoday, particularly

in

Walesand

N orthumbria. They provide importantevidence

o f

medieval

society.


24/97

Celts

see

also

Iron

Age)

Celtswerethe first peopleto inhabit central Europeafter

1000BC.

The

Celts

first

cameto

Britain

in

about

500BC.It isthought that the

technique

of

smelting

iron

may

have been introduced

in

Britain

by the

Celtic

people.

The

legacy

of the Celtic

people continues

to

this

day in

the formof legendsand influenceon art andmusic.

Charlemagne

see

also

Holy

Roman Empire

King

C harlemagne,

or

Charles

I theGreat, lived from AD742to814.In

AD768

he becameking of the Franks. He was successful in the

conquest

of a

great deal

of

Europe

and he

became

its

first great

leader sincethe fallof the Roman Empire.InAD800,Charlemagne

wascrowned Holy

Roman

Emperorby P ope Leo III.


25/97

Christianity

Christianity is a religion thatoriginated in Palestine. It isbased on the

teachings of a

person named Jesus

of N azareth,who is

called C hrist,

the Son of

God,

by his

followers. Christendom

is a

word

used

to

refer

to theChristian domain, orfol lowers of C hrist collectively.

Chronology

Chronology is the scienceofcomputingtimeor periodsof

time,

and of

attributingeventstotheir truedates.Achronological tableof historic

events

sets

out events in correct sequen ce or chro nological order.

1901-

Death

of

Queen Victoria

1939-45-

Second World

War

1900

Millennium

I

1950

2000

1914 18 First World

War

1969- Moon Landing


26/97

Churchill,Winston

s e e a ls o

Second

W o r l dWar)

Winston Churchill

was a

famous British

C onservat ive

politician

[AUTHOR

NOTE:

BUT

DIDN'T

HE CROSS THE FLOOR

ONCE

OR

TWICE

DURING

HIS

TIME?]

who

lived from

1874

to

1965.

He was

prime minister from 1940

to

1945,

atimeof

crucial importance

as

this

was

the

period

of the

SecondWorld War.

He

returned

to

office

as

prime minister

from

1951to 1955. Churchillisregardedas agreat

statesmanand able politician. He negotiatedwithother

leaders

of the

AlliedPowers the unconditional surrenderofGermanyat the end of

the

Second

World War.

Civilrights

Civ i lrightsare the rightsof anindividual citizen.Somecountriesare

very spec ificabout c ivi lrights andwritethem intolegislation. For

example,

the

Bill

of

Rights

in theconstitutionof the United

States

of

Amer icaguarantees by law

that

allc i t iz enswill haveequal treatment.

Civ i lrights havebeenfoughtfor throughouthistory. One famous

rights campaigner was the black leader and Baptist minister

Martin

Luther King who lived in the USA rom 1929 to 1968.


27/97

Colonies

se e also Empire

Acolony isaterritoryseparatedfromthe country

that

rulesit.Co lonies

wereset up all overthe

world

byBritainas theBritish Empirewas

expand ed. Former Brit ish colonies,now

independent

countries,

include

India, Pakistan,Sr iLanka, Cyprus, Tanzania, Jamaica, Uganda, Kenya,

Malaysia,Malawi,Malta,

Zambia, Singapore, B angladesh

and

Zimbabwe. Theword colony is

also

used to refer to a group of people

knowascolonists'who settle in a

territory

far awayfrom

their

homeland.

The

colonistsform

a

community, connected politically

to

their home country.

Columbus,

Christopher

Christopher Columbus

was born inItaly in 1451.He is the

famous

explorer

and

nav igator

who

discovered

the

Americancontinent.

Columbus

made

four

key voyages to the so called N ew

World:

in 1492

to

1493

to San

Salv ador Island, C uba

andHaiti;

1493

to

1496

to

Guadeloupe, Montserrat,Antigua,Puerto RicoandJam aica; 1498 to

the South American mainlandandTrinidad; and 1502to 1504to

Hondurasand N icaragua. C hristopher C olumbus' f lagship was the

Santa Maria. Her two accomp anying ships werethe Pintaand the Nina.


28/97

Commonwealth

s e e also

British Empire

The

British Com monw ealth is an as sociat ion of fiftycoun tries andtheir

dependencies (states con trolled bythem),who were once a part of the

British

Empire

and are now

independent.

The

C ommonwealth

also

includes

some territories that remain

as

dep endencies

of

Britain.

Membershipof the Commonwealth isvoluntary.Itsheadsof

government meet regularly. It has no formal

constitution.

Communism

C ommunism is a

political ideology

or set of

ideasbased

on the

theories

of a man nam ed Karl Marx. Marx, a G erman philosopher and

economist, lived

from

1818 to 1883.He believed

that

a society should

be

based

on the

principle

of

common ownership.

The

world's f irst

communist state

was the

RussianEmpire, which later became

the

Soviet

Union.

All of the

countries

in

eastern Europe became communist

after the SecondWorldW ar as a result of Russian influence.


29/97

Conflict

A

conflict

is afightor

lengthy

struggle,often(in historical

circumstances)

involvingweaponsandarms.Anexampleof a present

day

conflictis

that

taking

place

in

Kosovo,

a

region

in

South Serbia.

[AUTHOR NOTE:

IF

THIS CONFLICT ENDS,

THE

BOOK WILL

BE

DATED]

Conquest

(see also Norman Conquest, Roman Conquest and Spanish Conquest)

A conquest is the act of gaining control of aterritoryor society by

armed force.It

means

overcoming, orgaining victory overanenemy.


