R E F O R T R E S UME SED 019 601 AC 002 445ADULT LEARNING, ADULT BASIC EDUCATION FRE-INSTITUTE SEMINAR(WAYNE STATE UNIVERSITY, MAY 1967).NATIONAL UNIV. EXTENSION ASSN., MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.OFFICE OF EDUCATION (CHEW), WASHINGTON, D.C.

FUB DATE 67GRANT 0EG-2-061694-1894EDRS PRICE MF-$0.50 HC-$3.84 94P.

DESCRIPTORS- *ADULT BASIC EDUCATION, *TEACHING METHODS;*INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY, *PROGRAM ADMINISTRATION,*CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT, PROGRAMED INSTRUCTIONp.READINGINSTRUCTION, TEACHER ATTITUDES, VIDEO TAPE RECORDINGS,RESEARCH, GOVERNMENT ROLE, SOCIAL DISCRIMINATION,REHABILITATION PROGRAMS, ADULT COUNSELING, TEACHER EDUCATION,SKILL DEVELOPMENT, GROUP INSTRUCTION, EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES,ADULT EDUCATORS,

A FREINSTITUTE SEMINAR, FINANCED BY A GRANT FROM THEADULT EDUCATION DIVISION OF THE OFFICE OF EDUCATION TO THENATIONAL UNIVERSITY EXTENSION ASSOCIATION AND HELD AT WAYNESTATE UNIVERSITY IN MAY 1967, FOCUSED ON PLANS FOR THE 20ADULT BASIC EDUCATION TEACHER TRAINING INSTITUTES HELD DURINGTHE SUMMER OF 1967. LEADERS IN ADULT BASIC EDUCATION ANDRELATED DISCIPLINES JOINED WITH INSTITUTE PROGRAM DIRECTORSAND STAFF TO SHARE INFORMATION GAINED FROM ONGOING PROGRAMSAND PROVIDE SPECIALIZED TRAINING FOR ADULT EDUCATORSCOORDINATING THE INSTITUTES. THE DISCUSSIONS ANDDEMONSTRATIONS; REPRODUCED IN THIS DOCUMENT, CENTERED AROUNDTHREE MAIN AREAS OF ADULT BASIC EDUCATIONDEVELOPMENT -- INNOVATIONS IN CURRICULUM, TECHNOLOGY, ANDMANAGEMENT. TOPICS COVERED INCLUDED PROGRAMED INSTRUCTION,TEACHING ADULTS TO READ, THE MICHIGAN LANGUAGE PROGRAM,HARDWARE SUCH AS VIDEO TAPE RECORDERS, SKILL TRAINING ATMICHIGAN BELL, THE EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT LABORATORIESLEARNING SYSTEM, FEDERAL GOVERNMENT ROLE IN ADULT EDUCATION,THE DRAPER REHABILITATION PROJECTS, COUNSELING ADULTS, ANDEFFECTIVE SMALL GROUP INSTRUCTION. (AJ)

R E P O R T T R E SUMESED 019 601 AC 002 445ADULT LEARNING, ADULT BASIC EDUCATION FRE-INSTITUTE SEMINAR(WAYNE STATE UNIVERSITY, MAY 1967).NATIONAL UNIV. EXTENSION ASSN., MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.OFFICE OF EDUCATION (CHEW), WASHINGTON, D.C.

PUB DATE 67GRANT OEG- 2- 061894 -1894

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.50 HC-$3.84 94P.

DESCRIPTORS- *ADULT BASIC EDUCATION, *TEACHING METHODS,*INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY, *PROGRAM ADMINISTRATION,CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT, PROGRAMED INSTRUCTIONp.READINGINSTRUCTION, TEACHER ATTITUDES, VIDEO TAPE RECORDINGS,RESEARCH, GOVERNMENT ROLE, SOCIAL DISCRIMINATION,REHABILITATION PROGRAMS, ADULT COUNSELING, TEACHER EDUCATION,SKILL DEVELOPMENT, GROUP INSTRUCTION, EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES,ADULT EDUCATORS,

A PREINSTITUTE SEMINAR, FINANCED BY A GRANT FROM THEADULT EDUCATION DIVISION OF THE OFFICE OF EDUCATION TO THENATIONAL UNIVERSITY EXTENSION ASSOCIATION AND HELD AT WAYNESTATE UNIVERSITY IN MAY 1967, FOCUSED ON PLANS FOR THE 20ADULT BASIC EDUCATION TEACHER TRAINING INSTITUTES HELD DURINGTHE SUMMER OF 1967. LEADERS IN ADULT BASIC EDUCATION ANDRELATED DISCIPLINES JOINED WITH INSTITUTE PROGRAM DIRECTORSAND STAFF TO SHARE INFORMATION GAINED FROM ONGOING PROGRAMSAND PROVIDE SPECIALIZED TRAINING FOR ADULT EDUCATORSCOORDINATING THE INSTITUTES. THE DISCUSSIONS ANDDEMONSTRATIONS; REPRODUCED IN THIS DOCUMENT, CENTERED AROUNDTHREE MAIN AREAS OF ADULT BASIC EDUCATIONDEVELOPMENT--INNOVATIONS IN CURRICULUM, TECHNOLOGY; ANDMANAGEMENT. TOPICS COVERED INCLUDED PROGRAMED INSTRUCTION;TEACHING ADULTS TO READ, THE MICHIGAN LANGUAGE PROGRAM,HARDWARE SUCH AS VIDEO TAPE RECORDERS, SKILL TRAINING ATMICHIGAN BELL, THE EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT LABORATORIESLEARNING SYSTEM, FEDERAL GOVERNMENT ROLE IN ADULT EDUCATION,THE DRAPER REHABILITATION PROJECTS, COUNSELING ADULTS, ANDEFFECTIVE SMALL GROUP INSTRUCTION. (AJ)

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Adult Basic Education Pre-Institute Seminar,Wayne State University, May 1967

Conducted By National University ExtensionAssociation, For The Division Of Adult Educa-tion Programs, U.S. Office Of Education

TABLEOFCONTENTS

InnovationsinCurriculum

5Adult Basic EducationThe ChallengeDerek N. Nunney

9The Programed Learning Center at MacombFlorence Striph

12

InnovationsinTechnology

37

InnovationsinManagement

61

Programed Instruction and Federal Government Role in Adult

Teacher Attitude Education

Rex Reynolds Jules Pagano

40 64

New Ideas and TechnologyA Challenge

T. W. Roberts

ResponseRobert J. Pitchell

42 66

Programed InstructionA Teaching Tool The Video Tape Recorder in Use

Carl Powers Herbert Nichols

15Establishing Instructional ObjectivesW. James Popham

16Teaching Adults to ReadAllen D. Calvin

20

Organizing and AdministeringState and Local Education Programs

A. T. Houghton

47 69

Research and Testing Management of Programs

John Armstrong Donald Butcher

49 73

Hardware for Adult Basic EducationRobert JohnsonWilliam VinsonRonald Dozier

50 76

Prejudice and Adult EducationDavid Weiner

Michigan Language Program Skill Training at Michigan Bell

Donald E. P. Smith C. Glenn Valentine

23A Learner-Centered Instructional

Systems ApproachW. J. Fig,htmaster

2882

The Draper ProjectsAn Achievement in Rehabilitation

John McKee

5480

The EDL Learning SystemThomas Gately

Counseling AdultsNancy Schlossberg

Adult Basic Education ObjectivesEffective Small Group Discussions

Joseph A. ManganoGerald A. Foster

30Applying The Educational Science

To Adult EducationJoseph C. Paige

roductionAs a preliminary to the summerult basic education training;litotes, a pre-institute seminar,anced by a grant from the Adultlocation Division of the U. S.Hoe of Education to the Nationalliversity Extension Association,Ls held at the McGregorinference Center of Wayne Statefiversity, Detroit, Michigan,ay 20-27, 1967. Wayne Stateliversity was chosen for therninar because of the university'sperience with this program in

1966, the suitability of its facilitiesand nationally central location.Leaders in adult basic educationand related disciplines joined withinstitute program directors andstaff associates who would beprimarily responsible for theplanning and instruction of the1967 institute program. Thepresentations that follow weregiven at these pre-instituteseminar sessions.

Now in its second full year, thenational teacher and administratortraining program funded underthis grant has provided

concentrated direction for 2,270participants. There were nineinstitutes in 1966 and 20 in 1967.Upon completion of the summertraining programs, teacher trainers,administrators and institutepersonnel continued to cooperatewith the regional representativesof the U. S. Office of Education,university staff specialists, andstate and local directors of adult

basic education to establish,enlarge and improve pre- andin-service training for local adultbasic education teachers andadministrators.

It is estimated that participantsin the 1966 institutes, in turn,gave pre- and in-service trainingto an additional 10,000 to 15,000teachers. The content andmethodology of this trainingbenefited from concepts andexperiences gained at the 1966summer institutes.

The success of the 1966 and 1967adult basic education summertraining institutes demonstratesthat an accelerated nationalprogram for training teachers inadult basic education, emphasizinga broad scale application ofeducational technology, has proveda worthwhile experience increative educational federalism inits application to a massivenational attack on adult illiteracy.

efaceThis document represents theoceedings of the 1967 Adultsic Education Pre-Instituteminar at Wayne State University.is a collection of some of thest thinking in adult basicucation and summarizes thentent for in-service training ofult basic education teachers.iese reports will also be used bye university resource specialistsgraduate programs which aree the national Teacher Trainingstitutesorienting more teachersward innovations in materials,ucational technology, andinagement for adult basicucation programs.

The conference focused uponplans for the Teacher TrainingInstitutes held during the summerof 1967. Primarily, these institutesprovided a broad dissemination ofinformation gained from on-goingadult basic education programsand presented this information toadult basic education teachers.

The institutes last year used asuccessful ripple effect. Fromregion to state to local community,individuals were able to share theirtraining experiences with manymore ABE teachers. Such

experiences included the latestideas in educational technologywhich are useful and necessaryin carrying out adult basiceducation programs. The 1967Pre-Institute Seminar addedanother dimension to the approachspecialized training for thoseadult educators coordinating the19 institutes. The entire processwas a most valuable form ofin-service training and its impacton the continuing adult basiceducation program in the statescan be well documented.

Contributing to yet anotherphase of the ripple were theuniversity resource specialists

many of whom held key roles atthe summer teacher traininginstitutes. Their responsibilityincludes the development andexpansion of graduate programsin adult education to provideadditional trained personnel in thisrapidly expanding field.

The training package used atthe Seminar is a unique part ofadult basic education in-serviceteacher training. The participantshad an opportunity to personallyoperate the products of moderneducational technology includingvideo-tape recorders and

computer-assisted and programedinstructional materials. Visits toproject sites in Detroit were alsopart of the practicum and allowedobservations which are not possiblein lecture sessions.

Initial feedback on several ofthe teacher training institutesshows the innovative utilization ofthe staff associatesa conceptintroduced at the Pre-InstituteSeminar.

The success of any venture canonly be measured by the peoplewho contributed. I would,therefore, like to thank all thosepersonsthe speakers, theparticipants at the Seminar, thestaffs of the U. S. Office ofEducation, National UniversityExtension Association, NationalAssociation of Public SchoolAdult Education, and WayneState Universityfor their helpin organizing the Seminar.

The field of adult basic educationis rapidly growing, and it isthrough our cooperative efforts

t we will be able to reach theereducated and disadvantagedulation in our country today.

s, by no means, an easy task.I feel confident that we can

ept the challenge that lies ahead.

Welcome AddressWayne State University is

honored to be selected as host forthe Pre-Institute Seminar on AdultBasic Education. This University,located in the nation's fifth largestcity, is truly an urban university.Founded and administered by theDetroit Board of Education in itsearly years, it completed a transi-tion to a state university ten yearsagomaking it now one of the"big three" in higher education inMichigan; the other two, ofcourse, being The University ofMichigan and Michigan StateUniversity.

The role of an urban universitywill be witnessed by you while youare here. In fact, you are forcingthe relocation of some people whoare coming here on Tuesday todiscuss the role of the urbanuniversity in the urban society.The glares that you receive arerightfully earned. This is a busyand exciting university. You will bepart of it for the next few days.

You will have an opportunity tostudy in a beautiful educationalbuilding. Designed by MinoruYamasaki, one of America's greatarchitects, this Conference Center

has been described as the jewel ofDetroit. In a receat publiccompetition to select beautifulbuildings in the city, it wasjudged the winner.

I wish to pay tribute to thepersons on our extension staff whowill make every effort to see thatyour stay in our city is a pleasantone. First, Dr. Harvey Hershey,who is director of the seminar, andwho will be joining us on a full-time basis on July 1, 1967, as aspecialist in adult basic education

r+

under a grant from the NationalUniversity Extension Association.Cooperating with Dr. Hershey willbe Dr. Benjamin Jordan, directorof the Off-Campus CreditPrograms for the Division ofUrban Extension. Mr. John Fraserand his staff of the McGregorMemorial Conference Center willbe responsible for your housingand living arrangements.It was necessary to organizethis Seminar on short notice andit is these three men and their staffswho have cooperated in preparingfor your stay with us.

airk.-111,

ay I mention for a momentgratification of the Universityits Division of Urban

ension, which I head, in workingh the U.S. Office of Education

the National Universitytension Association in this-Institute Seminar. This is a

ationship which shows theectiveness of teamwork inher education. It is merging theents of our faculty with themmunitylocal and national.

%:31111°N.-

The importance of this issue toall of us is illustrated by thefollowing statistics. Eleven millionof our fellow Americans, 18 yearsof age or older, are functionallyilliterate. Of the 30,000,000 youngpeople who will be seeking jobs inthis decade, two million will nothave seen the inside of a highschool, seven million or nearlyone-fourth will not have finishedhigh school. What you learn hereto help solve this nationalproblem is most important.

Finally, we are indebted to you,the attendees, who are in positionsof leadership in your home

communities and who have given ofyour time to be with us in what wehope is a truly valuable learningexperience.

Hamilton StillwellDeanDivision of Urban ExtensionWayne State University

NAPSAE's RoleThe National Association for

Public School Adult Education isdelighted to cooperate again thisyear with the U.S. Office ofEducation and with the NationalUniversity Extension Associationin planning, promoting, andsponsoring adult basic educationtraining experiences on universitycampuses. In view of the greatamount of activity which has takenplace recently in the field of adulteducation, it seems almostinconceivable that the first threeregional adult basic education

*-fi

institutes were held just twosummers ago. It was in April of1965 that our Association calledtogether a nationally representativegroup of adult educators to assessthe most pressing needs in the thenemerging field of federally-subsidized adult basic education.

At that April 1965 meeting atthe National Education Associationheadquarters in Washington, themessage came through clearly and

-11116b.,,......estalegi

nvincingly that the most urgented was for the training ofachers and teacher trainers. Theree institutes which were held ine summer of 1965 at theniversity of New Mexico, theniversity of Maryland, and theniversity of Washington wereanced through a grant from the

ord Foundation with thederstanding that this was but a

opgap approach prior to the

'N11/1"-

inclusion of funds for this purposein federal legislation. FromNAPSAE's viewpointand fromthe viewpoint of many people inthe field of adult educationoneof the most fruitful results of thefirst three workshops was thepublication by NAPSAE duringthe following year of the text,Adult Basic Education: A Guide forTeachers and Teacher Trainers.

Many of you here have beeninvolved in adult education duringthe past several years. Most of you

,

know that last summer there werenine training institutes in adultbasic education and that thissummer there will be nineteeninstitutes financed under provisionsof the Adult Education Act of 1966.With the reorganization of theU.S. Office of Education, andunder the direction of Grant Venn,Jules Pagano, Derek Nunney andtheir respective staffs, the entire

field of adult education has movedahead. A most importantadministrative managementfunction has been and is beingfulfilled by the National UniversityExtension Association under theleadership of Bob Pitchell. We arepleased and proud to be a part ofthe USOE-NUEA-NAPSAE troika.

For those of you who will beinvolved in the first institutesdesigned specifically foradministrators, our Association hasprepared a series of case studies

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and guidelines which we hope willbe of interest to you. We ask youto use these materials, to be criticalof them and to let us know howthey might be improved. OurAssociation is being retained byNational University ExtensionAssociation in a consultingcapacity on a year-round basis.We are actively seeking ways inwhich our consulting contributioncan become an increasinglymeaningful one.

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Since our founding in 1952, wehave been a department of theNational Education Associationand its Division of Adult EducationService. With National EducationAssociation membership in excessof 1,000,000 and with our ownAssociation having more than6,000 members, we are proud toserve as the professional voice ofthe public school adult educationmovement in this country. Yourepresent an important part of ourconstituency. Through yourparticipation in this pre-instituteseminar and through your futureparticipation in the nineteen

asM ma

!itutes to be held this summer,are serving the profession in

highest sense. We pledge to youwe will continue to promote

cause of public school adult'cation throughout the Unitedtes in our publications, in ourmbership services and in anressive legislative program. Weh you well this week and in the

t

exciting summer experiences whichyou have ahead of you, and wecommend you for your adulteducation commitment asevidenced by your presence herein Detroit today.

James R. DorlandAssociate Executive SecretaryNational Association for PublicSchool Adult Education

-0010011011:a

AcknowledgementsThe United States Office of

Education, National UniversityExtension Association and WayneState University wish to thankthe following persons for theircontribution to the success ofthe Adult Basic EducationPre-Institute Seminar held atWayne State Universityon May 20-27, 1967.

Credit for the preparation andorganization of the seminar goesto : Jules Pagano, Derek Nunney,Hy Hoffman and Mil Lieberthalof the United States Office ofEducation; Robert Pitchell, LynnMack and Gerald Foster ofNational University ExtensionAssociation; Hamilton Stillwell,Benjamin Jordan, Joseph Hill,Ernest Chiakmakis and John D.Fraser of Wayne State University;and Harvey Hershey of the

M

A.

Michigan State Department ofEducation who was coordinatorof the Seminar.

Additionally, acknowledgement ismade to those persons , toonumerous to list individually, whodemonstrated techniques, whocontributed to reaction anddiscussion groups, and who sharedtheir own professional experiences.

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3--7-,ner,

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Since the discussions anddemonstrations of the pre-instituteseminar covered three main areasof recent developments in ABE,the papers that comprise thisreport do not follow the order oftheir presentation.

Therefore, this publication isdivided into three sectionsInnovations in Curriculum,Innovations in Technology,Innovations in Management.

This first section begins with anoverall look at the ABE programand its objectives. Then variousapproaches to curriculum foradults are explored. Included arethe use of programed instruction,application of new curriculumtechniques in a learning center,and explanations of materials incurriculum design.

r

AdultBasicEducation ...The Challenge

Presentation by Derek N. Nunney

We are concerned at thisconference with increasing theefficiency and effectiveness oflearning for the ABE student. Theilliterate man could survive in the19th century by use of musclepower but will be unable to supporthimself in the 1970's where theprime requirement for survival willbe brain power. As the demand forwell-educated, skilled manpowerrapidly increases, job opportunitiesfor the undereducated adult decline.It has been said that "theAmerican economy was builtaround the railroads in the lasthalf of the 19th century, aroundthe automobile in the first two-thirds of this century, and will bebuilt around education in thebalance of this century."

We have 24 million people withless than an eighth grade educationplus untotaled numbers who arefunctionally illiteratewho cannotread at a fifth grade level no matterhow many years of school theyhave completed. This national

5

problem is compounded by arapidly changing economy, byautomation, by the fact that in1975 there will be few additionalunskilled jobs for those witheducational handicaps.

The specific problem is describedon the following page. There areapproximately 3 million adults,age 18 and over, in this countrywho have had no formal schoolexperience. ;This number israpidly diminishing but stillrepresents a part of the targetpopulation of ABE.) There are11 million adults who havecompleted five grades or less; 24million with eight grades or less;and 56 million with less than12 years of school completed.(See Figure 3).

