Rail Systems and Rail Vehicles

Part 1: Rail Systems

by

Evert Andersson, Mats Berg,

Sebastian Stichel, Carlos Casanueva

Stockholm 2016ISBN 978-91-7595-922-1

KTH RAILWAY GROUPCentre for Research and Education inRailway Engineering

Div. of Rail VehiclesDep. of Aeronautical & Vehicle Eng.Kungliga Tekniska Hogskolan (KTH)

Rail Systems and Rail Vehicles

Part 2: Rail Vehicles

by

Evert Andersson, Mats Berg,

Sebastian Stichel, Carlos Casanueva

Stockholm 2016ISBN 978-91-7595-922-1

KTH RAILWAY GROUPCentre for Research and Education inRailway Engineering

Div. of Rail VehiclesDep. of Aeronautical & Vehicle Eng.Kungliga Tekniska Hogskolan (KTH)

Preface and acknowledgements

This compendium is mainly intended for the MSc education in rail vehicle engineer-ing at Kungliga Tekniska Hogskolan (KTH Royal Institute of Technology), Stock-holm, Sweden. It has been developed since the late 1980s and now appears in itsfirst edition in English.

The objective is to give an overview and fundamental knowledge of different railsystems, followed by a more thorough introduction to rail vehicles. In this way mostrail aspects are covered.

The compendium consists of two parts (text books):

• Part 1: Rail Systems (Chapter 1-11)

• Part 2: Rail Vehicles (Chapter 12-20)

Several persons have been involved in the development of this compendium. Inaddition to the authors, significant contributions have been given by Roger Enblom,David Wennberg, Tomas Muld, Babette Dirks and Tomas Karis. Contributions havealso been provided from other members of the KTH Railway Group as well as fromBombardier Transportation and Trafikverket (Swedish Transport Administration).In addition, several persons have been involved in patiently editing the texts, figuresand tables; in particular Matin Sichani, Emmanouil Doulgerakis, Marton Palinkoand Robin Prevolnik. Most of the content has also been checked for the Englishlanguage by Ian Hutchinson. We want to cordially thank all these persons andorganisations for their support.

We hope that this compendium will enhance the knowledge and understandingof rail systems and rail vehicles. Being the first edition (in English), comments onthe contents etc are more than welcome.

Stockholm, April 2016

Evert Andersson Mats Berg Sebastian Stichel Carlos CasanuevaProfessor emeritus Professor Professor Assistant Professor

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Contents

1 Introduction to rail system technology 1-11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11.2 Advantages and disadvantages of rail systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-21.3 Interaction with other transport modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-41.4 Alternative guided systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4

2 Track components and geometry 2-12.1 Track components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

2.1.1 Rails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12.1.2 Rail fastenings and pads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32.1.3 Sleepers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-52.1.4 Ballast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-52.1.5 Jointed tracks and CWR tracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-62.1.6 Classification of tracks related to their components . . . . . . 2-62.1.7 Switches and crossings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6

2.2 Track design geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-72.2.1 Track gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-72.2.2 Horizontal circular curves - radius and cant . . . . . . . . . . 2-72.2.3 Transition curves and superelevation ramps . . . . . . . . . . 2-92.2.4 Longitudinal track gradient and vertical curves . . . . . . . . 2-9

2.3 Track irregularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-102.3.1 Measuring track irregularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-102.3.2 Classification of track irregularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-132.3.3 Rail corrugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14

3 Rail vehicles 3-13.1 Basic terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13.2 Vehicle weight, identification and gauging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3

3.2.1 Weight and axle load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33.2.2 Axle arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-53.2.3 Vehicle classification and identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-53.2.4 Vehicle gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8

3.3 Carbodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-103.3.1 Operational and safety demands, choice of material . . . . . . 3-103.3.2 Buffers and couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11

3.4 Running gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-133.4.1 Wheelset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13

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3.4.2 Principles for running gear and suspension . . . . . . . . . . . 3-133.5 Traction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-163.6 Braking systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-193.7 Locomotives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-223.8 Multiple Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-26

3.8.1 Diesel multiple units (DMU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-273.8.2 Electric multiple units (EMU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-273.8.3 Metro cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-303.8.4 Trams (Light Rail Vehicles) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-31

3.9 Passenger cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-323.10 High-speed trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-353.11 Freight Wagons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-40

4 Rail vehicle dynamics 4-14.1 Vehicle modes of vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14.2 Track plane acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24.3 Vehicle roll and sway, body plane acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3

4.3.1 Coefficient of flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-44.4 Behaviour of a railway wheelset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6

4.4.1 Rolling radius difference (conicity) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-64.4.2 Wheelset stability (Klingel) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-74.4.3 Curving behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-94.4.4 Wheel-rail contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10

4.5 Track forces and derailment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-124.5.1 Track forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-124.5.2 Derailment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15

