Ravi P. Gupta

Remote Sensing Geology

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH

Ravi P. Gupta

Remote Sensing Geology

Second Edition

With 453 Figures and 53 Tables

, Springer

Dr. Ravi Prakash Gupta

Professor ofEarth Resourees Teehnology Department ofEarth Seienees Indian Institute ofTeehnology Roorkee (Formerly, University ofRoorkee) Roorkee - 247667, India

E-mail: rpgesfes@iitr.emet.in

Cover page:

Doubly plunging folds in roeks of the Delhi Super Group (Landsat MSS4 infrared band image).

Figure 16.24

Cataloging-in-Publication-Data applied for

Bibliographie information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek. Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographie data is available in the Internet at <http://dnb.ddb.de>

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part ofthe material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is per­mitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH. Violations are liable for proseeution under the German Copyright Law.

http://www.springer.de

ISBN 978-3-642-07741-8 ISBN 978-3-662-05283-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-05283-9

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2003 Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York in 2003 Softeover reprint ofthe hardcover 2nd edition 2003

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regula­tions and therefore free for general use.

Product liability: The publishers cannot guarantee the accuracy of any information about dosage and application contained in this book. In every individual case the user must check such information by consulting the relevant literature.

Production: PRO EDIT GmbH, 69126 Heidelberg, Germany Cover design: Erich Kirchner, Heidelberg Typesetting: Camera-ready by the author Printed on acid-freepaper 32/3141Re-543210

:Jo,

m.s./e

Preface to the Second Edition

The first edition of this book appeared in 1991, and since then there have been many developments in the field of remote sensing, both in the direction of tech­nology of data acquisition as weH as in data processing and applications. This has necessitated a new edition of the book.

The revised edition includes new and updated material on a number of topics -SAR interferometry, hyperspectral sensing, digital imaging cameras, GPS princi­pie, new optical and microwave satellite sensors, and so me of the emerging tech­niques in digital image processing and GIS. Besides, a host of new geological ap­plications of remote sensing are also included.

The book has been thoroughly revised; nevertheless, it retains the originallong axis and style, i.e. discuss the basic remote sensing principles, systems of data ac­quisition, data processing and present the wide ranging geological applications.

The following individuals reviewed parts of the manuscript, suggested im­provements and fumished missing links: R. P. Agarwal, M. K. Arora, R. Gens, U. K. Haritashya, K. Hiller, H. Kaufmann, D. King, J. Mathew, F. vander Meer, R. R. Navalgund, S. Nayak, A. Prakash, S. K. Rath, A. K. Saha, A. K. Sen, and A. N. Singh. I am greatly obliged to them for their valuable inputs and suggestions in ar­riving at the final presentation.

I deeply appreciate the infinite patience and endurance of Sarvesh Kumar Sharma in typing and computer-finishing the manuscript.

Finally, I am indebted to my wife Renu, for her encouragement and support, particularly in times when no end appeared in sight.

Roorkee November 2002

Ravi P. Gupta

Preface to the First Edition

There has been phenomenal growth in the field of remote sensing over the last two to three decades. It has been applied in the fields of geology, mineral explora­tion, forestry, agriculture, hydrology, soils, land use etc. - that is, in all pursuits of sciences dealing with the features, processes, and phenomena operating at the Earth's surface. The status of geological remote sensing has rapidly advanced and the scientific literature is scattered. The aim of the present book is to systemati­cally discuss the specific requirements of geological remote sensing, to summarize the techniques of remote sensing data collection and interpretation, and to inte­grate the technique into geo-exploration.

The main conceptual features of the book are:

- To combine various aspects of geological remote sensing, ranging from the laboratory spectra of minerals and rocks to aerial and space-bome remote sens­ing.

- To integrate photo-geology into remote sensing. - To promote remote sensing as a tool in integrated geo-exploration. - To elucidate the wide-spectrum geoscientific applications of remote sensing,

ranging from meso to global scale.

The book has been written to satisfy the needs of mainly graduate students and active research workers interested in applied Earth sciences. It is primarily concept oriented rather than system or module oriented.

