Appendix: Some of the Major Uses of Radioisotopes in the United States

Isotope dataElementAlternate nameSymbolIsotopeHalf lifeUseSpecific UseChemical PropertiesRadiation producedAdvantageDisadvantageProductionHandlinghazardWeb resourceAluminiumAl26710000 yearsMedicalAlzheimer's diseasegammaAluminiumAl26710000 yearsResearchAcid raingammaAmericiumAm241432.2 yearsIndustrialSmoke Detectors, fluid-density gauges, oil well logging (neutron source), to measure levels of toxic lead in dried paint samples, to ensure uniform thickness in rolling processes like steel and paper production, to help determine where oil wells should be drilled, useful for a level gauge, a X-ray fluorescence analysis. Am241-Be9 is useful for a moisture gaugeAmericium 241 emits alpha particles which ionise the air and allow a current between two electrodes, if smoke is present, it absorbs the alpha particlas and the current is interrupted and the alarm goes offalphareadily availableRadioactive smoke detectors should be disposed of by returning to supplier or the Department of Health, small amount of gamma radiation releases, alpha particals are produced but are absorbed within a few centimetres of the devicehttp://www.nrc.gov/NRC/NUREGS/BR0217/part12.html http://www.uic.com.au/nip35.htmArgonAr411.82 hoursIndustrialventilation tests in building researchbetaCadmiumCd109462 daysIndustrialto analyse metal alloys for checking stock, scrap sorting, X-ray fluorescene analysis.gammaCaesiumCs13730.2 yearsMedicaltreatment of cancerous tumous, measurement of correct dosages of radioactive pharmaceuticalsbetaCaesiumCs13730.2 yearsIndustrialmeasurement and control the liquid flow in oil pipelines, determine whether oil wells are plugged by sand, ensure the right fill level for food and drug packaging, tradiotracer for identification of sources of soil erosion and depositionbetaCalciumCa474.536 daysResearchto study the cellular functions and bone formation in mammalsbetaCaliforniumCf2522.64 yearsIndustrialto inspect luggage for hidden explosives, to gauge moistute content of soil in the road construction and building industries, to measure moisture of materials srored in soilsalphaCarbonC1120.3 minutesMedicalglucose tagged with C11 is used with Positron Emission Tomography, produces positrons in the brain or other organs and monitored by PETpositron-emitting radionuclides have short half-lives and high radiation energiesgammashort half-lives of these tracers that allow large doses to be administered to the patient with low radiation exposure and enable studies to be repeatedly performedhalf-life is so short, they have to be generated on siteC-11 is created from N-14 (p,alpha), or B-11 (p,n) using cyclotron.administered by means of injection or inhalation, the purpose being simply to enter the compound into the bloodstreamhttp://laxmi.nuc.ucla.edu:8000/lpp/radioisotopes/tracers.htmlCarbonC145715 yearsResearchDating organic samples up to 35000 yrs oldCarbon is present in form of carbonhydratesbetahttp://www.c14dating.com/CarbonC145715 yearsIndustrialisotopic tracer, investigations of photosynthesis, also glucose through the body, to ensure that potential new drugs are metabolised without forming harmful by-products, useful for thickness gauge of thin plasticsbetaChlorineCl36301000 yearsResearchmeasurement of sources of chloride and age of water (up to 2 million years), used for thickness gauge for paper, plasticsbetaChromiumCr5127.70 daysResearchto study red blood cell survival ratesgammacreated from V51 (p,n) using a cyclotron.CobaltCo57271.8 daysMedicalIsotopic tracer - for pernicious anemia, X-ray fluorescence analysisgammaCobaltCo601925 daysMedicalTreating cancer, sterilisation of medical products and equipmentbeta and gammaCo60 is made by irradiation of Co59 in a nuclear reactorCobaltCo601925 daysMedicalisotopic tracer - vitamin B12 with tagged with Co60 can be used to study the absorption of vitamin B12 from the gastrointestinal tractbeta and gammaCo60 is made by irradiation of Co59 in a nuclear reactorCobaltCo601925 daysIndustryIsotopic tracer - for finding flaws in metal castings, together with Ag110m, La140, Sc46 and Au198 to measure performance of blast furnace, level gauge, density gaugebeta and gammaCo60 is made by irradiation of Co59 in a nuclear reactorCobaltCo601925 daysIndustryIsotope dilution - used to calculate amount of compoundsbeta and gammaCopperCu6412.701 hoursMedicalIsotopic tracer - brain tumours absorb