reading essentials and study guide - student edition history/world history reader study...

STUDENT EDITION

Reading Essentialsand Study Guide

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Permission is granted to reproducethe material contained herein on the condition that such material be reproduced only for classroom use;be provided to students, teachers, and families without charge; and be used solely in conjunction with Journey Across Time. Any other reproduction, for use or sale, is prohibited without written permission fromthe publisher.

Send all inquiries to:Glencoe/McGraw-Hill8787 Orion PlaceColumbus, Ohio 43240-4027

ISBN 0-07-869477-9

Printed in the United States of America.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 079 10 09 08 07 06 05

This Reading Essentials and Study Guide booklet is designed to helpyou use recognized reading strategies to improve your reading-for-information skills. For each section of the Student Edition, you arealerted to key terms, asked to draw from prior knowledge, organizeyour thoughts with a graphic organizer, and then follow a process toread and understand the text. This booklet was prepared to help youget more from your textbook by reading with purpose.

TO THE STUDENT

iii

To the Student ii

Unit 1: Early Civilizations

Chapter 1: The First CivilizationsStudy Guide 1-1 Early Humans 1Study Guide 1-2 Mesopotamian Civilization 7Study Guide 1-3 The First Empires 13

Chapter 2: Ancient EgyptStudy Guide 2-1 The Nile Valley 17Study Guide 2-2 Egypt’s Old Kingdom 24Study Guide 2-3 The Egyptian Empire 28Study Guide 2-4 The Civilization of Kush 33

Chapter 3: The Ancient IsraelitesStudy Guide 3-1 The First Israelites 37Study Guide 3-2 The Kingdom of Israel 41Study Guide 3-3 The Growth of Judaism 45

Unit 2: The Ancient World

Chapter 4: The Ancient GreeksStudy Guide 4-1 The Early Greeks 52Study Guide 4-2 Sparta and Athens 58Study Guide 4-3 Persia Attacks the Greeks 63Study Guide 4-4 The Age of Pericles 68

Chapter 5: Greek CivilizationStudy Guide 5-1 The Culture of Ancient Greece 74Study Guide 5-2 Greek Philosophy and History 80Study Guide 5-3 Alexander the Great 84Study Guide 5-4 The Spread of Greek Culture 88

Chapter 6: Early IndiaStudy Guide 6-1 India’s First Civilizations 92Study Guide 6-2 Hinduism and Buddhism 98Study Guide 6-3 India’s First Empires 102

Table of ContentsTable of Contents

iv

Chapter 7: Early ChinaStudy Guide 7-1 China’s First Civilizations 108Study Guide 7-2 Life in Ancient China 114Study Guide 7-3 The Qin and Han Dynasties 121

Unit 3: New Empires and New Faiths

Chapter 8: The Rise of RomeStudy Guide 8-1 Rome’s Beginnings 127Study Guide 8-2 The Roman Republic 131Study Guide 8-3 The Fall of the Republic 136Study Guide 8-4 The Early Empire 141

Chapter 9: Roman CivilizationStudy Guide 9-1 Life in Ancient Rome 146Study Guide 9-2 The Fall of Rome 152Study Guide 9-3 The Byzantine Empire 159

Chapter 10: The Rise of ChristianityStudy Guide 10-1 The First Christians 165Study Guide 10-2 The Christian Church 172Study Guide 10-3 The Spread of Christian Ideas 178

Chapter 11: Islamic CivilizationStudy Guide 11-1 The Rise of Islam 184Study Guide 11-2 Islamic Empires 189Study Guide 11-3 Muslim Ways of Life 196

Unit 4: The Middle Ages

Chapter 12: China in the Middle AgesStudy Guide 12-1 China Reunites 201Study Guide 12-2 Chinese Society 208Study Guide 12-3 The Mongols in China 214Study Guide 12-4 The Ming Dynasty 219


v

Chapter 13: Medieval AfricaStudy Guide 13-1 The Rise of African Civilizations 225Study Guide 13-2 Africa’s Government and Religion 232Study Guide 13-3 African Society and Culture 239

Chapter 14: Medieval JapanStudy Guide 14-1 Early Japan 246Study Guide 14-2 Shoguns and Samurai 252Study Guide 14-3 Life in Medieval Japan 259

Chapter 15: Medieval EuropeStudy Guide 15-1 The Early Middle Ages 265Study Guide 15-2 Feudalism 273Study Guide 15-3 Kingdoms and Crusades 281Study Guide 15-4 The Church and Society 290Study Guide 15-5 The Late Middle Ages 297

Unit 5: A Changing World

Chapter 16: The AmericasStudy Guide 16-1 The First Americans 302Study Guide 16-2 Life in the Americas 310Study Guide 16-3 The Fall of the Aztec and Inca Empires 320

Chapter 17: The Renaissance and ReformationStudy Guide 17-1 The Renaissance Begins 327Study Guide 17-2 New Ideas and Art 334Study Guide 17-3 The Reformation Begins 341Study Guide 17-4 Catholics and Protestants 348

Chapter 18: Enlightenment and RevolutionStudy Guide 18-1 The Age of Exploration 356Study Guide 18-2 The Scientific Revolution 366Study Guide 18-3 The Enlightenment 373Study Guide 18-4 The American Revolution 381


vi

Unit 6: Modern Times

Chapter 19: Industry and NationalismStudy Guide 19-1 The French Revolution and Napoleon 391Study Guide 19-2 The Industrial Revolution 399Study Guide 19-3 Society and Industry 404Study Guide 19-4 Nationalism and Nation-States 412

Chapter 20: Imperialism and World War IStudy Guide 20-1 The New Imperialism 421Study Guide 20-2 Nationalism in China and Japan 428Study Guide 20-3 World War I Begins 435Study Guide 20-4 World War I Changes the World 441

Chapter 21: World War II and the Cold WarStudy Guide 21-1 The Rise of Dictators 447Study Guide 21-2 World War II Begins 455Study Guide 21-3 The Allies Win the War 461Study Guide 21-4 The Cold War 467Study Guide 21-5 The End of Empire 476

Chapter 22: Building Today’s WorldStudy Guide 22-1 Challenges in Latin America 485Study Guide 22-2 Africa and the Middle East 494Study Guide 22-3 The Cold War Ends 502Study Guide 22-4 The World Enters a New Century 508


1

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

READING ESSENTIALS AND STUDY GUIDE 1-1

Early Humans For use with pages 8–15

Drawing From ExperienceYou know that certain jobs—computer technician, ath-

lete, salesperson—often require traveling from place toplace. But can you imagine an entire community thatmoved several times a year?

In this section, you will learn why bands of peopleonce roamed the land—and what enabled them to finallysettle down. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the following cause-and-effect chart to track howearly humans adapted to their environment. Use detailsfrom the text to help you fill in each blank.

Key Termshistorian: a person who studies and writes about the human past (page 9)

archaeologist: a scientist who digs up clues about the past (page 9)

artifact: a weapon, tool, or other item made by humans (page 9)

fossil: traces of plants or animals that have been preserved in rock (page 9)

anthropologist: a scientist who studies how humans and their societiesdevelop (page 9)

nomad: a person who regularly moves from place to place (page 10)

technology: tools and methods that help humans perform tasks (page 11)

domesticate: to tame plants or animals for human use (page 13)

specialization: a practice in which different people focus on different jobs(page 15)

Cause Effect

1. Because people hunted and . . . Paleolithicgathered . . .

2. Fire was a life-changing . . . fire provideddevelopment because . . .

3. After people learned how to . . . they were able togrow food . . .

4. Because not everyone was . . . some people specializedneeded for farming . . .

Early Humans (page 9)

Paleolithic people adapted to their environment and invented manytools to help them survive.

History is the story of our human past. Historiansstudy and write about what people did long ago. Histori-ans tell us that history began when people first began towrite—about 5,500 years ago. The time before this iscalled prehistory. This is when the human story reallybegins. Tools of Discovery We study the earliest people and the thingsthey left behind. Scientists called archaeologists hunt forclues to the past by digging underground. They choosesites where humans might once have settled. Archaeolo-gists discover artifacts, such as tools, weapons, bowls,and other things humans made. They also hunt for tracesof plants or animals in rock called fossils.

Another type of historian is an anthropologist. Thesepeople study how different kinds of societies developed.They look for clues to how people related to one another.