The organization of the book is detailed in Chapter 1 (Table 1.1). The book has three chief segments: (1) techniques, sensors and interpretation of data in the opti­cal region; (2) techniques, sensors and interpretation of data in the microwave re­gion; and (3) data processing, integration and applications.

The idea for the book germinated as I prepared a course in remote sensing at the University of Roorkee for graduate students, during which extensive lecture notes were made. The book is an outcome of my teaching and research at the University ofRoorkee, and partly also at the University ofMunich.

A wide-spectrum book in a field like remote sensing, where advancements are taking place at such a fast pace, can hardly be exhaustive and up-to-date. Although every effort has been made to incorporate recent developments, the priority has been on concepts rather than on compilation of data alone (SPOT data examples could not be included because of copyright limitations).

x Preface

Sincere thanks are due to many individuals and organizations who have con­tributed in various ways to the book. Particularly, I am grateful to Dr. Rupert Haydn, Managing Director, Gesellschaft fur Angewandte Femerkundung mbH, Munich, Germany, and formerly at the University of Munich, for supplying nu­merous illustrations. He kindly provided many images for the book, and offered blanket permission to select illustrations and examples from his wide and precious collection. Dr. Haydn also spent valuable time reviewing parts of the text, offered fruitful criticism and is responsible for many improvements.

Dr. Konrad Hiller, DLR Germany and formerly at the University of Munich, provided what was needed most - inspiration and warm friendly support. Many stimulating discussions with hirn promoted my understanding of the subject matter and led to numerous reforms. Without Konrad's encouragement, this book may not have seen the light of the day.

I am grateful to a number of people, particularly the following, for going through parts of the manuscript of their interest, suggesting amendments and fur­nishing several missing links: K. Amason, R. Chander, R.P.S. Chhonkar, F. Jas­kolla, H. Kaufmann, F. Lehmann, G. Philip, A.K. Saraf, K.P. Sharma, V.N. Singh, B.B.S. Singhal, R. Sinha, D.C. Srivastava, U. Terhalle, R.S. Tiwari, L.C. Venkatadhri and P. Volk.

Thanks are also due to Prof. Dr. J. Bodechtel, Institut für Allgemeine und Angewandie Geologie (Institute for General and Applied Geology), University of Munich, for his advice, suggestions and free access to the facilities at Munich. The Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, Bonn, and the Gesellschaft für Angewandte Femerkundung mbH, Munich (Dr. R. Haydn) kindly provided financial support for my visits and stay in Germany, during which parts ofthe book were written.

A book on remote sensing has to present many pietures and illustrations. A large number of these were borrowed from colleagues, organizations, instrument manufacturers, commercial firms and publications. These are acknowledged in the captions.

For the excellent production ofthe book, the credit goes to Dr. W. Engel, Ms. I. Scherich, Ms. G. Hess, Ms. lean von dem Bussche and Ms. Theodora Krammer of Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg.

Although a number of people have directly and indirectly contributed to the book, I alone am responsible for the statements made herein. It is possible that some oversimplifications appear as erroneous statements. Suggestions from read­ers will be gratefully accepted.

Finally, I am indebted to my wife Renu for not only patiently enduring 4 years of my preoccupation with the book, but also extending positive support and en­couragement.

If this book is able to generate interest in readers for this newly emerging tech­nology, I shall consider my efforts to be amply rewarded.

Roorkee, lune 1991 R. P. Gupta

Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.6.1 1.6.2 1.6.3 1.6.4 1.7

Definition and Scope .................................................... . Development of Remote Sensing ...................................... . Fundamental Principle .................................................. . Advantages and Limitations ............................................ . A Typical Remote Sensing Programme .............................. . Field Data (Ground Truth) ............................................. . Timing ofField Data Collection ...................................... . Sampling ................................................................. . Types ofField Data ..................................................... . GPS Survey .............................................................. . Scope and Organization ofthis Book ................................. .