That is a formidable targetpopulation and a tremendouschallenge and responsibility. Theimmediate concern of ABE arethose 24 million with eight or lessyears in school completed. Whoare they? They are the youngadults who are dropping out ofschool. They are the adults whodropped out or were forced out ofschool during the depression yearsand whose basic skills grew lessand less in an era of developmentwhich did not have time to worryabout reading and writingbutonly about working and eating.They are the elderly who were inschool during the very early part ofthis century when reading andwriting were nice but non-essentialwhen horsepower and musclepower were the mode. They arethe educationally handicapped who

are prevented from functioning totheir own satisfaction in a worldto which they want to belong.

I want to challenge you todaywith some ideas about educationand learning which you may not bewilling to accept. One is themisconception we labor underconcerning the relevance of thenormal curve.

C

E

Figure 1

The normal curve was intendedas a descriptive tool, and it isfine for,slkei.ving how mckypeople will be very short, how'many of average height, and howmany overly tall. However, itinhibits the learning progress ofstudents when a teacher believesit predicts how his students willlearn. For example, you are gearedto the standard that reading levelsare raised one grade for each yearof instructionroughly 150 hours.But it has been found that someadults with adult motivations canimprove their reading ability onegrade level for every 50 hours ofstudy. Believing in the normalcurve, a teacher might not want toaccept this fact.

- 1-7.-

A teacher may be so accustomedto expecting a few pupils to learnto read at a faster rate and acertain number to be unable tolearn to read at any rate and mostto raise their reading level at anaverage rate that he may notrecognize the learning potential ineach of his students. That's thenormal curve expectation. It isteacher oriented, not learneroriented. And who needs to learnto read and writethe teacher orthe learner? The normal curvedoesn't consider the individual andhis ability to learn. It has beentaken far too seriously in education.

Here is another curveskewedwhich presents a differentapproach to learning:

=NM

It is based on Jerome Bruner'shypothesis that any person canlearn anything at any stage in hisdevelopment if an intellectuallyhonest method is used. It shows alarge group who can and doachieve very well and offersmobility for anyone who hasn't yetachieved. It refutes the normalcurve concept as applied tolearning. We could parry all daywith that phrase "intellectuallyhonest method." In fact, we do.Adult basic education is seekingfor every person that method whichwill help him learn at his fastestindividual rate.

Adults need reading skills on animmediate basis. They enroll inthe program because they want ajob, they want to follow theirchildren's progress in school, theywant to be functioning citizens.ABE loses impact when teaching

methods hold a learner to thetraditional mold in which he mayalready have failed as a youngperson in school. The resultingsituation causes dropouts from theprogram and points out the needfor more efficient learning-to-readmethods for adult learners. That'sone of the things our nationalteacher training program is allaboutthat's why we arehere today.

Decisions about what is tohappen in education are madeevery day. The question for us inadult basic education is: Are wegoing to let decisions be made forour program or are we going tomake those decisions ourselves?

6

RELATIONSHIP OF POPULATIONSU.S. ADULTSAGES 81 AND OVER

pre 3

7

1 120,000,000TOTAL ADULT U.S. POPULATION1960 CENSUS 18 AND OVER

2 ?FUNCTIONALLY INADEQUATENUMBER UNKNOWNCOMPLETION OF MORE THAN8 GRADES BUT FUNCTION ATLESS THAN 8TH GRADE LEVEL

3 24,000,000EDUCATIONALLY DISADVANTAGEDPOPULATION LESS THAN 8TH GRADE

4 11,000,000EDUCATIONALLY DISADVANTAGEDPOPULATION LESS THAN 5TH GRADE

I'd like to illustrate the kindsof choices we have and thedirection in which our program canbe developed by looking at thechanges which have occurred intransportation during the last50 years.

Before this century, travel fromthe east to the west coast tookmonths by horse or wagon. Withthe railroad, a revolution occurred.People could get to California in12 days, and this was improveduntil railroad passage requiredonly five days. Then the airplanecame along cutting travel time to12 hours, then five hours, fromcoast to coast. Today we have achoice of routes - -short by jet,long by trainto arrive at a desireddestination. We will soon have achoice of supersonic transportwhich may take as little as 11/2

hours to cross the country.

Education has passed through asimilar transformation.

The regular school system hasbeen geared to accepting a child,and in 12 years turning out ayoung adult with basic skills tosupport his adult life. Now,researchand realitytell usthat our system can be changedto increase the speed of learning.

Individualized instruction is anexample. In five years a personcan achieve in reading and writingas much as he used to in 12 years ofregular school. Even shorter, moreefficient materials and methods arebeing developed. Our programneeds them. A man who needs ajob can't wait five years to be ableto feed his family. As the schoolturns out or turns off students,where are they to go, what canthey do in today's world withoutbasic skills?

ABE faces the problem of thefunctional illiterate aware of thesituation and the system whichhas caused it. The mandate is to

dee

bring about learning which willput more people into themainstream of our society andeconomy. It's a big joband themethods, the approaches, thetechniques for adult basic educationare not to be found in a formalclassroom. They will be found inthe fertile minds of teacher-innovators across the country and,most of all, through that actionthey promote when an adultstudent struggles to write his namefor the first time on a voterregistration card or passes a jobinterview with flying colors.

Dr. Derek N. Nunney is Director,Adult Basic Education Program,U. S. Office of Education. Hisexperience includes Job Corps andPeace Corps training programs. Hehas been Associate Professor,Educational and ClinicalPsychology, Wayne State University.

8

TheProgramedLearningCenterat Macomb

Presentation by Florence Striph

In the next 30 minutes, I am goingto attempt to put in capsule formsome of the more important pointsof my program at Macomb CountyCommunity College. For those ofyou who visited the ProgramedLearning Center at Macomb, thiswill be a quick review. I hope tomake the presentation of sufficientdepth, however, so as to give thoseof you who did not have theopportunity to visit someinformation which willbe of realistic value.

To be certain that we are alltogether, and especially for thosewho did not visit the Center, let mequickly review my background andexperience so that you will know

9

whereof I speak. I have found, as aresult of many presentations, thatmy background and experience isof particular interest to the listenerwhen they begin to weigh someof my statements.

I am a certified teacher, and havetaught at the elementary, secondary,and post secondary levels. Myacademic background has beenparticularly helpful in that Iattended both the College ofPharmacy and the College ofEducation at Wayne StateUniversity. I have majors inMathematics and Science andminors in English and Social Studies.I have been 15 years in educationand have taught in schools for thegifted, schools for the culturallydeprived, regular public schools, andthe community college. My lecturesand workshops have brought meinto close contact with university,government, industrial andpublishing projects.

I have worked with all ages andtypes of students, many of whomwould be comparable to yours.

During the three years in which Idirected the project in Garden City,the students involved were regularclassroom students; some were"sit-in dropouts" (they are thereno troublebut they just sit andfail until they get too big for thechair), and some were returneddropouts. During the second yearof the project the high schoolparticipated in the Federal programfor return dropouts. By the end of

the first semester, the high schoolhad lost over 80% of those dropoutswho had returned except for thosewho were involved in the programedlearning project. We retained 100%of ours over the 3 years, except forthose who graduated.

I am not here to promote the ideathat programed learning is thepanacea for all of education's ills,or to sell any particular programs.Programed learning centers es agroup are not unique. The purchaseof a good program plus a goodteacher does not mean effectiveteaching will take place or guaranteelearning. The essential ingredientsto success, which we have establishedand tested both in the public schoolsand in the colleges, and what makesthe Center at Macomb unique,are the methods of selectionand utilization.

From the Garden City project Ihave statistics, student records, etc.which indicated results so good thatI became nervoussomething hadto be wrongbut nothing was wrongand the success has continued.

Remember, I am not talkingabout results from using programswith 5 or 6 students for a briefperiod of time, or from using 1 or 2programs for a year or so. I'mtalking about 1900 students peryear for 3 years in the public schoolsand the results from 3000 studentsat the community college level

during this school year, involvingover 830 programs at all levels K-14,in all subject areas. No pie in theskythese are students like yours.A large percentage of studentsinvolved at the community collegeare in training, apprenticeshipprograms, continuing educationprograms. They are people who readfrom grade 0 to 2-2. Theirarithmetical computation skillsare about the same.

Now let's come back to that whichmakes the difference. The formulais : appropriate programs, that is,programs that are accurate, thathave reading levels compatible withthe students, interest levels that teachthe desired objectives, plus teacherswho have received special training inthe selection, utilization andimplementation of programs. Thiscombination will achieve successby utilizing programs as oneeffective technique to close theinstructional loop.

The following selection criteriafor materials and teacher trainingtechniques make it possible to puttogether a real program of learningon a highly individualized basis:

a. Is the program accurate? Thereare many programs by reputablepublishers on the market thatare not accurate.

b. Is the program in agreement withyour existing curriculum?

c. Are the interest and reading levelsof the program compatible withyour students? A program writtenand tested in a completely

different community might notbe effective with the studentsin your locale.

d. How much emphasis is given tovarious topics?

e. Are the learning objectives clearlystated and can they be identified?

f. How was the program developed?What is its history? Where was ittried out and with what kind andhow many pupils? How werethese pupils similar to yourpupils? How was it revised?

g. What was the source of theprogram's content?

h. What are the qualifications ofthe author?

i. Is there any test data indicatinggains in achievement producedby the program and the timeinvolved?

The teacher training techniquesemployed are as follows :

The teacher comes to the Center.He states that his students in let'ssayAuto Repairneed help inarithmetic and possibly severalother areas.

My first step with the instructorwill be to go over the course outline,texts and materials being used.We will develop behavioralobjectives that we can measure foreach unit in the course. (Avoid

"define . . . ." or be able to explainto whose satisfaction.)

I will then discuss with theinstructor the specific problems ofhis students, as he has recognizedthem before testing. I will beconcerned with a student's readingand arithmetical competency,his ability to follow on-the-jobdirections.

Following this step, I, or one ofmy staff, will go to the classroom, orthe students will be sent to theCenter, whichever is moreconvenient, for a diagnostic pretestfor entry skills. No matter howgood a program might be, or atwhat level, the student has to havesome skills to start. For example :If a student is not reading at all, wewould use the California TestBureau or the Scholastic TestingService. If the student is able to read,we perhaps would use the WideRange Achievement Test.

Following the testing, my staffcorrects the test and we provide theinstructor and each student with adiagnostic analysis. (Depending onwhat information is pertinent to theinstructor for the purpose ofimproving his student's proficiency,we may utilize reading, spelling,arithmetical computation,mechanical abilities, and/or interestlevel diagnostic instruments.)

I will then meet with theinstructor, have a profile on eachstudent, and have identified aspecific program(s) for each studentwhich is concurrent with othermaterials used in regular classroomteaching and/or enrichmentexperiences. I will explain to the

10

instructor what these programsteach, which topics receiveemphasis, etc.

The instructor will then select oneor more program(s), evaluate themand decide which one(s) to use.I go into the classroom to introducethe programs and programedinstruction to the students.

Periodic follow-up meetings willbe held with the instructor, checkingon the student's progress, andproviding assistance as needed.

The instructor and I may agree tohave the students assigned to theCenter to work their program(s).

The key is : Whoever is workingwith students has employed thatprogram beforehand.

In planning sessions withinstructors we go into such items ashow a program is to be used, its

11

111111_,AIIIN

Programed instruction allows thestudent to proceed at his own pacebut it is not a crutch for a weak teacher.

efficiency, how much time should begiven to programing, and howmuch to related activities whichinvolve the entire group and provide"group cohesiveness." It is essentialthat students' activities be relatedso that they have the opportunityto demonstrate their newlyacquired skills in discussions,lab situations, etc.

If the student is working in theCenter and at home, it is importantthat the instructor, the student andthe Programed Learning Centerperson work closely together so thatthe classroom instructor and classactivities correspond with thestudents' programing experiences.

The classroom instructor and Iplan continual evaluative techniquesso that the student does not have to

wait for a final exam to knowwhether he is learning, and tomeasure progress more closely aswe near our final goal.

Pre and post tests may take theform of written responses, oralresponses, demonstrations, orcombinations of these three.

-I am aware that what I have beendescribing sounds involved, butthen, good teaching is involved.If anyone has the idea that one cangive out programs and then take along coffee break, forget it.

Programs are not crutches forweak teachers. They are soundinstructional aids to be used by acompetent teacher who knows hisstudents and has determined hiseducational objectives.

The effective utilization ofprograms requires the sameintelligent consideration thatone should give any otherinstructional tool.

Mrs. Florence D. Striph'ssixteen years in education coversa varied background of teaching.She has also served as consultant touniversities, public school districts,the Job Corps and WorldBook Encyclopedia.

ProgramedInstructionA TeachingTool

Presentation by Carl Powers

Programed instruction gainednationwide attention around 1960.Since then it has caused educatorsto do some serious thinking onthe merits of the technique and,even more important, the feasibilityof a self-instructional approachbased on each learner's individuallearning capabilities. Thetechnique of programed instructionhas been used in many areas ofeducation and industry. Statisticsare available to substantiate itseffectiveness as an instructional tool.

But it is only a tool. Thus, itmust be employed properly, andonly when its use can be moreeffective than some other approach.It can be used effectively in adultbasic education, but itsimplementation and ultimatesuccess is contingent on theknow-how of the teachers andadministrators who perceive itspotential.

As an instructional tool it canno longer be ignored, andtherefore, it should take its rightfulplace among all the other elementsof instructional technology beingapplied in adult basic education.Thus, the intent of this andsubsequent sessions is to explainprogramed instruction to adultbasic education teachers, point outits advantages and disadvantages,show how it can be assessed,where it should be used, and,finally, offer an inside approachon how Programed Instructionprograms are developed. Thepurpose of this presentation is notto prepare adult basic educationteachers to be programers, but todepict the various steps whichcomprise the developmentalelements of any good course thatevolves from the programingof instruction.

11111Minb...._ireThe student knows immediately whetherhe is right or wrong, and then eitherreviews the lesson or goes ahead.

12

Programed Instruction

1. Training is individualized.

2. Each teaching point ismastered before introductionof the next point.

3. Instruction aimed at a givenobjective and student cannotdeviate from subject matter.

4. Through drill and respondingthe student takes an activepart in what is being taught.

5. Correct answers are providedimmediately.

6. Course is standardized and allstudents are taught the same.

7. Training is more effectivethrough small steps, controlledsequence, repetition, andparticipation.

8. Training period is shorteneddue to more effective trainingand elimination of irrelevantmaterials and questions.

Classroom Instruction

1. Training is given as a group.

2. Due to group training thereis no assurance each individualfully masters each point.

3. Irrelevant questions tend todeviate from subject matter.

4. Because of shortage of timeand size of class, a studentcannot always participate.

5. Days, sometimes weeks, maygo by before student knowsif he is right or wrong.

6. Quality and quantity ofinstruction is dependent onthe individual instructor.

7. Instruction is less effective;repetition, participation, smallsteps, and controlled sequenceare not assured.

8. The same amount of subjectmatter would require longerinstruction time to provideequal effectiveness.

9. Student works at his own rateof comprehension irrespective 9.

of background and experience.

Instruction geared to averageof students based on level ofbackground and experience.

10. Instructor is not required andcourse can be given any time 10. Qualified instructor and

and in any place. sufficient class number arenecessary.

11. Due to more effective training,individual is productive sooner. 11. Lack of participation and

insufficient time yields a poorlytrained student.

13

Disadvantages

1. Cost:based on an average commercialcost, one ProgrammedInstruction book (600 frames)costs in excess of $6,000, if theprogramer wishes to publish anddistribute his own material.

2. Audience :Programed instruction may notbe the proper approach for thetype of audience being taught.

3. Course Materials:Subject matter may not beconductive to programing andmay not lend itself to beingtaught through programedinstruction.

4. Size:The volume of course materialto be taught may make the textof the program so large that thestudent becomes tired and bored.

5. Administration :Since students use programedinstruction on a self-instructionalbasis, it is difficult to administerit and particularly difficult togive tests on a group basis.

6. Programed InstructionConstruction:The way the program isconstructed may not beacceptable to the student. Thereare some students who will notdo a Programed Instructionprogram.

17. UseSituation, Conditions:The Programed Instructiontechnique must be employed inareas in which it will be themost effective and when it isused, it must be given in alocation which is free of noiseand free of interruptions, dueto the need for highconcentration.

Evaluation ofProgramed Instruction

1. Internal:Refers to features that can berevealed through visualinspection.

a. Content:Does the content meet theeducator's objectives?

b. Program Construction:Is it a type of formatacceptable to the student?Are certain frames or itemstoo difficult or too easy?Does the program require toomuch writing for the levelof the student?

2. External:Refers to features which cannotbe observed merely by inspectingthe program.

a. Source:What is the validity of thecontent?What is the original sourceof the content?

b. Author Qualifications:What is his background inProgramed Instruction andthe suLject materials?Has he written P. I. programsbefore?What is his academicbackground?

Did he use subjeCt matterexperts, and if so, what weretheir qualifications?

c. History and Development :What were the stages ofdevelopment of the program?How did the programoriginate?How was the subject contentanalyzed?

d. Tryouts and Revision:How many times was theprogram tried out?Was a revision made aftereach tryout?Was an item analysis madeafter each tryout?How was each revision made?

e. Test Data:Is test data available?What was the mean of thetest scores?What types of tests weregiven?Were the tests valid?

Summary

Based on the informationcovered, programed instruction canplay a major role in the AdultBasic Education program. Throughthe consideration of thisinformation and other informationwhich may be added as eachteacher becomes involved in theuse of the technique, programedinstruction can be applied tomany areas of adult basiceducation and can become aneffectiVe tool in meetingestablished objectives.

Programed instruction is apowerful instructional tool but itsapplication is a matter of decisionon the part of each teacher.Investigate and try it out becausethis is the only way the techniquecan really be judged.

Mr. Carl Powers is CAICoordinator and Systems ResearchAnalyst in the Office of InstructionalResearch at Wayne State University.He also served as a staff member at1966 and 1967 ABE Institutes.

14

EstablishingInstructionalObjectives

Presentation by W. James Popham

It has been recognized that aninstructional device is neededwhich illustrates the decision-making process that the teacherengages in before and afterinstruction. It has been argued thatthe teacher trainer can have moreinfluence over the instructionaldecisions that a prospective adulteducator will make than over someof the peculiar habits a teacherwill exhibit once he is in theclassroom. The model presentedwas a planning and assessmentscheme rather than an actual"teaching procedures" model andits major elements were explicated.

The device employs fourdeceptively simple components.First, objectives of instruction arespecified in terms of post-instruction learner behavior.Second, the student's presentcompetence is determined with

15

respect to these instructionalobjectives. Third, activities for theteacher and student are selected inorder to achieve the.statedobjectives. Fourth, the learner'sattainment of the objectives isevaluated.

(The following describes howthe subject "EstablishingInstructional Objectives" washandled at the Wayne StateUniversity pre-institute seminar.)

Considerable attention was givento specifying the instructionalobjectives. On the basis of apretest the participants at thepre-institute seminar wereseparated into three groups,depending upon their understandingof how to prepare instructionalobjectives. One group received abasic introductory filmstrip-tapedemonstrating how instructionalobjectives should be prepared.The second group received a moreadvanced program on the samegeneral topic which focused on theselection of appropriate educationalobjectives. The third group went

Teaching adults requires new attitudes,new habits, and new techniques. ABEteachers attend classes especially to

learn them.

into more advanced analysisregarding the specification ofinstructional objectives. Allparticipants then reassembled fora discussion regarding the generaltopic of objectives.

Finally, a tape-slide presentationdealing with educational criteriawas viewed by all participants.This stressed the importance ofbeing on the alert for new ideasfor educational objectives. Aneight-classification scheme forcategorizing criteria was explicatedin the tape-slide. A post-test basedon the entire program revealedconsiderable achievement on thepart of participants.

Dr. W. James Popham, as AssociateProfessor of Education at theUniversity of California at LosAngeles directs the ProductResearch Training Program. Heis also a staff member of theSouthwest Regional Laboratory forEducational Researchand Development.

