rajeev gandhi mission for watershed management… scheme/rgm_rajeev_ranjan.pdf · rajeev gandhi...

[Type text]

08 July 2010

In co-ordination with;

Submitted to

RAJEEV GANDHI MISSION FOR WATERSHED

MANAGEMENT, MADHYA PRADESH,BHOPAL

Submitted by; Rajeev Ranjan

MBA Class of 2011 Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

Summer Intern, School of Good Governance and Policy Analysis

Project Report for design and efficiency of water harvesting structures & suggested measures for optimum utilization & its sustainability

RAJEEV RANJAN, MBA, IIT KANPUR

Rajiv Gandhi Mission for Watershed Management

Madhya Pradesh, Bhopal

Certificate

To whomsoever it may concern

This is to certify that Mr. Rajeev Ranjan, an intern from MBA Program of Indian Institute

of Technology, Kanpur was associated with the Rajiv Gandhi Mission for Watershed

Management, Madhya Pradesh under the summer internship scheme of School of Good

Governance and Policy Analysis.

He has undertaken a study on “Design and efficiency of water harvesting structures &

suggested measures for optimum utilization & its sustainability” assigned to him by the

department. He was associated with the department for a period of two months starting from

10th

May, 2010.

The work has been successfully completed by the intern and a copy of the report has been

received. During the internship he has worked satisfactorily and added value to himself as

well as to the department.

We wish him all the very best for his future endeavours.

Umakant Umrao (IAS)

Director

Rajiv Gandhi Mission for Watershed

Management Bhopal

Madhya Pradesh Government

.


ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First and foremost I would like to thank IME department at IIT Kanpur for providing me an

opportunity to work with School of Good Governance and Policy Analysis. I would like to

thank Director General Mr. H.P. Dixit, Director (Knowledge Management) Dr. U.C. Pandey,

Mr. Amitabh Shrivastava, Mr. Gaurav Khare, Mr. Gaurav Aggrawal and all staff at SGGPA,

Bhopal for their continuous support and guidance during the project.

I would like to devote my sincere gratitude to Mr. Umakant Umrao (IAS) (Director, Rajeev

Gandhi Mission for Watershed Management, Bhopal) for his encouragement , support and

valuable inputs to the project. I was privileged to experience a sustained enthusiastic and

involved interest from his side.

I am indebted to Mr. Vivek Dave, Deputy Commissioner, Rajeev Gandhi Mission for

Watershed Management for his patronage, guidance, inputs and enthusiasm for the positive

outcome of the project. His willingness to help me at any given moment has provided me fuel

for my study. I am thankful to Mr. Ravishankar Gachle, Mr Vivek Sharma, Mrs. Jyotsna

Sarvaikar, Mr Anwar Hussain and all staff at RGMWM for their support and guidance

during the project.

Besides I am thankful to Project Officers at Betul, Gwalior,Ujjain and Bhopal for their co-

ordination and help. I owe a lot to Dr. S.K. Pathak of WALMI, Bhopal, Dr. S.K. Shrivastava,

Mr. K.D. Pathak, Mr. Jaypal Gurjar, Mr. O.S. Dhakre and other staffs at Zila Panchayats for

their contribution and help.

Last but not the least I am thankful to my class mates here at Bhopal for extending a helping

hand at every juncture of need.


FOREWORD

The report on design and efficiency of water harvesting structures and optimum utilization of

water is final conclusion of the internship with the School of Good Governance and Policy

analysis. Any study related to field cannot be completed without field visits. I was allowed to

visits different agro climatic zones of Madhya Pradesh to see the suitability of the structures

for that zone.

Almost all area where I was taken for a visit had structures as per guidelines laid by

watershed mission and the Government of India. Every district has contour trenches, RMS,

Stop dam, check dam, Gabion structure, Field bunding, Plantation, SHGs, Nursery etc. The

design of these structures is either done by an expert or in consultation with an expert. The

difference between efficient and inefficient structure is, its type and its suitability to the

location and the geographical condition of the area. A structure built on wrong location is of

no use. Similarly it is not a wise decision to construct a structure, which is not used by the

community. Efficiency of such a structure is zero. During visits, I have observed that some

basic design principle is neglected during the construction. A percolation tank near CRPF

camp in Bhopal has no waste weir arrangement. It is a very fundamental negligence due to

which the structure becomes inefficient. Similarly if a technically sound structure is built on

a wrong location, water will not be checked or stored by the structure and it will flow from

elsewhere. Therefore the design of a dam is to be done on the basis of

the topographical setting of the impounded area, to calculate the height and length of

the dam wall, its gradient, width and the depth of the foundation, taking into account

the nature of the underlying formation;

details of the cut-off trench, to reduce seepage losses;

height of stone pitching on the upstream slope to avoid erosion due to ripple action

and on the

Down stream slope from rain by suitable turfing;

upstream and downstream slopes

to be moderate so that shear stress is not induced in the foundation beyond a

permissible limit; and

stability of the dam.

Due to time constraint we have, it is difficult to go for a check for design for each structure

and find out efficiency of each structure within such a short duration of internship. It requires

more data to be processed and will take around 6-8 months. Therefore, the report has a

common guideline with suggested recommendation on structures like Percolation Tank/Stop

Dam/Check Dam/Ponds etc. The guidelines laid here are indicative and may vary according

to actual site conditions. An important suggestion for harvesting water is to do forestation.

Each ponds or percolation tank should be well covered with plants and shrubs. It not only

helps in conserving soil and moisture but also prevents from siltation of the structures or to

the pond. To decrease evaporation loss in semi arid regions it is suggested to increase depth

and decrease the surface area. Evaporation is directly proportional to surface area.

Evaporation is also counter checked by plantation.

Efficiency of a structure can be found out with its usage by the community. The report

suggests a mathematical model for checking efficiency of a watershed. C/CA ratio is just a


measure to check its efficiency. There are lot of other developed systems as well. The report

also deals with a mathematical model to know about volume percolating through a tank. It is

very useful for ground water recharge. Its efficiency can be checked by its storage and its

usage by the community.

For optimum utilization of water, the report deals with linear programming model. There are

two types of model on which lot of research have been carried out. Goal programming

method is the other mathematical model. Dealing with the LP model, more information is

required to know exact benefit and usage of the water. It is a mathematical model which

requires information on crop pattern, soil texture, rainfall, weather throughout the year, area

required for each crop, area available etc. Once these information are made available,

objective function and its constraints are well defined and its optimum utilization can easily

be find out by using Microsoft excel solver application. The software also does sensitivity

analysis which is quite useful in making decisions.

I have suggested this mathematical approach to find out efficiency and its optimum

utilization. Any changes in design of structures cannot be suggested until the design is

checked according to its strength, usage and failure. We have two months for our study,

which in my opinion is too short to quantify the efficiency and optimum use of water.

However I have tried my best to come with an approach for it. If further study is allowed on

it, I am sure we will be able to get a quantifiable result. We are studying these structures in

the month of May and June. In these months almost all water harvesting structures are dried.

We are not able to verify the claim of the contractor or PIA members. The data on the

usefulness of these structures will be more accurate in monsoon. However I have observed

some basic design negligence in making some of these structures. Some of them are listed

below.

No waste weir arrangement in case of a percolation tank or a storage tank.

Stop dam/Check dam RL was more than the RL of road/fields. This will result in

overflow of the water on road/fields. It can damage the road and submerge the

fields..

An apron is provided even if the site has hard rock strata.

Percolation tank is built on a soil either clayey or having a hard rock impermeable

strata.

Stop dams were constructed without considering or checking silt factor.

A storage pond is made in an area, where community cannot reach. It means that the

pond will be used for animals and evaporisation in summers.

These are very basic in nature and can be avoided. I have discussed more on it in the

report. To know about the suitability of a structure, it is imperative to know design

strength, its usage and its present condition. These structures can be made effective by

making slight changes if it not operating on its design strength. We can also make it

effective by modifying its catchment area depending on the location of the structure.


TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No.

1. Introduction 7

2. Theory and guidelines for common structures for

Harvesting water and preventing soil erosion 8

3. Factors affecting Runoff 8

4. Erosion control measures on agricultural land. 9

5. Mechanical control measures for non-agricultural land 9

6. Madhya Pradesh Agro Climatic Zones 10

7. Soil structure 12

8. Visit report for different agro climatic zones 13

9. Suggested measures, Recommendation and

Schematic diagram of some common structures 27

10. Volume percolating through a Percolation Tank 29

11. Artificial Recharge through Underground Bandhara 43

12. Water Harvesting requirement for crops 46

13. Designing of a water harvesting systems 46

14. Calculation of C:CA ratio 47

15. Linear programming model 50

16. Improving Control over water delivery 54

17. Conclusion 56

18. References 61


Introduction

Madhya Pradesh the Heartland State of the country is a land locked and rain fed state

comprising an area of 308,000 Sq. kms in 50 districts and 313 blocks with the population of

60 million. The state lags behind in the development indices due to lack of efficient

management of its natural resources. About 73% agriculture in the state is rain-fed and

agricultural production gets severely affected in the event of untimely or erratic rains or a dry

spell. Ground water has been exploited excessively that further worsened the situation.

Further it has been a fact that many areas face drought conditions year after year in a row.

Bhopal, Aug 19 (ANI): Madhya Pradesh Chief Minister Shivaraj Singh Chouhan said the

state is witnessing the worst drought of the century. As many as 37 districts of the state were

declared drought hit as they are suffering from scanty of rainfall.

Refer to: http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/india-news/mp-witnessing-worst-drought-of-

the-century-shivaraj-singh-chouhan_100234802.html#ixzz0jro7k8TV

Madhya Pradesh is a state where water scarcity is severe. People are queuing for hours to get

water. The above statement issued by the chief minister is just a glimpse of the problem.

When it comes to public, they are left with no option, especially those whose income are

based on agriculture. Therefore an effective system is required for optimum use and

conservation of water.

It was, therefore, felt necessary to plan and efficiently execute a community based movement

to find an abiding solution to water problem through water conservation activities with proper

coordination between local community and government. A strategy was conceived where in

government would provide resources, technical assistance and guidance in coordination with

concerning departments to the community’s initiatives for water conservation. The

community was supposed to take upon itself the responsibility of proper management of

water utilization process. There is no denying the fact that conservation of water is linked to

basic requirement of community. Therefore it was felt that the strategy should be based on

past experiences and an approach which would help to rope in extensive community

participation.