30/97

Court

se e

also Sovereign

A

Court

is a

name given

to a

place where

a

sovereign lives

and'holds

state',that is,exercises rule and government attended by such people

as

m inisters

and

co unc illors. Throug hout history, peop le hav e lived

and

worked

in the

society

of a

Court, including

the

advisers

to the

sovereign or courtiers.

CrimeanWar

TheC r imean W artook place between 1853 and 1856. I t was a war

between theAllied

Powers

of England,France,TurkeyandSardinia,

against

Russia.

Famous

battles of the war include battles of the

River

Alma, Balaclavaand Inkerman.The war endedwiththe defeat of

Russia and

with

the signing of the Treaty of

Paris

in 1856. One p ositive

outcome

of

this

war wa s a

great improvem ent

in

m edicalservices

for

the British Arm y.Thecampaignto improve military nursing services

was led by Florence N ightingale, a fam ous pioneer in the field of

medicine.


31/97

Cromwell,

Oliver

s e e also

English civilwar andKingCharles I)

OliverCromwell l ived

from

1599

to

1658.

He was the

leader

of the

parliam entary side of the struggles against King Charles I in the E nglish

civil

war.

He led the

parl iamentarians

to

victory

in the

Battle

of

Marston Moor

in

1644

and the

Battle

of

Naseby

in 1645.At N aseby, the

parl iamentarianswon controlof the country. Following thedeath of

the

king

in

1649, Cromwell

set up and

became head

of a

republic

knownas the Commonwealth in England. From 1653 he made himself

ruler,

with

thetitle Lord Protector.

Crusades

Between

the 11

th

and the

15

th

centuries,

a seriesof

military expeditions

called

crusades

was

undertaken

by

C hristian European powers.

The

original

aim of the crusades,or

holy wars,

w as to

recapture P alestine

(the Holy Land) from Muslim Turks. N ew ordersof soldier-monks were

establishedto engageinfighting.These includedthe Knightsof St

John,

founded

in 1098.


32/97

da Vinci, Leonardo

(see also Renaissance

Leonardoda Vinci was one of the greatest men of the Renaissance

period. He was an Italian artist and inventor who lived from 1452 to

1519.

Hestudied natureand theformof thehuman bodyinorder to

draw living forms moreaccurately. One of hismost famous paintingsis

calledthe

Mona

Lisa.

Democracy

Democracy meansgovernment

by the

people,

or bytheir

elected

representatives.Withina democracy, it is recognised and accepted

that

all people should have equal rights and privileges. In some nations of

thepresentdayworld,peoplearestill campaigningandfightingfor

suchdemocratic rights.


33/97

Dictatorship

Adictatorship is a political situation inwhich astateorcountry isruled

by a

dictator.

A

dictator

is a

supreme

authoritywho has the

absolute

power to rule or deal

with

a

crisis.

Many dictatorships

arose

at the end

of theFirstWorldWar.Examplesofdictators includeMussolini,

Franco,

Hitlerand

Stalin.

Dissolutionof themonasteries

se e

alsoKing Henry VIII andMonastery

Between

the

years

1536 and

1539,King Henry

V IM

closeddown

all the

conventsand monasteries in England. Many ofthemwere sold and

numerous others destroyed.

This

is

known

as the period of the

dissolution of the monasteries. The king's excusefor

doing

this was

that

the

monasteries, according

to

him,were

corruptor not

viable

because

of lackof money.


34/97

Domesday Book

The Domesday Book is a record of a survey, called the Domesday

Survey,

carried out in England in 1086.T he survey recorded the details

of all

land holdings

in the

country.

It was

ordered

by the

king,

William

I, sothat he could make an assessment of thewealthof each area of

the country, and

then

decide

what

tax es should be paid.T he

Domesday

Book

is

still

in

existence

and is a

very

important

historical

record, showing that manyof our presentdaysettlementsexisteda

century ago.

Drake,

Francis

s e e also

Queen

Elizabeth I andArmada

Francis Drake, who livedfrom 1545until

1596,

was a famous E nglish

explorer. He was the second personin the

world

to sail

right

the way

around

it.

(The first circumnavigation

was by the

Portuguese explorer,

Ferdinand Magellan.) Drake's famous voyage was requested by

Queen Elizabeth I and was undertaken

between

the years 1577 to

1580

in a

ship called

The

Golden Hind. FrancisDrake

w as

also involved

in

helping

to

defeat

the

Spanish

in the

Armada

in

1588.

He was

knightedby the queen as arecognitionof his endea vo urs at sea,

therefore

becoming Sir FrancisDrake.


35/97

Dynasty

(see alsoHouses of History

A

dynasty

is a

succession

of

rulers

of the

sameline

or

family.

For

example,

the

dynasty

of the

Tudors

in

British history included Henry

VII,

Henry

VIM,

Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I.

EmperorAugustus

Augustus,

who

lived

from 63BC to

AD14,

was the first of the

Roman

emperors.Heborethe

title

of Octavianand wasemperor

from 27BC.

Octavian

married a niece of

Julius

Caesar

and became

Caesar's

adoptedson and heir. In27BC he was given thetitleof

Augustus,

meaning 'venerable'.

The

rule

of

Emperor Augustus

broughtan end to the

Roman

republic

withelected leaders.

A

peacefulempire

was

established

in its

place.