TeachingAdultsto Read

Presentation by Allen D. Calvin

Some time ago, almost ten yearsto be exact, the CarnegieFoundation asked Dr. M. W.Sullivan and myself to see if wecould apply the principles ofprogramed instruction to thelearning of languages. Dr. Sullivanis a linguist, with his doctoratefrom the University of Madrid,and I am an experimentalpsychologist with a background inlearning theory. The CarnegieFoundation felt that if we weresuccessful, we could produceresults that would have directapplication to the classroomsituation. After many years ofdevelopmental testing with morethan 200,000 students, Dr. Sullivanand his associates have producedthe programed reading materialswhich have revolutionized theteaching of adult literacy.

Before discussing the SullivanBehavioral Research Laboratoriesmaterials in detail, it will beinstructive to adumbrate theconventional way that we now

teach adults to read. There arebasically two conventional methodsemployed: (1) the so-called"look-say" or "configurational"method, typified by the Dick andJane type materials and (2) the"phonics" approach. Very oftena combination of these twomethods is used.

Let us consider the "look-say"method first. For the purpose ofthis discussion, I will have tooversimplify and cover only thebare essentials. In the "look-say"method, just as its name indicates,the student looks at a particularword, such as "father" and thensays it. The word is learned as a"configuration". What this meansis that the student learns to reada particular word because herecognizes that particular word bythe way it looks. It is the sameway that you would learn any codesystem based on a "look-say"method. To give you a concreteexample, let us examine the wayone learns the names of the ace,king, queen and jack in a deck ofcards. You look at the symbol foran ace and you are told that sucha card is an "ace." Every timeyou see that card again, youmake the response "ace" eitherovertly or covertly, and thus youlearn that there is a relationshipbetween the symbol for "ace" andthe name of the card. You do thesame thing for king, queen andjack. You simply have tomemorize the relationship betweenthe symbol and the name. Now,the cards from two to ten are adifferent matter. They are coded

in somewhat the same way as ouralphabet codes words. Once youunderstand the code, you do notneed to memorize the symbol,but you can count the number ofspots and see that a specific cardis a four, five, or some other cardin the sequence of two to ten.The use of the "look-say" methodreduces anything to the level oflearning an individual's namewhich of course has to be done byrote or by some mnemonic device.It would be much easier for all ofus if there were a code connectedwith people's names so that tallpeople were all called "Joe" andshort people were all called "Bill"or some other "categorization"were employed. About the best wehave been able to do so far is tohave masculine names andfeminine names, and even thatbegins to blur in such cases as"Francis." Fortunately for us,and for people who are taught toread, there is a meaningful codein our written language so that wedo not have to resort to a"look-say" approach.

We said that There is a secondconventional way of teachingreading and it is referred to asteaching by "phonics." Thisconsists of associating particularsounds with specific letters. Thestudent makes the "b" sound whenhe sees the letter "b" and the "m"sound when he sees the letter "m",etc. This works rather well for the"consonants" but the would-be

16

reader soon learns that the"vowels" have a great number ofsounds; certainly more than thirty.For example, there is the long "a"in Jane, the short "a" in nap,the schwaed "a" in around, etc.Because of the lack of anisomorphic phonetic referencesystem in our language, teacherswho use the "phonics" approachmust utilize great numbers of rules.One of the more popular courseshas almost a hundred such rules.For example, a phonics rulemight be, "When two vowels gowalking, the first one does thetalking." If we follow this rule,the word "field" would bepronounced "filed"; thus "field"turns out to be one of the manyexceptions. Because of the com-plexity of the rules and thetremendous number of exceptions,

17

"we4.

conventional phonics leads manystudents to believe that the code,if it does exist, is immeasurablycomplicated and they give up.

It was apparent to Dr. Sullivanand myself that any adult who ishaving difficulty learning to read,knows lots of words. He knows"table", "chair", "mother","happy", "television", etc., etc.The problem obviously then is forthe individual who is trying tolearn to read to unscramble thecode. He sees some letters anddoes not know how to relate theseletters to the words that he alreadyknows. For example, in a typicalDick-and-Jane type reading

3

*It 4110.yy

*40'

Successful teaching involves thestudent. The ABE classroom is alaboratory for many purposes.

textbook, he may see the following:"See the happy boy." The studentknows what each of these wordsmeans but he does not recognizethat the particular letters indicatethe words. Said another way, hedoes not see the relationshipbetween the "words" as writtenout and the "words" that he knowswhen he hears them. In theSullivan Behavioral ResearchLaboratory materials, the student'sattention is directed to the lettersin the word that he is trying toread, by means of a picture whichhe does understand.

:14111111116'`414'

In the Sullivan BehavioralResearch Laboratories program,the pictures are simple,unambiguous stimuli which elicitan unambiguous response.Contrast this with the traditionalillustration of a mother, father,boy and dog with the caption,"See the happy family." Later onthe pictures in the program becomemore complex, but they alwaysrelate directly to the wordpatterns involved so that thestudent can perceive the pertinentrelationship.

Sullivan starts with minimalpairs such as "pin" and "pan."

00*

The only difference between thesetwo words is the middle letter.The student works with thousandsof minimal pairs and he soonunderstands that there is arelationship between the writtenletters and the sounds that he canhear. Now the important thing isthat each letter is assigned onesound when it is introduced, andmaintains this simple sound-symbolrelationship for a very long periodof time in the linguisticprogression. For example, the "i"has only the "short i" sound andthe "a" has only the "short a"sound for a long period of time.When a new sound is introducedsuch as the "long a", it isintroduced very carefully in anentirely new linguisticenvironment and the student is

Individualized materials meet individualstudent needs. Teachers becomestudents in order to understandthese materials.

given specific cues as to what ishappening. This means that thebeginning student knows thatevery time he sees the letter "a"it has one sound and one soundonly. When the student sees theword "pat" he knows that it is"pat" and not "pot", because heexpects the "a" to have the"short a" sound. As we mentionedpreviously, this is particularlyimportant with the "vowels"although some of the "consonants",such as "c", take on differentsounds as in the case of the"c" in "cat" and the"a" in "celery."

18

There is one other importantlinguistic characteristic of theEnglish language which should bementioned. Because of our stresssystem, most multi-syllable wordsin English are schwaed. Thismeans that the nonaccentedsyllable or syllables in a multi-syllable word are often slurred andrelatively indistinct. A schwaedvowel loses its characteristic sound.Notice, for example, the sound ofthe "a" in "about" or the "e"in "report." In these words, thevowel of the unaccented syllablehas a kind of "uh" sound. Thus,the relationship between lettersand vowel sounds is obscured inmulti-syllable words. At thebeginning, when you are tryingto teach what is primarily adecoding process, the use of themulti-syllable words is of little orno value. This is particularly truein the case of the remedial student.Therefore, in the SullivanBehavioral Research LaboratoriesProgram, there are no multi-syllable words for the first eightbooks. The student first learns theindividual sound-symbolrelationships. When he has learnedthem well, he is then carefullyintroduced to multi-syllable wordsthat are grouped according totheir linguistic classes.

19

By staying with the one-soundone-symbol relationship, thestudent easily perceives the codeand can generalize with completeconfidence to new words. Thepsychological principle of stimulusgeneralization operates and hedoes not have to simply memorizewords as in the "look-say"method, nor does the student findthe confusion which runs rampantin the traditional phonics with itsnumerous rules and equallynumerous exceptions. It is onlyafter the student has built up verystrong response patterns for aparticular sound-symbolrelationship that a newrelationship is introduced.

In addition to the one-sound,one-symbol relationship, all of theadditional advantages which areinherent in programed instructionare utilized. The individual goesat his own pace. The individualis active and gets a chance torespond very often. The studentwho is learning to read experiences"success" and is strongly reinforcedwhile learning to read.

There are other unique featuresof the programed reading materialsthat certainly have contributedsignificantly to their remarkablesuccess. There is a linguisticplacement test that indicates theprecise starting point for eachstudent. This is particularlyimportant for adult students who

do not need an entire sequence ofmaterials. This diagnostic deviceis a very powerful tool for theteacher who needs to know wherethe student is experiencingdifficulty. In addition, there areprogress tests, an extremelydetailed teacher's manual, and acomplete set of tapes to accompanythe material. Finally, there arecorrelated readers which offer thestudent appropriate material inexciting story form very early inthe reading sequence.

These materials are being usedwith great success in adult basiceducation programs throughoutthe country and have been selectedby Dr. Martin Luther King andhis associates as the primarymaterials in their "ProjectChicago" adult literacy prototypeoperation.

Dr. Allen D. Calvin, President ofBehavioral Research Laboratories,has taught at Michigan StateUniversity and Hollins College. Heis contributing editor to EducationalTechnology and is author of morethan 50 publications, includingthree books.

MichiganLanguageProgramPresentation by Donald E. P. Smith

What Is It?

The Michigan Language Programconsists of:

1. A set of self-instructionbooklets and tapes, and

2. Provision for their use in acontrolled classroomenvironment.

The program was developed inclassrooms and was found to bemost effective when the teachermanaged the class in particularways. Self-instruction in classroommanagement techniques for theteacher is provided.

What Does It Do?

The program begins with basicvisual and auditory skills, thenprogresses to words, sentences andparagraphs. Systematic training isprovided in the perceptual skillsnecessary for primer reading.

Books: I, II, 1, 2, 3, A, B

Listening: discrimination ofphonemes, sounds in words, andwords in sentences; the time orderof these elements.

Reading: discrimination of letters,words, phrases and sentences;the time and spatial order ofthese elements.

Writing: discrimination of pointsin space and of letters and wordsimposed on space; the spatialorder of these elements.

Speaking : discrimination ofreferents of common nouns andthe ostensive meaning of ordinaryspoken English.

Books: II, 3, 4, 5, C, D

The basic skills are followed bythe mastery (i.e., recognizing,spelling, and cursive writing) of 150sight words in stories. Sentencereading, phrase reading, wordrecognition, and systematic"phonics" training are providedin an interweaving progression inwhich wholes are analyzed intoparts and parts are synthesized.

Higher level skills include:

Word attack: use of context forgenerating and testing hypothesesabout unknown words; use ofletter-sound regularities forgenerating and testing hypotheses.

Comprehension: followingdirections; recognizing equivalentsentences; classifying sentences inparagraphs; determining mainideas, details, etc.; inferentialreasoning. The term "mastery"as used above is defined as 95%correct responses by 95% ofchildren entering first grade.(Slightly higher criteria were usedduring the tryouts and revisionsof the developmental period.)

How Does It Work?

The authors began with certainassumptions:

1. All learning tasks must beintrinsically rewarding in orderto be learned and retained byall learners.

2. There is a progression of skillswhich all mature readers developa few spontaneously, others withhelp. (Disabled readers requireunusual help in order todevelop these same skills.)

3. Reading achievement is limited,to some degree, by any deficitin perceptual skills.

"Intrinsically rewarding" tasksare provided by a recentlydeveloped programing strategybased upon perceptual learning.It may also b a viewed as "learningby imitation." A model and two

20

4,

A

The ABE classroom can provide the"second chance" for a student to gainthe self-confidence necessary forcontinued growth.

or more choices are provided.One of the choices is "the sameas" the model ("same as" means"equivalent to"). The foils orincorrect choices are selected onthe basis of their points ofdifference from the model. Theyare then arranged so that, given acertain level of attention, thelearner is virtually always able todiscover the correct choice andknows that it is correct withoutconfirmation. (About 97% of hisresponses are correct.) Certainconditions facilitate attention:

1. Color contrast;

2. Size of print (or intensity ofsound);

21

nue:

3. Order of tasks from simple tocomplex;

4. The use of extremely simpleverbal directions or, whennecessary, visual direction;

5. Classroom control techniqueswhich provide maximumsecurity for the learner.

Under such conditions (learningmaterials and environment) thelearner is able to make all decisionsby himself while working on thistask. Independent work habitsdevelop, dependency behaviorsand other self-defeating habits tendto extinguish readily. Praise andpunishment are not necessary forthe success of these materials.

How Well Does It Work?

A. Achievement: Validation of theprogram is carried out in stages.

1. Internal validation :

a. Each frame was evaluatedby using responses from a

known population, a classof 19 "low" first gradechildren. Where more than5% errors occurred, thetask was re-analyzed and anew task or a series ofthem was substituted.

b. In addition, the last pagein each unit constitutes atest. For example, whenthe learner completes aunit of Book 3, he reads aseries of sentences learnedin the book, but presentednow without picture clues.Then he reads the samewords in a series ofsentences which he has notseen before. He does notcontinue until these tasksare executed without error.

2. External validation :

a. All learning is nextevaluated in isolation, e.g.,in a test battery. Tests forthe early books are called

Auditory Discrimination,Letter Recognition andLetter Writing, WordRecognition and SentenceMeaning, Spelling andCursive Writing. Thesetests are currently beingvalidated.

b. The final validationprocedure will entaildetermining the learner'ssuccess in reading books.

B. Behavior :

1. Changes in behavior towardself-direction, decreaseddistractibility, increasedlength of working time, anda positive attitude towardreading have been recordedin a clinical setting and havebeen amply replicated inclassrooms.

What Kinds Of Classrooms?

The program has been used withoutmodification in the followingways :

1. Beginning instruction for normalchildren during regular readingperiods.

2. Self-instruction for slow startersin regular classrooms whichuse basal readers.

3. Special room children, retardedor perceptually disturbed.

4. Clinical problems, eitheremotionally disturbed or chronicreading disabilities.

5. Job Corps and adult literacycenters.

How About Trouble ShootingParticular Skills?

Manuscript WritingBooks Aand B

Beginning SpellingBook C

Cursive WritingBook D

Auditory TrainingBook I

articulation defects

English as a foreign language

moderate deafness

lipreading

Visual TrainingBooks 1 and 2(initial), Visual Tracking(advanced).

Dr. Donald E. P. Smith headslanguage research and psychologicalservices at the University ofMichigan where he is alsoconsultant to the Center forProgramed Learning for Business.He is author and editor ofprogramed materials.

Mr. Robert Morasky, Director,Adult Basic Institute at theUniversity, assisted Dr. Smith inthe presentation.

22

A Learner-CenteredInstructionalSystemsApproach

Presentation by W. J. Fightmaster

On September 7, 1965, OaklandCommunity College beganinstruction at two campuses locatedin Oakland County, Michiganwith an enrollment ofapproximately 3,800 full-timestudents. The objective for theCollege was to begin simultaneouslya multi-track, academic andtechnical educational programaccommodating the needs ofindividual students with uniqueeducational objectives and differentprerequisite skills. The curriculafor the multi-track programs arebased on the following educationaland training functions to beperformed by the college asendorsed by the OaklandCommunity College Citizens'Advisory Council.

Transfer Programs: Theestablishment of an academictransfer curriculum whereby

students could complete their firsttwo years of academic work priorto transferring to four-yearuniversities or colleges forbaccalaureates and advanceddegrees. Successful achieversreceive the Degree of Associatein Art.

Technical Programs: Theestablishment of technical trainingcurricula providing the necessaryqualifications for employment uponcompletion of the programs.Selected two-year technical andvocational programs lead to theDegree of Associate in AppliedScience. One-year technical andvocational programs offer aCertificate of technical proficiency.

Developmental Programs: Theestablishment of curricula forthose who had limited success inhigh school and who desire theopportunity for continuing theireducation. Often this "secondchance" is all that is needed for astudent to gain the knowledge andself-confidence necessary forcontinued successful growth.

Community Service Programs: Theestablishment of curricula foradults who want to further theireducation for new careers or newfields of interest, avocation orpresent occupational requirements,or constructive use of leisure time.

Counseling Service: The establish-ment of programs of placementtesting, admissions counseling,

financial assistance, placementand counseling for personal, socialand vocational adjustment to beoffered each student.

Instructional Method

An imaginative approach forimplementing higher educationalprograms has been instituted atOakland Community College. Incontrast to conventionalinstructional approaches, OaklandCommunity College has attemptedto develop an instructionalapproach which is primarilylearner-centered. This Learner-Centered Instructional Program isan outgrowth of the systemsapproach to education and trainingin general. The overall concernwith human learning, training andeducational research fostered afterWorld War II by such organizationsas are now represented by theU.S. Army Human ResourcesResearch Office (HumRRo), U. S.Air Force Behavioral SciencesLaboratory, American Institutefor Research, and others, haspromoted the advancement ofthe state-of-the-art for educationaland training technology. OaklandCommunity College has recognizedthese advancements and availeditself of this technology.Developments in programedlearning itself have, of course,influenced the Oakland

eachers of adults learn to use a varietyf equipment in the newducational technology.

ommunity College conceptrofoundly. Most recently, theork of Dr. S. N. Pistlethwaite of

he Botany Department at Purdueniversity has provided a workingodel (The Audio-Tutorialethod) from which the

nstructional Systems Approacht Oakland Community Collegeas initially derived. The Oaklandommunity College approach hasow been modified to the pointhat the term "Audio-Tutorial"s no longer used.

Although programed instructionhas sometimes been equated withthe instructional systems approach,there are, of course, differencesbetween them. However, the majordifference is really one of scope ofapplication rather than one ofkind. At one level, which we maycall the micro-level, one finds thesystematically developed andevaluated programed bookextremely effective and efficient asa teaching medium, but essentiallyincomplete for anything likesemester-length instruction. At themacro-level, on the other hand,the same systematic developmentand evaluation can be applied tototal course design. Oakland

*or111Immt

rm.

Community College has carriedthe macro-level concept one stepfurther, and has attempted to applyit, not only to individual coursedesign, but to total curriculumand facility design.

24

The approach and functionalsteps involved in the systemsdefinition, design, production andimplementation of instructionpresently followed at OaklandCommunity College, incorporatesat the macro-level many of thebasic features applied to the designof programed media in general.

1. Terminal Objectives for allcourses are identified, and definedin behavioral terms. TerminalObjectives or Terminal PerformanceSpecifications (TPS)what thestudent should understand,comprehend or demonstrate

II

knowledge of at the end of hiscourse of instructionare preparedby each faculty member havingresponsibility for a course offering.Generally, each unit (covering a1-2 week period) of the course isdesigned to accomplish a specificTPS. Each unit has a criterion testwhich is used to evaluateachievement of the TPS bythe student.

2. Once the TerminalPerformance Specifications aredocumented, attention is given tothe identification of the InterimObjectives or the InterimPerformance Specifications (IPS)and detailed learning steps. Theseare sequenced meaningfully, andwherever possible, time-based.The IPS's are ordered from thesimple to the complex or from theunfamiliar to the new as in themicro-programed book, with anattempt made to assign studytimes appropriate for achievingthem. Since the objectives are madeexplicit, the most appropriatemedia can be selected. These rangefrom mimeographed essays withstudy questions to audio-tapes,integrated text readings, textbooks,journals, magazine and newspaperarticles, visual displays, 8mmsingle concept films, film stripsand 35mm slides, laboratoryexperimental set-ups, and ofcourse, programed texts. Materialsare constructed or selected so asto allow for active response bythe learner, and immediatefeedback to him.

3. An attempt is made to keepthe learner aware of what thesequence of instruction will be,in most cases, by furnishing himwith a study guide or checklist foreach unit of a course. This guidelists the general and intermediateobjectives that he will be expectedto achieve and the learning stepshe must follow. Thus, he is keptinformed at each step within a unitof a course what he will be testedon and when, so that he canschedule his time in the learninglaboratoryas it is known atOakland Community Collegeon a self-paced basis.

4. The overall approachofstating objectives in behavioralterms, of organizing and sequencingmedia and study time, of thelearner keeping himself informed,and of promoting his activeparticipation in the learningexperienceis then evaluatedregularly and frequently by callingfor the appropriate criterionresponses. These are embodied inoral, performance and written tests.

The implementation of all theseinstructional programed featuresat Oakland Community Collegeconstitutes a unique Learner-Centered Instructional SystemsApproach. Such implementationhas resulted in many innovationsin the appearance of our facilities

and the conduct of our educationalpractices. Learners at OaklandCommunity College follow aself-paced and self-scheduledplan of study in accomplishingmost of their program/courserequirements.