Copper, genetic diseases affecting copper metabolism such as Wilson's and Menke's diseasegammashort half life, do no emit alpha particlesproduced from a nuclear reactor with Zn64(n,p) reaction.CopperCu672.580 daysMedicalwhen injected with monoclonal antibodies into a cancer patient, helps the antibodies bind to and destroy the tumourbetaCuriumCm24418.11 yearsIndustrialused in mining to analyse material excavated from pits and slurries from drilling operationsalphaFluorineF181.83 hoursMedicalPET, detection of cancers and monitoring progress in their treatment, fluorodeoxyglucose(FDG) is useful for Energy metabolism diagnosispositron-emitting radionuclides have short half-lives and high radiation energiesgammashort half-lives of these tracers that allow large doses to be administered to the patient with low radiation exposure and enable studies to be repeatedly performedhalf-life is so short, they have to be generated on sitecreated from O18 (p,n) using a cyclotron.administered by means of injection or inhalation, the purpose being simply to enter the compound into the bloodstreamhttp://laxmi.nuc.ucla.edu:8000/lpp/radioisotopes/tracers.htmlDysprosiumDy1652.33 hMedicalin colloidal from to treat arthritic jointsbetaGalliumGa673.260 daysMedicalisotopic tracer - as gallium citrate to detect inflammation and disorders associated with AIDSgammaGoldAu1982.694 daysIndustrialtrace factory waste causing ocean pollution, trace sand movement in river beds and ocean floor, together with Co60, La140, Sc46 and Au198 to measure performance of blast furnace, togther with Ir192 and Cr57 to label sand to study coastal erosionbetaHydrogenDeuterium, DH2stableChemistryisotopic tracer, investigations of chemical and biochemical reactions involving hydrogenDeuterium enters into all chemical reactions characteristic of ordinary hydrogen, forming equivalent compounds. Deuterium, however, reacts more slowly than ordinary hydrogen, a criterion that distinguishes the two forms of hydrogen. Because of this property, among others, deuterium is extensively used as an isotopic tracer in investigations of chemical and biochemical reactions involving hydrogenstablehttp://www.c-f-c.com/specgas_products/deuterium.htmHydrogenTritiumH3Medicallife science and drug metabolism to ensure safety of potential new drugsbetaHydrogenTritium, TH312.32 yearsIndustrialself luminous aircraft and commercial exit signs, luminous dials, gauges and wrist watches, production of luminous paint, geological and hydrological prospecting,measure "young" groundwater, tracer to study sewage and liquid wastebetaIndiumIn1112.8049 daysMedicalIsotopic tracer absorbed by brain tumoursgammashort half life, do no emit alpha particlesIodineI1318.040 daysMedicalimaging of the thyroid gland, treatment of thyroid cancer and Graves' disease, Iodine accumulates in the thyroid, also brain tumors, abnormal liver function, renal blood flow and urinary tract obstructionbrain tumours absorb large quantities of Iodinebeta and gammashort half life, most is absorbed by thyroid, any other is excreted, dosage too small to harm the thyroid or the rest iof the bodyattending staff must wear protection, excreted I-131 can be a significant source of both contamination and radiation exposureadministered as NaI in waterprotective foot wear and disposable clothinghttp://www.uiowa.edu/~hpo/training/CCCnurses/sld014.htm http://www.eanmrtc.org/Monogrph/iodide.htmIodineI12313.2 hoursMedicalDiagnosis of thyroid disease and other metabolic disorders including brain functiongammaIodineI12559.4 dMedicalDiagnosis of thyroid disorders, biomedical research, glomerular filtration rate of kidneys, deep vein thrombosis, radioimmuno assays, show the presence of hormones in tiny quantitiesused in radioimmunoassay because 125I attaches easily to most antibodies or antigensgammaIodineI1291.7 x 107 yearsMedicalused to check radioactivity countersbetaIridiumIr19273.83 daysMedicalImplants for tumour irradiation (brachytherapy)Internal radiotherapybetalocalised and cost effectiveIridiumIr19273.83 daysIndustrialTest welds in boilers, pipelines and aircraft parts, radiography of steel to discover flawsbetaIronFe552.73 yearsMedicalIsotopic tracer, investigate the metabolism of irongammaIronFe552.73 yearsIndustrialAnalyse electroplating solutions and detect the presence of sulfur in the airgammaIronFe5944.51 daysMedicalIsotopic tracer, investigate the metabolism of ironbetaKryptonKr81210000 yearsMedicalimaging of