Historians call the early period of human history theStone Age. It is named for the fact that people during thistime used stone to make tools and weapons. The earliestpart of the Stone Age is the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age.This time began about 2.5 million years ago and lasteduntil around 8000 B.C.Who Were the Hunter-Gatherers? We know that early humansspent most of their time searching for food. They huntedanimals, caught fish, ate insects, and gathered nuts,berries, fruits, grains, and plants.

Because they lived off what the land provided, Pale-olithic people were always on the move. They werenomads, or people who move regularly. They looked forgood, rich land. They moved in bands of about 30. Thegroup kept members safer.

At each new place, people camped near a stream orother water source. Women stayed close to the campsite.

2

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

READING ESSENTIALS AND STUDY GUIDE 1-1 (continued)

3

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

They cared for the children and searched nearby woodsfor berries, nuts, and grains.

Men hunted animals. This sometimes took them farfrom camp. Men had to learn the habits of different ani-mals. They also needed to make tools for the kill. The earliest tools, such as clubs, were used for such a purpose.Men also killed animals by driving them off cliffs. Later,people invented spears, traps, and bows and arrows.Adapting to the Environment The way Paleolithic people liveddepended on where they lived. Those in warm climatesneeded little clothing or shelter. People in cold climatesneeded more. Many lived in caves. Over time, people cre-ated new kinds of shelters, such as animal hides held upby wooden poles.

Paleolithic people also learned to tame fire. Fire wasimportant for many reasons. It provided warmth andlight. It scared away wild animals. Food cooked over afire tasted better, was easier to digest, and would keeplonger. People also could now save meat by having itsmoked over fire.

Archaeologists believe that fires were first started byrubbing two pieces of wood together and later with drill-like tools.What Were the Ice Ages? Fire helped people survive the IceAges. From 100,000 B.C. to about 8000 B.C., thick ice sheetscovered parts of Europe, Asia, and North America.

During the Ice Ages, people were at constant risk fromcold and hunger. To survive, early humans had to adapt.People had to build sturdier shelters, make warmer cloth-ing, and change their diets. Fire helped them live in thisharsh environment.Language, Art, and Religion Paleolithic people developed lan-guage. This made it easier for people to work togetherand pass on knowledge. Early people used both wordsand art. They made paint from crushed rocks. Theypainted animals on cave walls.

Some historians believe the early art could have had reli-gious meaning or was meant to bring hunters good luck.


The Invention of Tools Paleolithic people were the first to usetools and methods to help them perform tasks. This iscalled technology. Tools were made of a hard stone calledflint. Flint would flake into sharp pieces when hit with arock. By tying wooden poles to different shapes of flint,people made axes and spears.

Over time, early people made smaller and sharpertools—like fishhooks and needles—from animal bones.People used needles to make nets and baskets and to sewhides together for clothing.

5. How did the development of spoken language helpPaleolithic people?

Neolithic Times (page 13)

In the Neolithic Age, people started farming, building communities, pro-ducing goods, and trading.

After the last Ice Age ended, people began to changethe way they lived. They learned how to domesticate, ortame animals. More control over animals meant moremeat, milk, and wool. People also learned how to growplants. People no longer had to roam from place to placein search of food. They could grow crops themselves.Gradually, farming replaced hunting and gathering.

These changes marked the beginning of the NeolithicAge. Also called the New Stone Age, this period lastedfrom about 8000 B.C. to 4000 B.C.Why Was Farming Important? Historians call the Neolithic Agethe farming revolution. The word revolution describeschanges that affect many areas of life.

Farming first developed everywhere. People scatteredacross the globe discovered how to grow crops at aboutthe same time. What they grew depended on where theylived.

4

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


5

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Growth of Villages Farming allowed people to stay in oneplace. Herders still drove their flocks wherever they couldfind grazing land. Farmers, however, had to stay put.They needed to water their plants and protect them fromhungry animals. They also had to wait to reap the har-vest. So they built permanent homes and created villages.

During the Neolithic Age, villages grew in Europe,India, Egypt, China, and Mexico. The earliest known com-munities have been found in the Middle East. One of theoldest is Jericho, which dates back to about 8000 B.C.

Another well-known Neolithic community is ÇatalHüyük in present-day Turkey. This village was home toabout 6,000 people between 6700 B.C. and 5700 B.C. Someof its ruins have left behind clues to how its residentslived. For example, mud-brick houses were packedtightly together. People made wall paintings. Theyfarmed, hunted, raised sheep and goats, worshipedtogether, and ate fish and bird eggs.The Benefits of a Settled Life Neolithic people had a more securelife. Steady food supplies meant healthy, growing popula-tions. Larger populations meant more workers to producea bigger crop. Now they had a surplus to use for tradeboth within and outside their communities.

People made another advance in how they producedthings. They began to practice specialization, or thedevelopment of different kinds of jobs. Now, not every-one needed to farm. So some people had time to developother types of skills. These craftspeople made clay potteryand wove cloth. These workers then traded what theymade for goods they needed.


Region Crops

Asia wheat, barley, rice, soybeans, millet

Africa coffee, cocoa, millet, barley, onions, wheat, flax

Europe oats, rye, olives

South America beans, cotton, peanuts, potatoes, peppers,coffee, cocoa

North America beans, sunflowers, squash

In late Neolithic times, toolmakers created better farm-ing tools, such as the sickle, used for cutting grain. Insome places, people worked with metal. At first, theymelted copper to make tools and weapons.

After 4000 B.C., craftspeople in western Asia made adiscovery. They mixed copper with tin to make a stronger,longer-lasting metal called bronze. It became widely usedbetween 3000 B.C. and 1200 B.C. This period is known asthe Bronze Age.

6. Name two differences between people during thePaleolithic and Neolithic Ages.

6

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


7

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


Mesopotamian Civilization For use with pages 16–23

Drawing From ExperienceDoing a school project with a partner can be pretty

simple. But what happens when you add a third, fourth—or tenth person to the group? Without structure andorganization, things could get complicated.

In the last section, you learned why bands of peopleonce roamed the land—and what enabled them to finallysettle down. In this section, you will learn how early civi-lizations handled the need to organize their growing pop-ulations. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the following sequence chart to track the develop-ment of Mesopotamian civilization. Use details from thetext to help you fill in the boxes.

Key Termscivilization: complex societies (page 17)

irrigation: man-made way of watering crops (page 18)

city-state: city and its surrounding lands (page 19)

artisan: skilled worker (page 20)

cuneiform: ancient Sumerian form of writing (page 20)

scribe: record keeper (page 20)

empire: group of lands under one ruler (page 23)

Mesopotamia

where: 1.

climate: 2.

farmers: 3.

Sumer

government: 4.

gods: 5.

rulers: 6.

classes: 7.

Mesopotamia’s Civilization (page 17)

Civilization in Mesopotamia began in the valleys of the Tigris andEuphrates Rivers.

Over thousands of years, some of the early farming vil-lages developed into civilizations. Civilizations are com-plex societies. They have cities with different socialgroups and organized governments. Civilizations haveart, religion, and a writing system.Why Were River Valleys Important? The first civilizations arose inriver valleys. Near rivers, farming conditions were good.Rivers helped people travel and made trade easier.

As cities grew, they needed organization. Peopleformed governments. Leaders took charge of food sup-plies, planned building projects, made laws, and formedarmies. People did not worry so much about meetingbasic needs. They developed religion and the arts. Theyinvented ways of writing and created calendars.The Rise of Sumer The earliest-known civilization arose in theMiddle East on a flat plain between the Tigris andEuphrates Rivers. It was called Mesopotamia, which isGreek for “the land between the rivers.”

Mesopotamia’s climate was hot and dry. The riversoften flooded and left behind rich soil. However, floodingwas unpredictable. It might flood one year, but not thenext. Over time, farmers built dams and channels to con-trol floods. They also built walls, waterways, and ditchesto bring water to their fields. This way of watering cropsis called irrigation. By 3000 B.C., many cities had formedin southern Mesopotamia in a region called Sumer.

8

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


Cradle of Civilization

writing: 8.

writers: 9.

science: 10.

math: 11.

9

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

What Were City-States? Geographic features isolated Sumeriancities. Mudflats and desert made travel and communica-tion difficult. Each Sumerian city—and the lands aroundit—became a separate city-state. Each city-state had itsown government and did not belong to a larger unit.