This has created the need forunique facilities unlike theconventional classrooms. The resulthas been the Oakland CommunityCollege "learning laboratory"which houses study carrels ratherthan traditional student chair-desks. When needed, laboratoriesof the more traditional typeprovide an opportunity for thestudent to apply what he haslearned to practical problems,and find unique solutions. Whilethe learner is in the laboratory,tutors are available to answerquestions and offer other help ona one-to-one basis. If the learner'sneed is more extensive, individualconference areas adjoin thelaboratories.

If at the end of a unit ofinstruction the student requiresindividual clarification of an evenmore extensive nature, or hasformulated an individual project

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which he would like to carry out,or has begun to think about careeropportunities, faculty withextensive experience in the student'sfield of interest can be consulted.An effort is made to see thatfaculty advisors and laboratorytutors keep scheduled hours toassist the student. Facilities forenriching subject matter, motivatingfurther inquiry, clarifying specialissues, allowing group discussionand evaluating the student'sprogress are also provided. Theseneeds are met in either SmallAssembly Sessions or largeGeneral Assembly Sessions.In the Small Assembly Sessionsfive to six students meet withthe tutor for seminar-typediscussions and, for example,case-study solving. At the largeGeneral Assembly Sessionsthey meet in groups of 30or more with an instructor to hearguest speakers, view group moviesor take unit quizzes or course tests.

The unique specification of thelearning experience at OaklandCommunity College and theavailability of extensive courseplanning and implementationdocuments will eventually enablepublic evaluation of our program.It has already provided aninvaluable opportunity to workcooperatively with commercialfirms in the preparation of aportion of our program texts/booklets. The highly detailed

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performance specificationsdeveloped by Oakland CommunityCollege are presented to thecollege's contractors, LittonIndustries (which utilizes thelinear instruction programingformat) and Howard and Smith(which utilizes a tight branchingformat) to undertake theprograming of some 132 unit-length, instructional programedtexts/booklets for some 20 collegecourse areas, based on ourunique requirements.

In summary, the application ofthe Learner-Centered InstructionalSystems Approach at OaklandCommunity College was adaptedto reach more students with lessinstructional personnel, promotethe learning of more informationwith greater comprehension andin less time.

Mr. Walter J. Fightmaster,Director of Community Services,Oakland Community College, hashad fifteen years administrative,management, and instructionalexperience in education and trainingwith educational and industrialorganizations.

,AdultBasicEducationObjectives

Presentation by Joseph A. Mangano

Before we can hope to defineadequately and develop acurriculum for adult basiceducation, we must clarify in ourown minds the objectives of theprogram. There has been muchconfusion on the part of educatorsas to exactly what adult basiceducation is, and what theobjectives of the program are.It is not sufficient to merely statethat the literacy skills must beraised to a specific level, be it 6thgrade or 8th grade, or that thecomputational skills must be raisedto an "X" level. As educators,it will be important for us toupgrade the literacy andcomputational skills as quicklyas possible, but basic educationmust be more than merely just askill development program. Aseducators, we know that theliteracy skills and the allied skills

of computation cannot be taughtapart from the total behavioralpatterns of students. It is necessary,therefore, for us to design a totalprogram which will raise thoseskill competencies which, in turn,will be utilized by the student toassist him in changing hisbehavioral patterns in a way whichwill make him(l) moremarketable in the job market,(2) a more effective parent,(3) a wiser consumer, and (4) amore understanding and activecitizen. These latter objectives willnot be attained by simply raisingliteracy levels, nor can we waitfor these objectives until theilliterate becomes highly literate.The ABE curriculum must bedesigned to provide informationwhich will help the participantsolve immediate life problemsand which will enable him tobetter understand the societalstructure to which he must adaptin order to become one of theadvantaged rather than one of thedisadvantaged. Therefore, we mustcome to think of Adult BasicEducation as a two-fold program;a program which will develop thetools for upgrading skills; i. e.,literacy and computational skills,and which will effect immediatebehavioral and attitudinal changesin the participant.

These objectives cannot beobtained in a traditional elementarytype program. We must tailor oureducational offerings to meet theobjectives of the adult and to assist

the adult in formulating obtainablegoals for himself. The ABEcurriculum cannot be implementedwith the schoolmarm conceptof education. It will require anindividualized prescriptionapproach for each participant.We must train our administratorsto develop professional andpara-professional staffs which willbe able to offer many supportiveservices needed to develop andimplement ABE offerings.Recent research indicates thatprogramed materials for thedevelopment of literacy skillscan be of great value inindividualizing an educationalprogram. However, before theseprogramed materials can beutilized to their fullest extent,diagnostic tools must beadministered which will uncoverspecific disabilities in the skillcompetencies of an individual.Supporting this individualizedapproach to developing literacyskills must be a program ofeducational, vocational andpersonal counseling to complementthe activities of the Adult BasicEducation program.

If we are to be successful inaltering the conditions of the

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disadvantaged, we must developour methods of recruitment;referral of students completingthe program to other agencies forjob placement and vocationaltraining; and our methods ofassistance with personal problems.The total ABE curriculumofferings must be presented in an

29

+

adult manner using discussiontechniques and audiovisual aidsto develop concepts of consumereducation, family life education,orientation to the world of work,practical government and health.Administrators of Adult BasicEducation programs must providepre-service and in-serviceopportunities for developing theirstaffs' competencies in this newdiscipline of adult basic education.Creative and innovative use ofnew media must be experimented

f

Consumer education and family lifeare important aspects of the ABEcurriculum. Often they leadto employment.

with in order to shorten the timeneeded to upgrade the literacyskills and effect immediatebehavioral and attitudinal changesin the disadvantaged population.

Mr. Joseph A. Mangano,Supervisor of the New York StateBureau of Basic ContinuingEducation, has served as chairmanof the Literacy Committee for theNational Association for PublicSchool Adult Education.

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ApplyingThe EducationalScienceTo AdultEducation

Presentation by Joseph C. Paige

It has long been an Americantradition in public and privateeducation to provide for the life-long needs of all our citizens.While as a nation we haveresponded positively to thischallenge, our progress in providingmeaningful programs to theundereducated adult leaves muchto be desired. Fortunately, however,under Title II B of the EconomicOpportunity Act of 1964, variousinnovative programs and projectshave been developed for thispopulation. The Adult EducationAct of 1966 provided additionalfunds for a broader scalecoordinated attack on the problemof undereducation at all levels.Our institute is supported in partby these funds.

General

The Urban Adult EducationInstitute (UAEI) was establishedas a cooperative effort of theDetroit Public Schools and WayneState University to develop andtest a wide variety of approaches,

techniques, and materials forworking with urban adults at alllevelsthe undereducated to thepost-doctorateusing the guidelinesof the educational sciences.

The educational sciences providethe means whereby educationalpurpose can be clarified, consistentinterpretations of data can berealized, and the reliability andvalidity of predictions andgeneralizations can be determined.

The program focuses on suchbroad areas as manpower resourcesdevelopment, and identification ofnew techniques for administrationand teaching programs in adultbasic education, social welfare,health, law enforcement, housing,consumer education, communityinvolvement and related areas.

Major Initial Goal

The major initial goal of theInstitute is to identify ways tobroaden and increase educationand employment opportunities foruneducated and undereducatedadults through multi-mediaapproaches, using the latest ineducational technology, includingprogramed instruction, computer-assisted instruction, educationaltelevision, and other forms ofself-directed learning experiences.To accomplish this, the Institutewill test a variety of "grass-root"approaches for the effectiveinvolvement of adults as individualsand as families, in their homes andneighborhoods. Such basic adulteducation programs as General

Educational Developmentpreparation, citizenship education,consumer education, and variousforms of job-related programswill be created, tying innovativetechniques to the needs of peoplein the community.

Program Activities

Program Activities are in fivemajor categories:

1. Professional and ContinuingEducation

development of specialtraining programs for adulteducation administrators withemphasis on recognition,solution, and prevention ofproblems existing in theadministration of adult educationprograms of all kinds;

examination of specificprofessional problems ofindividual concern relating toinstitutional programing, careergrowth, and curriculumdevelopment;

broadening of professionalunderstanding of the present andfuture role of research in adulteducation through seminars,conferences, colloquia, andspecial lectures;

provision, through thecooperation of Wayne State

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gi"m11111

f

Many teachers at the training institutesmeet the new technology for thefirst time.

University and other institutions,of facilities and programs forin-service training of adultsencompassing master's anddoctoral programs.

2. Adult Basic Education

development, refinement, andassessment of the effectivenessof new and innovativeinstructional materials andprograms for adults in a varietyof environmental settings;

identification and definitionof behavioral changes to beeffected in the undereducatedadult learner in the cognitive,affective, and psycho-motor

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domains in such areas asreading, communication, jobskills, home and family life,citizenship, consumer education,arithmetic and various sub-areas of the social sciences;

identification of specificbehavioral changes considereddesirable for proper articulationand assimilation of theeducationally disadvantagedinto the mainstream of humanactivities;

provision of a framework forthe organization of significantlearning experiences in sequentialand inter-related patterns;

evaluation of existinginstructional materials for adultbasic education programs.

3. Systems Analysis

organization of researchedmaterials in order to provideconsistent interpretation ofdata and assure validity andreliability in predictionsand generalizations;

provision of guidelines andinstrumentation for institutionalprograming, career growth,and professional evaluation;

identification of existinginstrumentation or creatinginstruments to meet programneeds in the areas of evaluation,behavioral changes and theorganization of learningexperiences;

provision of guidelines andinstrumentation for planning,developing, and evaluatingall pilot programs created bythe Urban Adult EducationInstitute.

4. Employment

development and testing ofa variety of programs andapproaches for recruiting,training and securing ofpermanent employment forthe undereducated adults;

identification of organizationsin the area that are involved incooperative programs aimed atjob placement, job training, jobupgrading, and job retraining;

identification of manpowerresources that exist in acommunity and relating theseto existing and potential jobopenings, including thedevelopment of trainingprograms related to these jobneeds, using a variety ofapproaches.

5. Community Involvement

development and testing ofa variety of programs andapproaches to encourage theeffective involvement of adultsat all levels in local community,city, state, and national affairs ;

development of totalcommunity involvement, aspart of the adult educationprogram commitment of theUrban Adult EducationInstitute, through the use offacilities, and programs gearedto community needs;

development of interest,awareness, a feeling of personalworth, and a sense of communityinvolvement in the adultlearner;

development of jointcommunity and school actionprograms;

development of models forprofessional guidance andvocational counseling programsfor local communities;

development of programs toincrease the learning potentialof the adults by attackingemotional, psychological,linguistic, cultural, economicand physical stumbling blocks.

Operation

The Urban Adult EducationInstitute will recruit and acceptstudents; analyze individual needs;and design, structure, demonstrateand evaluate new and innovativeprograms to fit these individualand group needs. It will alsoprovide guidance and counselingservices to help eliminate' personal,social and economic factorsbelieved to impede learning.

The Institute will provideprograms for in-service trainingof adultsboth professional andauxiliary personnelincludingseminars, colloquia, conferences,institute courses, and speciallectures and demonstrations.

Organization

The Urban Adult EducationInstitute, within the first period ofits development, will establishfive general sections :

1. Adult Education, includingAdult Basic Education, AdultSecondary Education andContinuing Education;

2. Vocational Education;

3. Center for ExperimentalEducation (DemonstrationLaboratory);

4. Personnel Training; and

5. Systems Analysis.

Professional staff for thePersonnel Training Section andthe Systems Analysis Section areprovided on a contractual basisby Wayne State University.

Funding

The Urban Adult EducationInstitute was funded initially bythe Michigan State Departmentof Education, with supplementalfunding by the United States Officeof Education. Other federalagencies, industry, foundationsand individuals will be approachedfor financial support for specialprojects or activities.

We believe that the imaginativeand innovative programs of UAEImight prove to be the realdifference between positive self-uplift and another "hot" summer.

Dr. Joseph C. Paige is consultantto numerous organizations andconcerns which develop anddisseminate new educationaltechniques. He has directed specialprojects under federal and privateresearch grants, and has authoredseveral books and articles.

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No system thus far devised is thefinal answer to effective andefficient learning. Much explorationhas been done; much more isrequired. Public as well as privateorganizations are continuouslysearching for better ways to reachthe learner in today's world. Thepapers which follow deal with thenew educational technology thatpromises to lead us to our ultimategoalthe eradication of illiteracy.

ProgramedInstructionand TeacherAttitudePresentation by Rex Reynolds

Programed instruction is ateaching technique that can lightan intellectual fire. However, notechnique or system can functionsuccessfully if it is not accepted bythe teacher. There is little doubtthat teacher attitudes willdetermine student attitudes towardprogramed instruction for betteror worse.

I have gathered a great numberof teacher reactions to programedinstruction during five years oflecturing to classroom teachersthroughout the United States. Inthis paper I should like to respondto some typical negative comments,drawing from my experienceof using programed instructionwith thousands of students inpublic schools, colleges, businessand industry.

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1. Programed instruction is boring.

Any teaching technique willbecome boring if it is usedexcessively. For example, lookat the bored and fatigued facesin a classroom in whichlecturing is the only techniqueand discussion and the use ofvisual aids does not occur.Boredom is to be expected ifstudents are not stimulated bya diversity of teachingtechniques and aids.

A study at Michigan StateUniversity showed thatprogramed instruction wasthird from the top in studentappeal as a teaching techniquewhen compared to variousother methods. In this samestudy lecturing was at thebottom of this same list.

If programed instruction isused in proper proportion toother teaching methods, it willbe exciting, not boring.

2. Programed instruction teachesonly facts, not concepts.

This statement is partiallytrue. Programed instructiondoes teach facts, but in theprocess it also teaches concepts.Professor Hull, in the 1920's,pointed out that "for every

generalization there arespecifics." Programedinstruction is a youngster in theeducational field and as eachyear passes, it evolves into amuch more sophisticatedprocess. If one looks at thevarious titles available inprogramed units today, onecan readily see that it teachesfar more than just facts.

3. There are other learningtheories and we can learn viaother learning methods.

This is true; but programedinstruction has been put intoactual practice with greatsuccess. Many other theoriesremain just that, theories.

4. Programed instruction cannotteach reading.

Programed instruction is beingused effectively to teach readingin thousands of classroomsthroughout the country. Forexample, one can look at theProgramed Sullivan Series or atthe Semi-Programed MottSeries which are developedexclusively for training adultsto read.

5. Programed instruction doesn'twork on everyone.

Instructors at ABE institutesconcentrate on overcoming teachers'prejudices against new equipment.

Agreed. But neither does atape recorder, overheadprojector, lecture, blackboard,television, and many otherdevices.

6. Programed instruction makesrobots out of students.

If one were to look at manypresent-day classrooms, onewould be appalled at the"structuring" that occurs.Administrative policies tell thestudent which games to playin which area of theplayground, and with whichstudents until what time. Thestudent is then fed into theclassroom in a "structured"sequence, is seated into a"structured" sequenc':, andutilizes materials according to

a rigid "structured" sequence.This orderly "structuring" iscontinual throughout theentire school day, and indeed,throughout the student's entireschool career. Fortunately,programed instruction is oneof the new techniques whichallows independent self-study.It also frees the teacher towork independently andcreatively with each student.

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7. Programed instruction isinappropriate in that all of thestudents can receive an "A" onthe final examination.

That is true. Programedinstruction is designed to dothis very thing. Can one nameanother technique that is thiseffective? It seems incongruousto criticize a technique becauseof its effectiveness.

8. Not enough programedinstruction materials areavailable.

Not truethere are more thantwo thousand differentprograms available for use bythe teachereverything fromhow to play bridge to aprogram course inneuroanatomy for medicalschools.

9. Programed instruction destroysthe normal curve.

This is very true. Programedinstruction is based on theassumption that students donot fail.

10. Programed instruction over-teaches the student.

This can be true. However,there is a strength in thisprocess of over-teaching, as itallows previously learnederroneous behavior to becorrected.

=1.11.1.1.111.1_

11. Programed instruction is notvalidated.

Programed instruction has beentested and validated at least asmuch and probably more thanany other teaching device. Thiscannot be said for a textbook.

12. Programed instruction does notcover everything.

This is true. Programedinstruction does not covereverything. Programedinstruction is only anotherteaching technique. However,there are a number ofcomprehensive and intensiveprograms that cover a greatvariety of subjects.

13. Programed instructionpenalizes the "bright" student.

This will not occur if theteacher will pretest and startthe "bright" student at hisproper level of ability. Onewouldn't give a third gradereader to a student with asixth-grade reading level.

14. Programed instruction is tooeasy.

Programs are designed toteach by reinforcing thestudent's correct responses. Ifthe material is too difficult thestudent cannot do the rightthing, and subsequentreinforcement will not occur.Programed learning is designedto be easy for this reason.

15. Programed instruction repeatsitself

Programed instruction dealswith a great deal more thanrepetition. It is a scientificallydesigned process which followsa well-established line ofreasoning. To the casualobserver it can appear to be arepetitive technique.

16. Students do not like programedinstruction.

Consider the source of thisinformationthe overwhelmingmajority of cases will show anextreme deficiency in theattitude and knowledge of theteacher using the programedmaterials.

117. Programed instruction is tooexpensive.

Programed instruction is veryinexpensive to use. One smallset of programs can servehundreds of students per dayover several years, thusreducing costs to a fraction ofa cent per hour of self-instruction.

Dr. Rex Reynolds is a ResearchAssociate, with the IndustrialRelations Center, University ofChicago. An authority on programedinstruction, he is at presentexploring areas for the multimediaapproach to learning.

NewIdeas andTechnology...A ChallengePresentation by T. W. Roberts

Make it practical! Make itfeasible! Make it stimulating!These were the key words in theplanning and presentation of theinstructional technology sequencefor the pre-institute seminar.

Thomas H. Dunn, AssociateDirector of the Center forInstructional Technology andmyself were determined, first of all,that the group would receivecontent and ideas which would beuseful in the field. Secondly, wevowed that all of the informationwould be demonstrated andpresented by utilizing as manydifferent media as possible.Further, we decided upon a teamapproach which would be fastmoving and which would havevariety and a built-in changeof pace. In brief, this is whatthe sequence contained:

The Value of Instructional MediaThe research statistics concerningthe effectiveness of instructionalmedia were demonstrated utilizingthe overhead transparencyprojector. Various overheadmanipulation techniques wereemployed in attempting to developa "gung ho!" attitude towardthe need for and the use ofsuch materials.

Presentation BoardsTheconstruction and use of SlapBoards and Hook 'N Loop Boardswere demonstrated. The boardswere then used to demonstrateand show the many kinds ofinexpensive graphic art materialswhich could be used in the"Do-It-Yourself" preparation ofinstructional materials.

Instructional Materials SourcesThe group was shown the manylocal and national sources forlocating both the older and newerinstructional media. Informationwas given concerning sources offree and inexpensive materials aswell as the major indices forlocating and securing the manythousands of instructional resourceswhich are available for use.

The Overhead TransparencyMany transparencies were usedto quickly review the production

techniques for these materials.Included were demonstrations ofmethods for making reproductionstencils and paper copies forhandout materials. All reproductionwas shown on simple equipmentwhich is easily available inthe fields.

The 35mm Slide StoryThepotential of 35mm slide sequenceswas illustrated through exposure,o "idiot-proof" cameras and toinexpensive audio tape recorderswhich may be coupled with newinexpensive automatic projectors.Simple production techniques wereoutlined which could be used tocustom-make instructionalsequences to meet individual needs.

The 8mm StoryUsing cameraequipment and actual projectors,the following facets of the use of8mm motion pictures wereexplained: the development andpotential of the Super-8 format;simple, inexpensive Super-8mmmotion picture cameras; the singleconcept film; cartridge loaded 8mmsilent projectors; cartridge loaded8mm optical sound projectors.The procedures and costs involvedin the local production of 8mmwere developed for the group.