Water is essential for all life and is used in many different ways - for food production,

drinking and domestic uses and industrial use. It is also part of the larger ecosystem on which

bio diversity depends. Precipitation, converted to soil and groundwater and thus accessible to

vegetation and people, is the dominant pre-condition for biomass production and social

development in dry lands. The amount of available water is equivalent to the water moving

through the landscape. It also fluctuates between the wet and dry periods. Fresh water

scarcity is not limited to the arid climatic regions only. Even in areas with good supply, the

access to safe water is becoming a critical problem. Lack of water is caused by low water

storage capacity, low infiltration capacity, large inter-annual and annual fluctuations of

precipitation and high evaporative demand.

http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/india-news/mp-witnessing-worst-drought-of-the-century-shivaraj-singh-chouhan_100234802.html#ixzz0jro7k8TV

http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/india-news/mp-witnessing-worst-drought-of-the-century-shivaraj-singh-chouhan_100234802.html#ixzz0jro7k8TV


The utilizable amount of groundwater depends not only on the quality of water available in

an area but also its quality. Groundwater source is of crucial importance in semiarid regions

especially in agriculture country like India where large parts of population depend on

groundwater.

In Madhya Pradesh, the major water supply comes from groundwater. Of the same

groundwater sources, the Central Groundwater Board (CGWB) estimates that 25% of the

sources are over exploited (CGWB 2005). This is due to both over exploitation of

groundwater sources combined with inadequate recharge structures.

Watershed development and management implies an integration of technologies within the

natural boundary of a drainage area for optimum development of land, water and plant

resources, to meet the people's basic needs in a sustained manner. A watershed is an area

from which runoff resulting from precipitation flows past a single point into a large stream,

river, lake or pond. Each watershed is an independent hydrological unit. It has become an

acceptable unit of planning for optimum use and conservation of soil and water resources.

Theory and guidelines for common structures for harvesting water and

preventing soil erosion

Precipitation and Runoff

The term precipitation signifies all form of water that is received by earth from atmosphere

and includes rainfall, snowfall, frost, hail etc. In Madhya Pradesh major contribution of

water is through rainfall. The magnitude of rainfall (or form of precipitation ) varies with

space and time. Rainfall generally describes that forms of precipitation where the size of

droplets are more than 0.5 mm. Some rains are beneficial, as they supply the needs of

vegetation, damaging rains may come at a rate which is greater than the infiltration capacity

of the soil and cause high rate of runoff and erosion.

Rainfall parameters.

Intensity and duration

Rainfall frequency

Amount of rainfall

Runoff

Surface runoff is defined as the precipitation that flows over the ground surface and through

channels to larger streams. Runoff is a part of rainfall that flows towards rivers, oceans, etc.,

as surface or subsurface flow. Generally the surface flow is called as Runoff.

Surface runoff occurs if rainfall rate is greater than infiltration rate.

Factors affecting Runoff

1. Quantities and rates of runoff


2. Intensity and duration of rainfall

3. Time of concentration

4. Land slope

5. Drainage density and pattern

6. Hydrologic condition of soil

7. Vegetative cover

8. Land Management Practices

Erosion control measures on agricultural land.

Following points must be kept in mind before planning various mechanical control measures.

1. Increasing the time of concentration and their by allowing more runoff water to be

absorbed and held by the soil.

2. Intercepting a long slope into several short ones so as to maintain less than a critical

velocity for a runoff water; and

3. Protection against damage owing to excessive runoff.

Mechanical measures of control on agricultural land.

1. Contour cultivation

2. Contour bunding

3. Graded bunds

4. Bench Terracing

5. Grassed waterways

6. Diversion drains

Mechanical control measures for non-agricultural land

1. Contour trenching

2. Boulder check dams

Gully control measures

3. Vegetative barriers

Sod flumes

Sod checks

Shrub checks

Trees and shrubs

Temporary gully control measures

4. Check dams

5. Brush dams

6. Double row post brush dams


Semi permanent gully control measures

7. Loose/rock bolder dams

8. Plank or slab dams

9. Log and pole dams

10. Gabionic check dams

Permanent control structures.

11. Dry stone dam

12. Drop spillways

13. Chute spillways

14. Drop inlet spillways

Gully plugs help in protection of gully beds by reducing speed of runoff water, redistributing

it, increasing percolation, increasing siltation and improving moisture.

Madhya Pradesh Agro Climatic Zones

State Agro-climatic zones

Sr.

No

Name of the agro

climatic zones

Names of the

districts

Major soil type Average

Rainfall

1 Chattisgarh Plains 1.Balaghat

2.Seoni

1.Red and Yellow

2.Mixed Red and Black

1.1623

2.1170

2. Northern hill region of

Chhatisgarh

1. Sidhi

2. Shahdol

3. Dindhori

4. Anuppur

5. Mandla

1.Red and yellow

2.Red and yellow medium

black

3.Red and yellow


black


black

1.1287

2.1326

3.1241

5.1370

3 Kymore plateau and

Satpura hills

1. Panna

2. Satna

3. Rewa

4. Katni

5. Umaria

1.Mixed Red and Black,

Deep black

2.Mixed Red and Black

3.Medium and Black

4.Mixed Red black, Deep

black

5.Red and yellow black

1.1213

2.896.3

3.1035

4.1027

5.1326

4 Central Narmada

Valley

1.Harda

2.Hoshangabad

3.Narsingpur

4.Jabalpur

1.Deep black

2.Deep Black

3.Deep black

4.Deep Black

1.1417

2.1294

3.1105.2

4.1161.9

5 Vindhyan Plateau 1.Guna

2.Rajgarh

3.Vidisha

4.Bhopal

1.Medium and deep black

2.Medium black


4.Medium Black

1.349.8

2.497.8

3.645.1

4.194.3


5.Sagar

6.Raisen

7.Sehore

8.Damoh





5.660.9

6.456.6

7.537.4

8.380.2

6 Gird Region 1.Morena

2.Bhind

3.Sheopur

4.Shivpuri

5.Gwalior

6.Ashoknagar

1.Alluvium

2. Alluvium

3. Alluvium

4. Alluvium

5. Alluvium

6. Alluvium

1.709

2.668

3.723.7

4.871

5.858.1

6.........

7 Bundelkhand Region 1.Datia

2.Tikamgarh

3.Chhatarpur

1.Mixed red and Black



1.742.6

2.1101

3.1075

8

Satpura Plateau 1.Betul

2.Chhindwara

1.Shallow Black

2.Shallow Black

1.1084

2.1053.7

9 Malwa Plateau 1.Neemach

2.Mandsaur

3.Ratlam

4.Ujjain

5.Shajjanpu

6.Indore

7.Dewas

8.Dhar

9.Badwani

1.Medium Black

2.Medium Black

3.medium Black

4.Medium Black

5.Medium Black

6.Medium Black

7.Medium Black

8.Medium Black

9.Medium Black

1.823

2.1012

3.895

4.935

5.977

6.980

7.1067

8.875

9.844

10 Nimar Plains 1.Khandwa

2.Burhanpur

3.Khargaon

1.Medium Black

2. Medium Black

3. Medium Black

1.880

2......

3.830

11 Jhabua 1.Jhabua 1. Medium Black 1.580


Soil structure

The structure of a soil also influences the infiltration capacity. Soil structure refers to the way

the individual mineral particles stick together to form lumps or aggregates. A heap of dry,

loose sand is a soil with a sandy texture and a grainy structure because the individual sand

particles do not stick together into larger aggregates. Some clay soils on the contrary form

large cracks when dry, and the aggregates (lumps) can be pulled out by hand. These types of

soils have a fine texture (clay particles) and a coarse, compound structure. The size and

distribution of the ’cracks’ between the aggregates influence the infiltration capacity of a soil:

a soil with large cracks has a high infiltration rate.

The soil must be classified according to following properties.

1. Depth of soil

2. Structure of soil

3. Water storing capacity

4. Permeability

5. Basic infiltration rate

6. Slope

7. Relief

8. Acidity

9. Alkalinity

Treatment of the area needs to be done by considering following factors

1. Slope area

2. Rainfall

3. Runoff

4. Slope

5. Contour lines (Across or Along)

6. Possibility of Contour bunding

7. Soil depth

8. Soil texture

9. Measure for soil if already taken

10. Crop pattern (Single crop/Double crop)

11. Designing for gates of a stop dam

12. Siltation in the area (otherwise adequate silt cover needs to be provided)

13. Vegetation percentage

14. Catchment area


Visit report for different agro climatic zones

District :Bhopal

Bhopal is the capital of Madhya Pradesh and the administrative headquarters of Bhopal

District and Bhopal Division. The city was the capital of the former Bhopal state. Bhopal

is also known as the Lake City for its various natural as well as artificial lakes and is one

of the greenest cities in India. Bhopal has an average elevation of 499 metres (1637 ft).

Bhopal is located in the central part of India, and is just north of the upper limit of

the Vindhya mountain ranges. Located on the Malwa plateau, it is higher than the north

Indian plains and the land rises towards the Vindhya Range to the south. The city has

uneven elevation and has small hills within its boundaries. The major hills in Bhopal

comprise of Idgah hills and Shyamala hills in the northern region and Arera hills in the

central region. The municipality covers 298 square kilometers. It has two very beautiful

big lakes, collectively known as the Bhoj Wetland . These lakes are the Upper Lake (built

by King Bhoj) and the Lower Lake. Locally these are known as the Bada Talab and Chota

Talab respectively. The catchment area of the Upper Lake is 361 km² while that of the

Lower Lake is 9.6 km².

Bhopal has a humid subtropical climate, with mild, dry winters, a hot summer and a

humid monsoon season. Summers start in late March and go on till mid-June, the average

temperature being around 30 °C (86 °F), with the peak of summer in May, when the highs

regularly exceed 40 °C (104 °F). The monsoon starts in late June and ends in late

September. These months see about 40 inches (1020 mm) of precipitation, frequent

thunderstorms and flooding. The average temperature is around 25 °C (77 °F) and the

humidity is quite high. Temperatures rise again up to late October when winter starts,

which lasts up to early March. Winters in Bhopal are mild, sunny and dry, with average

temperatures around 18 °C (64 °F) and little or no rain. The winter peaks in January when

temperatures may drop close to freezing on some nights. Total annual rainfall is about

1146 mm (46 inches).

Details of the area

Micro Watershed area: Bagroda

Soil texture : Black Cotton Soil

Geo Code: 2C267A

Project Period:2006-2011

Total area in consideration:1275 Ha

Village visited: Bagroda , Semari and Khurd

Purpose of the program: Soil conservation, water recharge, Development of

agricultural land, Socio-economic development

As discussed above, Bhopal is surrounded by hilly and plain terrains. It also has

undulated terrain. On hilly portion staggered contour trenches have been supported with

shrubs and Jatropha plants. Jatropha plants survival and growth depend on the

environment. Bhopal experiences extreme weather conditions. Due to the weather

condition growth of Jatropha on hilly areas are critical. We have come across stop dams,

check dams, percolation tanks and contour bunding. However siltation is a big problem

for the structures. Near CRPF area it has been found that trenches are filling up rapidly

due to siltation. The same was situation at a stop dam. Upstream portion was filled up

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_(political)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal_District

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal_District

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal_Division

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal_(state)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vindhya

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malwa

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vindhya_Range

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhoj_Wetland

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bada_Talaab

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humid_subtropical_climate


with silts. Even gates provided to check the flow of water is jammed by the silts deposited

on the upstream side. Percolation tanks are built to facilitate ground water recharge in the

area. It has been observed that virtually no plantation is done around any of the

percolation ponds. We have observed a percolation tank has no waste weir arrangement.