Chapter 2: Physical Principles

2.1 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4

The Nature ofEM Radiation ........................................... . Radiation Principles and Sources ...................................... . Radiation Terminology ................................................. . Blackbody Radiation Principles ....................................... . Electromagnetic Spectrum ............................................. . Energy Available for Sensing ......................................... . Atmospheric Effects ..................................................... . Atmospheric Scattering ................................................. . Atmospheric Absorption ............................................... . Atmospheric Emission .................................................. . Energy Interaction Mechanisms on the Ground ..................... . Reflection Mechanism .................................................. . Transmission Mechanism ............................................... . Absorption Mechanism ................................................. . Earth's Emission ........................................................ .

1 1 3 4 6 9 9

10 11 14 16

19 20 20 20 23 24 24 25 26 28 28 28 30 32 32

XII

Chapter 3: Spectra of Minerals and Rocks

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.5 3.6 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.7 3.8 3.9

Introduction .............................................................. . Basic Arrangements for Laboratory Spectroscopy ................. . Energy States and Transitions - Basic Concepts .................... . Electronic Processes .................................................... .. Vibrational Processes ................................................... . Spectral Features ofMineralogical Constituents ................... .. Visible and Near-Infrared Region (VNIR) (0.4-1.0 ).tm) .......... . SWIR Region (1-3 ).tm) ............................................ . Thermal-IR Region ..................................................... . Spectra of Minerals ..................................................... . Spectra of Rocks ........................................................ . Solar Reflection Region (VNIR + SWIR) ........................... . Thermal-Infrared Region ............................................... . Laboratory vs. Field Spectra ........................................... . Spectra of Other Common Objects ................................... . Future .................................................................... ..

Chapter 4: Photography

4.1 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.8.1 4.8.2 4.8.3

Introduction .............................................................. . Relative Merits and Limitations ....................................... . W orking Principle ....................................................... . Cameras ................................................................... . Single-Lens Frame Cameras .......................................... .. Panoramic Cameras ..................................................... . Strip Cameras ........................................................... .. Multiband Cameras ..................................................... . Films ...................................................................... . Black-and-White Films ................................................. . Colour Films ............................................................. . Filters ...................................................................... . Film-Filter Combinations for Spectrozonal Photography ......... . Vertical and Oblique Photography .................................... . Ground Resolution Distance ........................................... . Photographic Missions .................................................. . Aerial Photographic Missions ......................................... . Space-bome Photographic Missions .................................. . Product Media ........................................................... .

Contents

33 34 36 36 39 39 39 39 42 44 45 45 48 49 50 52

53 53 54 55 56 58 58 58 59 59 64 68 69 70 71 72 72 72 74

Contents

Chapter 5: Multispeetral Imaging Systems

5.1 5.1.1 5.2 5.2.1 5.3 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.4 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4 5.4.5 5.5 5.5.1 5.5.2 5.5.3 5.5.4 5.5.5 5.5.6 5.5.7 5.5.8 5.5.9 5.5.10 5.5.11 5.5.12 5.5.l3 5.6

Introduction .......................................................... . Working Principle ................................................... . Factors Affecting Sensor Performance ........................... . Sensor Resolution ................................................... . Non-Imaging Radiometers ......................................... . Terminology ......................................................... . Working Principle .................................................. . Imaging Sensors (Scanning Systems) ............................ . What is an Image? .................................................. . Imaging Tube (Vidicon) ........................................... . Optical-Mechanical Line Scanner (Whiskbroom Scanner) ... . CCD Linear Array Scanner (Pushbroom scanner) .............. . Digital cameras (CCD-Area-Arrays) ............................. . Space-bome Imaging Sensors .................................... .. Landsat Programme ................................................. . IRS Series ............................................................ . SPOT Series .......................................................... . MOMS Series ........................................................ . JERS-l (Fuyo-l) OPS .............................................. . CBERS Series ....................................................... . RESURS-l Series ................................................... . ASTER Sensor ....................................................... . MTI .................................................................... . Space Imaging/Eosat - Ikonos ................................... . DigitalGlobe - Quickbird .......................................... . Other Programmes (Past) ......................................... . Planned Programmes ............................................... . Products from Scanner Data ....................................... .