36/97

Empire

s e e

also

Assyrian Empire, British Empire, Byzantine Empire, Holy

Roman Empire, Mogul Empire

and

Ottoman Empire)

An

empire

is an

extensiveterritory, perhaps

an

aggregate

of

many

states, ruled over

by an

emperor

or by a

sovereignstate.

The

emperor hassuprem e control over the empire.

English civil

war

s e e

also

King Charles

I and

Oliver Cromwell)

The

Englishc ivi l

war

lasted from 1625until1649.

A s a whole,it was a

long seriesof tensions, struggles and battles. The first key event of the

war was the Battle of Edgehill, which

took

placein

1641.

The war was

a long conflict between King Charles I and the royalists or cavaliers on

one side, and the pa rliame ntarian s or roundheads, headed up by Oliver

Cromwell,

on theother.It was a

major struggle over

the

powers

of the

kingand the powersofparliament.Eventually,the royalists were

defeated. King

Charles I was

executed

in

1649.


37/97

English

Renaissance

se e

also

Renaissance

The

term

English

Renaissance

refers

to the periodduringthe reign of

Queen

ElizabethI

when

the arts flourished. Influentialnames

associated

with

the

English

Renaissance

include

William

Shakespeare

(1564

to

1616)

and

Christopher

Marlowe (1564to 1593),both

famous

writers,

the composerWilliam Byrd (1543to 1623),and the artist

N icholas Mil l iard

(1547

to

1619).

European

Union

The European

Union is an

asso ciation

of

countries

in the continent of

Europe.The sixoriginal members- Belgium, France, West Germany,

Italy,

Luxembourg

and the

N etherlands

-

were

joined

by the UK,

Denmark

and the

Republic

of

Ireland

in

1973, Greece

in

1981, Spain

and Portugal in 1986, EastGermany in 1990 (onreunification of

Germany),

and

Austria, Finland

and

Sweden

in

1995.Other countries

awaitfull

membership. Aims

of the

European

Union

include

the

expansionof

trade,

the encouragement of freemovement of capital

and

human resourceswithinthe association and the creation of a

closerunionor community

among

the people of

Europe.


38/97

Evidence

se e

also

History,

Artefact,

Archaeology

and

Archive)

The phrases 'evidence of the

past'

and 'historic evidence'

refer

to the

wide range

of sourcesof

proof

that

past events

took place in

human

society.

Archives

are

vital

sources

of

evidence. Various

examples

of

historic evidence

are

referred

to inother

entries

in

this

book, for

example

the

pictorial evidence

in the

Bayeux Tapestry,

the

archaeologicalfinds of the

Indus

Valley,th e writings of the

VenerableBede, and the objects and artefactsfoundin the

tomb

of

Tutankhamun.

Factory

see a lso

F a c t or y

Act)

A factory is abuildingor buildingswiththe necessarymachinery or

equipment

for the

manufacture

o f

goods.


39/97

FactoryAct

s e e also

Factory

A FactoryAct is an act of parliamentthatgov erns conditions of

work,

hoursof

labour,

and aspectsof health and safety of employees at

work.

Fromthe startof the 19

th

century in Britain, people campaigned to

improve the long working hours, unhealthy conditions and very poor

pay endured by those who worked in factories and mines.Camp aigns

were alsowaged to ban the emp loyment of young children.

The first act of its kind to be passedwas the Health and Morals of

Apprentices Act of

1802.

In

1833

the

first facto ry inspectors were

appointed. By the end of the 19

th

century,a lower agelimitof

11

had

been set for the emp loyment of children.

Farming

se e

also

Agricultural Revolution

Farming

is the businessof cultivating land and raising livestockin order

to provide food. The first farm ers arrived in Britain around

4000BC.

They

cleared land to graz e animals and

growfood.

Farming methods

havech anged very considerablythrough

the

centuries

and

p articularly

from th e time of the Agricultural Revolution.


40/97

Fascism

s e e also Mussolini

Fascismwasoriginally the nameof the polit ical movement inpower in

Italy

from

1925

to

1943 under

the

leadership

of

Mussolini.

The

name

fascism

comes

from

the

Latin

word

'fasces',

which referred

to the

wooden torches

that

becamethe symbolof the fascist political party.

Fascismsupp orted

nationalism

andimperialism,and was strongly

opposed

tocommunismanddemocracy.

Later

the

name

was

also

app lied to other nationalistic movements, such as German N ational

Socialism (party of the nazis).

Fawkes,Guy

s e e also Gunpowder Plot

Guy Fawkes was a C atholic conspirator w ho played a major role in the

gunpowder plot in 1605. Theplotwas discov ered in a cellar

underneath the

Houses

of Parliament, where

Fawkes

was

hiding

with

a

large store of explosives. Guy

Fawkes

was arrested and later executed.

His name and the plotare still rem emb ered ev ery year on the day of

its anniversary, 5 N ovember. The day is

known

as Guy

Fawkes

Day or

BonfireNight. Peoplelight bonfires

and

fireworks,

and

burn

a'Guy'.


41/97

Feudalism

s e e also Normans

Feudalism is the name usedto describe a system of orga nising society

thatwas introduced in E ngland by the N ormans. The system involves a

complicated

series

of

duties, rights

and

loyalties.

F or

example,

everyone owed ultimate loyaltyto the

king;

large areasof land,called

fiefs, were granted

by the

king

to his

chief nobles;

the

nobles granted

smaller areasof land, called mano rs,to knights; and the knights

granted small

areasof

land

to

peasants.V arious dues were paid

fo r

the land made av ailable in each

case.