pulmonary ventilationgammaKryptonKr8510.73 yearsIndustrialindicator lights in appliances such as clothes dryers, washing machines, gauge the thickness of thin plastics and sheet metal, rubber, textiles and paper, measure dust and pollutant levels. Leaks in sealed containers with the escaping atoms detected by means of their radiationbetaLanthanumLa1401.678 daysIndustrialtogether with Ag110m, Co60, Sc46 and Au198 to measure performance of blast furnacebetaManganeseMn54312.2 daysIndustrialpredict behaviour of heavy metals in mining waste watergammaNickelNi63100 yearsIndustrialto detect explosives, voltage and current surge protection devices, useful for thickness gauge of thin plasticbetaNickelNi63100 yearsResearchelectron capture detectors for gas chromatographsbetaNitrogenN139.97 minutesMedicalPositron emission tomographypositron-emitting radionuclides have short half-lives and high radiation energiesgammashort half-lives of these tracers that allow large doses to be administered to the patient with low radiation exposure and enable studies to be repeatedly performedhalf-life is so short, they have to be generated on sitecreated from O16 (p,alpha), or C12 (d,n) using cyclotron.administered by means of injection or inhalation, the purpose being simply to enter the compound into the bloodstreamhttp://laxmi.nuc.ucla.edu:8000/lpp/radioisotopes/tracers.htmlNitrogenN139.97 minutesIndustrialisotopic tracer used in fertilisers to follow the mechanism of plant growth and passage of elements through the environmentgammacreated from O16 (p,alpha), or C12 (d,n) using cyclotron.NitrogenN15122.2 secondsIndustrialisotopic tracer used in fertilisers to follow the mechanism of plant growth and passage of elements through the environmentstableOxygenO15122.2 secondsMedicalPositron Emission Tomography, incorporated into metabolically important moleculespositron-emitting radionuclides have short half-lives and high radiation energiesgammashort half-lives of these tracers that allow large doses to be administered to the patient with low radiation exposure and enable studies to be repeatedly performedhalf-life is so short, they have to be generated on sitecreated from N15 (p,n) using cyclotronadministered by means of injection or inhalation, the purpose being simply to enter the compound into the bloodstreamhttp://laxmi.nuc.ucla.edu:8000/lpp/radioisotopes/tracers.htmlOxygenO18Medicalpreparation of F18-deoxyglucose for Positron emission Tomography, as Oxygen-18 water, heart blockage detection, deficiencies in heart valves, brain scanning for tumour detection, energy expenditure in humans and total body water composition in humansstablePhosphorusP3214.28 daysMedicaltreating ovarian and bone cancerbetamajority of injected radiactive material stays within the body, body acts as effective shieldadministered by injectionPhosphorusP3214.28 daysIndustrialisotopic tracer - to investigate the uptake of fertilisers in plantsbetaPhosphorusP3214.28 daysResearchmolecular biology and genetics research, treatment of polycythermia vera (excess red blood cells)betaPhosphorusP3325.3 daysResearchmolecular biology and genetics researchbetaPlutoniumPu23887.74 yearsIndustrialenergy generation in nuclear power stations, source of fuel for spacecraftalphaPlutoniumPu23887.74 yearsMedicalpower heart pacemakersalphatoxic radioisotope is sealed inside a case that prevents alpha particles from escaping and damaging surrounding tissuePoloniumRadium FPo210138.38 daysIndustrialreduce the static charge in production of photographic film and other materialsalphaPotassiumK4212.36 hoursIndustrialisotopic tracer used in fertilisers to follow the mechanism of plant growth and passage of elements through the environmentbetaPotassiumK4212.36 hoursMedicalexchangeable potassium in ccoronary blood flowbetaPromethiumPm1472.6234 yearsIndustrialelectric blanket thermostats, useful for thickness gauge of film and leatherbetaRadiumRa2261599 yearsIndustrialmakes lighting rods more effecctive, with Be-9 is useful for moisture gaugealphaRubidiumRb814.57 hoursMedicalimaging of pulmonary ventilationgammaRubidiumRb8276 secondsMedicalPositron Emission Tomography, short-term effects of physiologic alterations or of drugs, used to identify blood-brain-barrier deficitsgammaadvantage of serial measurements in the same patientcan be produced without a cyclotron from a column generatorhttp://laxmi.nuc.ucla.edu:8000/lpp/radioisotopes/tracers.htmlSamariumSm152Medicaltreating