Chapter 6: Geometrie Aspeets of Photographs and Images

6.1 6.1.1 6.l.2 6.1.3 6.l.4 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4 6.2.5 6.3

Geometrie Distortions ................................................ . Distortions Related to Sensor System .............................. . Distortions Related to Sensocraft Altitude and Perturbations .. . Distortions Related to the Earth's Shape and Spin ............... . ReliefDisplacement .................................................. . Stereoscopy ............................................................ . Principle ................................................................ . Vertical Exaggeration ................................................ . Aerial and Space-bome Configurations for Stereo Coverage ... . Photography vis-a-vis Line-Scanner Imagery for Stereoscopy .. Instrumentation for Stereo Viewing ................................ . Photogrammetry ....................................................... .

XIII

75 75 78 80 81 81 82 83 83 84 86 88 92 97 97

105 108 110 111 112 112 113 114 115 115 116 119 121

123 125 128 131 132 136 136 137 138 140 140 142

XIV

6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.4

Measurements on Photographs ...................................... . Measurements on Line-Scanner Images ........................... . Aerial vis-a-vis Satellite Photogrammetry ......................... . Transfer ofPlanimetric Details and Mapping ..................... .

Chapter 7: Image Quality and Principles of Interpretation

7.1 7.1.1 7.2 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.2.4 7.2.5 7.3 7.3.1 7.3.2

Image Quality .......................................................... . Factors Affecting Image Quality .................................... . Handling of Photographs and Images .............................. . Indexing ................................................................. . Mosaic .................................................................. . Scale Manipulation .................................................... . Stereo Viewing ........................................................ . Combining Multispectral Products .................................. . Fundamentals ofInterpretation ...................................... . Elements of Photo Interpretation .................................... . Geotechnical Elements ............................................... .

Chapter 8: Interpretation of Data in the Solar Reflection Region

8.1 8.2 8.2.1 8.2.2 8.2.3 8.2.4 8.2.5 8.3 8.4 8.4.1 8.4.2 8.4.3 8.5 8.6

Introduction ............................................................ . Energy Budget Considerations for Sensing in the SOR Region . Effect of Attitude ofthe Sun ......................................... . Effect of Atmospheric Meteorological Conditions ............... . Effect of Topographic Slope and Aspect .......................... . Effect of Sensor Look Angle ......................................... . Effect of Target Reflectance ......................................... . Acquisition and Processing of Solar Reflection Image Data .... . Interpretation ........................................................... . Interpretation ofPanchromatic Black-and-White Products ..... . Interpretation of Multispectral Products ........................... . Interpretation of Colour Products ................................... . Luminex Method ...................................................... . Scope for Geological Applications ................................. .

Contents

142 144 145 146

147 148 151 151 152 153 153 153 154 155 157

161 162 162 165 165 167 168 168 169 169 174 177 180 180

Chapter 9: Interpretation of Data in the Thermal-Infrared Region

9.1 Introduction ........................................................... 183 9.2 Earth's Radiant Energy - Basic Considerations .............. .... 184 9.2.1 Surface (Kinetic) Temperature ..................................... 185 9.2.2 Emissivity ............................................................. 190 9.3 Broad-Band Thermal-IR Sensing .................................. 190

Contents xv

9.3.1 Radiant Temperature and Kinetie Temperature .............. .... 191 9.3.2 Aequisition ofBroad-Band Thermal-IR Data ................ .... 192 9.3.3 Proeessing ofBroad-Band TIR Images. ........... ............... 194 9.3.4 Interpretation ofThermal-IR Imagery .... .............. ........... 195 9.3.5 Thermal Inertia mapping ....... ....... .............. ............ .... 198 9.3.6 Seope for Geologieal Applieations-

Broad-Band Thermal Sensing ...................................... 201 9.4 Temperature Estimation ......................................... .... 206 9.4.1 Use ofLandsat TM Data for Temperature Estimation .......... 206 9.4.2 Use ofLandsat-7 ETM+ Data for Temperature Estimation .... 209 9.5 Thermal-IR Multispeetral Sensing ........ ................ ......... 210 9.5.1 Multispeetral Sensors in the TIR ................................... 211 9.5.2 Data Correetion and Enhaneement ............................. .... 213 9.5.3 Applieations ........................................................ ... 214 9.6 LIDAR Sensing ...................................................... 215 9.6.1 Working Prineiple ..... ............... ......... ................ ...... 215 9.6.2 Seope for Geologieal Applieations . ........ ...... ................. 216 9.7 Future .................................................................. 216