Such a structure will help in wasting surface runoff. Due to silt on one of the gate was

destroyed completely. Such basic faults can be avoided knowing the topography and

geographical condition of the area. The type of dam for a particular site is selected on the

basis of technical and economic data and environmental considerations.

One of the Check/Stop Dam in Bhopal Zila Panchayat


Storage Pond in a nearby Village (Bhpal Zila Panchayat)

Percolation Pond (Bhopal Zila Panchayat)


District: Ujjain

Ujjain is situated on the Malwa Plateau in Central India. The soil is black and stony. The

vegetation is typical of arid regions with thorny trees like babul and acacia dominating the

landscape. Soybean, wheat, jowar and bajra are the main crops grown. Ujjain is located

at 23.182778°N 75.777222°E. It has an average elevation of 491 metres (1610 ft).

Ujjain experiences typical climate conditions of the interior Indian subcontinent. The

summer months (April–June) are harsh with temperatures reaching up to 45°C. In

addition, hot winds (called loo) may blow in the afternoons, worsening the heat. The

winter months (Nov.–Feb.) are pleasant and cool with daytime temperatures typically

20°C, though it may drop to subzero in the night. The monsoon typically arrives in late

June and the months of June till September receive moderate to heavy rainfall. There are

periods of rainfall followed by long periods of bright sunshine and high humidity. The

month of October generally is very warm and with high humidity. The economy of Ujjain

is mainly dependent on the agricultural activities of the nearby villages. Two main crops

are grown each year: wheat as the major Rabi crop, soybean as the major Kharif crop.

Ujjain agriculture is sensitive to changes in rainfall and failure of monsoon cycles can lay

a devastating toll on agriculture and the local economy.

Details of the Milli watershed visited

1. Geo code:2D4C8K

2. District code :21

3. Zila Panchayat : Ujjain

4. Water availability during the year

a. June, July : Dry

b. August,September,October,November,december,January : Normal

c. February and March : Insufficient

d. April, May :Dry

5. Sources of water: Pond-1, Wells-60, Tube wells-02..Nil check dam, nil stop dam, Nil

canals.

Ujjain is severely facing ground water depletion. Almost every block has ground water

exploitation more than 100%.it is very imperative to adopt rain water harvesting methods to

avoid scarcity of water. Water shed mission is working not across all areas. Therefore

difference is clearly visible between the treated areas and non treated areas. Common

structures are constructed across the district. The Project Officer Mr. Shrivasta is also taking

help of a retired civil engineer who has an experience more than thirty years in the field. This

ensure about technical part of the structures. Every structure is built properly. The structures

are cost effective and ensured optimum utilization. The soils are black cotton and at some

parts it is clayey. Clayey soils are not suitable for percolation. Therefore it should be avoided

to construct any percolation tanks in clayey soils. Before watershed mission, there was no

percolation pond. Watershed has helped in constructing percolation ponds in the area. We

have seen wells near the ponds which are being recharged through these ponds. The water

table are just 5-6 feet below the ground. However local labours are not available to work

under NAREGA. There are enough production of other crops like onion and others where

locals work on a pay which is substantially more than NAREGA. Most of the structure is

built by concrete. Some gabion structure was observed as well. Clayey soils in the area

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malwa_Plateau

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_India

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arid

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babul

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acacia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soybean

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheat

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jowar

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bajra

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crop_(agriculture)

http://toolserver.org/~geohack/geohack.php?pagename=Ujjain&params=23.182778_N_75.777222_E_

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsoon


reduce productivity. Therefore recharging and treatment requires these aspects to be

considered. Soil erosion is also a concern for the area. Since the major crop here is Soyabean.

Local farmers do not allow watershed officials to construct any bund in their field. Watershed

is working towards it by treating hilly portion. The concept of Ridge to valley

implementation is modified some time due to local encroachment. We are only able to see the

effect through wells surrounded in the area. The water table was just 5-6 feet below the

ground. However this does not mean that all structures are fully efficient. Its efficiency can

only be checked during designed rain fall.

Structural observations

Stop dam and Gabion structure are properly built and located in the area.

A full concrete stop dam is constructed within 2 lacs/ Cost effective structure

Water table is found 5-6 ft below GL at places where watershed mission is operating.

Community is aware and informative

C/CA ratio falls in the region between 1-2.

BCC :1-2 m deep

Soft Rock :2-5 m deep

Hard rock strata after that.


A well showing water table just 5-6 ft below ground in treated area Ujjain

A concrete Stop Dam in Ujjain district


Treatment on a hilly area in Ujjain district (Trenches treated with

Jatropha Plants)


District :Gwalior

Gwalior occupies a strategic location in the Gird region of India, and the city and its fortress

have served as the center of several of North India's historic kingdoms. Gwalior is located

at 26.22°N 78.18°E. It has an average elevation of 197 metres (646 feet). Gwalior is a historic

Indian city and is located on the periphery of Madhya Pradesh Stand . Gwalior has a sub-

tropical climate with hot summers from late March to early July, the humid monsoon season

from late June to early October and a cool dry winter from early November to late February.

The highest recorded temperature was 53oC and the lowest was -1

oC. Summers start in late

March, and along with other cities like Nagpur and Delhi are among the hottest in India and

the world. They peak in May and June with average daily temperatures being around 33-35oC

(93-95oF) , and end in late June with the onset of the monsoon. Gwalior gets 970 mm (39 in)

of rain every year, most of which is concentrated in the monsoon months from late June to

early October. August is the wettest month with about 310 mm (12 in) of rain. Winter in

Gwalior starts in late October, and is generally very mild with daily temperatures averaging

in the 14-16oC (58-62oF) range, and mostly dry and sunny conditions. January is the coldest

month with average lows in the 5-7oC range (40-45oF) and occasional cold snaps that

plummet temperatures to close to freezing.

Detail of the area

1. Block :Bhitarwar

2. Guideline :Hariyali

3. Geo code:2C3C1G

4. Beneficial area: 165.399 Ha

Gwalior district has mostly cohesion less soil. Due to this soil, permeability in the area is

varying between moderate to high. The soil is either sandy or sandy loam. Some parts of the

area has also been observed with black cotton. Depth of the soil varies between 1-2m. 2.25%

of the area is covered with hills and around 4% is covered by Nala and rivers. Crop pattern is

mostly single but at some places it is double. In Gwalior almost all type of structures are

existing. Since the project started late in the district their impact cannot be seen immediately.

Some of the structures were new and just completed. Gwalior watershed mission has two

unique part in their structures. They have built stop dams across existing culverts and bridges

apart from a new one. This is a new concept but the effect has to be seen.(See appendix 1for

structures) Existing culvert and bridges are built to give a passage of water. Making a stop

dam across the structure will work as percolation and irrigation pond. They have also

constructed circula stop dams. These type of dams are very efficient to disengage the sudden

thrust of water. Force is evenly distributed on the circumference of the dam. However cost is

increased by 15-20%. Community involvement is proper and they were very informative as

well. Plantation is also managed by SHGs with their own nursery. The mission has also

treated a nala with series of stop dams bult over it. Soil erosion is properly checked by

constructing series of stop dams. Before watershed treatment Hariyali and plant life survival

was very low. Now farmers are using SHGs nursery and taking help of the mission to

develop plants and hariyali. Agricultural production has now been increased.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gird

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India

http://toolserver.org/~geohack/geohack.php?pagename=Gwalior&params=26.22_N_78.18_E_

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagpur

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_Delhi

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsoon


A circular stop dam on an existing culvert in Gwalior district


A NALA BUND/CHECK DAM on an existing defined NALA or

Catchment flow of an area.


District: BETUL

Betul is a one of the tribal population districts of M.P. This district comes under satpuda

plateau and Jawar& Wheat crop zone from the point of view of agriculture climate.

Geographical area is 1007.8 thousand hec. out of which 416.7 thousand hec. land is under

cultivation. 381.1 thousand hec. is under Kharif and 120.3 thousand hec. under Rabi. The

district consist of nearly 1.76 Lakh agricultural families out of which 46% belong to SC/ST

category. Average agricultural land 2.90 thousand hec. under propritreship. Irrigation area

from all sources is 97.7 thousand hec. and irrigation percentage is 23 in the district. Crop

density is 127%. Average rainfall is 1083.9MM in the district. The mean elevation above the

sea is about 2000 ft. The country is essentially a highland tract, divided naturally into three

distinct portions, differing in their superficial aspects, the character of their soil and their

geological formation. The northern part of the district forms an irregular plain of the

sandstone formation. It is a well-wooded tract, in many places stretching out in charming

glades like an English park, but it has a very sparse population and little cultivated land. In

the extreme north a line of hills rises abruptly out of the great plain of the Narmada valley.

The central tract alone possesses a rich soil, well watered by the Machna river and Sapna

dam, almost entirely cultivated and studded with villages. To the south lies a rolling plateau

of basaltic formation (with the sacred town of Multai, and the springs of the Tapti River at its

highest point), extending over the whole of the southern face of the district, and finally

merging into the wild and broken line of the Ghats, which lead down to the plains. This tract

consists of a succession of stony ridges of trap rock, enclosing valleys or basins of fertile soil,

to which cultivation is for the most part confined, except where the shallow soil on the tops of

the hills has been turned to account.

The climate of Betul is fairly healthy. Its height above the plains and the neighbourhood of

extensive forests moderate the heat, and render the temperature pleasant throughout the

greater part of the year. During the cold season the thermometer at night falls below the

freezing point; little or no hot wind is felt before the end of April, and even then it ceases

after sunset. The nights in the hot season are comparatively cool and pleasant. During the

monsoon the climate is very damp, and at times even cold and raw, thick clouds and mist

enveloping the sky for many days together. The average annual rainfall is 40 in. Betul district

is rich in forests and biodiversity. The main timber species of Betul Forest is Teak. Many

miscellaneous types of trees such as Haldu, Saja, Dhaoda etc. are also found in abundance.

Many medicinal plants are also found in the forest areas of Betul. Large amounts of

commercially-important minor forest produce such

as Tendu leaves, Chironji, Harra, Amla are also collected from the forests of Betul. Asia's

biggest wood depot in Betul. The major rivers flowing in the district are the Ganjal River (a

tributary of the Tapti River), and the Morand River and the Tawa River (tributaries of

the Narmada River). The Tapti river originates from Multai in the Betul district;

Multai's Sanskrit name 'Multapi' means 'origin of Tapi or the Tapti River'.

LAND CLASSIFICATION

TYPE AREA(InThousand

Hect.)

