INFORMATION Ta USERSThis manuscript has been reproduced trom the microfilm master. UMI filmsthe text diredly trom the original or copy submitted. Thus. sorne thesis anddissertation copies are in typewriter face. while others may be from any type ofcomputer printer.The qualfty of thls reproduction la dependent upon the quallty of thecopy submltted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrationsand photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improperalignment can adversely affect reproduction.ln the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscriptand there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorizedcopyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced bysectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand corner and continuingtrom left to right in equal sections with small overtaps.ProQuest Information and Leaming300 North Zeeb Raad, Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346 USA800-521-0600'Rape perceptions and the impact of social relations:Insigbts from women in Beirutby Samantha WehbiSchool of Social WorkMcGili Univenity. Montrea.October 2000A tbais submitted to tlle Facuhy of Gnduate Stadia and Resean:b in partial rullilment of tllerequiremeats of tlle degree of Pb.D. in MlCiai workCopyriptsamantba webbi 2000Ail ript. retened. No part of tbis diuertation may !Je reproducedor traasmtted wdlout penniaion in ...ritinl 'rom the autbor1+1 National Ubraryof CanadaAcquisitions andBibliographie seNas3a5 WeIingIDn StreetOttawa ON K1A ()N.tcanadlIBibliothque nationaleduC8nadaAcquisitions etservices bibliographiques385. rue wellingtonoaawa ON K1 A 0N4c.n.daThe author bas granted a 000-exclusive licence allowing theNational Library ofCaoada toreproduce, loan, distnbute or seOcopies of this tbesis in microform,paper or electronic formats.The author retains ownership of thecopyright in this thesis. Neither thethesis nor substantial extracts trom itMay he printed or otherwisereproduced without the author'spermission.L'auteur a accord une licence nonexclusive permettant laBibliothque nationale du Canada dereproduire, prter, distribuer ouvendre des copies de cette thse sousla forme de microfiche/film, dereproduction sur papier ou sur formatlectronique.L'auteur conserve la proprit dudroit d'auteur qui protge cette thse.Ni la thse ni des extraits substantielsde ceUc-ci ne doivent tre imprimsou autrement reproduits sans sonautorisation.0-612-69947-1Canadl Table of ContentsAbstnct iAbrg iAcknowled....eats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vChapter 1: Perceptions of rape: Tbeoretical and empirical esplorations1. Introduction .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2. Research rationale 33. Dissenation overview 64. Feminist theorizing ofrape 94. 1 Public perception of tape as an indiyidu" isolated problem 94.2 Egulljoa tape witb SCJ 124.3 Womcn' $ rc1uctlOcc to label tbor 0WD expericoces as tape . . .. 154.4 Femjoisl tbeorizina ofrapc' An imcmal critique 17 5. Perceptions of rape: Empirical scholarship 225.1 The use ofphYsjcal force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 235.2 Alcobol coDwmptioQ 245.3 The R'ationshjp bctween the aetors invo'yed . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2S5.4 A womao' $ actions 26Chapter %: Perceptions of npe: Eumining the impact of social relations1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 282. Theoretical approaches to the study of rape 282.1 Ibc addjtiyc IIIPrQIb : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 292.2 The iptcncc;tjonallDDmeb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 333. Arabie feminist scholanhip: Applying intenectionality 373.1 RcprCfiCDWiops of Arabjc womcn's 'P".Ij\)' 373.2 The family u a basic sgcjaI uojt 413.3 The importIpCC ofvirainilY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 44Cbapter 3: Methodology 1. Feminist framework: epistemological tenets and methodological tools . 481.1 The ajtuatedness o(lrnowlediC 491.2 Women' $ liyes as a stanina point Gcnder and imer5CCtionality . 541.3 ExpJorioa tbe connedion bctwccn [CWrbcr and panjcipant .. 572. Qualitative grounded methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 583. Data sources and collection methods 603.1 Samplina 613.2 Aouots ofwomcn in Bcjrut 623.3 Accoums of LCRYAW yolumeers 663.4 Accoums ofkey informants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693.5 Participant observation 713.6 Ncwspaper articles and journal emries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 734. Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 745. EthicaJ dimensions 75 6. Terminology and translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 786. 