F i r s t W o r l d W a r

s e e

also Allied Powers

The

FirstW orldWar lastedfrom

1914

until 1918.It was a war between

the C entral Europ ean P owers of Ge rmany, Au stria, Hungary, Turkey

and Bulgaria,

and the

Al l ied Powers.

It

took

only three weeks

in

July

and August 1914for almostall of the major countriesin Europeto

become involved in this

bitter

and f ierce war. Many civilianswere

called

to

fight

in thewar.A good dealof thefighting took placein

ground trenchesinnorthern France.It isestimatedthatten million

lives

were lost

as a

result

of the

fighting,

and

m any more mil l ions were

wounded. Fighting stopped late

in

1918,

and the war

f inally ended

with

the signing of a peace treaty known as the T reaty of Versailles in

1919.


42/97

French Revolution

(see also

Napoleon

I)

The

periodof the

French

Revolution lasted from 1789until1799.

During thistime,the people of

France

overthrew their monarchand

the

country

became

a

republic.

It was a

period

of

great

violence,

with

riots andbitterstruggles inFrance,and attacks by other nations. King

LouisXVI was

condemned

to

death

in

December1792

and

executed

in

January1793.

His

death

was

followed

by a

further period

of

great

violence,known as the Reign of Terror. The revolution ended when

N apoleon

overcame the rulers in1799and

seized

power as dictator.

Government

The

Government

is the

body

of personswho are

charged

withthe

duties andresponsibilitiesofgoverning. That is ,they are chargedwith

ruling over

and

managing

the

affairs

and

actions

of

people

in a

particularcountryorlocality.


43/97


44/97

Great Plague

se e a l s o Black Death

In 1665,an epidemic of Bubonic plague broke out in England. Like the

BlackDeath before

it

the plague was carried by

rats.

The Great Plague

killed 68,000 people in London alone. The plague

spread

extremely fast

asaresultofcrowded living conditionsof theday, poor hygiene,

little

medical

care and lack of available cure.Any house

with

a sickperson

had acrosspainted on the door as awarning

sign

to passers by. The call

of

bring

out

your dead

was

frequently heard

in the

streets.

GunpowderPlot

see al so G uyFawkes

Theterm the Gunpowder Plot refersto anevent inBritish history when

agroup

of

Catholicsconspired

to

blow

up

KingJamesI

and his

parliament. It

took

placeon 5November 1605.The leading conspirator

was Guy Fawkes.The

plot

was

discovered

because of an

anonymous

letter tellingthatthe Housesof Parliament wereto beblown up.


45/97

Heraldry

Heraldryis thetermthat

refers

to the

symbols

and

insignia

that

represent a family,dynasty, individual or realm. Early examples of

heraldry

are the

simple symbols

that

were

put on

shields

and

banners

in

order

for themto be

recognised

in

battles.

In

later years, heraldry

became increasingly comp lex. D uring the 14

th

century special 'courts of

chivalry' wereset up to overseeand regulate it.

Hieroglyphics

se e also

Ancient Egypt

The peopleof Ancient Egypt

introduced

aformof 'writing'called

hieroglyphics. Hieroglyphics

are

picture signs,

often

used

to

'spell

out'

words. T here were over 700 of these sym bols. Some hieroglyphics are

readfrom top tobottom,whileotherscan bereadfrom

left

to

right

or

viceversa.

A Frenchman,

J ean-Francois

Cham pollion, solved the code of

the hieroglyphicsin1882withthe aid of theRosetta Stone- astone

bearing

the samemessage in two

different languages, Egyptian

and

Greek.


46/97

Hinduism

Hinduism is a religionthatoriginated in northern India over 4,000

yearsago. A follower of Hinduism is a calledaHindu. Hindus worship

many

godsandbelievein asupreme spirit

called

Brahman. Centralto

Hinduism

is

belief

in

reincarnation

and

Karma(destiny).

Hiroshima

se e a l s o

Second

W o r l dWar)

Hiroshima is aportand industrial city on the south coastof Honshu

Island,Japan.It is famousbecauseit was destroyed by the first wartime

use

of anatomic bomb.On 6August 1945,the USAdropped the bomb

in

order

to

bring about

the end of the

SecondWorld

War.

Overfour

square

milesof the city weretotallydestroyed and damage

spread

muchfurtherafield.

78,150

people

of

Hiroshima werefounddead

after theexplosionandothers died later. Many thousandsof people

were injuredandsuffered long term effectsof radiation.

A

secondatomic bomb was dropped on the Japanesetownof N agasaki

on

9August 1945.

Japan

surrendered

on

14August 1945,

and the war

ended on 2September 1945.


47/97

History

se e also Evidence

History

is the

record

of

events

that

have happened

in

human societies.

It is the

study

of the

past

and

past societies. History includes events

of

very

long

ago

(ancient

history)

and

events

of the

very recent past

-

even yesterday is history. Unde rstanding the past depends on evidence

and

records.

It is

very

important

that

evidence

is

reliable

if atrue

understanding of historic events is to be gained. Many a ccounts of the

past depend

upon

individual viewpoints and

interpretation,

and two

accounts of the sameevent may not

necessarily

agreewitheachother.

Hitler

se e

also Second

World

W a r , Nazis, Allied

Powers

andHolocaust

Adolf Hitler

lived

from

1889

to

1945.