The Language MasterThis unitand its potential for adult basiceducation was demonstratedutilizing actual pieces of equipment.The group was also shown simplemethods of local production ofmaterials for use on the LanguageMaster. The Polaroid Camerawas shown as a means of quicklymaking pictures which could beattached to Language MasterCards which are produced locally.

The Mast Teaching MachineThis unit was demonstrated as aform of display device forprogramed learning materials.Again, this was portrayed asa format which may be easilyprepared and reproduced at lowcost to meet a local need.

Miscellaneous HelpmatesActualequipment and materials were usedto demonstrate the following:the Execugraph unit which has asimple, easily-produced figurationfor individual learning; a portablebattery-operated Public AddressLectern for use in remote situations,without electricity; and smallinexpensive battery-operatedaudio tape recorders for providingcartridge loaded lesson materials.

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Dial Access Learning ResourcesRetrievalWayne State Universityis moving forward with auniversity-wide dial-accessretrieval system for learningresources. At the time of thepre-institute seminar theUniversity's Learning ResourcesLaboratory was nearing completion.Using the facilities of thislaboratory as a nucleus, thefollowing trends of the futurewere demonstrated and explainedto the group: the individual studycarrel as a place of privacy andisolation from the peer group; theinstant retrieval to the carrel ofaudio learning materials throughthe use of a telephone dial; theuse of audio materials inconjunction with easily preparedworkbook materials; the use ofindividualized learning sequencesin the carrels; the use of stillprojection sequences with audiosupport; the use of 8mm cartridgematerials in individualizedlearning; and the system approachto the development of learningresources.

Throughout the presentationsand demonstrations questions anddiscussions were encouraged.There were many questions andmuch lively discussion whichevidenced to us a tremendousinterest in and a thirst forknowledge about the role of

instructional technology in theadult basic education field.

An informal evaluation at theconclusion of the sequenceindicated that the group wouldhave liked more time in the areaof instructional technology.Perhaps in the next pre-instituteseminar more time can bestructured for this experience.

Dr. T. W. Roberts, Director ofthe Systems, Distribution, andUtilization Department, WayneState University, has taughtinstructional technology and hasserved as consultant to numerouspublic schools and industrial firms.

The VideoTapeRecorderin UsePresentation by Herbert Nichols

It may seem fantastic but theVideo Tape Recorder (VTR) is adirect, full-blooded descendantof a piece of chalk. In the learningprocess today it is taking on theimportance a piece of chalk has hadfor many centuries. Lying on theledge of a blackboard the chalkwas useless as a teaching aid.But once it was brought intomotion to transmit a message onthe blackboard, whether themessage was a letter, a word, or apicture, the chalk began to performa valuable teaching function.It animated the learning process.That's exactly what the VTR isdoing today, when more groundmust be covered in less time.

The chalk and the VTR aretools for teaching and alsovehicles for learning.

Prehistoric man and the greatscientist Albert Einstein both chosechalk to convey their respectivemessages, (/' g. The ).These examples illustrate thesimplicity of the one versus thecomplexity of the other. Yet the

chalk served to convey bothpieces of information. In his book,Understanding Media: TheExtensions of Man, MarshallMcLuhan says: "The media is themessage." In other words, withoutthe medium, the message cannotbe conveyed. The chalk was theteacher's medium, or tool, intransmitting instruction when wewere in elementary school; it wasthe medium we employed with ourplaymates when we played gameson the sidewalks in front of ourhouses. It still serves as amedium today.

But in this age of electronicmarvels we have the benefit ofother tools, such as the VideoTape Recorder which gives us afilm-like presentation, a panoramaof the instructor impartinginformation and the pupilsreceiving it. A single shot orsequence can be shown over andover again.

In every learning process certainsymbols are used. These symbolsmust be understood by the teacherand the pupil.

For instance, the letter "A"must mean the same thing to theteacher of reading and to thepupil. The purpose of the wrenchmust be the same for the teacherdemonstrating auto repair andfor the pupil. On the other hand,the symbol "A2" has no meaningfor the ordinary literate person;it has considerable meaning tothe math student.

The person who makes thesymbol "A" and then proceeds toproduce the sound "a" is inagreement with a convention ofcommunication. At each step ofthe learning process teacher andpupil must both understandwhat the symbols mean and whythey are used. Then the extent ofthe medium's capability to transmitmessages, whether by singlesymbols, letters, words, sentencesor pictures, becomes almostunlimited.

We can transfer learninginformation in a sequence form(one step at a time) or we maytransfer parallel series of thelearning information, but thiswould depend upon the capabilityand experience background ofthe receiver of the learning toacquire the lesson he is learning.

In summarizing this introductionwe could say that the chalkcan be used to draw pictures

1(--K EEMCI ) andthat if these pictures are drawnby a teacher in an orderedsequence tailored to fit theunderstanding of the learner,learning will take place as long asreinforcement and practicetoward mastery of the skills beingtransferred or learned areprovided.

As this interactive experiencebetween teacher and learner is

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extended, a new and moresophisticated level ofcommunication is establishedbetween the source of learning,or the teacher, and the receiverof the learning, or the pupil, andthis includes information fallout.

The pencil, the pen, theprinting press, and the Video TapeRecorder are but extensions ofthe cave man's and themathematician's "chalk."

The Video Tape Recorder is aproduct of our modern electronictechnology. We feed into itthrough a camera and read it outvia a television picture tube.This transmission process isbasically a high speed horizontalmovement of an electron beamacross an electrically photosensitiveequivalent of a blackboard in thecamera, to segmentally dividelight hues and intensities of aparticular scene at an extremelyrapid rate (one complete scene in1/60 of a second). This picture orscene is applied directly to thevideo tape and for all practicalpurposes, it will remain therepermanently until erased.

When we play back the VideoTape Recorder, these storedimpressions of light hues andintensities are sent to the chassis ofthe TV for reassembly of thesegmentally stored light information.In effect, the hand that controlsthe electron beam electronicallytranslates or draws the picture onthe TV picture tube.

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The VTR with its recording andplayback system, except for theinvolvement of electrons, isbasically an extension of theordinary piece of chalk.

There is, of course, oneadditional dimension of thismessage conveyor, and that is"sound." The reproduction andrecording of sound is much thesame as the recording andreproduction of the picture. Themajor difference is that the inputis a microphone and the output isthrough a loudspeaker. The rate ofpicture taking and production ofthe Video Tape Recorder system,as was stated, is one completepicture in one sixtieth of a secondor 60 pictures per second. Thepictures appear and disappear sorapidly that the eye sees onlysmooth continuous motion.

The system from start to finishis light variations changed toelectrical variations on aphotosensitive equivalent of ablackboard to the video tape andon playback to the electron beamin the picture tube. The result is apicture of motion.

In so far as our human sensoryinput is concerned we are feedingonly two senses (sight and hearing),but from these two we receive atremendous amount ofinformation. We have but to recall

the last good movie or TV showwe saw to realize the efficiency ofthe message conveying system. Welaugh, cry, get hungry, hate, love,just from looking and listening tothese presentations. Whether themessage content in the picture befiction or fact it is generally theinitial design of that message thatwill determine whether the messagereceiver interacts with it. This isalso true for the educationalmessage. Hollywood with itswriters, artists, cameramen andsound men all are conversant withthe grammar of cultures.As described by Edward TwitchellHall, in The Silent Language,the general culture may be listedas a system of sets, isolatesand relationships.

The "sets" are those particularfixes in culture such as dietarypeculiarity, clothing, family, socialimage. The "isolates" are theseparate segments or elementscomposing the sets. The"relationships" are the patterns oforganization peculiar to a cultureor ethnic group. Hollywood, asstated above, is conversant withthe structure of the general culture.Hollywood has also contributed tothe changing of the generalculture. Compare the movies ofthe 40's and 50's with the moviesof today. Cnnsider the level ofsophistication of the themes oftoday's movies as compared withthe movies of the forties. Thegeneral acceptance by the public of

The VTR enables teachers to watchthemselves in actionto overcomeweak points and improve their roles.

movies based in the areas of sex,social relations, science fiction,aggression, is the result of gradualconditioning by the writers andartists of Hollywood. Theaudiovisual medium plays a largerpart in shaping our ways thanwe are aware.

As Derek Nunney pointed out,"Shakespeare for the masses" istestimony to Hollywood'sunderstanding and utilization ofthe film medium. In the Taming ofthe Shrew, Hollywood has intrudedon the area traditionally regardedas the sacred domain of the most

This teaching tool can be extended tovery broad areas.

literate in society. Now everybodycan understand what this shrew-taming kick was about. Thepurists in most cases will find ithard to accept this film messageas valid and representative of thisShakespearian "classic." Theymight even consider it to be a"vulgar" intrusion on the part ofHollywood into this area.

In order to put the Video TapeRecorder into practical use inteaching and learning, you willhave to make some more vulgarintrusions. You will be facingopposition from the traditionalistin subject matter areas, from theprofessional audiovisual specialistand technician in your existingtraining system. The traditionalistexpectseven demandsthelearning messages to becommunicated in the classic fashion.

MM.

IMO

The audiovisual specialist,generally a technician, will objectto your putting your hands on theequipment, but will concede torunning the equipment for you.He also will attempt to call all theshots and camera angles.

You will be using a portableVideo Tape Recorder, but thetechnical crowd generally snubsthe portable (since it costs lessthan $1,500) as being non-quality,non-professional and not fit foruse as a teaching and learningtool. Dr. Ed Bantell of WayneState Department of Psychologyhas the answer for them."The portable VTR is the

44

.44

4111.

They see. They monitor. They criticize.

paperback or soft cover version ofthe so-called broadcast-compatible professional models."

It has been said that thepaperbacked pocketbook openedto the masses unlimited access tothe world of information andknowledge which had previouslybeen locked up in expensive booksin language they could nottranslate. Through paperbacks thisinformation is now available at alllevels of reading capability. Science,history, classics of literature arepresented in comic books, arerewritten for those who readpopular magazines.

The portable Video TapeRecorder can be developed inmuch the same way as thepopular paperback. The price of

45

p

the equipment is reasonableand its language is simple.

So much for the theory andbackground information which weconsider to be helpful tounderstand the purpose and scopeof this new technology product,the Video Tape Recorder. Letus proceed to describe it inactual application.

In the summer of 1966 the VTRwas introduced in the Adult BasicEducation Summer InstituteTeacher Training Program. It wasused in simulating actual classroomexperience for teachers concernedwith developing basic skills

competence for functionallyilliterate adults.

When the Video Tape Recorderis used in a training program forteachers and counselors who willwork in adult basic education, it isassumed that the trainee has thenecessary professional qualifications,at least on a theoretical level. Inaddition to academic knowledge ofteaching or counseling methodologyand previous experience ineducation, trainees must be awareof the psychological, sociologicaland cultural differences of the menand women whom they will beteaching. The ability to understandand empathize with the frustrationsand the hopes of undereducatedadults entails more than intellectual

knowledge. Moreover, the teacher-counselor in adult basic educationshould be able to adapt to thesubcultural level of the ethnicgroup he serves, to descend fromhis own intellectual rung whennecessary, and meet his class ontheir common ground.

Unless he can achieve rapportwith his pupils in this way, eventhe most competent educatorcannot expect to do a fullyeffective job of teaching.

Therefore a basic problem ofcommunication can be anticipatedwhen the teacher of adult basiceducation enters his Adult BasicEducation classroom with littleexposure to the aspects of differentcultures. The Video Tape Recordercan be used to analyze thesebehavior characteristics, and at thesame time serve as a basis for apractical remediation-system forteachers and counselors of pupils ofvaried cultural backgrounds.

The role of the Video TapeRecorder is similar to that of the"Link Trainer" used in developingthe flying skills of the airline pilot.This device provided a simulation ofthe environmental condition offlying, so that when the pilotmoves from the simulator to the

airplane, he has vicariouslyexperienced some interaction withthe elements of real flying.Following the same principal ofsimulation, recordings of actualsituations in adult basic educationwere made on the video taperecorder and a system developedfor tagging specific environmentalbehaviors, such as speech, facialexpressions, gestures, clothing,evidences of hygienic habits.Relevant data was extracted fromthese tapes by replay for analysisand critique by fellow teachers,counselors and teacher trainers.

This technique is now being usedthroughout the teacher trainingprogram nationally and is pro-ducing results.

The potentiality of this VTR toolis capable of being extended to farbroader areas than our simplepiece of chalk.

This will be possible as long asyou, the teacher, are able to workdirectly with this machine and tomake those vulgar intrusionsthrough the defense linesestablished by the media pros andthe professional guardians of themeasured handouts of theeducational messages to the masses.

Mr. Herbert L. Nichols, a mediaspecialist, is working with theNUEA-USOE-ABE program. Hehas served as consultant to variousorganizations including GoodwillIndustries-RehabilitationProgram, and New York andHoward Universities.

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Researchand Testing

Presentation by John Armstrong

We are happy to present to youtoday our Tests of Adult BasicEducation (TABE) designed toanalyze and evaluate the needs ofbasic-skill education for adults whowish to continue their high schoolcourses, vocational-technicaltraining, or general literacy andself-improvement study. TABEestablishes the level at whichinstruction should begin.

The Tests of Adult BasicEducation are an evaluation systemfor individualized adult education.They are composed of PracticeExercises, a Locator Test, andBasic Skills Tests. They are anadaptation of the widely usedCalifornia Achievement Tests foruse with adults. They are bothsurvey tests and analytical tests inreading, arithmetic, and languagebasic skills.

Three levels and two forms foreach level will be available. LevelD (Difficult) is an adaptation ofthe Junior High Level of theCalifornia Achievement Tests;

47

Level M (Medium) is an adaptationof the Elementary Level. The thirdlevel E (Easy) is in preparation;this will be a primary level test.Manuals provide grade placementscores from grade two throughtwelve.

Each of the three basic skills aredivided into two tests as follows:

Reading: Reading Vocabulary,Reading Comprehension.

Arithmetic: ArithmeticReasoning, ArithmeticFundamentals.

Language: Mechanics ofEnglish, Spelling.

Each test is further divided intocategories expressed in terms thatare meaningful to the examinee.

Special Features of TABE

Practice Exercises designed toencourage a positive attitude andto develop test sophistication ;Locator Test to determine whichlevel of the test to administer:Easy, Medium, or Difficult;Scoreze Answer Sheet that providesfor quick scoring of the test, andfor self-analysis of results by theexaminee. This sheet also providesclues for the teacher as to remedialor development work needed.Individual Response Record showsthe teacher and the examinee thespecific test items answeredcorrectly, incorrectly, or omitted.The items in the Record aregrouped into meaningful categories

for quick identification of weakbasic skills areas.

Some of the uses of theIndividual Response Record are:

1. To provide evidence of theadult's instructional orlearning level in the threebasic skills tested,

2. To evaluate an adult'sgrowth in the mastery of thethree basic skills,

3. To involve personally theadult's analysis of hislearning difficulties,

4. To assist the teacher in .

charting for each individualthe remedial or developmentalprogram that best fits hisneeds, and

5. To analyze and evaluatespecific areas of weakness inreading, arithmetic, andlanguage basic skills.

The practicp exercises can becompleted and the Locator Testadministered and scored in lessthan one hour for a class of thirty.The total administration time forthe six TABE tests is 158 minutesfor Level M and 176 minutes forLevel D.

ti 4,--441011OPP--- s.

IBM 1230 Answer Sheets andScoreze are available. The 1230Answer Sheets may be either handscored or machine scored. AnIndividual Profile Sheet, showingthe analysis of learning difficulties,is available for users wishing toscore the 1230 Answer Sheet,as is a transparent hand-scoringstencil. The latter greatly improvesspeed and accuracy in scoring.

ag10111116i16

A

The Scoreze Answer Sheet may bescored and analyzed by theexaminee but not machine scored.The use of Scoreze increasesself-improvement and self-understanding by examinees. Itstrengthens motivation toward bothtesting and subsequent learning.

Specimen sets are available toyou from any of our offices. Wewill be happy to have yourreaction to this innovation in AdultBasic Education evaluation.

w

114..

Learning to become an adult basiceducation teacher is an educationin itself.

Mr. John Armstrong, RegionalDirector of Professional Servicesfor the California Test Bureau,has had over thirty years experiencein education and guidance. Heorganized the Wisconsin StateTeachers Placement Department,now the largest in the nation.

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Hardwarefor Ad ItBasiEducation

Presentation by Robert Johnson,William Vinson, Ronald Dozier

The General LearningCorporation as you may or maynot know is the educationalaffiliate of Time, Inc., and GeneralElectric. Francis Keppel, formerU.S. Commissioner of Education,is Chairman of the Board andPresident. We are dedicated to thedevelopment of instructionalmaterials and programsprogramsthat are new, innovative andthoroughly validated. Our focalpoint at this time is the explorationof program development that willhave an impact on reaching peoplewho for one reason or anotherhave been deprived of theopportunity to- learn. Therefore,we are deeply involved in thedevelopment of early learning,vocational education, adult basiceducation and other areas. We arealso interested in exploring the useof hardware to assist us in thepresentation of these materials.This is what brings us here today.

Our purpose is to demonstrateto you how the Genet al LearningCorporation is using thisequipment at the Ben FranklinHigh School in Harlem and three

49

Montgomery County schoolsoutside Washington, D.C. Wehave developed a number ofmodular courses in arithmeticfacts, simple addition, subtraction,etc. These have been transferredfrom a computer in Bethesda,Maryland to the computer here inDetroit. We will attempt to teachyou the fundamentals of acomputer logic known as "Basic."This will enable you to sit down atthe teletypewriter and communicatewith the computer. You will havethe opportunity to either call onan existing program or insert yourown. It is not likely that in thetime allocated you will become acomputer programer, but youwill have discovered that thismonster is not a monster at all,but another piece of hardware thatcould have a place in yourclassroom.

We will now break up into smallgroups for the purpose of offeringyou the opportunity to have "handson" the computer. Good luck.

General Learning Corporationwas represented by J. RobertJohnson, Associate Director,William Vinson, Senior Consultant,both of the Educational ServicesDivision, and Ronald Dozier,Educational SystemsMeasurement Specialist.

SkillTrainingat MichiganBell

Presentation by C. Glenn Valentine

The skills required by telephonetechnicians cover a wide range ofcomplexity. They vary fromclimbing poles to locating a troublein a multi-million dollar real-timecomputer called an electroniccentral office. Our courses ofinstruction range from one 8-hourday to 26 weeks or 1040 hours.Most trainees are in class five daysa week. Certain complex coursesmay entail as few as six men ayear; a course, such as BasicInstallation training, may enroll asmany as 300 men a year. (A safetycourse, such as Driver Trainingor First Aid, may have 2000trainees in one year.)

The training department atMichigan Bell is attempting tomake use of the latest instructionaland behavioral technology in orderto develop and operate this trainingcenter. Our goals are to providefully individualized training, withcontinuous participation by each

trainee and comprehensiveevaluation of both the trainee'sprogress and the effectiveness ofthe training program.

Our developmental staff followscharted guidelines to constructnew training courses.Individualization is achieved byself-pacing, use of diagnostictesting and unitization of thecourse. Self-pacing allows eachlearner to advance at a rate bestsuited to his learning capability.Diagnostic pretesting permits botha check of prerequisite abilitiesand criterion behavior previouslyacquired. Thus, if prerequisiteskills are missing, the trainee maybe given prerequisite programs. Ifsome criterion behavior is alreadyin the trainee's repertoire, then thisaspect of training may be omittedfrom that trainee's course.Diagnostic post-testing indicateswhere review is needed to acquirethe desired behaviors. All materialsare unitized; that is, broken intoshort meaningful units. Thus,after pre- and post-testingdesignate behaviors to be omitted,learned or reviewed, appropriateunits may be selected for thesepurposes.

2.3ntinuous participation isachieved by expecting overtresponses and changing the learningenvironment as often as is practical.Thus, trainees do not becomebored due to long sessionsinvolving similar responses over

and over again. Review units andtutoring are used to keep failureexperiences at a minimum and tominimize frustration.