1 TennioolQIY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 786.2 Translation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80Cbapter 4: The LebaneseIBeinti context1. Introdue:tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832. Five aspects orthe BeirutiILebanese context 852.1 Hist0rical Overvicw 862.2 WK 882.3 Rcliaious divmibfsctarianjmJ 912 4 Eth' di . l' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 942.S Economic situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982 6 Marri . the LebaneseIB" .. _Ilem _elD1tl COmcxt 100Chapter 5: The CODstruCtiOD of Dlarriage l. Introduction " 1052. mustrating the importance ofmaniage " 1062.1 MauiliC as a diyjocly Qntro"e4 ncceuilY 1072.2 Marri. U an unwcd woman' 5 ccntpl conccm 1092.3 Pressure to let married " 1123. Exploring the importance of maniage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1143.1 The relationsbjp bctwCCQ marriue and WPDlCD' s aexuality .. " 1143.2 Economje factors 1164. Conditions ofacceptability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1184. 1 AcceptabililY of a marri,&! union 1184. 1. 1 Religionlseclarianism......................... 1204.1.2 Race/ethnie relations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1234.1.3 Relalions across socioeeonomic sloms 1274.2 AcceptabililY of potential marrialc panners . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1294. 1. 1 Age....................................... 1304.1.2 AUlonomy . . . . . . .. 1315. Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... " 134Cbapter 6: Perceptions of consensual ses1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1352. The relationship between l o v e ~ consent and rape 1363. Consequences ofconsenting to sex 1383.1 Consequenccs Qf conscpt Reputation. vU:PlY aod marriUpbility................................................ 1423.2 B)JJminl tbe conYQuCQccs' The case ofalrpdy unmarriasub1eWOIDCD '.' " 1464. Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 152Cbapter 7: Perceptions 01 npe 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1S42. What counts as rape? IS52. 1 The use Qf physjcal oercion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1552.2 Stranller mpe 1592.3 Cbjld rage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1612.4 Arranlled marriaaes " 1633. The more kely vietim 1674. The more kely rapist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1695. Chapter summary . . . . . . . . . . _. . . . . . .. 173Cbapter 8: Key findings: Implications lor tbeory, researcb and practice1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 174 2. Conceptions of women' s agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1762. 1 ImplicatiQDs for theo[)' 1782.2 Implications for practie 1792.3 ImplicatiQns for researb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1803. Impact of social relations 1823. 1 Implications for tbCQ[)' 1833.2 Implications for praeticc . . . . . " 1853.3 Implications for researb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1874. The line between consensual sex and rape " 1894. 1 Implications for tbegty 19142 1 li . ~ .. .mp_catlons lor practlce . . . . . .. 1934.3 Implications for rCY'rb 1945. Concluding thoughts " 196 AppendicesAppendix A: Map ofcontemporary Lebanon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 198Appendix B: Summary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 199Appendix C: Pamphlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 205 207Appendix E: Interview Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 209Appendix F: Consent form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 213References 214List of TablesTable 1:Table 2:Table 3:Table 4:Selected charaeteristics ofthe women interviewecl 63Selected charaeteristics ofthe volunteers interviewecl . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68Selected charaeteristics of key informants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 70Translation of selected terminology used in various data sources. . . . .. 79A.tnetConducted within a feminist ftamework and guided by the principles of sroundedtheory tbis dissenation reports on the findings of a study ofwomen's rape undenaken in Lcbanon. The study relied on 38 interviews. participantobservation. and areview ofnewspaper anicles (1996-1999) and orpnizational doaunents.ln Ibis dissenation. 