He was the

Fuhrer,

or

leader

of

the

naziparty,

in

Germanyfrom 1921. From 1933

Hitlerwas

C hancellor

of

Germany

and

became Head

of

State,

acting

as a

dictator

from

1934.

Hitler andMussoliniformedan

all iance

in

1936

andwerejoinedby

Japan

in 1940in

theirfight

to win the Second

World

War. Hitler was

thereforethe

leader

of the

forces opposing

theAllied

P owers.

He was

responsible,withother nazis,for the holocaust.Adolf

Hitler

committed

suicide on 30 April 1945.


48/97

Holocaust

see

alsoNazis,

Hitler

andSecond WorldWar

The

Holocaustis the term usedto describetheatrocities (dreadful

things) done

by the nazisto

millions

of

people.Theyimprisoned,

tortured

and

exterminated (murdered) people

who

they believed

to be

unwanted orundesirablein theworld. In

p articular,

they killed millions

of Jews.

Many people were taken

to

prison camps,

suchas Belsen and

Auschwitz,andevidence from theseplacesof deathandtorture

remains as ahorrific reminder of theatrocities committed there.

HolyRoman

Empire

see

also Christianity, Charlemagne and

Empire

The

Holy Roman Empire w as the empireofKing Charlemagne,who

wascrowned

as its

emperor

in

AD800

by

Pope

Leo

III.Charlemagne

forced

all the peopleheconqueredto become

C hristians.

Inparticular

he

fought

Muslim peopleof the Islamic religionwhowere invading

southern Europeat the

time.

T heexpansionof the HolyRomanEmpire

was

regarded

as a

Christian revival

of the

Roman

Empire,

which

is

why

the

term 'holy'

was

used

to

describe

it.


49/97

Houses

of

history

se e

also

Dynasty

The housesof history inBritainare the family namesof the

monarchs.

British Houses

of

History

inchronological

order from

thetimeof the

Norman

conquest

are:

Normans

(1066

to

1154);

House

of

Plantagenets (1154 to 1399); House o f Lancaster(1399 to 1461); House

of York (1461to 1485); HouseofTudor (1485to 1603); Houseof

Stuart (1603

to

1714); House

of

Hanover (1714

to

1837); House

of

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (1837to 1910),andHouseof

Windsor

(1910 to

the present day).

Hundred

Years War

The so-called Hundred

Years

War was actually a series of wars

that

took placebetween England

and

Francebetween 1337

and

1453.

Th e

wars began

after

the

death

of

Charles

IV of

France

who

died

without

a

male heir. In 1337,war broke outwhenthe kingof England, Edward

III, whosemotherwasIsabelleof France,triedto claimtheFrench

throne.

Englandwon many victoriesduringthe seriesof wars,but by

the end of the battles in 1453, England ha d lost all of its land in France

withthe exception of Calais.


50/97

Imperialism

se e

also

Empire andColonies

Imperialism is the political policy of extending the power andauthority

of aruler or

government

beyond the boundaries of asingle

country.

The

growth

and

development

of

empires,

such

as the

British Empire,

is an example of imperialism. Imperialistic rule may involve direct rule

over

other

places,

orcontrolof

such matters

as

trade

and

markets

for

goods.

Another

name

for

imperialism

is

colonialism, involving

the

establishment and rule of colonies by an empire.

Incas

Incaswere

tribal

peoplewho belonged to the ancient civil isationof

Peru.T he

civil isation began

high in the

Andes mountains.

The

first

Inca

ruler l ived around AD1200.

In

1438,

a man

called

Pachacutec

became

their

emperor

and the Incas spreadoutfromthe

city

of Cuzco,their

capital, to conquer a huge empire. The empire lastedabouta hundred

years

before the Spanish conquered the

Incas.

T he emperor of the

Incaswas

called

'the Inca'. His

people believed

that he was a

descendentof theSun.


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Indigenous people

Indigenous pe ople are those who are native to a particular region.

That

is ,

they belong natu rally there. They,

a ndtheir

ancestorswere

bornin the

place

in question, and

their

ancestors were

the original

inhabitants

oftheir

lands. Indigenous people include

the

South

Western Indiansof NorthA merica (Apache),the plains Indiansof

North

America (Sioux),the

Inuit

(Eskimo) peopleof Canada,the Aborigines

of

Australia,

and the

Maoris

of New

Zealand.

IndusValley

The

Indus Valley

lies in

present

day

P akistan.

I t

gave

its

name

to the

Indus Valley civilisation,one of the fourancient civil isationsof the

world.

The

civilisation lasted

from

its

origins,

around 3000BC,

until

its

collapsearound 1700BC. A rchaeological excava tions have provided

muchevidenceabout life in the two main citiesof the ancient

civil isation, Mohenjo Daro

and

Harappa. Archaeologicaldiscoveries

include planned streets

with

drainage, baths, temples

and

v ar ious

other buildings

and

artefacts.


52/97

Industrial revolution

The

industrial revolution

was a

time

of

very rapid development

of

industry

in

Britainthrough

the

invention

and

introduction

of

machines

into

factories.

An

example

of a

major

invention

of the

time

is the

steam

engine.

Some

of Britain's major cities, such as B irmingham,

Manchesterand Leeds,developedduringthe periodof the industrial

revolution,

which took placefrom around 1750

and

lastedthroughout

the 19

th

century. Britainwas the first country to experience such rapid

industrial chan ge. From 1830to theearly 20

th

centurythe revolution

spread

throughout Europeand the USA,alsoto Japanand British

colonies.