Comprehensive evaluationinvolves continuous feedback to thetrainee to stimulate his progress.This is achieved by confirming allovert responses as soon as possibleafter they are made_ and by givingself-scoring progress tests as oftenas practical. Performance tests aregiven periodically to determine ifcriterion behavior is being acquired.Units are revised based upontrainee feedback, through both theinstructor's tutoring function andthe performance test results.

Figure 1PROGRAMMED LEARNING FEATURES

1. LEARNER ACTIVELY PARTICIPATES (CONTINUOUS RESPONDING).

2. EACH CORRECT RESPONSE IS IMMEDIATELYCONFIRMED (REINFORCED).

3. PRE-STRUCTURED AND PRE-PREPARED TRAININGMATERIALS

4. SELF-PACED BY EACH LEARNER.

5. TRAINING MAY BE TAILORED TO FIT INDIVIDUAL NEEDS

6. SCHEDULING OF TRAINING CAN FIT INDIVIDUALAVAILABILITY.

Figure 1 shows some of themain features of programedinstruction. These features givesome reasons why programedinstruction is used in most of ourcourses. The goals ofindividualization, continuousparticipation, and comprehensiveevaluation are met by mostprograms. Features 5 and 6 haveproved especially important in theindividualization goal, since we canselect and reject program units foreach trainee, and this may bettaneat any time he is available totake the training.

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SYSTEM DIAGRAM FOR TRAINING COURSE DEVELOPMENT

TASKANALYSIS

PR E. ---) DIAGNOSTICREQUISITE ----- -) PRE

TEST TEST

PRE-REQUISITELEARNING

LEARNING POSTMETHODS TEST

Figure 2

A systematic approach allowsa trainer wide scope. Figure 2provides a simple diagram of somepoints in a "system" for developinga learning unit or course. Morewill be said later on learningmethods, but a first requirementfor any learning experience issome form of task analysis. Thesuccess or failure of the entireeffort will depend on the relevanceand completeness of the objectives.A task analysis provides theseobjectives. At Michigan Bell weuse both the task analysis and thefollow-up analysis to finalize ourobjectives, which are determinedby consensus of experts and adiagramming technique called"latticing." From these somewhatarbitrary objectives, we developeddraft tests and learning units. Ourfirst few groups of trainees arethen "followed" into the field tomake an analysis to determinewhich terminal behaviors areactually used on the job and what

New learning instruments create a newimage in the classroom.

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FOLLOW-UP

ANALYSIS

behaviors might be required onthe job which were not includedin the original analysis. Fromthis follow-up analysis, informationis obtained to modify andup-date the original objectives.

Figure 3 provides a brief list ofthe steps in putting together thearbitrary objectives as part of theoriginal task analysis. Theseobjectives are written by a teamof one or more instructionalspecialists and one or more fieldexperts. This original list ofobjectives is somewhat arbitrarybut will be reasonably close to acomprehensive set. Later, thefollow-up analysis should be usedto revise or replace any objectivesthat may have been misstated oreliminate those that have beenjudged unnecessary.

In the development of learningprograms, some key factors to beconsidered are the conditions underwhich learning oczurs. Thelearning situation may be real,simulated, or artificial. Theneed to transfer learning to realworld conditions and budgetproblems usually forces acompromise between real andartificial learning situations.Sometimes, simulation can be aseffective as real world situationswithout being so costly.Communication is very critical and

selection of a proper medium shouldagain be determined by the needto transfer learning to real worldsituations. The medium should aidin this transfer. It is also importantthat learning units emphasize thelearner-to-teacher communicationrather than the conventionalemphasis on teacher-to-learnercommunication. Response patternsare extremely important sinceprovoking isolated responses oftenhas very little effect on real worldbehavior. In the real worldresponses occur as part of longsequences or patterns of responses;therefore; learning sequencesshould be developed to producesimilar response patterns in thelearners. Both verbal and non-verbalresponses should occur. Thereshould be many overt responses,and feedback should immediatelytell the student if he is correct.Relevant covert or thinking typeresponses will occur if the overtresponding is interesting andrelevant to the learning. Finally,conditions for learning shouldinclude evaluation. The traineeneeds self evaluation such asprovided by progress testing.Pretests and criterion testsdetermine changes in behavior,and follow-up measures insurerelevance of the behaviors.

Figure 3

TASK ANALYSIS

1. LIST WHAT A LEARNER SHOULD BE ABLE TO DO AS ARESULT OF THIS EXPERIENCE.

2. LIST WHAT A LEARNER SHOULD BE ABLE TO DO BEFOREBEGINNING THIS EXPERIENCE.

3. UNUEH WHAT CONDITIONS WILL LEARNER DO THE THINGSLISTED IN 1 AND 2.

4. STATE A MEANS BY WHICH THE ACCURACY ANDCOMPLETENESS OF EACH RESPONSE (things learn ars doin items 1 and 2) CAN BE MEASURED.

Figure 4 PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION MODELS

CLOSE STRUCTURE

PRE I ,PERF TO

TEST J TEST NEXTUNIT

LOOSE STRUCTURE

STATEENTOF

M > SELF-

OBJECTIVESTEST

MEDIUM STRUCTURE

VARIOUSPROCEDURES &TRAININGPROGRAMS

>PERFORMANCETO

)NEXTUNITTEST

PRE J PRESENTATI 4 SEQUENCE OF PERFORMANCETEST

(BRIEF )CUED EXERCISES TESTOVERVIEW) (CUES FADED)

The actual learning unit mayvary over a wide range of styles.Figure 4 provides three techniqueswhere the response sequence hasvarying structure. The top modeluses close structure similar to thelinear programed instruction unit.In this model, pretests and.performance tests are used todetermine before and afterbehaviors. If some terminalbehavior is found at the start ofthe unit, then appropriate groupsof responses may be omitted orskipped by the trainee. If weakareas of terminal behavior areidentified on the post-test thencertain groups of responses shouldbe reviewed. In this model theresponses are carefully constructed,and each response is made by alllearners in the same sequence.

TO>NEXT

UNIT

The middle model provides aloose structure of responding.In this model, objectives and aself test are provided. Also, allexisting procedures and sourcesof information to aid the traineeare listed and given to him. Thetrainee selects his learning program,procedure, or possibly asksquestions of the instructor. Whenthe trainee feels he is ready, heasks for and is given a performancetest. If he does meet therequirements of this test, he isgiven the next unit. If he does notmeet the test requirements, then hereviews the materials and againwhen he feels he is ready asks foranother performance test.

The lower model is a medium-structured response sequence.This model can be developed fairlyfast but has many advantages forlearners who need some help inmoving through the learningmaterial. In this model, a briefdescription of the responses to belearned is provided after the

pretest. Following this briefoverview is a sequence ofexercises. Each exercise includesmost of the terminal responsesrequired but the beginningexercises have many prompts orcues. Each succeeding exercise hasless and less cueing until the finalexercise which has no cues orprompts. This is a criterion frameor exercise. This criterion frame isa sample of the performance test.All the exercises and the criterionframe are self scored. After thecriterion exercise a performancetest is given and, in most cases,this test is passed since it is analternate form of the criterion test.If the trainee fails the performancetest, then he repeats the unit.

It is important to note that allthree models in figure 4 refer tothe events or content of the learningmethods block in figure 2. Beforethe units are started, the taskanalysis and pre- and post-testingdevelopment should be completed.Obviously, the follow-up analysismay change all the content of thetests and learning units. It isinteresting to consider that onemay develop a loose-structuredunit (middle model, figure 4) andthen learner feedback may dictatethe development of many exercisesand a presentation. Thus afterseveral trainees have completedthe unit, it has become a medium-structured unit. Then as more andmore exercises are needed by the

52

learners, ultimately a close-structured unit or linear programcould appear. It is possible that atraining course of several unitscould consist of units of all threetypes after several pilot trials.

This provides a rough descriptionof the rationale and guidelinesused by the staff at the MichiganBell Plant Training School inDetroit for developing technicaltraining courses. All of thesetechniques and course descriptionshave been used to some degree.1here are many barriers andfrustrations between theories andmethods and the actualization ofa fully optimal training course.Probably the most importantcommon feature of our staff is acommitment to such theories andmethods. Thus, when problemsarise, there always seems to beenough ingenuity and drive to findan answer so that the basic goalsdo not have to be compromised.If any given programed instructionaltechnique fails to work, then weseek an alternate format or newstyle which will work. So far, wehave found a way out of dilemmaswithout going back to group-pacedinstructor-oriented methods.

Following this presentation, atour of the classrooms and trainingfacilities was conducted at theMichigan Bell Central PlantTraining School.

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C. Glenn Valentine is BusinessSystems Supervisor now attachedto the Bell Telephone Laboratoryat Holmdel, New Jersey. Anelectronics specialist, he was withMichigan Bell at the time ofthis presentation.

TheEducationalDevelopmentLaboratoriesLearningSystem

Presentation by Thomas Gately

On each of two evenings,Monday, May 22 and Tuesday,May 23, 1967, EducationalDevelopmental Laboratoriesconducted a two-hourdemonstration seminar in thesystems approach to adult basiceducation at the Adult BasicEducation Institute, Wayne StateUniversity, Detroit.

Participants in the demonstrationwere thirty-two adult basiceducation students from the city ofDetroit. About 125 delegates tothe Institute observed the students

as they moved through a typicallearning cycle selected from thefirst reading level of.the EducationalDevelopment LaboratoriesLearning-100 Adult BasicEducation System.

Each evening the observersnoted that in a typical Learning-100lesson cycle, students are firstgrouped as an entire class. In thisfirst phase of the cycle students arenot measured by their performancein the group. Rather, they competeagainst their own performance intheir ability to visually discriminateamong numbers and lettersprojected in an accelerated fashion.The observers noted that in thisphase the instructor couldimmediately identify students whohad difficulty recognizing lettersand numbers and could provideimmediate remedial instructionfrom appropriate materials withinthe Learning-100 System.

In the second phase of the cycle,observers noted that the Learning-100 systems approach provides forindividualized instruction. Studentswere divided into small groups,according to ability level, anddirected to respond individually tonew sight words displayed in anaudiovisual context. This phase ofthe cycle introduced new sightwords to each student according tohis level and, with instant feedback,measured his ability to recognizeand respond to these words on thescreen and in his individual studyguide. Here again the instructorcould quickly note student progress.

After the word introductionphase of the cycle, observers sawthe four groups rotate to a thirdphase. In this third phase eachstudent responded rapidly on sightin activities designed to shorten thetime it takes him to recognize andwrite down individual wordspreviously introduced in phase two.Once more student response wasinstantly observable.

After the sight recognition phaseof the cycle the system movedstudents into processing rapidlyprojected known and recognizedsight words into ideas. By simpleand direct questions taken fromthe Teacher's Study Guide, it waspossible to decide whether eachstudent was actually processingwords into thought concepts.

54

Subsequent to the processingphase of the .7,3ele, individualgroups were moved to phase fourcontrolled reading stories. Thesestories were projected in a left toright fashion at speedscommensurate with the students'ability to read and to comprehend.Words used in the controlledreader stories were those previouslyintroduced and checked in thecurrent cycle, or they were arepetition of words learned inearlier cycles. Each studentresponded to questions whichmeasured his comprehension ofthe Controlled Reader story.

In the final phase of the cycle,the students were provided withindependent reading materials,which permitted them to read ontheir own and to demonstrate theirability to recognize words andcomprehend ideas when presentedin high interest, adult level, lowvocabulary stories.&Aim-AINIM

55

During the Thursday, May 25meeting the EducationalDevelopmental Laboratories staffpointed out that basic andfuntional illiteracy among adultscan be traced through the pages ofAmerican history. Up to this poincin time, no system had beendeveloped to teach the functionalilliterate to read and to write. Newtechnology has made it possible todevelop a learning system whichcombines various principles ofeducational psychology into asystematic and programedapproach to the development ofreading comprehension. Thesystem starts with wordintroduction, goes on to sightrecognition of new words, andcontinues with the gradualprocessing of words into concepts.

In presenting the characteristicsof an adult basic education system,Educational DevelopmentLaboratories representatives

pointed out that it must bedeveloped specifically for adults,that materials must be of highinterest, and that they must besystematically introduced andrepeated in various contexts.Further, such a system mustprovide continuing opportunity forthe student to respond, to measurehis own progress, and to proceed at

his own pace. Finally, a wellstructured Adult Basic EducationSystem must permit student entryat various ability levels, must takethe student to at least the sixthreading level, and must provideconstant opportunity for theinstructor to measure studentprogress and recycle Win at anypoint where his progress is

retarded.

Listening is an important part of thecommunications skills taught in the

ABE curriculum.

Mr. Thomas F. Gately is Director,Federal Programs for EducationalDevelopment Laboratories(McGraw-Hill, Inc.). He hasassisted the development,introduction, instructor training,and evaluation phases of multi-media learning systems forfunctionally illiterate adults.

I d I It 1 I

A program cannot be successfulif it is not administered creatively.Wise management needs carefulforethought coupled with awillingness to experiment, receptionto new ideas, and experience. Thisconcluding section conveys thethinking of several experts whohave analyzed various elementswhich make an adult basiceducation program tick.

FederalGovernmentRoleIn AdultEducation

Presentation by Jules Pagano

I would like to talk a little aboutwhat I think is of vital concern inthe area of adult education, and insome ways this reminds me of avery good, healthy, middle classstory about two Boy Scouts whowere off on their long week-endhike. Finally, one turned to theother and said"Speaking formyself, I'm trustworthy, I'm loyal,I'm helpful, I'm courteous, I'mkind, I'm obedient, I'm cheerful,I'm thrifty, I'm brave, I'm clean,but to tell the truth, I'm LOST!"

Well, there are ways in which allof us in adult education today arethose very things. We've more thanproved our credentials; we've morethan proved our value and ourcrucial role in education. But we'relost in the sense that we do not

61

know exactly the demands thatare being made upon us asprofessionals. We are not sure ofpriorities established for us byforces outside our own profession,outside our educational sphere.I'd like to suggest that there areforces at play determining who weare, what we are, and what we'regoing to do. One of those majorforces is the force of federalism.That does not necessarily meancreative federalism because I'd liketo share with you the definition ofcreative federalism. Creativefederalism is what we term afederally sponsored program that issuccessful. When it's not, it isplain, ordinary federalism. I believethat we are involved in creativefederalism. At this point in history,adult education illustrates what wereally mean when we talk aboutcreative federalism.

But let me see if I can't talk alittle bit about the sort of pressures,concepts, factors and forces thatare at play in America today.There is one major nationaldisgrace in education. It is not thepublic school system, it is notcurriculum, it is not testing, it isnot the number of students whoare able to prepare themselves togo on to higher education. It's notthe question of how well we areable to re-school and educate theprofessionals in our society. Ournational disgrace lies in the factthat we have pretended for a longtime we have no illiterateAmericans. We have a "schooled"

illiterate America; an America thatis not equipped with the basic,fundamental, minimumrequirements of citizenshipthefundamental schooling forcitizenship.

Our society is not willing toaccept the failure of the greatAmerican public school system.We all are afflicted with thetremendous idealism that oursuccessful institutions cannot fail.In the past we did not consider theilliterate a national disgrace. Therehave always been some kinds ofpositive roles for these persons toplay. The great tragedy today isthat this is no longer true. Wedon't really want to know thatthere are eleven million Americanswho are illiterate; we don't reallyknow just how many are trulyfunctionally illiterate. And wedon't want to know.

We want to really believe in thegreat dream. We want to believethat our familiar institutions haveproduced for us the opportunities,the quality education, that havealways been a part of the patternof our society.

We have failed to carry out(what has been) the mandate ofour free society. In a free societywe share responsibility. By sharingresponsibility we make it possible

share all opportunities forsonal and social development.are not aware of our full

ponsibility because until now its not achieved crisis proportions.d because we are so well-off

mpared to everybody else in therld we can't fully understandy we should be criticizingrselves for failure to be perfect.

We have the great opportunityday in our society to do what noher society in the world has beenle to doto make it possible forery human being to participatea technological society. We have

technology in every sensetheman resource sense, theientific sense, the humanlations sense. We have thechnology and, above all, we haveat promise of America, the ruleat makes it possible for everytizen of America to participate inr technological world. If we

on't put that rule into effect, thene shall have a society which willvert back to the Romans and thereeks. We would then be a greatciety with special "charges"or11 them slaves as the Greeks andomans did. They will be chargesn society toward whom we do notel a responsibility to do somethingbout their ability and their right

participate in our society.

That is not the '. nswer. Thenswer must be something moreke a total war for what we knowe can do ; that is, to pass on

undamental concepts of basic

education to enable us to makeevery American a literate American.We must provide everyone thenecessary tools for participationin our society so that everyonemay have the capacity forcommunication each with the otherand each one can make somesense, in some way, about theworld about him.

What is the federal role here?The federal role is to minimize the"charges" on society, and to makeeveryone as productive and asmuch a positive part of society aspossible. That's the commitmentof the Federal Government.

How do we get away fromwasting our resources on welfare;wasting our resources year afteryear on people who are unable tojoin society productively? How dowe solve the problem of povertyonce and for all, not only for theshort-run but for the long-run?How do we make education not a"preparation" for life, but a parr oflife, make it a positive value?

The most crucial step in solv;the problem involves basiceducation. It is one of the greataccidents of history, the sheerabsolute accident, that we hadsome luck last year when 0E0 washaving some problems and theCongress wanted to do somethingmore in education. TheAdministration wasn't asking foranything more in education and noone knew quite what to do withthe adult basic programs. Thepublic schools were doing pretty

We must put our human resources tothe greatest possible use.

well, but 0E0 said the schoolsalone couldn't handle adult basiceducation, and no one knew whatshould become of the program.Suddenly, out of nowhere, apeople's lobby developed. Letterswere written to the White Housesaying, "Dear Mr. PresidentThisis my very first letter that I havewritten in my life. I'm writing totell you that it was Federal dollarsthat have made it possible. I hopeI'll be able to continue." Althoughthe handwriting and the spellingwere shaky, this was a first letter inmany respects. This people's lobbyis the most powerful movement wehave in this country. It shows whatcan happen when the people actout of a personal need.

Senator Wayne Morse hadgrabbed on. "It's a greatopportunity to establish adulteducation in the United Statesunder Federal legislation." And theAdult Education Act of 1966, asyou well know, was not enacted as

62

the Adult Education Act, but waspassed as an amendment to theAmendments of the Elementaryand Secondary Education Act.The curious thing Senator Morsesaid about the Act was: "We'llestablish adult education in theUnited States because the timeis ripe. We know it's needed,but the only way we'll get itthrough this Congress, withoutthe full support of theAdministration for a new Bill is byattaching it to the Elementary andSecondary Amendments."Remember, the Bill did not haveAdministration support; it hadpeople support. You're part of apeople's activity. And WayneMorse said simply then"Congresscan't vote against kids in elementaryand secondary schools." So theadult education law was passed.

Now it has become part of ourlaws, and the Congress does knowwhat it is all about. This year'sdebate was very interesting. TheAdministration has discoveredthat there is such a thing as theadult education problem and isnow tremendously concernedabout it. And it does know thatpeople can and will respond toopportunities for their own humandevelopment.

The Administration has seen thenumbers of people who participate.They've seen the school doorsopen, the church doors open, thecommunity halls open. They've

seen Centers established andthey've seen the public schools ofthis country move ahead and spendtax dollars efficiently trying toreach the adults of America whoare still illiterate.

The Administration understandsthe need to share the responsibilityof erasing a national disgrace, andthe opportunity to construct awhole new body of knowledgeabout how to deal with adults.There's a new recognitiona new challenge here.There may be persons who, asprophets of doom, will read the riotact that all we're doing isirrelevant and is not important.But in the final analysis, we knowvery well that we're involved in animportant step forward in theeducational field. You are about tomake this activity gain newrecognition on campusesthroughout the country. In highereducation, the adult educatorbecomes the problem-solverthrough the process of bringingpeople into society and enablingthem to work together. You canmake education a true value forthis generation so that the nextgeneration can inherit it; you willbecome the value-makers byestablishing values in our societyexistentiallyby your activity. Andyou will establish in the publicschool system of America a newrole and a new status for the adulteducator, the administrator, theteacher, and for the communitydeveloper and counselor.