1 argue that perceptions of rape ref1ect, reinforce, and aresupported by dominant social relations based on elements ofsocial location such as gender,religion., socioeconomic ethnicity and race. More specifica1ly, 1maintainthat the relationship between perceptions of rape on one and social relations on the is mediated by the ntraIity ofmarriage. This Mediation is reflected in two processes.First, social relations lad to ditTerential constructions of womanhood and perceivedmaniageability, wtch in tum play a large role in shaping perceptions ofwhat counts as rape.Concretely, tbis impacts on wbieh women are perceived to be eonsenting ta sex and thoseperceived to be rape vietims.Second social relations Mtruct a marriage that adheres to specifie conditions as theonly acceptable union between a man and a woman in Beinati society. In theseconstructions of acptability shape wbat COUDts as 46rea1" tape versus consensual !eX.Concretely, this means that reIationships tbat faIl outside this construction ofacceptability aremore readily labeled as rape.In the tint four chapters ofthe 1 provide background information aboutthe study' 5 theoretical fi'amework, location within the broader entpirical scholarsbip on rapeperceptions, and methodology. 1aIso provide detaed infonnation about the BeirutiILebanesecomm. Chapters S, 6 and 7 are empirical chapters relating sorne ofthe tindings ofthe studyas they relate to the centrality of marriage and perceptions ofrape and consent. Chapter 8concludes the dissertation with a discussion of the themes of women's ageney, the linebetween sex and rape, and the impact of social relations. Through this discussion, 1 ofJ'erconcrete insights for the further development oftheory, research and praetice with the issueofrape.AbrgCette thse offie un compte rendu d'une tude entreprise auprs des femmes Beyrouth au sujet des perceptions du viol. Cette tude qui a t mene dans un cadrefministe et guide par les principes de la mthodologie "grounded theoryt't, s'est fonde sur38 l'observation panicipante, et une analyse des articles de journal (1996-1999)et des documents organisationnels.Dans cette thse, je propose que les perceptions du viol refltent, renforcent, et sontsuppones par des relations sociales de pouvoir situes l'intersection des lments tels quele genre, la le statut socio-conomique, la condition physique, ainsi quel'appartenance ethnique.Plus spcifiquement, je maintiens que le rapPO" entre les perceptions du viol et lesrelations sociales est ngoci par l'importance accorde au mariage. Ceci est reflte dansdeux processus. Premirement, les relations sociales mnent aux constructions diffrentiellesdes femmes et des possibilits de mariage; ces constructions jouent leur tour un rleimportant dans la formulation des perceptions du viol. Ceci dtermine quelles femmes sontperues comme consentantes au sexe versus celles perues comme victimes de viol.En second lieu, les relations sociales construisent un mariage qui adhre aux conditionsspcifiques comme seule union acptabIe entre un homme et une fmme. Cette constructiond'aeptabilit est la base du disrnement fait entre le viol et le sexe consensuel. Cecisignifie que les rapports sexuels qui tombent en dehors de cette acceptabilit sont plusfacilement perus comme du viol.iDans les quatre premiers chapitres, je prsente le cadre thorique et la mthodologiede l'tude; de plus, je discute la littrature empirique sur les perceptions de viol. Je fournisgalement des informations dtailles au sujet du contexte sociopolitique du Liban et duBeyrouth. Les chapitres S, 6 et 7 exposent les rsultats de l'tude en mettant l'accent surl'association entre l'imponance du mariage, et les perceptions du viol et du consentement. Lathse conclut avec le Chapitre 8, o je discute l'autonomie des femmes, le discernement entrele sexe et le viol, et l'impact des relations sociales. Ce chapitre propose des enjeux pour lathorie, la recherche et la pratique au sujet du viol.ivAcknowledgmeDISIt is with quiet joy that 1 pen these acknowledgrnents: As tbis dissertationis ready for submission. This work bas been rny Ulabor of love" but bas al50 been shaped and transformed into its present state through the caring, loVn& supponivecontributions many women. First and foremost. my deepest appreciation goes to Dr.Julia Krane, my thesis advisor. Julia, 1hope you realize that the amount ofwork, energy,patience and support that you invested ioto our professional relationsbip in the past couple ofyears bas greatly enriched my doctoral experience and in panicular Ibis dissertation. May youreceive back even one ounce of the caring and love lhat you put into my work.Al50 important to mention is the generous contribution of my co-advisor ProreslOrAnn Piquet-Deeby (Universit de Montral) and committee member Dr. Marie-NatbalieLeblanc (Concordia University). Their timely feedback and hours of discussion about myresearch were great sources of suppon and inspiration. Dr. a.rabra Nicbols., my tirstadvisor also provided much needed encouragement in the initial phase ofmy doctoral studiesbefore her retirement.There were also other great contributors to my work. My fiiend Katberine Moulesprovided financiaI support but more imponantly the needed encouragement for me to pursuedoctoral studies. Katherine, you wanted me to he your voice; here