4.6 Wheel/rail wear and RCF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-204.6.1 Wheel wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-204.6.2 Rail wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-224.6.3 Rolling contact fatigue (RCF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-23

4.7 Ride comfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-244.7.1 Criteria for average comfort levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-25

5 Rail electrification 5-15.1 Why going electric? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1

5.1.1 Advantages and disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25.1.2 Electric power is higher than diesel power . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25.1.3 Where are rail systems electrified? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3

5.2 Basics on electric supply systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-45.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-45.2.2 Why are different supply systems used? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-55.2.3 Basic theory - DC supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-75.2.4 Basic theory - AC supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10

5.3 Converters and power supply - realization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-145.3.1 Direct current systems - DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-145.3.2 Alternating current systems - AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-16

5.4 Systems for power distribution - realization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19

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5.4.1 Third rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-205.4.2 Overhead line - the aerial catenary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-215.4.3 Return current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25

6 Rail traffic control and signalling 6-16.1 Introduction and definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16.2 Basic rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3

6.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-36.2.2 Types of vehicle movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-56.2.3 Authorizing train movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-56.2.4 Automatic train operation (ATO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6

6.3 Traffic control and signalling in practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-66.3.1 The main signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-66.3.2 Distant signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-66.3.3 Line blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-76.3.4 Track circuits and axle counters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-86.3.5 Flank protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-96.3.6 Overlap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-106.3.7 Shunting and short routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-106.3.8 Exceptional permission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-116.3.9 Level road crossings and others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11

6.4 Automatic train protection (ATP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-116.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-116.4.2 A great number of systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-126.4.3 The pan-European ETCS system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15

6.5 Rail traffic management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-176.5.1 Old practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-176.5.2 Modern train dispatching and traffic management . . . . . . . 6-17

7 Rail market structure and safety 7-17.1 Passenger transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

7.1.1 Market characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-17.1.2 Market preferences and valuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-67.1.3 Cost for the passenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-107.1.4 Rail passenger market shares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-11

7.2 Freight transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-127.2.1 Market characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-127.2.2 Market preferences and valuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-167.2.3 Cost and price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-187.2.4 Rail freight market shares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-18

7.3 Safety in rail transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-197.3.1 Some basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-197.3.2 Safety policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-207.3.3 What can happen? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-207.3.4 Accident prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-227.3.5 How safe are rail operations? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-23

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8 Rail transport planning and capacity 8-18.1 Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1

8.1.1 Passenger terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-18.1.2 Freight terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5

8.2 Rail traffic planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-98.2.1 General about rail traffic planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-98.2.2 Demand variations over time and location . . . . . . . . . . . 8-108.2.3 Improvements increase demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12

8.3 The timetable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-138.3.1 Signalling is fundamental for train operations . . . . . . . . . 8-138.3.2 The train graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-158.3.3 Timetable design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-15

8.4 Rail transport capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-208.4.1 Factors determining transport capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-208.4.2 Margins and reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-218.4.3 Capacity on double track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-238.4.4 Capacity on single-track lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-308.4.5 Attainable capacity in different rail operations . . . . . . . . . 8-31

9 Rail traffic and the environment 9-19.1 Energy usage and related emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1

9.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-19.1.2 Numerical examples of energy usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-29.1.3 Numerical examples of CO2 emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-7

9.2 Noise and vibrations from rail traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-109.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-109.2.2 Noise from rail traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-109.2.3 Vibrations from rail traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-14

10 Rail system economics 10-110.1 Some basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1

10.1.1 Investment and capital cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-110.1.2 Operating cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3

10.2 Revenues for train operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-310.3 Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6

10.3.1 Cost structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-610.3.2 Rail vehicle capital cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-710.3.3 Vehicle maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1010.3.4 Train crew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1210.3.5 Train formation and positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1310.3.6 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1410.3.7 Sales, marketing and terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1510.3.8 Traffic control and dispatching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1610.3.9 Administration, supervision and planning . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1610.3.10 Rail infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-17

10.4 Summary of important aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2010.4.1 General aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-20

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10.4.2 Cost variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2110.5 Socio-economic cost and benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-23

10.5.1 The net present value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2310.5.2 Socio-economic costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2510.5.3 Socio-economic benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2610.5.4 Final evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-28

11 Future perspectives on rail traffic 11-111.1 Position and problems of rail systems today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1

11.1.1 Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-111.1.2 A look into the rest of the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-211.1.3 Problems of rail traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3

11.2 New conditions and new transport policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-411.2.1 Investments in infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-511.2.2 Track access charges and European standards . . . . . . . . . 11-811.2.3 What is happening in Sweden? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-9

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12 Rail vehicles – Technical basis 12-112.1 Vehicle mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1