Let's think about this in closing:

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We can no longer affordtechnological breakthroughs thatdo not consider the cost imposedon the human system in which theyoperate. We need people with thecourage and perspective to repairthe damages of the past, to lookahead before the crisis occurs, andto seek creatively a society thatmeasures up to the new and higherexpectations. This is what you areinvolved in. You're involved intrying to repair the damages ofthe past, and you're involved inlooking ahead before the nextcrisis occurs. The institutions ofhigher education, the publicinstitutions, the various phases ofthe community today all seektogether to create a society thatmeasures up to new and higherexpectationsexpectations that arefree in the land.

Mr. Jules 0. Pagano was the firstDirector of the Division of AdultEducation, U. S. Office of Education.A former Fulbright scholar, he isnow vice-president ofGreenleigh Associates.

Response

Presentation by Robert J. Pitchell

In response to Mr. Pagano,I wish to make two points whichexpand on his remarks rather thancontradict them.

First, a significant aspect of thelearning process involves anemotional component, one part ofwhich is motivational and anotherrelated to emotional growth. Toooften in the past we haveconcentrated on the motivationalaspect. The counselor or teacherwho depends solely on developingmotivations in his students, inmany cases will find that theycannot cope with the subjectmatter no matter how highly

motivated. Other emotionalbarriers to learning exist.

The proportion of the emotionalcomponent in the total learningprocess appears to vary inaccordance with age and previouslearning achievement. It appears tobecome less significant withadvancing age and with increasedlearning achievement.

This means that for the studentwho progresses "normally" throughthe regular school system,emotional development plays asmaller role in effective learning inthe eighth grade than in the first,in the twelfth grade than in theeighth, at senior college level thanat senior high school, at graduatethan at undergraduate 1;vel.

Where intellectual growth stops,regardless of whether a persondrops out of school or not, theemotional component undoubtedlyremains as a high proportion of

the total learning process. Thismeans that in adult basic education,the students can neither be taughtas young children nor as adultswho have progressed to advancedintellectual levels. Every teachermust realize that at the beginningof the training cycle the ABEstudent requires emotionalsatisfaction and growth as asignificant part of his training.

My second point is that alleffective learning takes place at thepoint of confrontation betweenteacher and student and/orinstructional medium and student.All other activities at local, stateand national levels are supportive

64

of that situation. None cansubstitute for the teacher or theinstructional medium. Effectiveplanning and administration atfederal, state and local levels makeit possible for the confrontationbetween teacher and student totake place, but all who areinvolved in planning and

65

ti

administration must realize thatthey will have failed if they do notmake certain that the teacher isadequately prepared for his joband gets the continuing support heneeds to deal effectively with theadult illiterate in his charge.

Dr. Robert Pitchell, ExecutiveDirector of the National UniversityExtension Association, was formerlywith the Federal ExtensionService. He has also served asPresident of Roosevelt Universityand on the faculties of Purdueand Indiana Universities.

Adult Basic Education has tremendouspossibilities for the Nation.

V

nddministeringtatendocalducationrograms

Presentation by A. T. Houghton

I. In organizing and administeringstate or local Adult BasicEducation programs we shouldnever lose sight of how thisprogram finally receivedFederal funding.

A. Originally Adult BasicEducation received verylittle congressional support.

B. It was not until theEconomic Opportunity Act

Oa

As,

was passed in 1964 thatCongress saw fit to fundAdult Basic Educationclasses. Therefore, itbehooves us to continuallybear in mind :

1. That we were originallypart of the Anti-PovertyBill and would never

66

have become a nationalprogram if it were not forthe presidential andcongressional efforts toeradicate poverty.

2. That annual congressionalhearings continue toemphasize the fact thatthis program is intendedprimarily to serve thosewho live in poverty or injeopardy of poverty.

3. That primary emphasisbe placed on identification

67

and recruitment of thehard core of the under-educated.

II. If the public school is to besuccessful in its drive toeliminate "lack of education"as a national cause of povertyit must enlist the totalcommunity in the process ofidentifying and recruitingundereducated adults whoneed basic education.

Eliminating a national cause ofpovertyunder-educationis acommunity-wide effort.

This community-wide effort,if it is to be effective, mustinvolve:

A. Public agencies such associal welfare, localhealth authorities, stateemployment offices,public housingauthorities.

Voluntary agencies suchas the NationalAssociation for theAdvancement of ColoredPeople, the SalvationArmy, the Urban League,Young Men's and YoungWomen's ChristianAssociations, which cancommunicate with theundereducated in thecommunity.

C. Other community agenciessuch as labor unions,business and industrialfirms, the communicationmedia, and federally aidedprograms such ascommunity actionagencies, work training,work experience, etc.

III. If the public school program is

to attract, hold, and educatethe adult student it must run aprogram that is extremely"flexible."

A. The physical facilities mustbe conveniently located.

B. Classes must be sufficientlysmall to enableindividualized instruction.

C. Classes should be organizedat the convenience of themembers of the classand not at the convenienceof the school system.

D. The school district muststand ready to offer bothday and evening classes.

E. School district boundariesshould be eliminated.

F. Programs should bear verylittle relationship to thepublic school calendarunless it fits the needs ofthe adults.

G. Programs should beadministered andsupervised by people whoare thoroughly familiar withthe teaching of the basicskills.

H. Programs should includeinstruction in such "socialliving skills" as consumereducation, health, parentand family life, andresponsible citizenship.

IV. Every public school program inthe adult basic education fieldmust involve counseling andguidance services in depth.

A few examples of the kindsof services properly trainedcounselors can render are:

A. Assist with the pre- andin-service training ofteachers.

B. Assist with the registrationand original placementof adults.

C. Establish and maintainprocedures for follow-upof absentees.

D. Maintain personal folderson each adult.

E. Be available to handleproblems throughindividual counseling.

F. Conduct group counselingsessions on such topicsas consumer education,health, responsiblecitizenship.

G. Act a,s liaison with publicor private agencies whocan, in any way, assistthe underprivileged.

H. Establish close associationwith adults in the upperlevel group for placementcounseling after theeighth grade level hasbeen achieved.

I. Always stand ready toassist the adults to makethe quickest possible useof their new-foundeducation.

Mr. A. T. Houghton is Chief ofthe New York State Bureau ofBasic Continuing Education. Hehas served education as a teacherand administrator for more thanthirty years.

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Managementof Programs

Presentation by Donald Butcher

"If a nation expects to be freeand ignorant . . . it expects whatnever was and never will be" is anoften-quoted observation ofThomas Jefferson. Madison alsoshared this concept of education'srole in a democracy. Uttered in1782, the years have added greatsanction to his words, "A populargovernment without popularinformation . . . is but a prologueto a farce or a tragedy or both.Knowledge will forever governignorance and a people who needto be their own governors armthemselves with the power whichknowledge gives."

These time-worn but profoundstatements cogently summarize oneof the challenges facing adulteducation today. The importanceof assisting adults to develop totheir maximum potential isregarded as a top priority by ourstate and national leaders.

Adult basic education is, in someways, a very young program. Ithas its roots in the oldAmericanization classes that weredeveloped in the early 1920's whenthere was a heavy immigrant

69

population. In fact, Detroitestablished a literacy program asearly as 1875. Only very recentlyhas this program received anysignificant impetus from thefinancial assistance provided bythe Federal Government.

Let us briefly review theMichigan plan of adult basiceducation, how it functions, someunique characteristics, andimplications for adult basiceducation teacher traininginstitutes. Public schools inMichigan cherish a tradition oflocal control of the educationalprogram. This is evidenced in anofficial statement of theSuperintendent of Public Instructionin Bulletin No. 364:

Though we strive forcommon objectives and areunited and dedicated to thepurpose of educating free menfor a dynamic, democraticsociety, we believe that theprogram of any school canbest be determined by thepeople living in that schoolcommunity with the help ofcompetent, experiencededucators and technicalpersonnel having a broad,comprehensive knowledge ofeducational needs at the local,state and national levels.There are those who woulduse prescribed courses of studyfor all school districts. Thereare those who contend thatall educational programs

should be determined by somecentral authority either at thestate or federal level. Weregard such attempts atstandardization as unwise andincompatible with thedemocratic ideal.

In view of this somewhat uniqueilosophy of local control andtermination of education, it isrtr;.- that local educational,envies will exercise wide latitudethe types of programs to beered in adult basic education.

The Michigan Department ofucation has been using Federal

nds for local adult basicucation programs sincebruary 3, 1965. These funds haden coming to the Stateapartment of Education from the

S. Office of Education via aant from the Office of Economicpportunity. As a result of a 1966nendment, the adult basicucation program has nowcome the Adult Education Act1966.

Generally, basic education issigned to provide elementaryel education for adults, placingecial emphasis on reading,siting, speaking and arithmetic,these skills relate to such adult

periences as getting and keepingob, consumer buying practices,

I

I MIN

1

health habits, relationships withother members of the family andcommunity, homemaking andcitizenship responsibilities. Thereare large numbers of adults inneed of these skills who areunemployed, discouraged andtrapped on the treadmill ofpoverty. They are unable to meetadult responsibilities or to qualifyfor training to develop theirpotential skills. Basic education isintended to be a first step toprepare adults for morecomprehensive vocational andoccupational training.

Data provided by the U. S.Census Report indicated that in1960, there were 254,327 adults inMichigan over 25 years of agewith less than five years of formalschooling and 754,546 of like agewho had not attended more thaneight grades.

The Pre-Institute Seminar broughttogether experts in curriculum,technology, and management.

In 1964-65, the first year of theprogram, the Michigan Departmentof Education received $531,438.Thirty-two school districts served5,500 functionally illiterate adultsduring this first year. In 1965-66,the Michigan allocation was$1,104,042; and sixty-three schooldistricts served 10,123 adults. In1966-67, Michigan was allocated$756,943; and eighty-two localschool districts served over 14,000adults. Forty-seven of the eighty-three counties in Michigan areserved by adult basic educationprograms in operation. Altogether,

70

some 29,213 persons haveparticipated in adult basiceducation programs in the pasttwo and one-half years.

To those who are in need ofbasic education, especially theyounger citizens, an incompleteeducation means:

(a) As workers, they are less andless able to meet the risinglevels of skill demanded byour improving technology.They are inevitably the lasthired, the first fired, and theperennial consumers of ourwelfare budgets. They lackthe basic educational meansto take advantage ofvocational retrainingprograms, and become anincreasingly larger and hardercore of chronicallyunemployed.

(b) They are less and less ableto provide the parentalguidance their children needin the face of the growingcomplexities of modern urbanlife; and, under thesecircumstances, their lack ofeducation diminishes thestability and the beneficialinfluences of our nation'sfamilies whose vigorundergirds our nationalvirtue. This becomes avicious cycle of theundereducated perpetuatingmore undereducated.

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(c) They are readily exploited bythose who prey upon theignorant and the gullible.They find it difficult toprotect themselves, theirfamilies, and theircommunities fromirresponsible or maliciouspropaganda.

(d) They are less resourceful inusing wisely the increasinghours of leisure whichimproved technology andincreasing longevity areproviding.

(e) They provide a weak andshifting element in thefoundation of citizenunderstanding upon whichoar national leaders dependfor support in the complexdecisions of the day.

Federal interest in adult basiceducation has been helpful, but anequally important factorcontributing to rapid expansion ofadult basic education programswas the removal of the age limitfor state aid reimbursement bythe Michigan Legislature in thefall of 1964. This allows localschool districts to receive statereimbursement for all adults takingcredit courses to earn a high schooldiploma. This action increased thenumber of school districts offeringprograms from 49 in 1963-64 to90 in 1966-67. This legislation hasallowed a free high schooleducation for everyone inMichigan, regardless of age. It has

resulted in increased enrollmentsin adult high school credit coursesfrom 30,746 in 1963-64 to over98,000 in 1966-67.

If adult interest is to continue toexpand and develop, teachers mustbe trained to handle the variety ofproblems that adults present.Teacher training institutes becomean integral and necessary part of agood adult education program.These thoughts were first offeredby Russell J. Kleis, Professor ofAdult Education, Michigan StateUniversity, at Michigan teachertraining workshops. I personallybelieve these nine ideas as presentedby Professor Kleis need to becontinually reinforced for teachersof adult basic education.

1. We must always deal inrespect, treating our studentsas the very human personsthat they are.

2. We are involved in theintricacies of psycho!cc.y,sociology, and philoso thy, aswell as with the content andmechanics of the subject thatwe teach.

3. Therapy is a large part of ourtask. Many of our studentsneed not so much to beinvested with new knowledge,

skills, attitudes, and values asto be divested of old ones.

Our work requires uniqueefforts in counseling andevaluation.

. Seeking constantly for thebetter tool, we must not fallinto the trap of believing thatthere is one right toolonesimple system. Wheneverproblems are complex andknowledge primitive, there isfertile territory for thecharlatan, the quack, themedicine man. Rather thanseeking the one right tool, weface the task of selecting achest full of tools andpreparing ourselves to makeproper selection andappropriate use of each.

5. Force is always involved ineducation. That force maytake the form of love oflearning, the desire forincreased earning capacity,the requirements of a job, theneeds of a family, thediscipline of one's faith, orthe laws of one's community.

7. We must earn and hold theconfidence of thedisadvantaged adult againstgreat odds. Past experienceand contemporary social factsof life persuade many of ourstudents that teachers and theinstitutions within which theywork are not readily trusted.

8. We have many allies and wedesperately need them all. Amajor part of our taskinvolves the perfection ofstrategies for cooperative andcollaborative work.

9. Whether we win status,promotion, or other externalrewards, we are in a strugglethat is one, old and persistent;two, of crucial significance;and three, possible of winning.

Our entire nation rests heavilyupon one fundamental assumption,that man is in large measure incontrol of his own fate. Ourpolitical system is based upon thisassumption; our economic systemis based upon this assumption; andcertainly, our educational system isbased upon this assumption. Inadult basic education, we arefundamentally and essentiallyinvolved in a struggle to bringinto the mainstream of Americanlife those who have for one reasonor another been left out. We aredealing with people, many ofwhom have given up. These peoplemust be given new hope.

It seems to me that each of usmust accept some responsibilityfor this plight. If the greatAmerican dream is to come true,we must come to grips with andsolve the problems inherent inilliteracy. Basic education has tobe viewed as but the first rung onthe ladder that eventually allowsan individual to lead a more usefuland satisfying life.

Dr. Donald G. Butcher is StateCoordinator of Adult Educationand Community Services inMichigan. He has served on theeducation faculty of NorthernMichigan University and asDirector of Community Education,Flint Public Schools.

Prejudiceand AdultEducation

Presentation by David Weiner

To some extent all people havedifferent backgrounds and allcontacts between people involveclashing values and beliefs. Thegreater the differences betweenpeople, the longer the time andthe more concentrated theconscious effort must be toestablish rapport.

Students of adult educationcome from very different socio-economic, and often differentethnic, backgrounds than do theirteachers. They usually come fromthe lowest educational,occupational, and income levels,and from ethnic groups which aresubject to constant negativeevaluation by many members ofthe dominant subcultures in contactwith their own.

It seems logical to expect thatconsiderable time and effort mustbe allotted to the task ofestablishing a milieu in whichlearning will take place. Such amilieu is based necessarily onrapport between teachers andstudents. The teachers are symbolsof the America students wouldlike to feel they are members of.

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Students feel threatened not onlyby the demands of a society inwhich they feel inadequate, butalso in the face of the prospect ofchangewhich is what educationrepresents for them. The teacher isfor many the only means towardassimilation.

Time and con sicous effort,however, may not be sufficient toestablish the milieu essential forsuccessful realization of the goalsof adult education. The idealsituation, which assumes thatstudents and teachers alike activelywork to promote rapport,overlooks two important factors,both of which work against therealization of goals. First isresistance on the part of studentsto give up old ways and ideas infavor of new ones. This resistanceis made up of equal amounts offear and mistrust of the new, andstrong attachments to the old. Thesecond factor is resistance on thepart of teachers to see theirstudents objectively and to accepttheir problems as real and valid.

To the extent that newknowledge implies that new valuesand attitudes must be developed,such knowledge can represent athreat at the same time that itrepresents hope. Understandingthe potential threats of knowledgecan help teachers to understandwhy their students resist learning,but even this awareness oftenseems not to be sufficient to ensurethat teachers will relate to studentswith warmth and acceptance eventhough they realize that such

acceptance is a crucial part of theteaching process. For only whenstudents feel sure that they will beaccepted by people like the teacherwill they feel completelycomfortable about giving up oldtraditions and old securities.

The term "prejudice" has beenused so often in an accusatorymanner as to lose its originalconnotations which imply eitherfavor or disfavor. Thus one may beprejudiced in favor of one'sfamily, against apples, in favor oftweed but against sharkskin suits,in favor of the hometown footballteam and against the rivals. Theonly people without prejudices arethose without feelings and ideasof their ownego-less individualswho float with the tide. Havingprejudices is consistent with havingstrong feelings and convictions.Thus prejudice per se is not onlynot bad; it is a necessary andvalued manifestation of basichuman characteristics.

However, like all other attitudes,prejudicial ones must be viewed inthe context of an individual'sreality. It is understandable, forexample, that one might beprejudiced against apples as amatter of taste, but not in the roleof grocer. It makes sense to givepreference to one's family in manyinstances, but not to the extentthat it means excluding all others.It is one thing to favor the hometeam but another to despise theopposition. Even the fairly mild

of "booing" is reacted tolatively in most places.

t

hese examples show thatludice implies more thanional appraisal and classificationindividuals as members ofiups (an apple is like all other)les, all members of the otherm are rivals and thereforece); it implies judgment ofividuals as members of groupsscales of superior-inferior1/or bad-good (apples not onlynot taste as good as oranges,y are an inferior fruit; our team;uperior to that of the rivalsifwin it is skill but if we lose it is

i luck or the other team'syterfuge).

To the extent that individualsare correctly identified as belongingto hostile groups, negativereactions do not consituteprejudice, unless: (1) there isadequate basis to determine thatan individual does not sharecharacteristics which have come tobe identified with the group;(2) the group to which he belongsnever really constituted a threat;or, (3) no longer constitutes athreat.

Thus to hate the enemy duringwartime would not ordinarily beconsidered prejudice. However, tohate a person born in the samecountry as that of the enemy whoas an individual is an ally, doesconstitute prejudice. To persecutechildren of enemies long after thewar has ended is to show prejudice.Similarly, to define all members ofone's own country or race as

superior is to show prejudice. Todefine all members of minoritygroups which have beenpersecuted as more worthy thanothers is to show as muchprejudice as to define them as lessworthy. Teachers who regard slumchildren with pity and wantdesperately to raise them out oftheir misery make as little headwayas those who see the children asbasically inferior and not worthtoo much effort.

This is not to say that allprejudice is inconsistent withrealityfor example, the realitiesof the teaching situation. In factit is hoped that teachers will beprejudiced with regard to theirstudents; prejudiced in favor ofthem much as one is prejudiced infavor of one's family, but to adegree which enhances and doesnot inhibit the realization of goalsof education.

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The concept that allows prejudiceto be classified as consistent withreality, or not consistent withreality, is that identifying one'sown as superior or inferior mayinvolve identifying othersreciprocally but this does not haveto be true. People can feel thattheir religion is best for them, andthat other religions are best forothers. A teacher's affection for hisstudents may cause him to fight fortheir interests without desiring

that any other groups suffer.Athletes can feel loyalty for theirown team without devaluing theirrivals.

An attraction of prejudiceassociated with negation of othersis the easy acquisition of status.Why don't all people build statusat the expense of others since it isan easy and convenient thing todo so long as there is someone

75

AO.

who can be defined as inferior?The answer is that to do so impliesthe inability to realize status onone's own merits.