Forest area 405.2

Uncultivated area 42.4

Fodder area 26.7

Barer Area 25.3

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multai

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapti_River

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teak

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haldu

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saja

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dhaoda&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicinal_plant

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coromandel_Ebony

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chironji

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harra

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amla

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ganjal_River&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapti_River

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morand_River&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawa_River

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narmada_River

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit


Crop area 414.8

Double crop area 111.7

Kharif crop area 388.0

Rabi crop area 138.5

Total crop area 526.5

Total Area 1007.8

CROP AREA

CROP KHARIF RABI TOTAL

GRAINS 171.5 86.7 258.2

PULSES 44.1 38.7 82.8

OIL SEEDS 172.0 8.0 180.0

OTHERS 1.2 6.2 7.4

TOTAL 388.8 139.6 528.4

IRRIGATION SOURCE

SOURCE NUMBER

WELLS 49387

HAND PUMPS 2182

ELECTRICAL

PUMPS 26584

DIESEL

PUMPS 5535

MEDIUM

IRRIGATION

PROJECTS

4

SMALL

IRRIGATION

PROJECTS

86

STOPDAMS 341

SPRINKLER

SETS 2357

Betul district is a very nice example of Ridge to Valley concept. Since it is surrounded by

hills. Soil erosion in the area was very high. Hilly areas are properly treated with contour

trenches. The valleys at hills are checked with earthen check dams. Continuous trenches and

staggered trenches are properly mixed to check the flow of water. However the treatment at

some portion are not completed due to administrative reasons. Common structures seen in the

area are percolation ponds, trenches, contour bunding, check dams and stop dams. On hilly

portion trenches are supported with plants and have shown considerable growth. However

some more needs to be done considering the fact that it has mostly a hilly terrain.


Farmer own developed system for Ground water recharge from wells and

storage pond and its utilization

A check dam/Stop dam in Betul district on a hard rock surface


A percolation pond in Betul


Suggested measures, Recommendation and schematic diagram of some

common structures

PERCOLATION TANK

Percolation tanks are artificially created surface water bodies, submerging a land area with

adequate permeability to facilitate sufficient percolation of impounded surface runoff to

recharge the ground water. These have come to be recognized as a dependable mode for

ground water recharge in the hard rock terrain. The hard rock areas with limited to moderate

water holding and water yielding capabilities often experience water scarce situations due to

inadequate recharge, indiscriminate withdrawal of ground water and mismanagement. These

are quite popular in Madhya Pradesh. The percolation tank is more or less similar to check

dams or nala bund with a fairly large storage reservoir. A tank can be located either across

small streams by creating low elevation check dams or in uncultivated land adjoining

streams, through excavation and providing a delivery canal connecting the tanks and the

stream.

Suggested measures and recommendations to be followed while

constructing PERCOLATION TANKS

Percolation tanks should normally be constructed in a terrain with highly fractured and

weathered rock for speedy recharge. In case of alluvium, the bouldary formations are

ideal. However, the permeability should not be too high that may result in the percolated

water escaping in the downstream as regenerated surface flow.

The aquifer to be recharged should have sufficient thickness of permeable Vadose zone to

accommodate recharge. The Vadose zone should normally be about 3 m below the

ground level to minimize the possibility of water logging.

The benefited area should have sufficient number of wells, hand pumps etc. A minimum

well density of 3 to 5 per square kilometres is desirable. The aquifer zone should extend

upto the benefited area.

Submergence area should be uncultivated as far as possible.

The nature of the catchment is to be evaluated based on Strange’s Table for classification

under Good, Average and Bad Category. It is advisable to have the percolation tank in a

good/ average catchment.

Rainfall pattern based on long-term evaluation is to be studied so that the percolation tank

gets filled up fully during monsoon (preferably more than once).

Soils in the catchment area should preferably be of light sandy type to avoid silting up of

the tank bed.

The location of the tank should preferably be downstream of runoff zone or in the upper

part of the transition zone, with a land slope gradient of 3 to 5%.

The yield of a catchment area is generally from 0.44 to 0.55 MCM/sq.km in a low

catchment area. Accordingly, the catchment area for small tanks varies from 2.5 to 4

sq.km and for larger tanks from 5 to 8 sq.km.

The size of percolation tank is governed more by the percolating capacity of the

formation under submergence rather than the yield of the catchment. Therefore,

depending on the percolation capacity, the tank is to be designed. Generally, a percolation

tank is designed for a storage capacity of 2.25 to 5.65 MCM. As a general guide the

design capacity should normally not be more than 50 percent of the total quantum of

utilizable runoff from the catchment.


While designing, due care should be taken to keep the height of the ponded water column

about 3 to 4.5 m above the bed level. It is desirable to exhaust the storage by February

since evaporation losses become substantial from February onwards. It is preferable that

in the downstream area, the water table is at a depth of 3 to 5 m below ground level

during the post monsoon period, implying that the benefited area possesses a potential

shallow aquifer.

Construction-wise there is not much difference between a percolation tank and a minor

irrigation tank, except for providing outlets for surface irrigation and the depth of the cut-

off trench. The cut-off trench is to be provided below the earthen bund with depth limited

to one fourth of the height between bed level and full storage level.

The design of percolation tanks involves detailed consideration of the following aspects:

The catchment yield is to be calculated for long-term average annual rainfall.

Percolation tanks are normally earthen dams with masonry structures only for the

spillway. Construction materials consist of a mixture of soil, silt, loam, clay, sand, gravel,

suitably mixed and laid in layers and properly compacted to achieve stability and water

tightness. The dam is not to be over-tapped, by providing adequate length of waste weir

and adequate free board.

A waste weir is to be provided to discharge surplus water when the full pond level is

reached. Maximum permissible discharge from the catchment is to be calculated using the

formula approved by the competent authority based on local conditions. In the absence of

such a formula, Inglis, or Dicken’s formula may be used based on then observed or

design discharge and catchment areas for local culverts under road or railway bridges.

Once the discharge is known the length of the waste weir is decided depending on the

maximum flood discharge and permissible flood depth the crest of waste weir.

Finally, measures indicated for the protection of catchment areas of rock dams hold good

in the case of percolation tanks also.

The percolation tanks in a watershed may not have enough catchment discharge though a

high capacity tank is possible as per site conditions. In such situations stream from nearby

watershed can be diverted with some additional cost and the tank can be made more

efficient.

Observations during visits

Observation studies done on the functioning of the percolation tanks in the state during the

visits at Bhopal,Ujjain, Gwalior and Betul districts, have indicated that a properly located,

designed and constructed percolation tank can have an efficiency ranging from 70 to 85%

with respect to recharge of ground water, leaving the balance for seepage losses (from nil to

8%) and evaporation losses (upto 8%).If the tank is filled more than once during the

monsoon, enhancing utilization upto 150% of the storage capacity, optimal efficiency of the

percolation tank is ensured. Generally, the zone of the influence in the downstream side

extends up to 1 km. There is a strong case for propagating percolation tanks as a tool for

managing ground water in hard rock areas, specially observed during Gwalior district visits

where terrain is rocky and soil condition in sandy or sandy loam. Since it serves the dual

purpose of water harvesting and ground water recharging. Percolation tanks put into actual

practice the much talked about integrated development of surface and ground water for their

conjunctive use.


Volume percolating through a Percolation Tank

The volume of water percolating below the tank (P) is estimated through an accurate

determination of all the components of the water budget (equation 1).

)( tifrfrf VVOLETIRRP (1)

Inputs outputs stock variation

Where:

Vt is the volume of water in the tank at time t

Vi is the initial volume of water in the tank

Rf is the incoming runoff volume

Rr is the direct rainfall input volume

Irf is the irrigation surface return flow volume

ET is the total evapotranspiration volume

P is the percolation volume

L is the livestock consumption volume

Of is the overflow volume

In order to estimate accurately the volume of water percolated below the tank (P), the

different variables of equation (1) are measured or approximated as detailed hereafter.

Volumes Vi and Vt are function of the tank water level and geometry. In semi-arid climate

storm events are very brief; in the tank, 85% of the flood occurs in only 45 min, so if the tank

does not overflow, the other variables can be neglected during a flood event and variation of

volume can be considered as the total runoff (Rf) and direct rainfall input (Rr). Rf and Rr are

estimated flood event-wise using the relationship between water level and volume and

surface. Hence, it is necessary to determine the water level in the tank at any point of time

and the topography of the bottom of the tank.

Irrigation surface return flow (Irf) is locally measured after an inventory of all irrigated fields

of which excess water flows into the tank.

The evapotranspiration ET is determined by monitoring the daily evaporation (E) in a Class A

evaporation pan in the vicinity of the tank and adding the plant evapotranspiration ETcrop.

According to Shaw (1994), ETcrop can be estimated by the water requirement of the crop,

based on the crop coefficient.


L can be estimated by livestock head inventory in the village and based on livestock water

consumption for semi-arid/arid area based on Peden et al. (2007) study.

Of cannot be measured but can be detected for each flood.

CHECK DAMS/STOP DAMS

A check dam is a small dam, which can be either temporary or permanent, built across a

minor channel, swale, bioswale, or drainage ditch. Similar to drop structures in purpose, they

reduce erosion and gullying in the channel and allow sediments and pollutants to settle. They

also lower the speed of water flow during storm events. Check dams can be built

with logs, stone, or sandbags. Of these, the former two are usually permanent or semi-

permanent; and the sandbag check dam is usually for temporary purposes. Also, there are

check dams that are constructed with rockfill or wooden boards. These dams are usually used

only in small, open channels that drain 10 acres (0.040 km2) or less; and usually do not

exceed 2 feet (0.61 m) high. Many check dams tend to form stream pools. Under low-flow

circumstances, water either infiltrates into the ground, evaporates, or seeps through or under

the dam. Under high flow (flood) conditions, water flows over or through the structure.

Coarse and medium-grained sediment from runoff tends to be deposited behind check dams,

while finer grains are usually allowed through. Extra nutrients, phosphorus, nitrogen,

heavy metals, and floating garbage are also trapped or eliminated by the presence of check

dams, increasing their effectiveness as water quality control measures. In nearly all

instances, erosion control blankets, which are biodegradable open-weave blankets, are used in

conjunction with check dams. These blankets help enforce vegetation growth on the slopes,

shorelines and ditch bottoms

Check dams are constructed across small streams having gentle slope and are feasible both in

hard rock as well as alluvial formations. The site selected for check dam should have

sufficient thickness of permeable bed or weathered formation to facilitate recharge of stored

water within short span of time. The water stored in these structures is mostly confined to

stream course and the height is normally less than 2 m. These are designed based on stream

width and excess water is allowed to flow over the wall. In order to avoid scouring from

excess run off, water cushions are provided at downstream side. To harness the maximum run

off in the stream, series of such check dams can be constructed to have recharge on regional

scale.

A series of small bunds or weirs are made across selected nala sections such that the flow of

surface water in the stream channel is impeded and water is retained on pervious soil/ rock

surface for longer body. These type of check dams are called as Nala Bunds. Nala bunds are

constructed across bigger streams of second order in areas having gentler slopes. A nala bund

acts like a mini percolation tank.