ovarian and bone cancerstablemajority of injected radiactive material stays within the body, body acts as effective shieldadministered by injectionSamariumSm1531.929 daysMedicalrelieve pain of secondary cancers lodged in bone, complexed with organic phosphatesbetaScandiumSc4683.81 daysIndustrialisotopic tracer - to investigate the silt movement in riversbeta and gammaScandiumSc4683.81 daysIndustrialtogether with Ag110m, La140, Co60 and Au198 to measure performance of blast furnacebeta and gammaSeleniumSe75119.78 daysResearchprotein studies in life science research, study the production of enzymes, useful for density gaugegammaSeleniumSe75119.78 daysIndustrialweld inspection of pipelines, useful for density gaugegammaSilverAg110m24.6 secondsIndustrialtogether with Co60, La140, Sc46 and Au198 to measure performance of blast furnacebeta and gammaSodiumNa2414.96 hoursIndustrialdetecting leaks in underground pipes, oil well studiesbetaSodiumNa2414.96 hoursMedicalisotopic tracer - monitor blood flow, to detect constrictions or obstructionsbetaStrontiumSr8564.85 daysResearchbone formation and metabolismgammaStrontiumSr87Researchisotopic tracer - study bone growthgammaStrontiumSr8950.52 daysMedicalrelieve pain of secondary cancers lodged in bone, complexed with organic phosphatesgammaStrontiumSr922.71 hoursMedicaltreating ovarian and bone cancerbetamajority of injected radiactive material stays within the body, body acts as effective shieldadministered by injectionSulfurS3587.2 daysMedicalmedical treatmentbetaproduced from a nuclear reactor with Cl35(n,p) reactionTechnetiumTc99m6 hoursMedicalproduce images of the brain, lungs, kidney, liver, spleen, gall bladder, skeleton and cardiovascular system, about 70% of nuclear medicine procedures, useful for thickness gauge of film and leatherchemically binds with many biologically active molecules, injected with tin compound which soon binds with red blood cells, deposited in damaged tissuebetahalf life is only 6 hours, ideal for medical imaging as it keep radiation dose to minimum, do not emit alpha particalsshort half life presents problems for delivery of isotope99Tc is produced as a fission product from the fission of uranium in nuclear reactorsAs Tc-99m has short half life, it is transported as Mo-99 which has a half life of 67 hours99Tc is a contamination hazard and should be handled in a glove box.http://www.ansto.gov.au/ansto/gentech/overview.htm http://www.ainse.edu.au/info/press/2000_02.htmlThalliumTl2013.040 daysMedicalinjected into blood stream, concentrates in normal heart muscle but will not remain in damaged tissue, area is then photographed with a nuclear scintillation camera to show damaged areasgammaThalliumTl2043.78 yearsIndustrialmeasurement of dust and pollutant levels on filter paper, gauge thickness of plastic, sheet metal and rubber, used for thickness gauge for paper, plasticspure beta emitter, gammaThoriumTh2297880 yearsIndustrialhelps fluorescent lights last longer, with Tungsten - to improve stability and efficiency of electric arc welding rodsalphaThoriumIoniumTh23075380 yearsIndustrialprovide colouring and fluorescence in coloured glazes and glasswarealphaThoriumIoniumTh23075380 yearsResearchdating sediments, as old as 400,000 yearsBecause uranium compounds are soluble in seawater, while thorium compounds are quite insoluble and are readily precipitated and incorporated in sedimentshttp://www.britannica.com/seo/i/ionium-thorium-dating/UraniumUranium IIU234245500 yearsMedicalprovide natural colouring and brightness to dental fixtures\alphahttp://www.uic.com.au/uicchem.htmUraniumUranium IIU234245500 yearsIndustrialfuel, production of fluorescent glassware, coloured glazes and wall tilesalphahttp://www.uic.com.au/uicphys.htm http://www.uic.com.au/uicchem.htmXenonXe1335.243 daysMedicaldetermination of functional lung capacity and blood flow studiesbetaYtterbiumYb16932.026 daysMedicalcerebrospinal fluid studies in the braingammaYttriumY9064.10 hoursMedicaltargetted cancer treatments, silicate colloid for treatment of arthritis in larger jointsbetahttp://encarta.msn.com/find/search.asp?search=yttrium http://www.nidlink.com/~jfromm/elements/yttrium.htmZincZn65244.26 daysIndustrialpredict behaviour of heavy metals in mining waste watergamma

&C&F&LUniServe Science&CThe Identification and Production of Materials&Rhttp://science.uniserve.edu.au/Half lifes displayed here are taken from WebElementshttp://www.webelements.com/webelements/