It may be hypothesized that aperson who defines others asinferior and himself as superiorhas limited self confidence, anegative self image, and belongsto a threatened group and/or needsan object against whom to expresshostility, and/or perceives himself

teacher prejudiced in favor of hisstudents sees them as a group ofindividuals, each with a uniquepersonality.

David A. Weiner is a researchassistant and instructor with theDepartment of Sociology, Universityof Texas. A consultant on racerelations, he has conducted severalworkshops in southern communities.

as threatened by others. He canonly rationalize certain methods ofretaliation if the others areclassified as "inferiors" (or asmorally bad, or both).

People who are confident andsecure within themselves,realistically oriented to theirworld,. and not overly threatened,prefer competition with equals tocompetition with "inferiors." Theirprejudices tend to be nonrational,judgmental evaluations on asituational and personal basis. The

Overcoming prejudice: a groupdynamics approach.

e

raperrojects-nchievement

ehabilitation

esentation by John McKee

The Rehabilitation Researchoundation, a private, non-profitganization, is chartered to carryt programs of research and

aining in human development.seeks to apply the principles of

ehavioral science to specificroblem areas, such ashabilitation and education ofe disadvantaged.

With the cooperation of thelabama Board of Corrections,e Foundation is currently

onducting two projects at Draperorrectional Center, Elmore,labama, both concerned with

n institutionalized offenderopulation. The National Institutef Mental Health provides funds

for operation of the experimentalacademic education project. AVocational Experimental-Demonstration Project is financedunder the Manpower Developmentand Training Act, which isadministered jointly by the U. S.Departments of Labor and Health,Education and Welfarethrough the StateDepartments of Education andIndustrial Relations.

Manpower Development andTraining Vocational Experimental-Demonstration Project

The objective of the pilot projectin vocational education is todetermine how manpower trainingprograms can be developed in acorrectional setting. The projectpresently has a staff of 40,including qualified vocationalinstructors, guidance counselors,programed instruction writers,editors, public informationspecialists, and paraprofesbianalassistants. These staff membershave created a special program ofselection, counseling, testing,assessment, training, placement,follow-up, and communitysponsorship services for youthfulinstitutionalized offenders andhave developed programedinstructional materials for use inthe training program.

Inmate applicants are selectedon the basis of standardachievement tests, aptitude tests,personal interviews with the staff,

and time remaining to be served inprison. Students who have aneducational level in keeping withthe requirements for classroomwork in their chosen vocationalfield and a reasonable chance ofobtaining parole soon after thecompletion of training are givenpriority. In some instances,applicants do not have the basiceducation required for thevocational course they want toenter, but are willing to take stepsto remedy their deficiencies. In suchcases, the inmates may be assignedto prevocational classes where theyare given intensive, individualizedinstruction, utilizing programedmaterials. Upon completion of thistraining, they are enrolled in thevocational training course forwhich they applied.

Training is presently available inwelding, electrical appliance repair,automotive service stationattendant, sign painting,bricklaying, and barbering. Thesefields were chosen after carefulconsultation and study withemployers and state and federalemployment services.

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One feature which distinguishesthe Draper Vocational EducationProject is programed instruction.The Draper Project has created itsown programed material for usein the classroom phase of vocationaltraining. Programed instructionis also utilized in other phases ofthe project: remedial education,personal-social development, anddistributive education.

One of the main barriers to theoffender's acceptance by society ishis inability to function socially.The goal of the remedial programis to raise a man's achievementlevel in order that he may advancein his trade. The personal-socialdevelopment classes seek to helpthe students develop socialcompetencesuch skills ashandling money, applying for a job,relating to others, and gettingalong with others. Guidancecounselors are available to helpstudents with their personal ortraining-related problems.

When a student's parole datehas been established, the jobplacement specialists on the staffvisit employers throughout thestate. Placing graduates is madedifficult because students are notpermitted to leave the institutionfor interviews, and most employersdo not have the time to come toDraper. Even so, the job placement

77

specialists, using photographs ofthe students and data from theirfiles, are usually successful inplacing each graduate in atraining-related job.

Most paroled graduates do nothave money to live on until thefirst paycheck comes in. Agenciessuch as the Tuskegee LaborMobility Project frequentlycooperate in solving this problem.This Project has made grants tograduates in amounts ranging from$65 to $145.30. These grants haveaided the graduates immeasurablyin making the transition fromprison to community.

National Institute of MentalHealth Experimental AcademicProject

In 1961 the Division of MentalHygiene of the Alabama StateHealth Department proposed tothe Alabama Board of Correctionsthat the Board institute a programfor the rehabilitation andeducation of youthful offenders atDraper Correctional Center.Originated by Warden JohnWatkins of Draper and Dr. JohnM. McKee, then Director of theMental Hygiene Division, theproject proposed to demonstratethe feasibility of a self-instructionaleducation program within Draperand to make a tentative analysis ofa curriculum which would teachinmates most successfully in termsof a cost-productivity relationship.The project, approved in March1961, was financed for the first

three months by the AlabamaBoard of Corrections.Continuing support from the prisonsystem, the Division of MentalHygiene, and grants from theFord Foundation and the AaronNorman Fund enabled the pilotproject to operate for the first year.The pilot findings suggested theeconomic and administrativefeasibility of an educationalprogram which relied almostcompletely on programedinstructional materials.

In May 1962, the NationalInstitute of Mental Healthapproved a three-year grant toconduct a more extensive researchproject. The purpose of this projectwas to determine if the use ofprogramed instruction couldincrease the educationalachievement of an institutionalizedoffender population. The originalpurpose was fulfilled. As isfrequently the case in such projects,a number of secondary questionswere raised which warrantedfurther exploration. A secondNational Institute of MentalHealth grant was obtained in May

, for three years of additionaly. The general purpose of the

twat proposal was as before,[gave further attention to theElement of management andtivational techniques.

The Project has a director, aprogram director, and a researchassociate. This staff is augmentedby participants in two uniqueprogramsthe College Corps andthe Service Corps. CollegeCorpsmen are undergraduates(juniors and seniors) who workon a co-op basis in the project.They provide a competent,economic source of staff whileserving as role models for theinmates. One spin-off of the CollegeCorps program has been itsattraction of well-educated,qualified men to the field ofcorrections.

The Service Corps is composedof inmates chosen because of theircooperation and interest in theself-instructional program, asdemonstrated by their achievementand willingness to help otherstudents. It is hoped that menparticipating as Service Corpsmenwill eventually be able to serve aseducational technology assistantsin other programs for thedisadvantaged. 11114

...___AahmAdling_

78

4,11, 4

Students who have an educationallevel in keeping with classroomrequirements have a reasonablechance of obtaining parole.

All inmate participants in theexperimental academic projecthave been encouraged to establishworthy long-term goals forthemselves. One hundred twentystudents have taken and passedthe General Educational

79

Development Test for High SchoolEquivalency; only six have failed.Seven former students are presentlyattending college, and one willgraduate with honors in June 1967.

The staff is now seeking toidentify the programed instructionalmaterials and methods ofmanagement most successful inraising the achievement level ofyouthful offenders and todetermine which materials andmethods most successfullycomplement programed instruction.Another objective is to determinethe best possible arrangement oflearning activities appropriate toeach individual's deficiency.Finally, the findings of the project

will be disseminated throughoutthe country to provide a basis forthe establishment of similarinstitutional programs. Ourfindings will also be applicable incommunity-based and otherprograms for the disadvantaged.

Dr. John M. McKee is Directorof the Rehabilitation ResearchFoundation. He is author ofnumerous published andunpublished articles related toprogramed instruction and otherinnovative educational techniques.

counselingodults

kesentation by Nancy Schlossberg

Although adult counseling isiew and fashionable, everyonevorking with adults readily admitshat its need is widespread.-Iowever, many are easily)ersuaded that practically anyonean perform this necessary job.kctually the adult counselorequires special competencies.

The changing economy with its;rowing demand for educatedvorkers, and the changing patterns)f work and leisure are by nowhoroughly recognized. They arehe subject of countless articles andtumerous books, with specialmphasis on the problems thesehanging social patterns havetrought about. From the labortandpoint they fall into twoategories. The skilled orompetent worker, professional orraft, has the problem of choosing,etween the many alternativesnd opportunities currently

existing in education and the labormarket. The problem is moredifficult for the less adequatelycraft, has the problem of choosingamong the many alternativesand opportunities currentlyexisting in education and the labormarket. The problem is moredifficult for the less adequatelyeducated and trained. Because ofnew federally financed trainingprograms like the ManpowerDevelopment and Training Actand the Area Redevelopment Act,many individuals are catapultedinto training, jobs and careersabout which they had no choice.These individuals, mostly frompoverty levels, need guidance interms of understanding their"no-choice" lot.

One consequence of the increasedavailability of training andeducational opportunities is classmobility. We casually discussmobility as if it were just a matterof deciding to move up or downa rung in the social structure. It isfar more complex. Frequently classtransition occasions personaldifficulties and stresses not only inan individual, but, by extension,in his family, that further attest tothe importance of professionalguidance many adults feel theyneed. Indeed, feelings ofinadequacy are great in thesechanging times. As AlbertThompson writes in his book,Counseling and the Ages of Man,"We live in an age and in a social

system which makes maximumdemands on our decision-makingand planning abilities."

I hesitate to summarize neededcounselor competenciesbecause I fear that thewould-be counselor will see theseas a list of easily acquiredtechniques. Therefore, only one ortwo points will be made toillustrate the special competenciesthat counselors of adultsshould have.

First and foremost, we need tounderstand the nature of the adult.I noticed that at both summerconferences on adult developmentat Wayne State University,questions from participantsconcerned the techniques ofcounseling rather than the natureof the adult. The problem, ofcourse, is that most developmentalpsychologists take us through the20th to 25th year, leave us, thenpick us up again at 65. One would

80

surmise that people between 30and 60 are not developing, but justmoving along a pre-determinedroad. Yet, there has been someresearch into the adult years.It can be classified into reportsshowing how adults continue todevelop as well as how they declineand disengage. The counselor ofadults must search for and studyall relevant material on adultdevelopment.

Secondly, all of us working withadults must be aware of thedifference between counseling andguidance. Adult guidance is thebroad term and includes counselingas one aspect. Those helping adultsin their search for meaning anddirection to their lives can beconsidered as working in the fieldof adult guidance. The person whodevelops a list of referral resourcesfor adults, the person who buildsvocational-educational librariesfor adults, the person who worksout developmental and educationalprograms would be in adultguidance.

The counselor, however, is theperson with advanced training incounseling which has includedspecial attention to what Bernice

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Neugarten calls "the salient issuesof adulthood"self-confrontationabout one's own age biases (i.e.,Do you think a woman 60 is tooold to go to school; to enter atraining program, etc.), familiaritywith emerging opportunities foradults and understanding of therelationship of workself concept.Two definitions of adult counselingare offered. According to EstherWestervelt, "Counseling is theprocess of helping an individualto understand himself, his situation,and the relationship between thetwo in order that he may maintainhealthy development, directed togoals of his own choosing."Another definition by GoldieKabach is helpful : "The counselorserves as a supporting agent as thecounselee takes a new look at oldissues regarding skills and training,or examines conflicting relationshipswith associates at work or inthe home."

The problem is that anyone whoworks with adults considershimself a counselor. This iscompounded by the lack of specialtraining for adult-counselors, andthe inadequacy of their numbers.

There is a slow process followedby guidance and counselingdepartments which are turningtheir time and energy to traininga few adult-counselors and thereare crash programs which areturning out large numbers ofpara-professional guidance workers.The answer to the dilemma liessomewhere in between. I wouldlike to see some crash training

tab

Counseling is one aspectof adult guidance.

institutes where experiencedcounselors can receive specialtraining in adult-counseling. Thesespecially trained counselors couldin turn begin training others, aswell as a new corps ofpara-professionals.

The need to counsel adults exists.The need for trained counselorsexists, and also the need forguidance workers in many adultprograms. The dilemma stemsfrom lack of manpower and lackof knowledge about the importantadult years.

Dr. Nancy Schlossberg isAssistant Professor, Departmentof Guidance and Counseling, WayneState University. An authority inher field, she has published severalarticles and has served withHoward University, Pratt Institute,and Columbia Teachers College.

ectiveall

roupiscussions

esentation by Gerald A. Foster

Small discussion groups were As you arrived this morning,integral part of every ABE I distributed to you an outline of

acher training institute last year. the comments I am going to make

seems reasonable to assume that concerning small group discussions.all grouTrorghigENIST ----.,41k§ outline suggests, I feel

scussion purposes will again be that before you establish smallilized in this summer's institute groups, you must define the group,ograms. However loosely outline its purpose, establish itsructured, each group will have a dynamics, and decide techniquesfinite topic; each will have a to increase group participation.fined purpose. In planning for Before we conduct a demonstration,ese group discussions, a number I should like to elaborate briefly

factors should be considered. on each of these points.his morning I will offer severalems which you should consider,at you should come to grips with,

bout which you should makeecisions prior to the conveningf small groups.

Following these brief comments,will ask for volunteers to meetith me to demonstrate one typef small group discussion. Groupemonstration and involvement,ke the weather, is something wealk about a good deal, butomething we unfortunately doittle about.

In defining your group, youshould consider its size,membership, and permanency asmajor points. The size should belarge enough to solicit a varietyof thinking about the topic underconsideration, but not so large asto inhibit participation of thetotal membership on a ratherfrequent basis. I would suggest agroup of no less than six nor morethan ten or twelve.

Small discussion groups should be anintegral part of every ABE institute.

Some rationale should underliethe selection of members to agroup. If a specific topic is to bediscussed, participants should beselected because they have,minimally, an interest in the subjectand preferably because they havehad some experience in the fieldunder consideration (whenever thiscan be ascertained in advance).The more varied the competentopinions being voiced, the morestimulating the discussion and themore constructive andcomprehensive the group'srecommendations, if any.

It is also important in selectinga group, to determine whether themeeting of the membership is to

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be a "one-shot" or whether thegroup will be on-going over aperiod of time. In other words,if the topic is of continuinginterest, the first discussion maybe regarded as a stepping-off point,either because the topic cannot beconclusively dealt with at onesitting, or because the subject willentail developments which shouldbe coped with as time goes on.

The purpose of the group shouldbe clearly defined. It may be forthe purpose of, but not limited to,making decisions, exploringexperiences and interpersonalrelations, and/or changing theattitudes of the membership. Inmany cases, it is wise to determinethe purpose of the group beforethe membership is selected. If thediscussion is to serve a worthwhilepurpose, it must be determined inadvance whether the subject is onewhich is merely to be aired, orwhether the group is to come upwith a definite conclusion, decision,or recommendation. Quiteobviously, if the latter is the case,a decision needs to be reachedregarding the degree of expertisepossessed by the group if theirconclusions or recommendationsare to be accepted by the generalmembership of the insitute and,by extension, the community atlarge or other bodies who mightbe called upon to evaluate theirdeliberations.

83

Additionally, one might expectthe group to be flexible enough tochange attitudes, or to yield ormodify their opinions, in order toreach consensus on the ultimatedecision or recommendation.The structuring of the membershipmay not be so necessary if thepurpose is to change attitudes andto share experiences andperceptions or feelings relatedto them. In such instances,other elements assume higherpriority than the expertise in tnetopic areas; elements which aremore related to techniques, such as

the establishment of rapport andthe reduction or removal of anythreat the participants may regardas aimed at comments they maywish to make concerning theirattitudes or experiences.

In most instances a group needsleadership and controls of sometype. Whether leadership isimposed upon the membership oris left to evolve from the interactionof the group members is in partdependent upon the make-upof the group and the purpose ofthe meeting. If the group isconvened to reach a decision, forexample, the leadership is generallyimposed upon the group and thisleader sets the controls for therelevancy of discussion. If, on theother hand, the group is meetingfor the purpose of sharingexperiences and interpersonalrelations, the leadership andcontrol may quite possibly evolve

through group participation. In anyevent, at the start of a groupdiscussion someone needs to definetile purpose of the meeting andhow the concepts of leadershipand control are to be handled.

Many times, for one reason oranother, some groups never seem

to get off the ground in terms ofparticipation of the membership.An astute group leader will attemptto make the members feel they areequal participants rather thanrespondents. Free and opendiscussion should be permitted andencouraged so long as it revolvesaround the topic and the purposeof the discussion. It is essential,however, that group discussionshave certain constraints, in contrasto restraints, or the discussioncould easily become chaotic,resulting sometimes in personalityclashes which serve only toimpede the progress.

Rarely can one assemble a grouso involved in a topic that thediscussion takes off by itself andcontinues under its own steam fora long period of time. Whendiscussion lags a number oftechniques may be employed asstimulants. Dramatizing elementsof the discussion can provokeparticipation; extending thediscussion into broader areas orphases not immediate to but allie'with the topic may animateopinions; and related films,recordings, and speakers withspecial expertise may stimulatethe group members. It must be

ressed that the skill of the leaderhould be the most important)gredient for on-going successfulroup interaction. If he sets himselfp as the authority figure, he islost likely to inhibit the free flowf information and opinions fromhe members. He should, at allmes, make each member of theroue feel as though his commentsre welcomed and valuable andhat he is there to make aontribution to the whole, notnerely as an onlooker or annterested listener.

In addition to the topics I haveliscussed, a number of otheronsiderations which could beategorized as miscellaneous needo be given attention prior to thestablishment of a small group.am referring to such things as

eating arrangements, length of thesessions, addition of new members,Ind end-of-session summaries.The seating arrangement maysubtly suggest the tone of the groupliscussion. If the group is merelyo talk about the subject, whetherfor mutual enlightenment orbecause the topic has currentinterest, the group may be seatedinformally. But if the discussion isfor the purpose of making decisionsor recommendations, a moreformal seating arrangement mayconvey the nature of the businessat hand. Even pads for note takingmay be given to the participants.The length of the sessions shouldbe specified, but enough flexibilityshould be allowed to permit the

completion of a topic that may beunder intensive discussion. Afatigue factor may set in if sessionsare too long, thus reducing theeffective productivity of groupmembers. As a suggestion, fortyminutes to an hour seems adequate.However, if the discussion seemsto lag or the topics appear to havebeen covered adequately, do notkeep the group in session simplyfor the sake of satisfying somearbitrarily pre-determined timeperiod. This can seriouslyaffect morale.

If a group is to meet again thedetermination can be madewhether to proceed with the samegroup composition or to add newmembers. It might be advisable tobring in new people whoseexperience would make a valuablecontribution to the discussion asit has developed during previoussessions. If the decision to add newmembers is made, they should bethoroughly briefed on the previousdiscussion. This brings up the itemof whether or not to summarizeat the end of each session. Myown experience indicates that it isa worthwhile procedure regardlessof the type or purpose of thegroup. This summary not onlyclarifies what was perceived tohave been said so that necessarycorrections can be made while thematerial is fresh in everyone'smind, but also would serve as abridge to start the next session,if there is one.

In summary, I feel that prior toassembling a group for discussionpurposes, the instigator needs tocome to grips with a number ofissues. Some of these issues are:1) the definition of the group,2) purpose of the group, 3) thedynamics of the group,4) techniques to increaseparticipation, and 5) miscellaneoustopics.

I want to thank you for yourattention and now if I may havefive volunteers, I would like todemonstrate for the others onetype of small group discussion.

Dr. Gerald A. Foster is ProgramDirector for Adult Basic Education,National University ExtensionAssociation. He has taught atIndiana and Indiana StateUniversities and was also directorof counseling for a JobCorps Center.

84

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Opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect official opinion of the U.S. Office of Education.

Proceedings of the Adult Basic Education Pre-Institute Seminar, Wayne State University,Detroit, Michigan, prepared under grant no. OEG2-061894-1894, for Adult EducationBranch, Division of Adult Education, U.S. Office of Education by NationalUniversity Extension Association, 1820 Massachusetts Avenue, N. W., Washington, D.C. 20036.

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