Suggested measures and recommendations to be followed while

constructing Check dams/Stop Dams/Nala Bunds

For selecting a site for Check Dams/ Nala Bunds the following conditions may be observed.

The total catchment of the nala should normally be between 40 to 100 Hectares

though the local situations can be guiding factor in this.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swale

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioswale

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drop_structure

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logging

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_(geology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandbag

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_pool

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaporate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodegradable


The rainfall in the catchment should be less than 1000 mm/annum which is normally a

common in MP.

The width of nala bed should be atleast 5 meters and not exceed 15 metres and the

depth should not be less than 1 metre.

The soil downstream of the bund should not be prone to water logging and should

have pH between 6.5 to 8.

The lands downstream of check dam/ bund should have irrigable land under well

irrigation (This is desirable but not an essential requirement).

The Nala bunds should be preferable located in area where contour or graded bunding

of lands have been carried out.

The rock strata exposed in the ponded area should be adequately permeable to cause

ground water recharge through ponded water.

Nala bund is generally a small earthen dam with a cutoff core wall of brick work,

though masonry and concrete bunds/ plugs are now prevalent.

For the foundation for core wall a trench is dug 0.6m wide in hard rock or 1.2 metres

in soft rock of impervious nature. A core brick cement wall is created 0.6 m wide to

stand atleast 2.5 metres above nala bed and the remaining portion of trench is back

filled on upstream side by impervious clay. The core wall is buttressed on both sides

by a bund made up of local clays and on the upstream face, stone pitching is done.

Normally the final dimensions of the Nala bund are : length 10 to 15 metres, height 2

to 3 metres and width 1 to 3 metres, generally constructed in a trapezoidal form. If the

bedrock is highly fractured, cement grouting is done to make the foundation leakage

free.

Dams should be built at sites that can produce a relatively high depth to surface area

so as to minimise evaporation losses.

Rocky surfaces should not be fractured or cracked, which may cause the water to leak

away to deeper zones or beneath the dam.

Dam foundation must be of solid impermeable rock with no soil pockets or fracture

lines.

Convenient location for user groups.

No soil erosion in the catchment area.

Dams should be sited along the edges of depressions or directly across the lower ends

of deep gullies into the rock.

The design of the dam is to be done on the basis of (a) the topographical setting of the

impounded area, to calculate the height and length of the dam wall, its gradient, width

and the depth of the foundation, taking into account the nature of the underlying

formation; (b) details of the cut-off trench, to reduce seepage losses; (c) height of

stone pitching on the upstream slope to avoid erosion due to ripple action and on the

down stream slope from rain by suitable turfing; (d) upstream and downstream slopes

to be moderate so that shear stress is not induced in the foundation beyond a

permissible limit; and (e) stability of the dam.


DRAWINGS/SKETCH

A woven wire check dam


Observation.

Betul district has some of better managed check dams. They are efficient and properly built.

Their efficiency has been seen by the author. During visit a rainfall of around 60 mm was

observed. During the rainfall all check dams are filled and was preventing surface runoff. A

series of check dams was also observed at Gwalior district. It was properly built across a

catchment which has already proved its significance. All culverts are shielded by dams to

prevent surface runoff. Circulars dams are placed so that force and moment acting on the dam

surface is evenly distributed along the circumference of the dam. These type of structures are

very effective in a hilly terrain where velocity of runoff and thrust on the dam is high. In

Ujjain stop dams are built with concrete and its reported cost was around 2 lacs. Even though

with local labour problems, Ujjain people are able to built a permanent structure with

effective design and planning in such a cost.

POND/ TANK/VILLAGE PONDS

Size of a pond is usually dictated by the availability of adequate land in the vicinity of the

village. In rare cases do we have the option to design and build a pond of a desired size to

meet the water requirements of the community. Where we have such an option, the first step

is to work out the water requirement for various needs. The next step is to determine the

catchment area, above the pond site, from where the monsoon run off would be available to

fill the pond. Thereafter the location, alignment and height of the earthen bund are decided, as

also the location and size of the spillway to evacuate the surplus monsoon discharge.

Nadis are small excavated or embanked village ponds. Water from these is available for

periods starting two months to a year after rain, depending on the catchment characteristics,

the amount of rainfall received and its intensity. This is an ancient practice and the Nadis are

the most important water sources of the region. Location and size of a village pond depends

on the catchment area it commands. It should be located in areas with lowest elevation to

have the benefit of natural drainage and need for minimum excavation of earth. Surface of

catchment area should preferably be impermeable. If necessary, the catchment area may be

prepared artificially by soil condition wherever

possible.

Silt Trap should be provided at the inlet point to prevent sediment load form entering the

pond. The size of the silt trap should be designed keeping in view the site conditions, duration

and intensity of rainfall. Silt Trap should be cleaned regularly. The inlet should be stone

pitched to prevent soil erosion. A mesh should be provided at the inlet to prevent floating

material from entering the pond. The slope of the sides shall depend on the soil condition. In

order to prevent seepage losses through sides and bottom, these are lined with LDPE

sheeting. This should be embedded properly. The outlet should be stone-pitched to prevent

soil erosion. An exploitation well should be constructed at a suitable point of pond to

facilitate withdrawal of water. The well has to be constructed by raising two masonry wing

walls and one front wall. A suitable platform fitted with iron fixtures for Pulley and Hand

Pumps is necessary.


Water Requirement and Gross Storage

Unless otherwise prescribed for an area, following general guidelines may be used to

determine the water requirements of a village community and the gross storage capacity of

the pond.

a. Irrigation : Provide about 0.67 hectare metre of capacity for a hectare of irrigation.

b. Animal Needs : Provide at the following rates:

Buffalo Cattle : 54-68 litres/day

Dairy Cows : 68 litres/day (drinking)

Dairy Cows (drinking + barn needs) : 158 litres/day

Pigs : 18 litres/day

Sheep : 9 litres/day

c. Domestic Water Needs : 40 litres per head per day

d. Fish Culture : Ensure about 1.85 m depth to provide proper temperature environments.

The storage capacity should be at least double the total water requirement to take care of

evaporation and seepage losses. As a rough guide, 10 per extra storage may be provided for

sediment deposition. For example if the total annual water requirement is 10,000 cum and

pond will have only one filling, its gross capacity should be 22000 cum (2 x 10,000 + 10%).

Runoff and Storage Volume

A detailed survey is usually required to estimate the size of the catchment area and the

reservoir storage for different water levels. Where the surveys are likely to be expensive or

other wise not feasible, catchment area can be roughly computed from Survey of India

toposheets to the scale of 1:25,000 or 1:50,000. However, for computing approximate

reservoir storage volumes certain rudimentary field surveys have to be carried out using

inexpensive equipment and ordinary local skills. Since a pond is usually built by putting a

bund (earthen or masonry) across the flow path of a natural drainage, the parameters required

for computing approximate storage volumes, for different pond levels are :


Drawing

D

B

Bed slope S-horizontal to 1 vertical

Where,

Channel width B (meters) at bund site

Bank slopes of the channel – n : 1 (Fall of 1 metre in a length of n metres)

Bed slope of the channel – S : 1 (Fall of 1 metre in a length of S metres along the channel

bed)

Depth of water above the channel bed at the bund site – D (metres)

Storage volume is approximately computed by using the formula

V =SD^2/2*(B+nD


A typical plan and cross section elevated view of a pond.

Recommended traits for a good site:

It should be a narrow gorge with a fan shaped valley above: so that a small amount of

earthwork gives a large capacity.

The capacity catchment area ratio should be such that the pond can fill up in about 2-3

months of rainfall. The capacity should not be too small to be choked up with

sediments very soon.

The pond should be located where it could serve a major purpose e.g. if for irrigation,

it should be above the irrigated fields.

Junction of two tributary, depressions and other sites of easily available fill material

and favourable geology should be preferred.

The site should not have excessive seepage losses.


The catchment area should be put under conservation practices.

There should be enough provision for checking sediments to the pond if the inflow is

directly linked to the pond. It can be done by providing boulders and shrubs to the

inflow area or in fore bay area.

Spillway Dimension for the Mechanical Spillway

In low rainfall areas peak discharges during rainy season are too meagre to required

evacuation through a concrete or masonry spillway. Instead a pipe spillway may be provided.

Normally the pipe should be large enough to pass the peak monsoon discharge without

considering any moderation due to the reservoirs. Storage effect of small ponds of capacity of

0.123 to 0.246 is usually neglected. However, where the reservoir is large with considerable

storage capacity the moderation effect may be considered using the following formula:

Qo/Q = 1.25 − (1500V/RA − 0.06)^1/2

Where,

Qo = Rate of outflow when the pipe first flows full in cumecs

Q = Peak rate of inflow in cumecs

V = Available storage in ham

R = Runoff in mm, and

A = Drainage area in hectares (same as watershed area)

The above equation provides a rough guide to estimate of the size of the mechanical spillway

pipe required.

Structural Design

The following general guidelines are kept in view for the structural design and construction

of the pond:

Angle of repose is less for wet soil than for dry soils: so provide for flatter gradient on the

waterside of the earthfill. For very small ponds uniform slopes on both upstream and

downstream sides can be provided (2½:1). For other provide a minimum slope of 3:1 on

the waterside.

Remove all vegetation, roots, and organic matter from the fill area: scrape the upper 30

cm of the sol to get rid of the excessive roots: remove all tree stumps at the construction

site (to come under the fill).

Provide a 1.5 m wide bottom key trench with 2:1 side slopes, to give a good bondage with

the original earth.

Lay the earthwork in horizontal layers of not more than 8 centimetres at a time: water

them to have a 14% moisture content: use sheep-foot roller for maximum compaction.

Bulldozers fill earth in heaps, which cannot be easily completed. Use them for site

clearance but not for earth fill.

Place the conduit pipe of the mechanical spillway before starting the earthfill.

Use topsoil and fertilisers to establish a quick grass cover on the earthfill. Do not let trees

or bushes come up on the embankment.

At the inlet of the inflow runoff provide a measuring structure (triangular weir), drop

structure, or a sod chute so that when the pond is low, the inflow does not cause gullying.

Cut all excavation on 2:1 or at least 1:1 side slopes.


The road on the crest should be provided with a gravel metal, middle camber and drains

on sides (lead the road runoff safely down the slope in pipes or masonry/concrete flumes

or chutes. This can be otherwise a cause of gullying).

Provide for constant level livestock watering tank.

Selection of Site

From an economic view point, the bund should be located where maximum storage volume isobtained

for minimum volume of earthfill, since the major share of the cost goes into the earthfill. This

condition, generally, can be met at a site where the stream/ or drainage channel is narrow, steep, side

slopes are steep and stable, and the stream bed is of consolidated and nearly impervious formation.

Such sites also minimise the pond area.

Design of Earthen Bund

The various components of an earthen bund include

(a) foundation including key trench or cut-off,

(b) height of bund,

(c) side slopes,

(d) top width,

(e) free board and

(f) settlement allowance.