Chapter 10: Digital Image Processing of Multispectral Data

10.1 10.1.1 10.1.2 10.l.3 1O.l.4 10.l.5 10.2 10.2.1 10.2.2 10.2.3 10.2.4 10.2.5 10.2.6 10.3 10.3.1 10.3.2 10.3.3 10.4 10.4.1 10.4.2 10.4.3 10.5 10.6 10.6.1

Introduetion ........................................................... 217 What is Digital Imagery? ............................................ 217 Sourees of Multispeetral Image Data .............................. 219 Storage and Supply ofDigital Image Data .................... .... 220 Image Proeessing Systems .......................................... 220 Teehniques ofDigital Image Proeessing ....................... ... 222 Radiometrie Image Correction ..................................... 224 Correetion for Atmospheric Contribution ........................ 224 Correetion for Solar Illumination Variation ...................... 226 Correetion for Topographie Effeets ................................ 226 Sensor Calibration ................................................... 228 De-striping ............................................................ 229 Correetion for Periodie and Spike Noise ....................... ... 231 Geometrie Correetions ............................................... 232 Correction for Panoramie Distortion .............................. 232 Correetion for Skewing Due to Earth's Rotation ................ 232 Correetion for Aspeet Ratio Distortion ........................... 233 Registration ......................................................... ... 233 Definition and Importanee .......................................... 233 Prineiple ............................................................... 234 Proeedure .............................................................. 235 Image Enhaneement ................................................. 238 Image Filtering ....................................................... 242 High-Pass Filtering (Edge Enhancement) ........................ 243

XVI

10.6.2 10.6.3 10.7 10.7.1 10.7.2 10.7.3 10.7.4 10.8 10.8.1 10.8.2 10.8.3

10.8.4 10.9 10.9.1 10.9.2 10.10 10.10.1 10.10.2 10.10.3 10.11 10.12 10.12.1 10.12.2 10.12.3 10.12.4 10.12.5 10.12.6

Image Smoothing ................................................... . Fourier Filtering ..................................................... . Image Transformation .............................................. . Addition and Subtraction .......................................... . Principal Component Transformation ............................. . Decorrelation Stretching ........................................... . Ratioing .............................................................. . Colour Enhancement ............................................... . Advantages ........................................................... . Pseudocolour Display ............................................... . Colour Display ofMultiple Images-Guidelines for Image Selection ................................... . Colour Models ....................................................... . Image Fusion ........................................................ . Introduction .......................................................... . Techniques ofImage Fusion ...................................... . 2.5-Dimensional Visualization ..................................... . Shaded Relief Model (SRM) ....................................... . Synthetic Stereo ..................................................... . Perspective View .................................................... . Image Segmentation ................................................ . Digital Image Classification ....................................... . Supervised Classification .......................................... . Unsupervised Classification ....................................... . Fuzzy Classification ................................................ . Linear Mixture Modelling (LMM) ................................ . Artificial Neural Network Classification ........................ . Classification Accuracy Assessment ............................. .

Contents

248 248 250 253 255 258 258 262 262 263

263 264 267 267 267 270 271 271 272 274 274 276 281 282 283 283 284

Chapter 11: Hyperspectral Sensing

11.1 11.2 11.2.1 11.2.2 11.2.3 11.2.4 11.2.5 11.3 11.3.1 11.3.2 11.3.3 11.3.4 11.4 11.4.1

Introduction ........................................................... 287 Spectral Considerations ............................................. 289 Processes Leading to Spectral Features ........................... 289 Continuum and Absorption Depth - Terminology .............. 290 High-Resolution Spectral Features - Laboratory Data ......... 291 Mixtures ............................................................... 294 Spectral Libraries ..................................................... 296 Hyperspectral Sensors ............................................... 296 W orking Principle of Imaging Spectrometers .................... 297 Sensor Specification Characteristics .............................. 299 Airborne Hyperspectra1 Sensors ................................ .... 300 Space-bome Hyperspectra1 Sensors ............................... 300 Processing ofHyperspectral Data ................................. 302 Pre-processing ........................................................ 302