Interpretation

s e e also Evidenceand History

Interpretationmeans

the act of

explaining

or

finding meaning.

Historiansinterpret

ev idence

in

order

to

explain

and

de scribe historic

events.

Interpretation

depends

on the

viewpoint

or

evidence av ailable

to anindividual historian. Henceone person's accountof a past event

may

no t necessarily be exactly the same as

another's.


53/97

Invasion

An invasionis an aggressiveentranceor intrusion intoacountry or

locality by hostile

forces

fromelsewhere. Thewordis generally used to

describe

the act of invading enemy territory byarmed

forces.

An

example

of aninvasionis the German invasionof PolandinSeptember

1939,

marking

the

commencement

of theSecond

World

War.

IronAge

see also

Celts

The Iron

Age is socalled

because

it was the age

when earlypeople first

usedthe technique of smeltingiron,probably introduced by the

Celts.

This

technique

reached

Britain around

700BC.

Duringthe

early

years

of

the IronAge,people livedin

v i l lages

or on farms.Inlateryears,larger

settlements

knownas

oppida were established.

The

people belonged

to tribes, ruled by

chiefs.


54/97

Islam

Islam is the nameof the religion founded in Mecca,Arabia, by the

prophet Muhammadin theearly7

th

centuryAD.Followersof the

Islamic

faith

are

called

Muslims.

The

sacred

book

of

Islam

is the

Koran.

A ll Muslimsare meant to visit

Mecca

at leastoncein

their lives.

Muslimsshould pray five times every day, facing towards Mecca.

KingArthur

King

Arthur is a legendary hero who isbelievedto have

battled

againstthe Saxon invasion.Somehistorians believe

that

King

Arthur

didexist. It isdocumented

that

he wasborn atTintagel

Castle

in

Cornwall,

to a

father

who was

King

of the

Britons.

He

became king

at

the age offifteenon thedeathof hisfather. Many legends were

written

about him.It issuggestedthathe won countlessbattles, aided

by

Caliburn(orExcalibur),hisspecialsword,agiftfrom the Ladyof the

Lake.


55/97

KingCharles

I

se e also

Stuarts, English

civil war

and

Oliver Cromwell

King

Charles

I o f England lived

from

1600 to 1649 and came to the

throne in 1625,the son ofKing James I. Charleswas an unpopular

king

with

his

parliament

as he believed

that

no-one had any

right

to

question

what he

did.

As a

result

of

various disagreements,

the

country

divided itself

into two -

those

who

supported

theking

(royalists)

and

those who supported parliament (parliamentarians).

Civil

war broke

out,

and

Charles

was

eventually defeated

by the

opposition, headed

up by

Oliver C romwell,

in 1645. The

king

wasbroughttotrial in

1648

and was condem ned to death. He was executed in 1649.

King

Edward

I

King EdwardI lived from 1239 to 1307 and waskingof Englandfrom

1272.He was son of

King Henry

I I I and a

member

of the

Plantagenet

house

of

history.

Edward's ambition was to extend his rule to

Wales

and Scotland. He conq uered

W ales

by 1283 and had nine huge

castles

builtthroughout north

Wales, including those

at

Harlech, C onway

and

Caernarvon.E dward failed to gaintotalcontrol of Scotland, although

he engaged

in

many battles,

some of

which

he

won.

His

attemp ts

to

conquer Scotland led to his being nicknamed 'Hammer of the

Scots'.


56/97

King

Henry VII

s e e also

Tudors

King Henry VII, or Henry Tudor, livedfrom1457 to 1509.He was the

first of theTudor

monarchs

of England.Hecameto the

throne

in

1485.

In

1486,

Henry married ElizabethofYork.

This

marriage

united

the rival housesof Lancasterand York, and Henry restored peace after

the

wars

of the roses.

Henry

V I I was a

popular

and

hard-working king.

He was

also

a

good

businessman.He avoided

foreign

wars and his reign is

noted

for

bringing

peaceandprosperity toEngland.

King

HenryVIII

(see alsoTudors,

Act of

Supremacy

and

Dissolution

of the

monasteries

King HenryV IM of England lived

from

1491until1547. He becameking

in

1509.

Henrywas ahandsomeandhigh-spirited

king,noted

for the

large

number

of

wives

he

had,

six in

total.

They were

(in

order

of

marriage), Catherine

of

Aragon,

Ann

Boleyn,JaneSeymour, Anne

of

Cleves,

Catherine Howard and Catherine

Parr.

Other thanthese various

marriages, the reign of King HenryV IM isnotedfor itsforeignwars and

religious upheaval.

Hetookcontrol of the

Church

of

England

in the Act

of Supremacy.


57/97

KingJamesVI I

s e e also

Stuarts,

Mary,Queen of

Scots

and

Gunpowder

Plot

King James I of

England,

Son of Mary, Queen of Scots, livedfrom 1566

until 1625. He became King of En gland in 1603. He had been King of

Scotland

as

James

V I

from

1567.

In

1603

the two thrones were

united.

JamesI was not a popu lar king.He wasknown to have favourites

among

his

friends ,

who hepromotedto powerful

positions,

and he

regarded himself as a sup reme or divine ruler (i.e. acco untable only to

God), whose views and decisions could not be challenged by anyone.

James I was also

very extravagant,

and he

imposed heavy taxation

and

dutieson the country

without

the approvalof parliament.