it-is. My ooly regret is thatyou are not with me to witness the fiuition ofthe seeds you planted. May you be restins inpeace and may your encouragement continue to guide me.vThe acknowledgment section would not be complete without much thanks andappreciation to HiDd 8araIb, Lina Abul-N.r. Sylvana Al-LaIddJ. Buda Ka...... and mymother Roulde (tani, who provided the biggest suppon in Beirut. They helped me find study kept me updated on current introduced me to the right people at the rightlime. brainstormed with me about my findings, and gained me acss to organizations andconununity clrcles. It warms my han to realize that generous people such as you exist; youtruly gave with no expeaation of anything in retum.It goes without saying lhat much gratitude and appreciation goes to the women andmen who look pan in this study, inclucling those aetivists who are ceaselessly fighting to rnakeLebanon a safer place for women. Your open feedbacl honesty and courage in speakingabout a still-taboo issue bas made this dissertation what it is today.1 end this section with much gratitude for my dad and my brother whose continuedemotional suppon have pushed me to achieving great heights. Last but not least. 1 owe agreat debt of gratitude to my fiiend S.S.B., who made my doctoral joumey more than anacademic exercise. Patience. perseverence, and humility are a few of the lessons youtaught me in one ofthe most imponant spiritual adventures ofmy shon life. 1look forwardto more lessons.viCh.pter 1Perceptions of rape:Tbeoretical and empirical explorations"{The Scarborough bedroom rapist] possibly lias Q girlfriend or Q wife-since, Qccording 10 FBI research, lhe majority of rapists are involved incOluensuai relationships al the lime ofthe;r crimes"(Anderssen, 1999. p. 24).1. IDtroduetionIn September 1999, the Globe and Mail featured an article about the "Scarboroughbedroom rapist" suspected of having carried out eight Ontario rapes of women in their ownbedrooms (Anderssen. 1999). Based on the opinion ofFBI research about seriai rapists, thejoumaJjst, Erin Anderssen. noted that the Scarborough bedroom rapist was probably involvedin a consensual relationship at the time ofhis crimes. 1read the story with fear, sadness andanger gripping my heart; something about it gnawed al me. Not only was 1disturbed that hewas still on the loose, 1 was also distressed that tbis girltiiend or wife was assumed to beengaged in consensual sex with the Scarborough bedroom rapist simply by vinue ofbeing ina relationship with him. In other words, being in a relationship is equivalent to giving consent.ln 1982, Canadan law changed to ret1ect the understanding that a husband caoaetuaDy be charpd with the rape ofhis wife; being in an intimate relationship, even one wherethe partners are married, no longer implied automatic consent to sex within the relationship.Yet, the Globe and Mail story perpetuates the notion that beng in an intimate relationshipThe Globe and Mail is a national Canadian newspaper.1C'girlmend or wifen) implies engaging in consensual sexual relations. Within theUnited States and the United persistent perceptions about rape, such as thatillustrated in the Globe and Mail article, have been at the heart ofa continued interest takenby theorists, researchers and aetivists in examning sexuality, rape, and Perceptions ofboth(Day, 1994; Grif6n, 1979; Harvey" Gow, 1994; Lewis and Clark; 1977; MacKinnon, 1995).Unlike Canadian. American and British contexts, there are currently no publishedworks on rape within Arabic countries. Indeed, writings about rape, as weB as other issuestouctng women's sexuaIity-e.g. consensual heterosexual sex, etc.--have been quite invisible and taboo. While women' s sexuality bas long been a site of struggleand contestation in societies across the globe, its mPOnanee bas been relegated to aseeondary, aImost non-existent, status in feminist analyses of women' s lives within Arabiesocieties (Akkad, 1990; Memissi, 1996; Sabbagh, 1996). Yet, as Mernissi (1996) reminds us:Sexuality is one ofthe most malleable of human charaeteristies, and societieshave always made use of this faet in arder ta hamess it to their ends,sometirnes at the cost ofenonnous damage. (p. 37)At the hean oftbis dissertation is a concem about the darnaging uses of sexuality, and morespecifically about rape within an Arabie context. Condueted within a feminist &amework andrelying on grounded methodology, the present study set out to explore bow sesualzedviolence I conltrueted by wo.en iD cODtemponry Beinati Constructions ofsocial phenomena are complex Uld inelude perceptions, beliefs, definitions and personalexperiens. Considering the taboo nature of sexual issues, data for this study coUected traminterviews, participant observation and a review ofwritten documents, consisted primarily ofwornen' s perceptions with rare disclosures of personal experences. Therefore, in tbis2dissertation, 1have ehosen to focus on one aspect ofthe construction of sexualized violence:perc;eptons ofrape. 