Contents XVII

11.4.2 Radiance-to-Reflectance Transformation ........... .............. 304 1l.4.3 Data Analysis for Feature Mapping ............................... 307 11.5 Applications ........................................................... 311

Chapter 12: Microwave Sensors

12.1 Introduction ........................................................... 317 12.2 Passive Microwave Sensors and Radiometry ................. ... 317 12.2.1 Prineiple............................................................... 317 12.2.2 Measurement and Interpretation .................................... 318 12.3 Aetive Mierowave Sensors - Imaging Radars ................... 320 12.3.1 What is aRadar? ..................................................... 320 12.3.2 Side-Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) Configuration ..... ..... 321 12.3.3 Spatial Positioning and Ground Resolution from SLAR ....... 325 12.3.4 SLAR System Specifieations .......................... .......... ... 328 12.3.5 Aerial and Space-borne SLAR Sensors ........................... 329

Chapter 13: Interpretation of SLAR Imagery

13.1 Introduetion ........................................................... 337 13.2 SLAR Image Charaeteristies ....................................... 337 13.2.1 Radiometrie Characteristics ......................................... 337 13.2.2 Geometrie Charaeteristics .......................................... 342 13.3 SLAR Stereoseopy and Radargrammetry ... ............. ........ 345 13.4 Radar Return .......................................................... 346 13.4.1 RadarEquation ....................................................... 346 13.4.2 Radar System Faetors ............................................ .... 347 13.4.3 Terrain Factors ..................................................... ... 350 13.5 Processing ofSLAR Image Data ........ ................ ...... ..... 355 13.6 Polarimetry ........................................................ .... 357 13.7 Fie1d Data (Ground Truth) .......................................... 358 13.7.1 Corner Refleetors (CRs) ............................................. 359 13.7.2 Scatterometers..................................................... ... 359 13.8 Interpretation and Seope for Geo1ogica1 Applications ..... ..... 359

Chapter 14: SAR Interferometry

14.1 Introduetion ........................................................... 367 14.2 Prineiple of SAR lnterferometry ................................... 367 14.3 Configurations ofData Aequisition for lnSAR. ............ ..... 369 14.4 Baseline ............................................................... 372 14.5 Airborne and Spaee-borne InSAR Systems ............. ......... 373 14.5.1 Airborne Systems .................................................... 373

XVIII Contents

14.5.2 Spaee-borne Systems ................................................ 374 14.5.3 Ground Truth and Corner Refleetors .............................. 376 14.6 Methodology ofData Proeessing ............... ............ ....... 377 14.7 Differential SAR Interferometry (DInSAR) ............. ......... 381 14.8 Faetors Affeeting SAR Interferometry ............................ 382 14.9 Applieations ................. ............. ... ................ .......... 383 14.10 Future .................................................................. 392

Chapter 15: Integrating Remote Sensing Data with Other Geodata (GIS Approach)

15.1 15.1.1 15.1.2 15.2 15.2.l 15.2.2 15.2.3 15.2.4 15.2.5 15.3 15.3.1 15.3.2 15.3.3 15.3.4 15.3.5 15.3.6 15.3.7 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.6.1 15.6.2 15.6.3 15.7

Integrated Multidiseiplinary Geo-investigations ................. 393 Introduetion ........................................................... 393 Seope ofthe Present Diseussion ................................ .... 395 Geographie Information System (GIS) - Basies ................. 395 What is GIS? .......................................................... 395 GIS Data Base.... ................. ..... ........................... ... 397 Continuous vs. Categorieal Data ................................... 398 Basie Data Struetures in GIS ....................................... 399 Main Segments of GIS .............................................. 400 Data Aequisition (Sourees of Geo-data in a GIS) ............... 400 Remote Sensing Data ................................................ 400 Geophysical Data ..................................................... 400 Gamma Radiation Data ............................................. 403 Geochemical Data ................................................... 404 Geologieal Data ...................................................... 404 Topographical Data ...................................... ............ 404 Other Thematie Data ................................................ 405 Pre-proeessing ........................................................ 405 Data Management .................................................... 413 Data Manipulation and Analysis ................................ ... 413 Image Proeessing Operations ....................................... 413 Classification ......................................................... 416 GIS Analysis .......................................................... 420 Applications ........................................................... 424