[Alternative: In 1603 the two thrones of England and Scotland were

united

when

King James VI of Scotland, son of Mary Queen of Scots, was made heir to the

English

throne

by Elizabeth I and became King James I of Great Britain and

Ireland. He lived from

from

1566

until

1625, but was not a popular king. H e was

known

to have favourites among hisfriends , who he promoted to powerful

positions,

and he

regarded himself

as a

supreme

or

divine ruler (i.e. accountable

only to God), whose views and decisions could not be challenged by anyone.

James

I was

also v ery extravagant,

and he

imposed heavy taxation

an d

duties

on

the country

without

the approvalof parliament.

Law

s e e

also

Parliament andSociety

The law is the body of ruleswithina state or commu nity which

individuals

are

obliged

to

keep.

In

most societies, penalties such

as

fines

or

imprisonment,

are

imposed

on

people

who

break

the

law.

In

Britain,

all of the

rules (laws)thatcit izen s must abide

by

have

to be

approved by parliament. Some laws of our land are very ancient,

dating back to earlier centuries. Serious

crimes

today aretried in a

Court

of

Law, heard

by a

jury

and

presided over

by a

judge.


58/97

Legacy

The legacy

of our

past

isthat

which

has

been handed down

or'left' to

us by people of past societies. Historic legacy includes languages, place

names,

artefacts, myths

and

legends,

music,

literature,

and

styles

of

art and architecture.

Lenin

se e also Russian

Revolution

Vladimir llyich Lenin

is theadopted

name

of

Vladimir llyich Ulyanov,

who

lived

from

1870

to

1924.

He was the first

leader

of the

USSR,

that

is,

the

former Union

of

Soviet

Socialist

Republics,

and a

leading

authorityon the theory ofcommunism.

Lenin

was the

leader

of the

Bolshevikrevolution

in 1917 an d became leader of a Soviet

government.


59/97

Longship

s e e also Vikings

A longship

is the

name given

to the

vessels

of the Vikings, who

depended on sea transport for theirv oyages. One of the most famo us

of Viking longshipsis the G okstad ship, excava tedin Norway in 1880.

It was made of

oak,

witha pine mast and a large steering paddle on

the right,or starboard,

side

of the stern. The ship had been buried in a

mound

of claythat had

helped

to

preserve

it. It

contained

the

body

of

a dead Viking king.

Lord of the manor

see a lso Middle

Ages)

Inthe period of the Middle Ages, around AD1000 to 1450, most people

in Europe lived in villages . The head of

each

v illage was called the Lord

of the Manor. H e owned the v illage land and lived in its grandes t house

calledthe

manor house.

The

lord allowe d

the

v i l lagers

to

farm strips

of

land

that

they paid for by working for him and providing

food

for the

lord

and his

family.


60/97

Magellan, Ferdinand

Ferdinand Magellan w as a famous P ortuguese navigator and explorer,

who livedfrom 1480 to 1521.H is famous voyage of 1519 to 1522 in his

ship

the

Victoria

met

with

both

successes

and

failures.

T he

Victoria

sailedfrom Seville. I t passedthrough what is now called the Magellan

Straitat the tip of South America,crossedthe oceanhenamed the

Pacific,

and

reached

the

Philippines. There, Magellan himself

was

killed.T he ship and crew

returned

home. This w as the

first

ever

expeditionwhich sailedallaround the globe. It proved beyond

doubt

that

theworld is round.

Magna Carta

The words Magna Carta are Latin. They mean the 'Greater Charter ' .

The

Magna C arta was a document (a charter) signed by King John of

England

in 1215. King John had been very unpopular

because

he

imposed very heavy

taxation

and madeother unreasonable demands

of the people.As aresult, the barons,thatis, the landowning

noblemenof the land,madehimsignthe Magna Carta, which

established the rightof the barons to be consulted over such matters as

taxation.The charter was signed at R unnymede on 15 June 1215.


61/97

Mary,

Queen

of

Scots

see

a ls o

Stuarts , King James I and Queen Elizabeth I)

Mary, Queen

of Scots, also

known

as

Mary Stuart, livedfrom

1542 to

1587.

She was queen of Scotlandfrom 1542 to

1567,

and is

probably

the

most famous

monarch

of

Scotland.

She

married

three

t imes.

Because

of aconnection withthe En glish royal lineof inheritance, she

wasa

threat

to

Queen El izabeth

I. In

1567

she was

forced

to

abdicate

and

givethe throneto her youngson,James (who later became King

JamesI of England). Mary herselffledto Englandand became involved

in

plots against Queen Elizabeth

I. For her

role

in

suchplots, El izabeth

held her p risoner and she was eventually executed in

1587.

Mary

Rose

se e

a ls o Henry V III and Tudors

The Mary Rosewas one of Henry VIM'sships,

which

sankwhen

defending England againstthe Frenchfleet.Thewreckof the Mary

Rose,

recovered over

400

years

later,

represents

one of the

major

sources

of

evidence

of the

Tudor age.Artefactsfound

on

board

whenthe shipwassalvaged giveus

important

ev idenceof

life

on

board awarshipof the Tudor era.


62/97

Maya

TheMaya Indians were someof the earliestandgreatest people of

Central America.

The

Maya

Indian

civilisation

originatedin the

Yucatan

Peninsula

about

2600BC.