It is possible to construct a stable and economical earthen bund on any foundation. Sites with

foundation conditions requiring relatively expansive construction measures should be

avoided. The most satisfactory foundation is one that consists of, or is underlain at a shallow

depth by a thick layer of relatively impervious consolidated material. Such foundations cause

no stability problems. Where a suitable layer occurs at the surface no special measures are

required. It is sufficient to remove the top soil (with vegetation and roots) and plough the area

to provide a good bond with the new fill material of the bund.

Where the impervious layer is overlain by pervious material (sand), a compacted clay cut-off

extending from the surface of the ground into the impervious is required to prevent excessive

seepage and to prevent possible failure by piping.

Foundation Cutoffs

Usually a cut-off joining the impervious stratum in the foundation with the base of the dam is

needed. The most common type of cutoff is one constructed of compacted or puddled clay

material. A trench, also called key-trench, is cut parallel to the central line of the bund to a

depth that extends well into the impervious layer. The trench should have a bottom width of

not less than 1.5 meters but adequate to allow the use of mechanical equipment if necessary,

to obtain proper compaction. The sides of the trench should be filled with puddled clay or

with successive thin layers of relatively impervious material each layer being properly

compacted.

Height of Bund

The height of bund will depend upon the volume of runoff to be stored and topography of the

reservoir area. The high of the bund should also be selected in such a way that its cost per

unit of storage (cum volume) is minimum. While calculating the cost corresponding to any


height some allowance for settlement and free board, and temporary flood storage may be

added to give the actual bund height or in other words the actual quantity of earth work.

Free Board

It is the added height of the bund provided as a safety factor to prevent waves and flood

runoff from over-topping the embankment.

(i) Minimum free board (F.B.) for length of pond upto 400 m 50 cm

(ii) F.B. for length of pond upto 800 m 75 cm

(iii) F.B. for length of pond more than 800 m 100 cm

Settlement Allowance

This includes the consolidation of the fill materials and the foundation materials due to the

weight of the bund and increased moisture caused by the storage of water. Hand compacted

(manually constructed) fill 10% of design height. Machine compacted 5% of design height

Top Width of Embankment

Adequate top width is provided to the bund so that it can be used as road way and

communication routes adjoining villages or watersheds. Simple formulae for top width

(T.W.) as a function of height (H) may be used.

Upto 10 m height, T.W. = H/5+2

10 to 15 m height, T.W. = H/5+3

Where,

H = Maximum height in m

T.W. = Top width in m

Side Slope of Bund

Adequate upstream and downstream side slopes of the embankment must be provided to

satisfy the stability requirements of reservoir filled with water, sudden drawdown to minimise

the erosion, and to facilitate establishment of good sod forming grass. The maximum side

slopes recommended in case of small earth dams are given below in Table 1.

Table1: Maximum Side Slopes recommended in case of Small Earth Dams

Depth of Fill (Height) Side slopes (Upstream) Side Slopes (Downstream)

Upto 5 m 2:1 2:1

05-10 m i.2.5:1

ii.3.0:1

i.2:1 or 2.5:1

ii.2.5:1

10-15 m 3:1 3:1

When fill material consists of more clay and silt, flatter slope of 3 : 1 on the upstream is

always recommended.


Steps in Construction

Site clearing-striping vegetation, pervious top earth

Staking for the base and key trench

Key trench digging and filling

Preparation of earth fill material with optimum moisture

Placement and compaction of earth in layers

Provision and completion of irrigation outlet and spillway

Trimming slopes to correct angle

Protection of upstream and downstream slopes

Maintenance

A properly designed and constructed bund is well protected by sod and requires, least

maintenance. Particular attention should be given to surface erosion, the development of

seepage areas on the downstream face of below the top of the dam, evidence of piping, wave

action and damage by cattle and human beings and corrective steps should be taken in time.

GABION STRUCTURE

This is a kind of check dam being commonly constructed across small stream to conserve

stream flows with practically no submergence beyond stream course. The boulders locally

available are stored in a steel wire mesh and are tied up in the form of rectangular blocks

(Figure 6.6). This is put up across the stream to make it as a small dam by anchoring it to the

stream banks (Figure 6.6). The height of such structures is around 0.5 m and is normally used

in the streams with width of about 10 to 15 m. The excess water overflows this structure

storing some water to serve as source of recharge. The silt content of stream water in due

course is deposited in the interstices of the boulders to make it more impermeable.


Artificial Recharge through Underground Bandhara

These are basically ground water conservation structures and are effective in providing

sustainability to ground water structures by arresting sub-surface flow. A ground water dam

is a sub-surface barrier across stream, which retards the natural ground water flow of the

system, and stores water below ground surface to meet the demands during the period of

need. The main purpose of ground water dam is to arrest the flow of ground water out of the

sub-basin and increase the storage within the aquifer. By doing so the water levels in

upstream part of ground water dam rises saturating the otherwise dry part of aquifer.

The underground dam has following advantages:

• Since the water is stored within the aquifer, submergence of land can be avoided and land

above reservoir can be utilized even after the construction of the dam.

• No evaporation loss from the reservoir takes place.

• No siltation in the reservoir takes place

• The potential disaster like collapse of dams can be avoided.

Such dykes are also useful across the perennial streams. Dykes of 30 cm thick brick-cement

or stone cement, extending down to the compact bedrock, with mud or clay fillings in

excavated portions on both sides of the wall provide a perfect impermeable barrier.


Management and Maintenance

The quality of water in groundwater dams is generally better than water from other water

harvesting systems since water here is stored in the ground and filtered as it moves through

the sandy soil. However, the shallow groundwater risks contamination from seepage of

surface pollutants. Once the clay wall groundwater dam is built, it demands very little

maintenance. However, the user community should check the dam site for erosion after each

large flood. Any erosion should be corrected by refinishing the clay wall and protecting it

with large rocks, which

cannot be moved by smaller flows. With masonry groundwater dams, any channel erosion

that might undermine or expose the dam should be arrested by filling it with large boulders

and using silting traps to catch sandy material. It is a similar prescription for raised dams.

With the raised dam, the gravity pipe should be checked frequently along its length for signs

of damage or leaks and the tapping station should be kept in good order. Also with

groundwater dams there may be a need to control water use, thus requiring supervision, clear

agreements among the users and monitoring of the available storage. For the latter, a

piezometer may be installed, which allows a caretaker or watchman to estimate how much

water is left and if rationing has to be made more strict. The precautions to manage and

maintain water quality and reliability in sub-surface and sand dams and to reduce the risk of

contamination are:

• Ensure there is no open defecation in/ near the river bed upstream

• No tethering of donkeys at the well

• Check bathing/ laundry upstream of the dam

• There must be no pit-latrines on the bank upstream

• There must be no unprotected wells in the river bed near the protected well

• Regular maintenance of the protected well-site and the hand pump must be assured

• Ensure use and maintenance of a downstream gravity out-take

• Avoid use of pesticides/ chemicals upstream of the dam site


Water Harvesting requirement for crops

One of the main criteria for the selection of a water harvesting technique is its suitability for

the type of plant one wants to grow. However, the crop can also be adapted to the structure.

The basic difference between perennial (e.g. trees) and annual crops is that trees require the

concentration of water at points, whereas annual crops usually benefit most from an equal

distribution of water over the cultivated area. The latter can be achieved by levelling the

cultivated area. Grasses are more tolerant of uneven moisture distribution than cereal crops.

When selecting a suitable water harvesting technique, two sets of criteria, of equal

importance, should be taken into account:

1 A water harvesting technique should function well from a technical point of view.

2 It should ’fit’ within the production system of the users.

Designing water harvesting systems

The water shortage in the cultivated area is supplemented by water from the catchment area.

When designing a water harvesting system the size of the catchment area is calculated or

estimated, in order to ensure that enough runoff water is harvested for the crops in the

cultivated area. The relation between the two areas is expressed as the C:CA ratio, the ratio

between the catchment area (C) and the cultivated area (CA). For seasonal crops a C:CA ratio

of 3:1 is often used as a rule of thumb: the catchment area C is three times the size of the

cultivated area CA. Although calculation of the C:CA ratio results in accurate water

harvesting systems, it is often difficult to calculate the C:CA ratio. The data required (rainfall,

runoff and crop water requirements) are often not available and if they are, variability is often

high. They may differ from one location to an other, or from year to year. Calculations may

give an impression of accuracy but this is misleading if they are based on data with a high

variability. For this reason water harvesting systems are often designed using an educated

guess for the C:CA ratio. Many successful water harvesting systems have been established by

starting on a small experimental scale with an estimated C:CA ratio. The initial design can

then be modified in the light of experience. In order to be able to estimate the C:CA ratio and

to assess critically the results of the first experimental water harvesting system, it is necessary

to have a thorough understanding of how water harvesting works. Which aspects influence

the functioning of a water harvesting system?

Crop water requirements

Crop water requirements are the amount of water that a certain crop needs in a full growing

season.Each type of crop has its own water requirements. For example a fully developed

maize crop will need more water per day than a fully developed crop of onions. Within one

crop type however, there can be a considerable variation in water requirements. The crop

water requirements consist of transpiration and evaporation usually referred to as

evapotranspiration. The crop water requirements are influenced by the climate in which the

crop is grown. For example a certain maize variety grown in 20 Water harvesting and soil

moisture retention a cool and cloudy climate will need less water per day than the same maize

variety grown in a hot and sunny climate. The length of the total growing season of each crop

is different and hence the total water requirements for the growing season depends on the

crop type. For example, while the daily water need of melons may be less than the daily

water need of beans, the seasonal water need of melons will be higher than that of beans


because the duration of the total growing season of melons is much longer. In general the

growing season of a crop is longer when the climate is cool. Within a growing season the

daily water need of a crop vary with the growth stages of the crop. Apart from different water

requirements, crops differ in their response to water deficits. When the crop water

requirements are not met, crops with a high drought sensitivity suffer greater reductions in

yield than crops with a low sensitivity. For water harvesting where it is not sure when the

runoff can be harvested, crops with a low sensitivity to drought are most suitable.

Catchment area and cultivated area

Ideally the soil in the catchment area should convert as much rain as possible into runoff: i.e.

it should have a low infiltration rate. E.g. if a rainstorm with an intensity of 20 mm/hour falls

on a clay soil with an infiltration rate of 5 mm/hr, then runoff will occur, but if the same

rainstorm falls on a sandy soil (with an infiltration rate of 30 mm/hr) there will be no runoff.

For this reason sandy soils are not suitable for a water harvesting system because most of the

rain which falls on the catchment area is absorbed by the soil and little or no runoff will reach

the cultivated area. The soil in the cultivated area should not only have a high infiltration rate,

but also a high capacity to store the infiltrated water and to make this water easily available to

the cultivated crop. The ideal situation is a rocky catchment area and a cultivated area with a

deep, fertile loam soil. In practice the soil conditions for the cultivated and the catchment area

often conflict. If this is the case the requirements of the cultivated

area should always take precedence.