12.1.1 The causes and consequences of the mass . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-112.1.2 Mass limits and tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-212.1.3 How much does increased mass cost? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2

12.2 Wheel-rail adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-512.2.1 Basic definitons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-512.2.2 Available adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7

12.3 Equivalent mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-912.3.1 Inertia properties of a wheelset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-912.3.2 Inertia properties of a vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1012.3.3 Relative mass addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-11

12.4 Tractive torques and forces at acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1112.4.1 Traction vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1112.4.2 Traction and trailing vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-12

12.5 Vehicle gauging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1412.5.1 Definitions and general aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1412.5.2 Phenomena to be considered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1512.5.3 Gauging principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2112.5.4 International standards according to UIC . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2312.5.5 European standards according to CEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2512.5.6 Some national standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-29

13 Aerodynamic phenomena and running resistance 13-113.1 Aerodynamic phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1

13.1.1 Aerodynamic drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-213.1.2 Boundary layer and aerodynamic drag around train . . . . . . 13-713.1.3 Head pressure pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-813.1.4 Slipstream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-813.1.5 Crosswind stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-913.1.6 Tunnel passing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1313.1.7 Ballast projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1713.1.8 HVAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1713.1.9 Pantographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-17

13.2 Running resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1813.2.1 Empirical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-18

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13.2.2 Rolling resistance on straight track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1913.2.3 Curving resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-2013.2.4 Gradient resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-23

14 Running gear and carbody tilting 14-114.1 Basic principles of running gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1

14.1.1 Principles for running gear and suspension . . . . . . . . . . . 14-314.2 Wheelset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5

14.2.1 Normal wheelsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-514.2.2 Types of wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-614.2.3 Axle bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-8

14.3 Springs and dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-914.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-914.3.2 Rubber springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1414.3.3 Air springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1514.3.4 Coil springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1714.3.5 Leaf springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1814.3.6 Active suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1814.3.7 Traction rods, anti-roll bars, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-18

14.4 Dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1914.4.1 Hydraulic dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1914.4.2 Friction dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-20

14.5 Types of running gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2214.5.1 Directly suspending single-axle running gear . . . . . . . . . . 14-2214.5.2 Bogies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-23

14.6 Special running gear, future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2414.6.1 Jacobs bogie, semitrailer principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2414.6.2 Running gear with independently rotating wheels . . . . . . . 14-2614.6.3 Forced steering of wheelsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2714.6.4 Low-floor running gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2814.6.5 The three-piece bogie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2814.6.6 Flange lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-3014.6.7 Active suspensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-3114.6.8 Derailment worthiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-33

14.7 Structural strength and fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-3514.7.1 Varying complex loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-3614.7.2 Stress analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-3914.7.3 Stress and stiffness evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4014.7.4 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4214.7.5 Special processes and considerations for wheel axles . . . . . . 14-44

14.8 Carbody tilting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4814.8.1 Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4814.8.2 Passive and active tilting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5214.8.3 Technologies for active tilting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5314.8.4 Controlling the tilt motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5714.8.5 Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-62

4

CONTENTS

15 Traction of rail vehicles 15-115.1 Tractive force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-115.2 Use of the tractive force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3

15.2.1 Balancing running resistance and acceleration . . . . . . . . . 15-315.2.2 Limitations of power and adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4

15.3 Power and energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-715.3.1 Power and energy efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-715.3.2 Electric and diesel power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-915.3.3 Energy use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1015.3.4 Potential and kinetic energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1115.3.5 Recovering energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1115.3.6 How to save energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-14

15.4 Estimation of running time and energy use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1515.4.1 General equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1515.4.2 Running time with constant acceleration and retardation . . . 15-1615.4.3 Estimation methods with examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-17

15.5 Tractive performance for rail operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-2015.5.1 Loco-hauled passenger trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-2015.5.2 Electric freight trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-2115.5.3 Diesel-powered freight trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-2215.5.4 High-speed trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-2315.5.5 Fast regional and intercity EMUs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-2415.5.6 Regional and intercity DMUs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-2515.5.7 Commuter EMUs for heavy city service . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-2615.5.8 Metro cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-2715.5.9 Trams - light rail vehicles LRV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-2815.5.10 Summary of traction characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-28

15.6 Main types of rail traction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3015.6.1 Steam traction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3015.6.2 Diesel traction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3115.6.3 Electric traction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-32

15.7 Electric traction systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3315.7.1 System overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3415.7.2 Rotating machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3615.7.3 Components and devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4115.7.4 Old control systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4315.7.5 Modern power converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-43

15.8 Current collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4615.8.1 Third rail current collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4715.8.2 Aerial catenary current collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-47

15.9 Mechanical transmission motor-wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5115.9.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5115.9.2 Motor torque and tractive force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5315.9.3 Suspension from track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-54