Sumerian city-states often fought with each other. Theywent to war for glory and more territory. To ward off ene-mies, each city-state built a wall. First they mixed rivermud with crushed reeds. Then they molded bricks andleft them to dry in the sun. The hard, waterproof brickswere used for walls, homes, temples, and other buildings.Gods and Rulers The Sumerians believed in many gods. Eachgod was thought to have power over a natural force orhuman activity, such as floods or basket weaving. TheSumerians built a grand temple called a ziggurat for theirchief god. The word ziggurat means “mountain of god” or“hill of heaven.” The ziggurat stood out as the centerpieceof the city. At the top was a shrine, or special place ofworship. Only priests and priestesses could enter.

Priests and priestesses controlled much of the land.Some even ruled. Later, the government was run by kingswho led armies and organized building projects. Eventu-ally, the position of king became hereditary. That is, aftera king died, his son took over.What Was Life Like in Sumer? Sumerian kings lived in palaces.Ordinary people lived in small mud-brick homes. Mostpeople farmed. Others were artisans, or skilled workers,and made metal products, cloth, or pottery. Other Sumeri-ans worked as mechanics or traders. Merchants tradedtools, wheat, and barley for copper, tin, and timber.

People in Sumer were divided into classes. The upperclass included kings, priests, and government officials.The middle class included artisans, merchants, farmers,and fishers. The lower class included enslaved peoplewho worked on farms or in temples. Slaves were prison-ers of war, criminals, or those paying off debts.

In Sumer, women and men had separate roles. Menheaded the households. Only males could attend school.


Women, however, did have some rights. They could buyand sell property and run businesses.

12. What led to the isolation of each Sumerian city-statefrom others?

A Skilled People (page 20)

Sumerians invented writing and made other important contributions tolater peoples.

The Sumerians’ ideas and inventions were copied byother peoples. As a result, Mesopotamia has been calledthe “cradle of civilization.”Why Was Writing Important? The Sumerians’ greatest inventionwas probably writing. Writing helps people keep records.Record keeping helps people pass their ideas on to others.

Writing, called cuneiform, was developed to keeptrack of business deals. With a sharp reed, marks were cutinto damp clay. Archaeologists have found thousands ofcuneiform tablets. Mostly boys from wealthy familieslearned to write. After years of training, they becamescribes, or record keepers. Scribes held honored positionsin society. They often went on to become judges and polit-ical leaders.Sumerian Literature The Sumerians also produced works of lit-erature. The world’s oldest known story is called the Epicof Gilgamesh. An epic is a long poem that tells the story ofa hero. Gilgamesh is a king who travels around the worldwith a friend, performing great deeds. When his frienddies, Gilgamesh searches for a way to live forever, orimmortality. He learns that immortality is only for thegods.

10

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


11

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Advances in Science and Math The Mesopotamians’ creativity alsoaffected technology, mathematics, and time calculation.(See chart below.)


Technology • irrigation system• wagon wheel• plow• sailboat

Mathematics • geometry (to measure fields, put up buildings)• number system based on 60 (basis of today’s

60-minute hour, 360-degree circle)

Time • watched skies (to time crop planting and religious festivals)

• recorded positions of stars and planets• developed 12-month calendar based on moon

cycles

Mesopotamian Inventions

13. Of all Sumerian inventions, why is writing probablythe greatest?

Sargon and Hammurabi (page 23)

Sumerian city-states lost power when they were conquered by out-siders.

Over time, conflicts weakened Sumer’s city-states.Now they were vulnerable to attacks from outsiders. One such enemy was the Akkadians of northernMesopotamia.

The king of the Akkadians was named Sargon. Inabout 2340 B.C., Sargon conquered all of Mesopotamia.He set up the world’s first empire. An empire is a groupof many lands under one ruler. Sargon’s empire lasted formore than 200 years before falling to invaders.

In the 1800s B.C., a new group came to power inMesopotamia. These people built the city of Babylon by

the Euphrates River. Babylon quickly became a center oftrade. Beginning in 1792 B.C., King Hammurabi of Baby-lon began conquering cities to the north and south. Hecreated the Babylonian Empire.

Hammurabi is best known for his code, or collection oflaws. This code covered crimes, farming, business activi-ties, marriage, and the family. In fact, the code applied toalmost every area of life. Many punishments in the Codeof Hammurabi were cruel from our standpoint today.Still, his laws mark an important step toward a system of justice.

14. Why was the Code of Hammurabi an improvementover laws from individual city-states?

12

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


13

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The First Empires For use with pages 26–30

Drawing From ExperienceSuppose you were elected class president. How would

you use your power? In the last section, you learned how early civilizations

handled the need to organize their growing populations.In this section, you will learn how two empires—theAssyrians and the Chaldeans—used power to focus ondifferent aspects of their rule. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the following chart to note characteristics of theAssyrian and Chaldean Empires. Use details from the textto help you.

Key Termsprovince: political district (page 28)

caravan: group of traveling merchants (page 30)

astronomer: person who studies heavenly bodies (page 30)

Assyrians Chaldeans

military 1. 4.1. 2.1. 2.1. 2.

government 2. 5.1. 1.1. 1.1. 1.

other contributions 3. 6.1. 1.1. 1.1. 1.

The Assyrians (page 27)

Assyria’s military power and well-organized government helped it builda vast empire in Mesopotamia by 650 B.C.

About 1,000 years after Hammurabi, a new empirearose—the Assyrians. They lived near the Tigris River infertile valleys. Outsiders liked the area, so the Assyriansbuilt an army to defend their land. Around 900 B.C., theybegan taking over the rest of Mesopotamia.Why Were the Assyrians So Strong? The Assyrian army was wellorganized. Its core group was made up of foot soldiersarmed with spears and daggers. Other soldiers used theirbow-and-arrow skills. Chariot riders and horsemen com-pleted the Assyrian army.

The army was the first to use iron weapons. Iron hadbeen used for tools but was too soft for weapons. Then a people called the Hittites made iron stronger. Theyheated iron ore, hammered it, and then cooled it rapidly.The Assyrians learned this technique and made ironweapons.

The Assyrians were ferocious warriors. To attack cities,they tunneled under walls or climbed over them on lad-ders. They used tree trunks as battering rams to knockdown city gates. Once they captured a city, the Assyrianscarried away its people and goods and set the city afire.

The Assyrians punished anyone who resisted theirrule. They drove people from their lands, brought in newsettlers, and forced them to pay taxes.A Well-Organized Government Assyrians needed strength to ruletheir large empire. By about 650 B.C., the Assyrian empirestretched east from the Persian Gulf to the Nile River inthe west. Nineveh, on the Tigris River, was the capital.

Assyrian kings divided the empire into provinces,or political districts. They chose officials to govern eachprovince. These officials collected taxes and enforcedlaws.

14

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


15

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The kings built roads to link the parts of their empire.Along the roadways were stations posted with govern-ment soldiers. These soldiers protected traders from ban-dits. Messengers on government business also stopped atthe stations to rest and change horses. Life in Assyria Assyrians were similar to other Mesopotami-ans. Their writing was based on Babylonian writing. Theyworshiped many of the same gods. Their laws were simi-lar, but lawbreakers were more severely punished.

The Assyrians erected large temples and palaces filledwith wall carvings. They wrote and collected literature. Infact, Nineveh had one of the world’s first libraries.

Assyria’s cruel treatment of people led to rebellions.Around 650 B.C., the Assyrians began fighting each otherover who would be king. A group called the Chaldeansrebelled. In 612 B.C., they captured Nineveh. Soon after,the Assyrian Empire crumbled.

7. Why were the Assyrian army’s weapons so superior?

The Chaldeans (page 29)

The Chaldean Empire built important landmarks in Babylon and devel-oped the first calendar with a seven-day week.

The Chaldeans wanted to build an empire. From 605B.C. to 562 B.C., led by King Nebuchadnezzar, they con-trolled all of Mesopotamia. The City of Babylon About 1,200 years earlier, the Babylonianpeople had belonged to Hammurabi’s empire. Most oftheir descendants were known as Chaldeans. These peo-ple rebuilt Babylon.

Babylon quickly became the world’s largest and richestcity. A wall surrounded the city. Soldiers kept watch fromtowers in the wall.

In the center of the city stood large palaces and tem-ples, including a huge ziggurat and an immense staircase


of greenery. Visible from any point in Babylon, it was theHanging Gardens of King Nebuchadnezzar’s palace. Thegarden had large trees, flowering vines, and other plants.A pump brought water from a nearby river.