Efficiency

The runoff water from the catchment area is collected on the cultivated area and infiltrates the

soil. Not all ponded runoff water can be used by the crop because some of the water is lost by

evaporation and deep percolation .The utilization of the harvested water by the crop is called

the efficiency of the water harvesting system and is expressed as an efficiency factor. E.g. an

efficiency factor of 0.75 means that 75% of the harvested water is actually used by the crop.

The remaining 25% is lost. The consequence for the design of a water harvesting system is

that more water has to be harvested to meet the crop water requirements: the catchment area

hasto be made larger.

Calculation of C:CA ratio

Calculation of crop water requirements

As described in the preceding paragraph the water requirements of a certain crop depend on

both the crop type and the climatic conditions under which the crop is cultivated. To facilitate

the calculation of the crop water requirements under certain climatic conditions, grass has

been taken as a standard or reference crop. The water requirements of the reference crop are

called the reference evapotranspiration, ETo which is expressed in mm water depth per day,

mm/day. There are more sophisticated ways to determine the reference evapotranspiration.

Accurate data on the ETo are best obtained locally. By using the water requirements of the

reference crop as starting point for calculation of the crop water requirements, the influence

of the climate has already been taken into account. What remains is to relate the water

requirements of the reference crop to those of the crop you want to grow. This is done by


using the crop factor, Kc, a factor by which the water requirements of the reference crop are

multiplied in order to obtain the water requirements of the crop to be grown.

In formula:

ETcrop = Kc × ETo

ETcrop = the crop evapotranspiration in mm/day

Kc = the crop factor

ETo = the reference evapotranspiration in mm/day.

The crop water requirements vary with the growth stages of the crop. With water harvesting,

the farmer has little control over the quantity of water supplied, let alone the timing.

Therefore, it makes little sense to calculate how much water is required by the crop at each of

its growth stages. For the design of a water harvesting system it is sufficient to calculate the

total amount of water which the crop requires over the entire growing season.

ETcrop is calculated using the formula ETcrop = Kc × ETo,

with average values of Kc and ETo for the total growing season.

The design rainfall

For the design of a water harvesting system we need to know the quantity of rainfall during

the growing season of the crop. The quantity of rainfall according to which a water harvesting

systemis designed, is called the design rainfall. The difficulty with selecting the right design

rainfall is the high variability of rainfall in (semi-)arid regions. While the average annual

rainfall might be 400 mm there may be years without any rain at all, and ’wet’ years with 500

- 600 mm of rain or even more. If the actual rainfall is less than the design rainfall, the

catchment area will not produce enough runoff to satisfy the crop water requirements; if the

actual rainfall exceeds the design rainfall there will be too much runoff which may cause

damage to the water harvesting structure. When starting with water harvesting techniques, it

is recommended that we design our systems on the ’safe side’ to test if your design can

withstand flooding. Use crops which are resistant to drought to minimize the risk of crop

failure in years when our design rainfall does not fall. It is recommended to try drought

resistant varieties which are cultivated already in the area in order to compare their

performance in the new water harvesting scheme.

Determination of the runoff factor

The first way to determine the R-factor is by making an educated guess, and following it up

by trial and error. The value of the seasonal (or annual) runoff factor, R, is usually between

0.20 and 0.30 on slopes of less than 10%. It may be as high as 0.50 on rocky natural

catchments. The runoff factor R is often estimated and evaluated in the light of the results of

the first experimental water harvesting systems. The second, more accurate but also more

laborious, way to determine the R-factor is to measure first the r-factor for individual

rainstorms after which the seasonal (annual) runoff factor is calculated. Critchley (1991)

recommends that measurements of the r-factor are taken for at least a two year period before

any larger construction programme starts. For the measurement of the r-factor, runoff plots

are established. These are plots sited in a representative part of the area where the water

harvesting scheme is planned. With the runoff plots it is possible to measure the quantity of

runoff for each individual rainstorm. It is also possible to use seasonal runoff factors

determined for nearby areas, but this must be done with care. The runoff factor is highly

dependent on local conditions.


The efficiency factor

The part of the harvested water which can be actually used by the crop is expressed by the

efficiency factor. Efficiency is higher when the cultivated area is levelled and smooth. As a

rule of thumb the efficiency factor ranges between 0.5 and 0.75. When measured data are not

available (check nearby irrigation schemes) the only way is to estimate the factor on the basis

of experience: trial and error.

The formula to calculate the C:CA ratio:

1 Water needed in the Cultivated Area (CA) = Water harvested in the Catchment area (C)

2 Water needed in the Cultivated Area (CA) = [Crop Water Requirements- Design rainfall] ×

CA (m²) And

Water harvested in Catchment area (C) = R × Design rainfall × Efficiency factor × C (m²)

3 Therefore:[Crop Water Requirements - Design rainfall ] × CA = R × Design rainfall ×

Efficiency factor × C Or

C:CA=(Crop water requirements- Design rainfall)/( R x Design rainfall x Efficiency factor)

Calculation of the C:CA ratio with this formula is useful primarily for systems where crops

are to be grown. For trees the C:CA ratio is difficult to determine and a rough calculation is

sufficient. Trees are usually grown in micro catchments. As a rule of thumb the size of a

micro catchment area for each tree should range between 10 m² and 100 m², depending on the

climate and the species grown. For rangeland and fodder in water harvesting systems the

objective is to improve performance rather than fully satisfying the water requirements of the

plants. Hence a general guideline for the estimation of the C:CA ratio is sufficient.

Example of Calculation of the C:CA ratio for crops

Climate: Semi-arid

Water harvesting technique: Small scale, e.g. contour ridges

Crop:Soyabean

Crop water requirement: 550 mm

Design rainfall: 320 mm

Runoff coefficient (R): 0.50

Efficiency factor: 0.70

C:CA = (550 - 320) / (320 × 0.50 × 0.70) = 2.05

Conclusion: the catchment area must be approximately 2 times larger than the cultivated area.

In the beginning of this chapter it was mentioned that the C:CA ratio of 3:1 is often used as a

rule of thumb. In small scale systems the ratio is often lower however. This is due to the

higher runoff coefficient because of the shorter catchment slope, and the higher efficiency

factor because the runoff water is less deeply ponded in the cultivated area.

A C:CA ratio of 2:1 to 3:1 is, generally speaking, appropriate for the design of micro-

catchment systems, which are usually used for rangeland and fodder.


LINEAR PROGRAMMING MODEL

Linear programming (LP) is a mathematical method for determining a way to achieve the

best outcome (such as maximum profit or lowest cost) in a given mathematical model for

some list of requirements represented as linear equations. More formally, linear programming

is a technique for the optimization of a linear objective function, subject to linear

equality and linear inequality constraints. Given a polytope and a real-valued affine

function defined on this polytope, a linear programming method will find a point on the

polytope where this function has the smallest (or largest) value if such point exists, by

searching through the polytope vertices.

Linear programs are problems that can be expressed in canonical form:

Maximize: cTx

Subject to: Ax ≤ b.

where x represents the vector of variables (to be determined), c and b are vectors of (known)

coefficients and A is a (known) matrix of coefficients. The expression to be maximized or

minimized is called the objective function (cTx in this case). The equations Ax ≤ b are the

constraints which specify a convex polytope over which the objective function is to be

optimized. (In this context, two vectors are comparable when every entry in one is less-than

or equal-to the corresponding entry in the other. Otherwise, they are incomparable.) Linear

programming can be applied to various fields of study. It is used most extensively in business

and economics, but can also be utilized for some engineering problems. Industries that use

linear programming models include transportation, energy, telecommunications, and

manufacturing. It has proved useful in modeling diverse types of problems in planning,

routing, scheduling, assignment, and design.

Standard form is the usual and most intuitive form of describing a linear programming

problem. It consists of the following four parts:

A linear function to be maximized

e.g., Maximize: c1x1 + c2x2

Problem constraints of the following form

e.g.,

a1,1x1 + a1,2x2 ≤ b1

a2,1x1 + a2,2x2 ≤ b2

a3,1x1 + a3,2x2 ≤ b3 Non-negative variables

e.g.,

x1 ≥ 0

x2 ≥ 0.

Non-negative right hand side constants

bi ≥ 0 The problem is usually expressed in matrix form, and then becomes:

Maximize: cTx

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_model

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimization_(mathematics)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objective_function

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_equality

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_equality

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_inequality

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constraint_(mathematics)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytope

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_number

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affine_function

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affine_function

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonical_form

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convex_set

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytope

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparability

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)


Subject to: Ax ≤ b, x ≥ 0.

Other forms, such as minimization problems, problems with constraints on alternative forms,

as well as problems involving negative variables can always be rewritten into an equivalent

problem in standard form. Sometimes, one may find it more intuitive to obtain the dual

program without looking at program matrix. Consider the following linear program:

minimize

subject to

,

,

,

We have m + n conditions and all variables are non-negative. We shall define m + n dual

variables: yj and si. We get:

minimize

subject to

,

,

,

,

Since this is a minimization problem, we would like to obtain a dual program that is a lower

bound of the primal. In other words, we would like the sum of all right hand side of the

constraints to be the maximal under the condition that for each primal variable the sum of

its coefficients do not exceed its coefficient in the linear function. For example, x1 appears

in n + 1 constraints. If we sum its constraints' coefficients we

get a1,1y1 + a1,2y2 + ... + a1,nyn + f1s1. This sum must be at most c1. As a result we get:

maximize

subject to

,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_(programming)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient


,

,

Note that we assume in our calculations steps that the program is in standard form. However,

any linear program may be transformed to standard form and it is therefore not a limiting

factor.

In the present study, objective functions are formulated for maximizing the

net return, Crop production and optimizing crop pattern under various socio-

economic constraints.

(i) Maximization of crop production:

Where

Ai : area allocated for ith crop, ha or mm2

Yi : area from ith crop, kg/ha

NC : number of crops (NC = 1, 2, 3,…,9)

(ii) Maximization of Net Return

Where

NR = Net Return

Ai : area allocated for ith crop, ha or mm2

Cs : cost of unit volume of surface water, in INR

Ni : net return per unit area from i th crop, in INR

Swj : gross water released for irrigation purposes, if there is any control over the

storage water either by the community or by the government.

In the casae of Madhya Pradesh, it is government run scheme, therefore Swj=0, since there is

no control or have no cost for surface water, therefore maximization of net return only

includes the first term.