Chapter 16: Geological Applications

16.1 Introduction ........................................................... 429 16.2 Geomorphology ...................................................... 431 16.2.1 Tectonie Landforms .................................................. 433 16.2.2 Volcanie Landforms ....... .................. ................... ..... 434 16.2.3 Fluvial Landforms ................................................... 435 16.2.4 Coastal and Deltaic Landforms .................................... 441

Contents

16.2.5 16.2.6 16.3 16.3.1 16.3.2 16.3.3 16.3.4 16.3.5 16.3.6 16.3.7 16.3.8 16.4 16.4.1 16.4.2 16.4.3 16.4.4 16.4.5 16.5 16.6 16.6.1 16.6.2

16.6.3 16.6.4 16.6.5 16.6.6 16.6.7 16.7 16.8 16.8.1 16.8.2 16.8.3 16.9 16.9.l 16.9.2 16.9.3

16.10

16.10.l 16.l 0.2 16.10.3 16.11 16.11.1 16.11.2 16.12

Aeolian Landforms .................................................. . Glacial Landforms .................................................. . Structure .............................................................. . Bedding and Simple-Dipping Strata .............................. . Folds .................................................................. . Faults ................................................................. . Neovolcanic Rift Zone ............................................. . Lineaments ........................................................... . Circular Features .................................................... . Intrusives ............................................................. . Unconformity ........................................................ . Lithology ............................................................. . Mapping ofBroad-Scale Lithologie Units - General ........... . Sedimentary Rocks .................................................. . 19neous Rocks ....................................................... . Metamorphie Rocks ................................................. . Identification of Mineral Assemblages .......................... . Stratigraphy .......................................................... . Mineral Exploration ................................................. . Remote Sensing in Mineral Exploration ......................... . Main Types of Mineral Deposits and their Surface Indications .................................................. . Stratigraphical-Lithological Guides .............................. . Geomorphological Guides ......................................... . Structural Guides .................................................... . Guides Formed by Rock Alteration ............................... . Geobotanical Guides ............................................... . Hydrocarbon Exploration .......................................... . Groundwater Investigations ....................................... . Factors Affecting Groundwater Occurrence .................... . Indicators for Groundwater on Remote Sensing Images ...... . Application Examples .............................................. . Engineering Geologicallnvestigations ........................... . River Valley Projects - Dams and Reservoirs .................. . Landslides ............................................................ . Route Location (Highways and Railroads) and Canal and Pipeline Alignments ................................... . Neotectonism, Seismic Hazard and Damage Assessment ........................................................... . Neotectonism ........................................................ . Local Ground Conditions .......................................... . Disaster Assessment ................................................ . Volcanic and Geothermal Energy Applications ................. . Volcano Mapping and Monitoring ................................ . Geothermal Energy .................................................. . Coal Fires ............................................................. .

XIX

442 444 445 448 450 456 460 460 477 480 480 481 481 482 486 490 493 497 498 498

501 502 502 503 505 515 519 523 524 526 526 536 536 539

542

542 543 551 555 555 555 560 563

xx

16.13 16.13.1 16.13.2 16.13.3 16.13.4 16.13.5 16.13.6 16.14

Environmental Applications ....................................... . Vegetation ............................................................ . Land Use .............................................................. . Soil Erosion .......................................................... . Oil Spills .............................................................. . Smoke from Oil Well Fires ........................................ . Atmospheric Pollution .............................................. . Future ................................................................. .

Contents

571 572 573 575 576 581 583 583

Appendices .............................................................. 585

References ............................................................ ... 593

Illustrations - Location Index ..................................... 623

Subject Index ......................................................... 627