A Greek historian described Babylon: “In magnifi-cence, there is no other city that approaches it.” Outsidethe city’s center stood houses and marketplaces. There,artisans made pottery, cloth, baskets, and jewelry. Theysold these to passing caravans, or groups of travelingmerchants. Babylon lay on the major trade route betweenthe Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea. This idealposition helped it become rich from trade.

Babylon was also a center of science. Like earlierMesopotamians, the Chaldeans thought it was importantto pay attention to the skies. Changes in the heavens, theybelieved, revealed plans the gods had in store. They hadspecialists called astronomers—people who study heav-enly bodies. These people mapped the stars, the planets,and the phases of the moon. The Chaldeans made one ofthe first sundials. They were also first to have a seven-dayweek.Why Did the Empire Fall? As time passed, the Chaldeans’spower began to slip away. They found it hard to controlthe peoples they had conquered. In 539 B.C. Persians fromthe mountains to the northeast captured Babylon.Mesopotamia became part of the new Persian Empire.

8. Name three contributions the Chaldeans made to society.

16

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


17

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The Nile Valley For use with pages 38–46

Drawing From ExperienceSuppose you and your family travel to a local state

park for a weekend of camping. How would you decidewhere to pitch your tent?

In this section, you will learn why the earliest Egyp-tians settled along the banks of the Nile River.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the following organizer to note important factsabout ancient Egypt. Use details from the text to help youfill in the table.

Key Termscataract: spot of rapid waters in a river (page 39)

delta: area of fertile soil at a river’s end (page 39)

papyrus: a reed plant (page 42)

hieroglyphics: ancient Egyptian writing system using picture symbols (page 42)

dynasty: a line of rulers from one family (page 44)

1. The Nile River

2. Geographic Barriers

3. Flooding

4. Hieroglyphics

5. Early Rulers

6. Social Classes

Settling the Nile (page 39)

The Egyptian civilization began in the fertile Nile River valley, wherenatural barriers discouraged invasions.

Between 6000 B.C. and 5000 B.C., hunters and gatherersmoved into the Nile River valley. They found the Nilegreen and fertile. They settled here, farmed the land, andbuilt several villages. These people became the earliestEgyptians.A Mighty River Since Egypt gets little rainfall, Egyptians hadto rely on the Nile for water. They fished and bathed inthe Nile. They used its water for farming, cooking, andcleaning.

The Nile flows north from the heart of Africa to theMediterranean Sea, about 4,000 miles. This makes it theworld’s longest river. Traveling the Nile would be likegoing from Georgia to California and back again.

Two rivers meet to form the Nile: the Blue Nile in east-ern Africa and the White Nile in central Africa. There, thewater forms rapids called cataracts. Large ships cannotsail through the cataracts. So they can travel the Nile onlyfor its last 650 miles. A Sheltered Land In Egypt, the Nile runs through a narrowvalley. Just before it reaches the Mediterranean Sea, itdivides into different branches. These branches fan outover an area of rich soil. This fan is called a delta.

Deserts lie on both sides of the Nile Valley. To the westis part of the Sahara. It is the largest desert in the world.To the east is the Eastern Desert. It stretches to the RedSea.

Because the deserts were so hot, the ancient Egyptianscalled them “the Red Land.” These areas could not sup-port human life. But they kept outside armies away fromEgypt.

Geography helped protect Egypt in other ways. To thesouth, dangerous cataracts blocked enemy boats. In thenorth were the delta marshes. Unfortunately, the people

18

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


19

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

of Mesopotamia did not have geographic barriers.Mesopotamians constantly fought off attackers. Yet Egyptrarely faced these threats. As a result, Egyptian civiliza-tion grew and prospered.

Natural barriers did not completely close Egypt to theoutside world. The Mediterranean Sea was to the north.Beyond the desert to the east was the Red Sea. Thesehelped link Egyptians to trade outside its borders.

Within Egypt, people used the Nile for trade and trans-portation. Winds from the north pushed sailboats south.The flow of the Nile carried them north. This made Egyptdifferent from Mesopotamia. There, city-states constantlyfought each other. Egyptian villages, however, hadfriendly contact.

7. Name a weakness and a strength of Egypt’s desertlands.

The River People (page 41)

The Egyptians depended on the Nile’s floods to grow their crops.

When the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers flooded, farmersirrigated their fields. However, the flooding was unpre-dictable. This made irrigation difficult.Regular Flooding The Nile also flooded. However, thesefloods were more regular. Farmers did not have to worrythat sudden overflows would destroy crops. Also, theydid not have to worry that too little flooding would drytheir fields.

Water came to the Nile from rain and snow. Then from July to October, the Nile spilled over its banks.When the waters lowered, they left behind a layer ofdark, rich mud.


How Did the Egyptians Use the Nile? The Egyptians became suc-cessful farmers. They planted wheat, barley, and flaxseeds. Over time, they grew enough food to feed them-selves and their animals.

They also used irrigation. To trap floodwaters, Egyp-tian farmers first dug basins, or bowl-shaped holes in theearth. Then they dug canals to carry water from thebasins to the fields.

In time, Egyptian farmers built dikes, or earthen banks.These strengthened the basin walls. They used a shadoof, abucket on a long pole. This would lift water from the riverto the basins. They also developed geometry to survey, ormeasure, land.

Egyptians developed ways to use papyrus. This was areed plant that grew along the shores of the Nile. Theyharvested papyrus to make baskets, sandals, river rafts,and later, paper. What Were Hieroglyphics? The Egyptians used papyrus rolls aswriting paper. Like the Mesopotamians, Egyptians devel-oped their own system of writing. Called hieroglyphics,it was made up of thousands of picture symbols. Somesymbols stood for objects and ideas. For example, to com-municate the idea of a boat, a scribe would draw a tinyboat. Other symbols stood for sounds, like the letters ofour own alphabet.

Some hieroglyphics conveyed public messages. Scribescarved these into stone walls and monuments. For every-day use, scribes invented a simpler script and wrote onpapyrus.

In ancient Egypt, few people could read and write.However, some Egyptian men went to special schools intemples. They studied reading and writing. They learnedto become scribes, or record keepers. Eventually, theyworked for the rulers, priests, and traders.

8. Why was irrigating their fields easier for Egyptiansthan for Mesopotamians?

20

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


21

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

A United Egypt (page 43)

Around 3100 B.C., Egypt’s two major kingdoms, Upper Egypt and LowerEgypt, were combined into one.

Skillful farming led to more food than was needed, or a surplus. This freed some people to work as artisansinstead of farmers. Artisans wove cloth, made pottery,carved statues, and shaped copper into weapons andtools.

Now Egyptians had goods to trade. First, they tradedwith each other. Then they traveled to Mesopotamia totrade. There, they may have picked up ideas about writ-ing and government.The Rise of Government Irrigation systems needed to be builtand maintained. Grain had to be stored. Disputes overland needed to be settled. Gradually, governmentemerged.

The earliest rulers were village chiefs. A few strongchiefs united villages into small kingdoms. By 4000 B.C.,Egypt was made up of two large kingdoms. Lower Egyptsat in the Nile delta. Upper Egypt lay in the south.Egypt’s Ruling Families About 3100 B.C., Narmer was king ofUpper Egypt. He led his armies north and took control ofLower Egypt. Narmer ruled from Memphis, on the borderbetween the two kingdoms. To symbolize the kingdom’sunity, Narmer wore a double crown for both Upper andLower Egypt.

Narmer’s kingdom held together long after his death.His family passed power from father to son to grandson.This is called a dynasty.

Over time, ancient Egypt would be ruled by 31 dynas-ties for about 2,800 years. Historians group Egypt’sdynasties into three main time periods—the Old King-dom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom. Each


kingdom had a long period of strong leadership and stability.

9. In a dynasty, how do people decide who will becomethe next ruler?

Early Egyptian Life (page 45)

Egyptian society was divided into social groups based on wealth andpower.

Different social groups in ancient Egypt looked like apyramid. At the top of the pyramid sat the king. In themiddle were the priests, nobles, traders, and farmers. Onthe bottom were the unskilled workers. Egypt’s Social Classes Egypt’s upper class included nobles,army commanders, priests, and government officials.They lived in cities and on large estates along the Nile.Their homes were made of wood and mud bricks. Ser-vants waited on them. They dressed in linen and woremakeup and jewelry.