(iii)Model for Optimal crop water requirements and Optimal Crop Pattern

Where:

Zj = The gross benefit of the scenario during the


season j

H = Sub-area index of the scenario (h = 1,2,3,….H)

i = Soil type index (i=1,2,3…I)

j = Seasonal index j

k = Crop type (k = 1,2,3…K)

N(bhik) = Net benefit of crop k in sub-area h for soil type

i (In INR/ ha)

X(hijk) = Irrigated area of crop k in sub-area h for soil

type i during season j (ha)

The constraint functions of the model can be divided into different categories which is

described as follows including water constraint and land area constraint. The water constraint

considered the irrigation efficiency of the crops or cultivated area. The overall water

efficiency of the project, can be described as:

Where:

Ep = Overall efficiency of the watershed irrigation area

Vm = Volume of irrigation water needed and made available, for

evapotranspiration

by the crop to avoid undesirable water stress in the plants throughout the

growing

cycle (m3)

V1 = Inflow from other sources to the conveyance system, tehse are water

which is

travelled through other watershed area. (m3)

V2 = Non-irrigation deliveries from conveyance system (m3)

V3 = Non-irrigation deliveries from the distributary’s system (m3)

Vc = Volume diverted or pumped to other location or from the river (m3)

Also

Vm = SWR – ER

Where:

SWR = Total scheme water requirement (m3)

ER = Effective rainfall or Design Rainfall as described earlier(m3)

Water availability constraint

The water required for crop production is obtained from the available surface water resource.

where Sj = surface water available in jth month,

Rjj = water requirement per unit area in excess of effective rainfall for the ith

crop in jth

month,

Nj = total number of crops which are grown in jth month.


Land availability constraint

The total land used for different crops at any time cannot exceed the total available land. The

land allocated to a crop remains unchanged from the time of sowing to time of harvesting.

Where

TA= Total available land

Minimum area constraint is imposed to avoid excessive transportation and land use

where Tj = minimum area allocated to ith scrop.

Optimum use of water can be exercised by improving control over water delivery and other

system apart from the mathematical model discussed above. The model provide us a picture

on crop production and its return. However water utilization can be maximized by reducing

wastages ,leakages and over utilization. Sometimes wastages are half of the water resource. If

people and farmers are able to manage the resources effectively, there won’t be any shortage

of water in the area.

Improving Control over water delivery

Farmer are not able to make correct judgment about water allocation for maximizing the

aggregate returns--which is the multiple of water productivity and total quantum of water

applied in the entire irrigated crop, due to lack of correct information about the levels of

irrigation that yield maximum water productivity; or Farmers are not confronted with either

marginal cost or opportunity cost of using excess water. In the process, they are not able to

get optimum level of yield that gives highest water productivity. What “water control”

interventions or interventions that help establish greater control over water delivery, would

actually help enhance water productivity and to what extent it would enhance it depends on

the shape of the yield and water productivity response curves of the crop in question to

irrigation inputs. It would also depend on what fraction of the applied water is actually used

for non-beneficial depletion from the crop land. We do not have any information about non-

beneficial depletion from the applied water dosage.

There are many water allocation and control measures. Water control is possible either

through two methods:

micro irrigation technologies;

establishing water delivery control devices such as storage systems

Micro irrigation systems, can help achieve two things: a] improves control over applied

water; and b] reduces the non-beneficial depletion of the applied water and maximizing the

consumptive use fraction of the applied water. The potential impact of the second

intervention would be in improving control over applied water, by limiting the dosage each

time. This, in a way, also may help reduce non-beneficial depletion but its impact may be less

significant as compared to micro irrigation.


But, we have not come across situations where farmers are not able to secure optimum levels

of water productivity due to water shortages. Farmers have reasonably high degree of control

over water delivery as they are all well-owners. Power supply is the only factor that reduces

the control over water delivery. In Madhya Pradesh, quality of power supply in agriculture is

poor. The supply is provided in rotations, and sometimes during night hours. They tend to

apply heavy doses of water when power supply is available. This may be leading to a

situation where the water productivity starts declining as found in most cases, or yield

(Rs/m3) itself starts declining.

It is quite understandable that farmers do not care about water productivity much. This is in

spite of the fact that water availability is extremely limited .


Conclusion

Watershed management involves decision making about use of resources for many purposes,

therefore a multi disciplinary approach is essential. Any civil structures require proper

planning for its optimum efficiency. The cost and the benefit for local involved in it is so

important that its proper planning and execution on an appropriate location is essential.

Design and location of such structures needs lot of attention. Another important factor is the

amount of water required calculated from daily consumption or crop requirement. Frequency,

intensity and duration of rainfall along with surface conditions affect the water runoff. They

should be estimated before designing the structures. In this report important and only

necessary formula and models have been discussed. Detailed analysis is necessary for

constructing structures.

Water harvesting and recycling has following constituents.

Collection and harvesting of excess rainfall

Efficient storage of harvested water

Water Application, Lifting and conveyance

Optimum utilisation of applied water for maximum benefits.

Losses due to storage of water are a nasty nuisance as it leads to wastage of water and

damage of the structure. The commonest cause of water loss is seepage and can sometimes be

so serious that it may completely drain the reservoir or stored water. In hot arid and semi arid

regions the water loss from evaporation is substantial. Therefore two type of losses in

Madhya Pradesh has to be taken care of while designing and constructing the structure.

Seepage Loss

Evaporation loss

Other common problem occurring in these structures is piping. Earthen dams suffer through

piping and seepages most.

Ground water management

Groundwater is a precious renewable resource which gets replenishment from the

precipitation .It has been observed during visits to the district that ground water exploitation

is very high across the state. This is major reason for ground water depletion. It is available

in the voids formed in the interspaces between the individual soil particles. It is very

imperative to recharge ground water and make community aware about water resources. In

Betul farmers are aware of ground water recharging. They have developed a system which

recharge their tube wells during monsoon and can be used throughout the year.


A Typical flow chart for soil and water conservation


Watershed management is an ongoing undertaking. New elements both manmade or natural

occurrences may become a factor any time. It is important to remember that when new

challenges arise , the original plan must be revised. This can be said in the case of the gap

between project planning and implementation. This time gap results in increase of the cost. It

reduces the efficiency by upto 40% at a time.

Watershed survey and planning is the preparatory work which, if properly conceptualized and

carried out, permits the successful implementation of actual watershed management. The

technology needs to be infused further. For surveying at site if possible Total station should

be an obvious choice. Now when world is moving fast on technology, The watershed mission

must quickly adopt to its changes. Its looks very fascinating to think of a structure being built

in a very remote area of Madhya Pradesh and is being monitored here at Vindhyachal

Bhawan. This can be made possible with the help of technology. GIS and remote sensing is

the latest buzz for making it real. GIS is a powerful tool that demands consistency and an

understanding of spatial scales, as well as the connection between data tables and the pictures

on the screen. A geographic information system (GIS), or geographical information system,

is any system that captures, stores, analyzes, manages, and presents data that are linked to

location. In the simplest terms, GIS is the merging of cartography and database technology.

GIS systems are used in cartography, remote sensing, land surveying, utility management,

photogrammetry, geography, urban planning, emergency management, navigation,

and localized search engines. In a general sense, the term describes any information

system that integrates, stores, edits, analyzes, shares, and displays geographic information. In

a more generic sense, GIS applications are tools that allow users to create interactive queries,

analyze spatial information, edit data, maps, and present the results of all these operations.

Geographic information science is the science underlying the geographic concepts,

applications and systems, taught in degree and certificate programs at many universities.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_sensing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_surveying

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Utility_management&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogrammetry

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_planning

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_management

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_search_(Internet)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georeference

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_science


Uncertainties in GIS data

The GIS accuracy depends upon source data. Land Surveyors have been able to provide high

level of positional accuracy utilizing the GPS derived positions.The high-resolution digital

terrain and aerial imagery, the powerful computers, Web technology, are changing the

quality, utility, and expectations of GIS to serve society on a grand scale, but nevertheless

there are other source data that has an impact on the overall GIS accuracy like: paper maps

that are not found to be very suitable to achieve the desired accuracy since the aging of maps

affects their dimensional stability.

Developing a Digital Topographic Data Base for a GIS the topographical maps are the main

source of data. Aerial photography and satellite images are extra sources for collecting data.

The scale of a map is a very important aspect since the information content depends mainly

on the scale of the map. In order to digitize the map, the map has to be checked with the

theoretical dimensions, than scanned into a raster format, than the raster data has to be given

the theoretical dimension by rubber sheeting/warping.

Uncertainty is a significant problem in GIS because spatial data tend to be used for purposes

for which they were never intended. Some of the maps were made many decades ago and at

that time the computer industry was not even in the perspective. Map accuracy is relatively an

issue of minor importance in cartography. Maps use a very constrained technology of pen and

paper to communicate a view of the world to their users. Cartographers feel little need to

communicate information on accuracy, but when the same map is digitized and input into a

GIS, the mode of use changes. The new uses extend well beyond the domain for which the

original map was intended and designed.

A quantitative analysis of maps brings accuracy issues into focus. The equipment used to

make measurements in GIS is far more precise than the machines of conventional map

analysis. The truth is that all geographical data are inherently inaccurate, and these

inaccuracies will propagate through GIS operations in ways that are difficult to predict.

Accuracy Standards for 1:24000 Scales Map: 1:24,000 ± 40.00 feet.This means that when we

see a point on a map, its "probable" location is within a +/- 40 area. A GIS can also convert

existing digital information, which may not yet be in map form, into forms it can recognize

and use. For example, digital satellite images generated through remote sensing can be

analyzed to produce a map-like layer of digital information about vegetative covers.

Census or hydrological tabular data can be displayed in map-like form, serving as layers of

thematic information in a GIS map.

As a whole water harvesting is a process which involved intelligent planning, execution,

monitoring and continuous evaluation for its effectiveness. Efficient harvesting structures

requires following procedures to be followed.

1. Proper Selection of sites.

2. Information of catchment area

3. Type of cost effective structure

4. Command Area

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_images

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_sensing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census


5. Planning and estimate of structures

6. Monitoring

7. Evaluation

8. Community Awareness

Constraints we faced:

Where ever I have visited I have seen all type of structures existing in the area. Let us assume

a dam is made 2x1.5x1 m and designed for a water storage of 1000 m3

,taking into account of

a free board of 0.5 m. Now if the actual storage is up to a height of 1 m and the storage is

1000 m3, still the dam needs to be corrected and height can be reduced. In contrary if HFL is

1.5 m and the storage is only 500 m3, the dam still needs modification either by modified

catchment or constructing it on a correct location.

We have seen structures. We have not observed it in a running condition. Any modification

or suggestion to the particular structure can be made only after watching it in actual running

conditions. That is a reason why I am able to put recommendation in general and not for a

particular structure. A stop dam in Bhopal is built in 4 lacs, the same structure in Ujjain is

built within 2 lacs. The structure in Bhopal has serious cracks in abutment and is expected to

expire in 2-3 years, on contrary Ujjain structure is in nice condition for past five years and is

expected to last for another 10 years. Two type of conclusion can be drawn from this,

1. Either the structure in Bhopal has severe technical flaws

2. Or, it is in excessive use, any conclusion can be drawn only after watching it in actual

running condition or getting the actual usage data before the structure and after the

structure is built.

A comment on existing structures can be made only after processing these data and getting

the actual usage result. For incoming structures these basic flaws can be avoided and a

positive outcome can be achieved.


References

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http://www.watermissionmp.com/content/module.html

http://megphed.gov.in/

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