In

later

years

they

occupied

sites

in

Mexico,GuatemalaandBelize. From early beginnings in

caves

and

simple

forest homes,theMaya developed an

empire

basedoncities

hidden

deepin theforests. They

built

stonebuildings andpyramids

andwere skilful farmers, stone carvers,potters andweavers.The

Maya

were very religious

and

worshipped

the

earth,rain

and

plant

andanimal gods. Their empire declined around AD950.

Medieval

s e e also

Middle

Ages)

Medieval

(or

Mediaeval) means relating

to the

MiddleAges,

or the

period between 'ancient'

and

'modern'

times.

The

medieval period

is

not

specific,

but is

loosely used

to

describe times

from

around AD800,

the time of the

founding

of theHolyRomanEmpire,to the middle

of the 15

th

century,thetimeof the

Renaissance


63/97

MiddleAges

see a l s oMedieval

The

Middle Agesis the period of history in Europe between the end of

the Roman Empireandthe Renaissance.Theperiod is not specific,

but the

term generally applies

to the

years

from

the 6

th

century

AD to

the

15

th

century. Historians divide

the

Middle Agesintothree shorter

periods:

the EarlyMiddle Ages(5

th

or 6

th

to 11

th

centuries); the High

Middle Ages(12

th

to

13

th

centuries);

and the

Later Middle Ages(14

th

to

15

th

centuries).

MogulEmpire

The

Mogul

(or Mughal) Empire was anempirerepresenting an

important

stagein thehistoryof theIndian sub-continent. The

Mogul

Empire

wasfounded inIndiain the 14

th

centuryby the

Mogul

dynasty

orfamily.

The

empire began

in the

north

of the

country

and

spread

to

eventually cover most

of

India.

It

began

to

decline

in the

early 18

th

century. The lastMogul emperor was deposed (removed from office)

by

the

English

in

1857.


64/97

Monarch

s e e

also

Sovereign

A monarch is a sole,or absolute ruler of astate. A monarch is a

sovereign,who may

have

the

title

ofking,

queen, emperor

or

empress.

The

wordmonarchy

is

used

to

describe

a

state ruled

by a

monarch, also

the

rule

or

government exercised

by the

monarch.

Monastery

s e e

also

Dissolution

of the

monasteries

and

King Henry VIII)

A monastery is a place where a community of people (usually men who

are termed monks) live in seclusionfromthe

world.

Monks livetheir

lives

according

to

strict religious vows

o r

rules.

Several

centuries

ago,

monkswereoftenthe most educated mem bers of a society. They

learned

to

read Latin,

the

language

of

religious books,

and

often

had a

good knowledge of

science

andm edicine. Du ringthe reignof King

Henry

VIM,m any mo nasteries were destroyed.


65/97

Mussolini

see

a l s o

Fascism

Benito Mussolini lived

from

1883

to

1945.

He was

Italian

dictator from

1925

to 1943andfounderof the fascist movement. Mussoliniwas

known

as II

Duce

or

'the

leader'.In

June

1940,

Mussolini sided

with

Hitler

and

entered

the

Second

World

War

He was

forced

to

resign

frompower in1943becauseof military anddomestic failures.

Myths andlegends

se e

alsoLegacy

A

myth

is afictitious accountorstorythatofteninvolves supernatural

(extraordinary orinexplicable) eventsorpeople, yetwhichmay

incorporate

an

idea

which

concerns

natural

or

historic matters.

A

legend

is a

historic story, passed

on bytraditionfromone

generation

to the next. Legendsaregenerallyfictitious,yet are popularly

regarded

as

historical.

Mythsand legendsforman

important

aspectof the legacyof our past.

They

provide insights

into

past ideas, eventsandsocieties.


66/97

Napoleon I

s e e also

French Revolution

N apoleon

I,

or N apoleon Bon aparte, lived

from

1769 to 1821. He was

Emperor

of the Frenchfrom 1804to 1814and 1814to 1815. N apoleon

was

a genera l in the w ars of the

French

Revolution,

and in

1799

he

overthrew

the rulersand made himselfdictator.From 1803, N apoleon

conquered most of Europe inwhatare knownas the N apoleonic W ars.

Eventually,

in 1815,he was

defeated

by the

British army

in the

Battle

ofWaterloo. Hethen wentto liveinexileon the islandof StHelena.

Nationalism

s e e

also

Imperialism

N ationalism

is a

political policy

of

national independence.

It is a

movement that aimsto

unify

a

nation,

orfree it

from

imperialist rule.

N ationalist m ovements were

powerful

in Europein the 19

th

century,

for

example,

in

G ermany

and

Italy. N ationalists believe

in

their

country's

right

to remain independent

from other

countries.


67/97


68/97

Nobility

Nobility is aword used to

describe those people

or

ranks

in asociety

who have certain hereditary privileges,

such

as the inheritance of great

wealth,

property

or

'title'

such

as

Lord.

The

wealth

of the

nobility

has

traditionallybeen derivedfromthe land. Inmany societies,untilvery

recently(ie20

th

century), leading figuresofgovernmentsand armies

came

from

thenobility.

Norman

Conquest

see

also Battle ofHastings, Bayeux Tapestry and Normans)

TheNorman Conquestis the term usedto describetheconquest of

England

by the

Normans.

In

1066 King Edward

the Confessor of

England

died.

He was

succeeded

by

Harold,

Earl

of

Wessex.

Yet two

other

people wishedtoclaimthe

throne

of England:

William,

Dukeof

Normandy,

and

Harold Hardrada

of

Norway. Harold Hardrada invaded

Englandbut wasdefe

questions dictionary of history

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