Egypt’s middle class included traders, artisans, andshopkeepers. They ran businesses or produced goods.They lived in smaller homes and dressed more simply.Artisans produced linen cloth, jewelry, pottery, and metalgoods.

Farmers made up the majority of Egypt’s population.Some farmers rented land and paid for their rent withcrops. However, most farmers did not do this. Theyworked the land of wealthy nobles. Farmers lived in vil-lages along the Nile. They had one-room huts and atebread, beer, vegetables, and fruit.

City dwellers were unskilled workers who did physi-cal labor. They unloaded cargo from boats, or made andstacked bricks. They lived in small mud-brick homes withdirt floors. Women dried fruit, made bread, and wovecloth on the flat rooftop of their homes.

22

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


23

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Family Life In ancient Egypt, the father headed the family.However, Egyptian women could own and pass on prop-erty, buy and sell goods, make wills, and get divorced.Upper-class women were in charge of temples and couldperform religious ceremonies.

Few Egyptians sent their children to school. Motherstaught their daughters to sew, cook, and run a household.Boys learned farming or skilled trades from their fathers.Children played with board games, dolls, spinning tops,and leather balls.

10. Name the two types of farmers in Egypt’s lower classand describe how they differed.


Drawing From ExperienceWhat if everyone dropped to one knee when your

principal walked down the school hall? Or, what if theteachers obeyed his or her word without question?

In the last section, you learned why the earliest Egyp-tians settled along the banks of the Nile River. In this sec-tion, you will learn about the absolute power of theEgyptian pharaohs.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the following web to note Egyptian beliefs and theways these beliefs affected their civilization.

24

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termspharaoh: Egyptian king (page 48)

deity: god or goddess (page 49)

embalming: mummy-making process (page 49)

mummy: body preserved by wrapping (page 50)

pyramid: mountainlike stone structure (page 50)


Egypt’s Old Kingdom For use with pages 47–52

EgyptianBeliefs

1. Pharaohs 4. Life After Death

5. Pyramids

2. Religion

3. Gods and Goddesses

25

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Old Kingdom Rulers (page 48)

Egypt was ruled by all-powerful pharaohs.

The Old Kingdom began in Egypt around 2600 B.C. andlasted about 300 years. The Egyptians built cities andexpanded trade. Their kings, or pharaohs, set up a gov-ernment.

The pharaoh’s word had to be obeyed without ques-tion. Pharaohs appointed officials who oversaw irrigationcanals, grain houses, and crop planting. They also con-trolled trade and collected tax payments from farmers.

Egyptians served the pharaoh because they believedthe kingdom’s unity depended on a strong leader. Theythought the pharaoh was the son of Re, the Egyptian sungod. Whenever the pharaoh appeared in public, peopleplayed music and bowed.

The pharaoh controlled Egypt’s welfare. The pharaohalso performed rituals to benefit the kingdom. For exam-ple, the pharaoh drove a sacred bull around Memphis.The Egyptians believed this would ensure good crops.

6. Name two reasons why pharaohs were so powerful.

Egypt’s Religion (page 49)

The Egyptians believed in many gods and goddesses and in life afterdeath for the pharaohs.

Egyptians worshiped many deities, or gods and god-desses. They believed that these deities controlled theforces of nature and human actions.

The sun god, Re was important because the sun wasnecessary for good harvests. Another god, Hapi, ruled theNile River. Isis stood for loyal wives and mothers. Sheruled over the dead with her husband, Osiris.


Life After Death Egyptians thought the dead went on a longjourney. At the end, they came to a place of peace andplenty.

The Book of the Dead was a collection of spells andprayers. Egyptians studied this writing to reach life afterdeath. They learned the spells and led good lives. Theybelieved that the god Osiris would then grant them lifeafter death.

For centuries, Egyptians believed that only thepharaohs and a few others could enjoy the afterlife. Butthe pharaoh’s spirit needed a body. If his body decayed,his spirit would wander forever. If the pharaoh’s spiritreached the next world, he would continue to care forEgypt.

To protect the pharaoh’s body, the Egyptians devel-oped a process called embalming. It included removingorgans from the dead body, drying the body, filling it withspices and perfumes, sewing the body closed, cleaning it,and wrapping it in linen.

The wrapped body was known as a mummy. It wasput in several wooden coffins. And the pharaoh wasready for burial.Egyptian Medicine By embalming the dead, the Egyptianslearned about the human body. They used herbs anddrugs to treat illnesses. They sewed up cuts and set broken bones.

Some doctors focused on treating specific parts of thebody. These doctors were the first specialists in medicine.Egyptians also wrote the world’s first medical books onscrolls of papyrus.

7. Why was Re the most important of the Egyptian gods?

26

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


27

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Pyramids (page 50)

The Egyptians of the Old Kingdom built huge stone pyramids as tombsfor their pharaohs.

For a pharaoh’s tomb, Egyptians built gigantic pyra-mids. These protected the bodies from floods, wild ani-mals, and grave robbers. They also held supplies that thepharaoh might need in the spirit world: clothing, furni-ture, jewelry, and food.How Was a Pyramid Built? It took thousands of people manyyears to build a pyramid. Farmers, surveyors, engineers,carpenters, and stonecutters all worked on pyramids.

Each pyramid sat on a square base with a northentrance. To find true north, the Egyptians developedprinciples of astronomy. They also invented a 365-day calendar.

Egyptians had to figure out the amount of stone andthe angles for the walls. This advanced their mathematics.They invented a system of written numbers based on 10.They also created fractions.

Workers found the stone. Artisans cut the stone intoblocks. Others tied the blocks to wooden sleds and pulledthem to barges. The barges floated to the building site.There, workers unloaded the blocks, pushed them upramps, and set them in place.The Great Pyramid About 2540 B.C., the Egyptians built theGreat Pyramid, about 10 miles from the modern city ofCairo. Built for King Khufu, it is one of three pyramidsstill standing in Giza. The Great Pyramid is 500 feet talland has more than 2 million stone blocks.

8. Why did Egyptians preserve the bodies of theirpharaohs?


Drawing From ExperienceEvery leader has an individual style. For example, one

baseball coach might focus on good pitching and fielding.Another coach might prefer a team of power hitters.

In this section, you will learn how each pharaoh ruledEgypt during the Middle and New Kingdoms.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the following category chart to note how differentrulers contributed to Egypt’s New Kingdom.

28

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termstribute: forced payments (page 60)

incense: a material burned for its pleasant smell (page 62)


The Egyptian Empire For use with pages 59–67

Ahmose 1.

Hatshepsut 2.

Thutmose III 3.

Akhenaton 4.

Tutankhamen 5.

Ramses II 6.

29

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Middle Kingdom (page 60)

The Middle Kingdom was a golden age of peace, prosperity, andadvances in the arts and architecture.

The Middle Kingdom lasted from about 2050 B.C. to1670 B.C. It was a golden age of stability, prosperity, andachievement.The Drive for More Land During the Middle Kingdom, Egypttook control of new lands. Egyptian soldiers capturedNubia and attacked what is now Syria. The conqueredpeoples sent tribute, or forced payments, to the pharaoh.With the payment, pharaohs built dams, increased farm-land, and built a canal between the Nile and the Red Sea.The Arts Blossom During the Middle Kingdom, arts, litera-ture, and architecture flourished. Painters covered tombsand temples with colorful scenes. Sculptors created largecarvings of the pharaohs. Poets wrote works that praisedthe pharaohs.

Instead of building pyramids, pharaohs had theirtombs cut into cliffs. This area became known as the Valley of the Kings.Who Were the Hyksos? The Middle Kingdom ended as noblesplotted to seize power from the pharaohs. Egypt alsofaced invaders from western Asia—the Hyksos.

The Hyksos army was superior to the Egyptian army.The Hyksos rode horse-drawn chariots into battle. TheEgyptians went on foot. Hyksos arms were made ofbronze and iron. This made them stronger than the Egyptians’ copper and stone weapons.

The Hyksos ruled Egypt for about 150 years. Then,around 1550 B.C., an Egyptian prince named Ahmosedrove them out of Egypt.

7. Why were the Hyksos able to defeat the Egyptians?


The New Kingdom (page 61)

During the New Kingdom, Egypt acquired new territory and reachedthe height of its power.

Ahmose’s reign began a period known as the NewKingdom. From 1550 B.C. to 1080 B.C., Egypt grew richerand more powerful. Most pharaohs focused on bringingother lands under their control.A Woman Ruler About 1480 B.C., a queen named Hatshepsutcame to power. First, she ruled with her husband. Afterhe died, she governed for her young nephew. Finally, shemade herself pharaoh. Hatshepsut became the firstwoman to rule Egypt in her own right.