15.10Diesel traction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5715.10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-57

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CONTENTS

15.10.2 Diesel-hydraulic systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5915.10.3 Diesel-electric systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6115.10.4 Diesel-mechanical systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-65

15.11Slip control and related issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6515.11.1 The optimum utilization of adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6515.11.2 Means to improve adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6615.11.3 Torsional vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6715.11.4 Weight transfer and other wheel load variations . . . . . . . . 15-6915.11.5 Slip control systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-72

16 Rail vehicle braking 16-116.1 Braking principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-116.2 Braking systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-4

16.2.1 Friction braking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-416.2.2 Electrical braking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1016.2.3 Aerodynamic braking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1216.2.4 Mixed braking, blended systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-12

16.3 Brake control of mechanical systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1416.3.1 Pneumatic braking (P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1516.3.2 Electro-pneumatic braking (EP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-2016.3.3 Electro-hydraulic and electro-mechanical braking

(EH, EM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-2116.3.4 Parking brake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-21

16.4 Rail vehicle braking calculations, braking distance . . . . . . . . . . . 16-2216.4.1 Braking forces and torque, adhesion, and retardation . . . . . 16-2216.4.2 Braking time and distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-2816.4.3 Braking energy and braking power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-3216.4.4 Braking mass and braking percentage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-33

16.5 Advanced auxiliary systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-3516.5.1 Payload-dependent braking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-3516.5.2 Wheel slide protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-3516.5.3 Slack adjuster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-36

16.6 Braking regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-3616.7 Brake development trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-37

17 Car bodies 17-117.1 Car body requirements - general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1

17.1.1 Functions of the car body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-117.1.2 Summary of car body requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2

17.2 Space and loading capacity (passenger transportation) . . . . . . . . 17-317.2.1 Space usage in passenger trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-317.2.2 Double-decker cars or extra wide cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6

17.3 Instep, doors and floor height in passenger vehicles . . . . . . . . . . 17-917.3.1 Different insteps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-917.3.2 Insteps for travelers with special needs - adapted for the disabled17-1117.3.3 Floor height and vehicle engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-13

17.4 Safety requirements for passenger transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-14

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CONTENTS

17.4.1 What can happen? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1417.4.2 Collision and derailment protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1517.4.3 Fire safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-18

17.5 Mechanical requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1917.5.1 Dimensioning load cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2017.5.2 Fatigue dimensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2317.5.3 Vibrations in the car body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2517.5.4 Finite Element Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-27

17.6 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2817.6.1 Carbon steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2817.6.2 Stainless steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2917.6.3 Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3017.6.4 Composites and sandwich technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-31

17.7 Construction and strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3217.7.1 Example of car body construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3217.7.2 Construction principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3417.7.3 Deformation zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-36

17.8 Couplers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3717.8.1 Impact energy absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3717.8.2 Side buffer and screw coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3817.8.3 Central coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3917.8.4 Transverse stability during compressive loading over the cou-

pling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4017.9 Development trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-41

18 Interiors and comfort systems 18-118.1 What is it about? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-118.2 Assessing passenger preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-318.3 Cost and willingness to pay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-318.4 Seats and tables for comfort & functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-8

18.4.1 Seating arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-818.4.2 Convenience and space efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-918.4.3 Aisles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1418.4.4 Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1418.4.5 Other facilities in seating on modern passenger trains . . . . . 18-15

18.5 Standing and walking in the train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1618.5.1 Stresses and passengers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1618.5.2 ”Something to grab” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-17

18.6 Clothes, luggage and catering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1818.6.1 Clothes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1818.6.2 Luggage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1818.6.3 Bicycles and other equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2018.6.4 Catering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-21

18.7 Passengers with special needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2218.8 Comfort systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2618.9 Auxiliary power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-31

18.9.1 The need for auxiliary power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-31

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CONTENTS

18.9.2 Locomotive-hauled trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3218.9.3 The electric train line - distribution along the train . . . . . . 18-3418.9.4 External stationary supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3518.9.5 Multiple-unit trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3618.9.6 Dimensioning the auxiliary power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-37

19 Rail vehicles 19-119.1 Interior noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-119.2 Winter climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-2

19.2.1 General considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-219.2.2 Trains – design and maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-319.2.3 Infrastructure and operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-12

19.3 Heat, sand and humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1419.3.1 General considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1419.3.2 Trains – design and maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1419.3.3 Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-16

20 Development and delivery of rail system equipment 20-120.1 The market for rail system equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-1

20.1.1 A historical perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-120.1.2 The market is changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-4

20.2 Rail vehicle development and introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-720.2.1 Phases in vehicle development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-720.2.2 Research and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-8

20.3 Specification, contract and delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-10

11-8