1al50 address perceptions ofconsensual but these are discussed toshed more light on perceptions ofrape.2. Research ratioDateThe curreot study' 5 rationale is multidimensional. On a theoreticaileveL this studyresponded to the concems expressed by Arabie 1Third world feminists about the dearth ofresearehlscholarship by or about Third world women (Bannerji, Joseph, 1983, 1993;Kadi. 1994; Mohanty, 1997). Given that researeh on rape perceptions basbeen condueted with supposedly senerie women-white, middle--elass women--while assumedto represent the reality of ail women (Landrine, 1992; Trotman Reid &. Kelly, 1994; Wyatt,1992), this study aimed to contribute to the active process offeminist theory-building aboutthe issue of rape, by exploring perceptions of tbis phenomenon in the lives of a group ofwomen living in an Arabie society.In tenns ofpractice, the present researeh aimed to respond to the concems expressedby recently-nascent Lebanese and Arabie women' s organizations dealing with the issue ofviolence against women. The "Women's Coun: The Permanent Arab Coun to ResistViolence against Women2", established in 1996 with the aims of breaking the sence aboutthe issue of violence against women in Arabie societies, considers the suppon andencouragement ofreseareh studies on tbis issue to be one ofits main objectives. Similarly,2The Arab Women's Court is a pan.Arab women' s organization specifically addressing issuesof violence against women. The Court bas spawned the development of aftiIiatedorganizations working on local issues within most Arab countres.3the Lebanese Council to Resist Violence against Women (LCRVAW), established in 1997 inBeirut a1so calls on researchers to break the silence about violence &gainst women bycondueting studies about tbis issue. While breaking the sence bas become somewhat ofacch in what bas been referred to as Western contexts (Kelly, Burton &. Regan, 1996), it isvery much a necessary step in the cunent process of conftonting rape in Lebanese society.Hence, the curreot study aimed to contribute preliminary information helpful in guiding andproviding support for the intervention and prevention eirons of women' 5 organizationsaddressing the issue ofrape.This study was condueted in Lebanon for two main reasons. First, as Hopkins andIbrahim ( 1997) have indicated, Arabic societies are currently undergoing significant changesin family structure, class relations and gender roles, and Lebanon is no exception. Oneexample of these changes is married wornen' s increased labor force participation. Anothersignifieant change is single women's greater freedom of ehoice in selecting a husband.aJthough many still confonn to famiJy pressures about such selection. At the core ofthese andother such changes is a concem voiced by women' s groups about women' s life conditions.Rape bas long been a feature of women' s lives but bas not yet received any seriousexamination within the Arab world.Second, the Arab world is currently witnessing an increase in mobilization aboutviolence against women, as evidenced by the establishment oforganizations such as the ArabWomen' s Court. More specifica1ly in Lebanon, the end of the civil war in the carly 1990'5heralded a newera of reconstruction which included the development oforganizations suchas the LCRVAW, Ut afIiIiate ofthe Arab Women's Court. Hence, changes in the Arab world4coupled with the increasing mobiIization about violence against women and the end ofthe civilwar in Lebanon. have created a momentum for social change that must be fully takenadvantage ofto explore the issue of rape.Within Lebanon, the selection of Beirut as a specifie site for the present study waschosen as it is the home of4 ( ) D ~ ofLebanon's population and is the city with the greatest shareofDgratiOn. As weIL the ethnie and religious diversity ofLebanon is represented most fuUyin Beirut. FinalIy, Beirut bas historically been and continues to he the center of activeorganizing on women' 5 issues. Most Lebanese and regional women' 5 organizations arelocated in Beirut. For example, the founding conference of the Arab Women's Coun tookplace in Beirut, and the curreot coordinator of the Court is a woman based in Beirut.Aside from the academic impetus just presented, personal queries about rapemotivated the present study. Having fimetioned as a counselor/activist in the oRly women' 5shelter in Yellowknife, Nonhwest Territories, and having coordinated a rape crisis center inCornwalL Ontario, with Francophone, Anglophone and Mohawk populations, 1had extensiveexposure to violence against women. Couple