Hatshepsut was interested in trade. During her reign,Egyptian traders exchanged beads, metal tools, andweapons for ivory, wood, and leopard skins. They alsobrought home incense, a material burned for its pleasantsmell.

Hatshepsut also built monuments, such as a great tem-ple and tomb. It was in the limestone cliffs of the Valley ofthe Kings.Expanding the Empire When Hatshepsut died, her nephewThutmose III became pharaoh. Thutmose’s armiesexpanded Egypt’s borders north to the Euphrates River.His troops also regained control of Nubia, which had bro-ken free from Egypt earlier.

Thutmose’s empire grew rich. It claimed gold, copper,ivory, and other valuable goods from conquered peoples.Egypt also enslaved prisoners of war. These slaves wereput to work building palaces, temples, and monuments.However, slaves could also own land, marry, and eventu-ally gain their freedom.

8. What made Hatshepsut’s rule different from that ofher nephew Thutmose?

30

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


31

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Legacies of Two Pharaohs (page 64)

Akhenaton tried to change Egypt’s religion, while Tutankhamen isfamous for the treasures found in his tomb.

About 1370 B.C., Amenhotep came to the throne. He and his wife, Nefertiti, tried to lead Egypt in a newdirection.

A Religious Reformer The pharaohs were losing power tothe priests. So Amenhotep started a new religion. Peoplecould worship only one god, called Aton. When thepriests protested, Amenhotep removed many from theirpositions. He seized their lands and closed their temples.He changed his name to Akhenaton, or “Spirit of Aton.”He began ruling Egypt from a new city.

Most Egyptians resisted Akhenaton’s changes. Theyrefused to accept Aton as the only god. Meanwhile,Akhenaton neglected his duties. He took no action whenenemies attacked Egypt from what is now Turkey. Thesepeople were called the Hittites. Their invasion cost Egyptmost of its lands in western Asia. The Boy King When Akhenaton died, his son-in-law inher-ited the throne. The new pharaoh, Tutankhamen, wasonly 10 years old. He relied on help from palace officialsand priests. He restored the old religion. After nine years,Tutankhamen died.

In 1922, Howard Carter, a British archaeologist,unearthed Tutankhamen’s tomb. Besides the king’smummy, he found a gold mask of the pharaoh’s face.Most royal tombs in Egypt had been looted by robbers.Carter’s find enabled the boy king to capture people’simaginations. He became known as “King Tut.”

9. Why was Akhenaton’s new religion so unpopular?


The End of the New Kingdom (page 65)

Under Ramses II, Egypt regained territory and built great temples, butthe empire fell by 1150 B.C.

Ramses II reigned for 66 years, from 1279 B.C. to 1213B.C. During this time, Ramses regained lands in westernAsia and constructed several new temples.Why Were Temples Built? Under Ramses II and other New King-dom leaders, many temples rose throughout Egypt. Manywere built by slaves. The most magnificent temple wasKarnak at Thebes. Karnak has a huge hall that impressesvisitors today.

Egyptian temples were different from modernchurches, temples, and mosques. They did not hold regu-lar services. Temples were houses for the gods and god-desses. Priests and priestesses performed daily ritualsthere. They washed statues of the deities and broughtthem food.

The temples also served as banks. Inside, Egyptiansstored valuables such as gold jewelry, sweet-smelling oils,and finely woven cloth.Egypt’s Decline and Fall After Ramses II, Egypt’s power faded.Using strong iron weapons, groups from the easternMediterranean attacked Egypt by sea.

By 1150 B.C., Egypt had lost its empire. Starting in 900B.C., one outside group after another ruled Egypt. The firstconquerors were Libyans, who came from the west. In 760B.C., the people of Kush, a land to the south, seized power.The Kush ruled Egypt for the next 70 years. Finally, in 670B.C., Egypt was taken over by the Assyrians.

10. Why did Egyptians not use their temples for regularprayer services?

32

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


33

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The Civilization of Kush For use with pages 68–72

Drawing From ExperienceThink about your neighbors. Are some friendly and

helpful? Are there other neighbors you wish would packup and move away?

In this section, you will learn about how two ofEgypt’s neighboring civilizations cooperated—andclashed.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the following chart to note similarities and differ-ences between the Kushites’ capital cities of Napata andMeroë. Use details from the text to help you fill in eachcategory.

Key Termssavanna: grassy plains in Africa (page 69)

Napata Meroë

location 1. 5.

expansion 2. 6.

accomplishments 3. 7.

decline 4. 8.

Nubia (page 69)

To the south of Egypt, the Nubians settled in farming villages andbecame strong warriors.

When Egyptians settled along the Nile, a civilizationcalled Nubia arose. It was later known as Kush.

Cattle herders arrived in Nubia about 2000 B.C. The cattle grazed on savannas, or grassy plains. Later, peoplesettled in farming villages, grew crops, and hunted with abow and arrow. Soon the Nubians formed armies.The Kingdom of Kerma More powerful Nubian kingdoms tookover weaker ones. This created the kingdom of Kerma.The Egyptians traded cattle, gold, ivory, and slaves withKerma. Egyptians also hired Nubian warriors to fight intheir armies.

Kerma became a wealthy kingdom. Its artisans madefine pottery, jewelry, and metal goods. Like in Egypt,Kerma kings were buried in tombs that held preciousstones, gold, jewelry, and pottery. Why Did Egypt Invade Nubia? The Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose IIIinvaded Nubia in the 1400s B.C. After a 50-year war,Kerma collapsed. The Egyptians seized much of Nubiaand ruled it for the next 700 years.

During this time, the people of Nubia adopted Egyp-tian ways. They worshiped Egyptian gods and goddesses,worked with copper and bronze, and adapted Egyptianhieroglyphics to their own language.

9. Why did the Egyptians like to trade with Kerma?

34

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


35

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Rise of Kush (page 70)

The people of Kush devoted themselves to ironworking and grewwealthy from trade.

By 850 B.C., a Nubian group had formed the inde-pendent kingdom of Kush. Powerful Kushite kings ruledfor the next few centuries. Their capital was the city ofNapata.

Napata sat along the upper Nile. There, trade caravanscrossed the river. These caravans carried gold, ivory, valu-able woods, and other goods from Kush to Egypt.

In time, Kush became strong enough to take control ofEgypt. About 750 B.C., a Kushite king named Kashtaheaded north. He began the conquest of Egypt. His sonPiye completed it in 728 B.C. He ruled both Egypt andKush from Napata.

The kings of Kush built temples and monuments simi-lar to those built by the Egyptians. The Kushites also builtsmall pyramids in which to bury their kings. The Importance of Iron Kush’s rule over Egypt was short. Dur-ing the 600s B.C., the Assyrians invaded Egypt. Theydrove the Kushites back to their homeland.

Kushites, however, gained something from the Assyri-ans—the secret to making iron. The Kushites became thefirst Africans to make iron. Soon, farmers in Kush couldput iron in their plows instead of copper and stone. Andthey could grow more crops.

Kush’s warriors also began using iron spears andswords. Traders from Kush carried iron products andenslaved peoples to Arabia, India, and China. In return,they brought back cotton, textiles, and other goods. A New Capital In about 540 B.C., Kush’s rulers moved toMeroë. Like Napata, the new capital was near the NileRiver. But the rocky desert east of Meroë had iron ore. Asa result, Meroë became an iron-making center.


Kush’s kings rebuilt Meroë to look like an Egyptiancity. This included small pyramids, a grand avenue, and ahuge temple. Building a Profitable Trade Meroë became the center of a hugetrading network throughout the Mediterranean andIndian Oceans areas. Kush’s traders received leopardskins and valuable woods from the interior of Africa.They traded these, plus iron products and enslaved workers.

By the A.D. 200s, the kingdom began to weaken. AsKush declined, another kingdom called Axum took itsplace. Around A.D. 350, the armies of Axum burned Meroëto the ground.

10. Name two reasons why Kush became a wealthy kingdom.

36

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


37

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The First Israelites For use with pages 80–85

Drawing From ExperienceKids probably face tough decisions every day, such as:

Should you reveal a secret to your best friend? Or, shouldyou tell your math teacher that a friend is cheating? Howdo you decide what to do?

In this section, you will find out how the Israelitesdeveloped their ideas about right and wrong.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the following sequence chart to track the move-ment of the Israelites. Use details from the text to helpyou fill in the boxes.

Key Termsmonotheism: belief in one god (page 81)

tribe: a separate family group (page 81)

Torah: a set of laws handed down from God to the Israelites (page 82)

covenant: agreement (page 82)

alphabet: a group of letters that stand for sounds (page 85)

Canaan

1. Why Israelites settled here:

2. Religious beliefs:

3. Language:

Egypt

4. Why Israelites came here:

5. Life in Egypt:

6. How they escaped:

Back to Canaan

7. Where and from whom they got the Torah:

8. The Battle of Jericho:

The Early Israelites (page 81)

The Israelites believed in one God who set down moral laws for his peo-ple. They recorded their history in the Bible.

Around 1000 B.C., a people in southwest Asia built akingdom along the Mediterranean. They were theIsraelites.Who Were the Israelites? The Israelites worshiped only oneGod. This belief is called monotheism. Today, the Israelitefaith is known as Judaism. The followers are known asJews.

The Israelites spoke a language called Hebrew. Theywrote down much of their history and religious beliefs.These records later became the Hebrew Bible.

The Israelites believed they were descended from aman named Abraham. The Bible says that God told Abraham to lead his followers to Canaan. In return, Godpromised that Canaan would belong to Abraham and hisdescendants.

Abraham had a grandson named Jacob who was alsocalled Israel. In Canaan, Jacob raised 12 sons. His familywas divided into tribes, or separate family groups. Later,these groups became known as the 12 tribes of Israel. TheIsraelites lived in Canaan for about 100 years. When adrought came, they left for Egypt.From Slavery to Freedom In Egypt, the Israelites were enslaved.The pharaoh put them to work building pyramids. Healso ordered all Israelite baby boys to be thrown into theNile River.

The Bible says that one mother hid her baby. Thepharaoh’s daughter found him and named him Moses.When Moses grew up, he saw a burning bush. Then heheard a voice. He believed God was telling him to leadthe Israelites out of Egypt to freedom.

According to the Bible, God sent 10 plagues to troubleEgypt. A plague can mean “something that causes prob-lems.” The last of God’s plagues killed all first-born chil-

38

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


39

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

dren. However, most Israelite children were spared. Thepharaoh set the Israelites free.

As they headed east out of Egypt, the pharaoh sent hisarmy after them. According to the Bible, God parted theRed Sea to let his people through. The Egyptians, how-ever, drowned. Today, Jews remember this time with aholiday called Passover. Passover celebrates how thetenth plague “passed over” their homes.What Are the Ten Commandments? On the way to Canaan, Mosesclimbed to the top of Mount Sinai. He received laws fromGod called the Torah. Later, they became the first part ofthe Bible. The Torah described a covenant, or agreement,with God. God would return the Israelites to Canaan. Inreturn, the Israelites would follow his laws. The Torahincluded the Ten Commandments.

The belief in only one god became the foundation forboth Christianity and Islam. The Ten Commandmentshelped shape the laws of many nations.

9. What covenant was described in the Torah?

The Promised Land (page 84)

The Israelites had to fight the Canaanites to return to their promisedland.

It took 40 years to reach Canaan. After Moses died,Joshua took over. When the Israelites got to Canaan, theyfound Canaanites living there.

According to the Bible, Joshua led the Israelites to thecity of Jericho. He ordered them to march around the citywalls. For six days, they did so, blowing trumpets. On theseventh day, Joshua ordered his people to raise a greatshout. Then, the walls of Jericho crumbled.

Joshua led the Israelites in three more wars. The landthey seized was divided among the 12 tribes.


Who Were the Fighting Judges? After Joshua’s death, the Israeliteslooked to judges for leadership. A judge was usually amilitary leader who commanded one or two tribes. Twojudges were Deborah and Barak.

Deborah told Barak to attack the army of King Jabin, aCanaanite. In 1125 B.C., with Deborah’s help, Barak and10,000 Israelites destroyed King Jabin and his army.

The Israelites won control of central Canaan’s hillyregion. The Canaanites kept the coastal areas. TheIsraelites built walled towns. However, they looked toCanaan to create their alphabet and calendar.The Phoenician Alphabet The Phoenicians lived along theMediterranean Sea. Through trade, the Phoeniciansspread the idea of an alphabet, or a group of letters thatstands for sounds. The alphabet made writing simplerand helped people keep records. The Phoenicians broughtthe alphabet to the Greeks. The Greeks passed it onto theRomans. Most Western alphabets are based on the Romanalphabet.

10. Where did the Israelites get their alphabet and calendar?

40

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


41

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The Kingdom of Israel For use with pages 86–92

Drawing From ExperienceWhat does the statement “united we stand, divided we

fall” mean to you?In the last section, you learned how the Israelites

developed their ideas about right and wrong. In this sec-tion, you will learn what it meant to the 12 tribes of Israel.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the following chart to note events that occurredduring the rule of the first Israelite kings. Use details fromthe text to help you.

Key Termsprophet: one who claims to be instructed by God to share his words (page 87)

empire: a nation that rules several other nations (page 89)

tribute: money or slaves given to a stronger ruler (page 89)

proverb: wise saying (page 89)

1. Saul

2. David

3. Solomon

The Israelites Choose a King (page 87)

The Israelites chose a king to unite them against their enemies.

Around 1000 B.C., the Israelites feared the Philistines’power. They wanted a king to unite them against thePhilistines. The Rule of King Saul In 1020 B.C., the Israelites asked a judgenamed Samuel to choose a king. Samuel was a prophet—someone who claims to be instructed by God. Samuel

believed that a king would tax the Israelites and makethem slaves. Still, the Israelites chose a king, a warrior-farmer named Saul.

In battle after battle, Saul defeated the Israelites’ ene-mies. However, the Bible states that Saul displeased Godby disobeying some of his commands. So God choseanother king. In secret, Samuel anointed a young shep-herd named David.

4. Why did the Israelites want a king?

David and Solomon (page 89)

King David built an Israelite empire and made Jerusalem his capital city.

According to the Bible, a giant Philistine called out achallenge. His name was Goliath. He dared any Israeliteto fight him one-on-one. David stepped forward. He helda shepherd’s staff, a slingshot, and five stones.

Goliath rushed David with a spear. But David hurledone stone at the giant’s forehead and killed him.

Saul put David in charge of the army. Israelite womensang praises of his victories. Saul plotted to kill David, soDavid hid until Saul and his three sons died in battle. Hetook the throne about 1000 B.C.

Once in power, David drove out the Philistines. Heconquered other neighboring nations and created anempire. An empire is a nation that rules several othernations. Conquered peoples had to pay David and theIsraelites tribute. Tribute is money or slaves given to astronger ruler.

David made the Israelites pay taxes. He needed themoney to expand Jerusalem and build a temple. Daviddid not live to see the temple completed. The Rule of King Solomon When David died, his son Solomonbecame king and built the temple. It became the symboland center of the Jewish religion.

42

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


43

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

In the Bible, Solomon was known for his wise sayings,or proverbs. However, many Israelites hated his rulebecause of his taxes. The northern Israelites were espe-cially unhappy. To raise more money, Solomon forcedmany of them to work in the mines.

When Solomon died, the northerners rebelled. Fightingbroke out. In the north, ten of the 12 tribes set up theirown nation, the kingdom of Israel Samaria. In the south,the other two tribes founded the kingdom of Judah. Itscapital was Jerusalem. Its people were called Jews.

5. Why did Solomon tax his people?

A Troubled Time (page 90)

The Israelites were conquered and forced to leave Israel and Judah.

In southwest Asia, the Assyrians and Chaldeans werebuilding empires. They wanted control of the trade routesthat ran through Israel and Judah. Israel and Judah feltsmall and weak.Who Were the Prophets? During this troubled time, manyIsraelites forgot their religion. Government officials stolemoney.

The prophets wanted to bring Israelites back to God’slaws. They said that being faithful meant more than worshiping at a temple. It meant working for a just society. A just society also became an important goal ofChristianity and Islam. What Caused the Fall of Israel? Everyone feared the war-likeAssyrians. When they conquered a nation, the Assyriansdestroyed buildings, scattered the people, and movedinto the area.

In 722 B.C., the Assyrians conquered Israel and scat-tered the 10 tribes. Over time, these Israelites lost theirreligion and way of life. They are often called the “losttribes of Israel.”


The Assyrians settled the area around Samaria andbecame known as Samaritans. They feared that Israel’sGod might punish them. So they offered sacrifices. Theyalso read the Torah and followed its laws. After manyyears, the Samaritans worshiped only the God of Israel.

The people of Judah looked down on the Samaritans.They believed that God accepted only the sacrifices fromthe temple at Jerusalem. They did not believe that otherpeople were God’s people too.Why Did Judah Fall? In about 620 B.C., Judah was conquered by the Egyptians. Though they were able to keep theirking, the Jews had to pay tribute to Egypt. However, in605 B.C., the Chaldeans conquered Egypt. At first, theChaldeans allowed the Jews to keep their king—as longas they paid tribute.

Several years later, the Jews and Egyptians united torebel against the Chaldeans. In 597 B.C., the ChaldeanKing Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem. He made10,000 Jews leave the city and live in Babylon, theChaldean capital. Then he appointed a new Jewish king.

In 586 B.C., the new king led a revolt against theChaldeans. This time, the Chaldean ruler crushedJerusalem and destroyed the temple. He sent thousandsof Jews to Babylon, and this time was known as the Babylonian Captivity.

6. Why did the Assyrians and Chaldeans want to controlIsraelite land?

44

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


45

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The Growth of Judaism For use with pages 93–102

Drawing From ExperienceWhat do you do when you are unhappy? Do you wait

for someone else to make things better? Or do you strug-gle to change things yourself?

In the last section, you learned what ideas of right andwrong meant to the 12 tribes of Israel. In this section, youwill learn how different groups of Jews and their leadersreacted to being conquered and displaced. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the chart below to track details about the follow-ing people and places in Jewish history.

Key Termsexile: forced life in a foreign land (page 94)

Sabbath: weekly day of rest and worship (page 94)

synagogue: Jewish house of worship (page 94)

Diaspora: Jews who lived outside Judaea (page 96)

messiah: a deliverer sent by God (page 101)

rabbi: teacher of the Torah (page 101)

1. Babylon

2. Judah

3. The Diaspora

4. The Maccabees

5. King Herod

Exile and Return (page 94)

The Jews continued their religion during their exile in Babylon.

Jews called their years in Babylon an exile. This meansthey were forced to live in a foreign land. During thistime, the Israelite religion became Judaism.

Jews relied on their religion. They met on theSabbath—their weekly day of rest and worship. Peopleprayed, discussed their religion, and studied history.These meetings took place at synagogues, or Jewishhouses of worship. Meeting together gave people hope.Why Did Jews Return to Judah? During the 500s B.C., the Persiansdefeated the Chaldeans and took over Babylon. In 538B.C., the Persian king Cyrus let the Jews return to Judah.

Though some Jews stayed in Babylon, many returnedhome. They rebuilt Jerusalem and the temple. Cyrusappointed officials to rule the country. He also collectedtaxes from the people.

Temple priests and religious writers called scribesbecame Jewish leaders. A scribe named Ezra was incharge of writing out the five books of the Torah. Thebooks were written on parchment and sewn together.What Is in the Hebrew Bible? The Hebrew Bible is the five booksof the Torah and 34 additional books. Together, theydescribe Jewish history. The Jews believed that God had aspecial role for them in history.

Genesis is the first book of the Torah. It tells the storyof Noah’s ark. God had Noah build a giant ark, or boat, tohold his family and two of every animal in the world.Then he flooded the land to punish those who did notobey him. Genesis also explains why the world has manylanguages. The people of Babel tried to build a tower toheaven. God did not approve, so he made the peoplespeak in different languages. The Jews Look to the Future Parts of the Bible describe God’splan for a peaceful future. In the book of Daniel, one storycenters on Daniel, a king’s adviser. Daniel refused to wor-

46

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


47

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

ship Babylonian gods. The Chaldeans threw him into alion’s den, but God protected him. This story was meantto remind Jews that God would rescue them.

The Jews believed that goodness would replace suffer-ing and evil. Christians and Muslims also share this idea.

6. What helped the Jews survive their exile in Babylon?

The Jews and the Greeks (page 95)

Jews spread their beliefs to the Greek world and regained control ofJudah.

In 334 B.C., Alexander the Great defeated the Persians.He had control of Judah, but he allowed the Jews to stay.Since Alexander loved all things Greek, he introduced theGreek language and ways to Judah.What Was the Diaspora? At this time, Jews lived in other partsof Alexander’s empire. Many still lived in Babylon. Somelived in Egypt and the Mediterranean. The Jews out-side Judah became known as the Diaspora, which meant“scattered.”

Many Jews of the Diaspora learned the Greek languageand ways. One group copied the Hebrew Bible intoGreek. This helped spread Jewish ideas throughout theMediterranean.Who Were the Maccabees? In 168 B.C., a Greek ruler named Antiochus controlled Judah. He made the Jews of Judahworship Greek gods and goddesses. A priest named JudasMaccabeus and his followers rebelled. They fled to thehills and formed an army known as the Maccabees.

After many battles, the Maccabees drove the Greeksout of Judah. They destroyed all traces of Greek gods andgoddesses in their temple. Now, only the God of Israelcould be worshiped there. Today, Jews remember this at acelebration called Hanukkah.


Priests from Judas Maccabeus’s family became the newrulers of Judah. They led Judah to take back land that hadbeen part of the kingdom of Israel.

7. How did Antiochus treat the Jews of Judah differentlythan Alexander treated them?

The Jewish Way of Life (page 97)

Religion shaped the Jewish way of life.

Jewish laws affected daily life. They influenced educa-tion, food, and even their clothes. The laws remindedJews of their religious responsibilities and focused on self-control. This became important when they no longer hadtheir own land and king. Family Life Family was important to Jews and sons wereespecially valued. Sons carried on the family name, andafter a father’s death, they became head of the family.

Education was also important. Mothers were the firstteachers. Fathers taught older sons how to earn a livingand worship God. Later, elders took over boys’ religiouseducation and taught them the Torah. Religious teacherswere community leaders.

Mothers taught their daughters at home. Here, girlslearned to be wives, mothers, and housekeepers. Theylearned Jewish laws about food and clothing. They alsolearned about women of ancient Israel. The Jewish Diet Under Jewish law, Jews could eat only certainanimals like beef and lamb, but not pork. They could eatscaly fish, like salmon. But they could not eat smooth-skinned fish, like eels. Laws about food were known askashrut. This means “that which is proper.”

Today, food prepared according to Jewish dietary lawsis called kosher. Animals used in kosher meat must bekilled in a certain way, inspected, salted, and soaked.

48

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


49

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Kosher Jews must not cook or eat milk products withmeat.

In ancient times, everyday meals included fish, fruit,vegetables, and barley bread. Beverages were milk, water,wine, and beer.Jewish Clothing Jewish law forbade mixing certain fabrics.Women used flax or wool to make cloth, but they couldnot combine the two.

Jewish men wore linen tunics next to their skin. Somemen layered another tunic on top of the first. In coldweather, they added wool or sheepskin cloaks. Otheritems included caps, turbans, and sandals.

Women wore long, simple dresses and shawls.Wealthy women could afford leather shoes. They alsowore makeup and jewelry.

8. Why were sons especially valued in Jewish society?

The Jews and the Romans (page 100)

Under Roman rule, the Jews were divided and rebellious. In response,the Romans destroyed the temple and exiled the Jews.

In 63 B.C., a people known as the Romans conqueredJudah—which they renamed Judaea. The Roman capitallay far to the west in what is now Italy. So at first, theRomans allowed Jewish rulers to run Judaea.The Rule of King Herod During this time, Judaea’s most famousruler was King Herod. He was famous for his cruel natureand his beautiful temple. Today, Herod is famous forbeing king when Jesus was born.

Soon after Herod died, the Romans replaced the Jewishking with Roman officials. The Jews wanted to regaincontrol. However, they had split into different groups andlacked power.

One group of Jews was the Pharisees, who taught theTorah. The Pharisees’ classroom was the synagogue. They


taught how to apply the laws of the Torah to daily life.This helped make Judaism a religion of the home andfamily. It also made the Pharisees popular among thecommon people.

Another group—the Sadducees—focused on how the Torah applied to priests. This is because most of theSadducees were priests and scribes. This group did notagree with the Pharisees’ teachings.

A third group—the Essenes—were priests who brokeaway from the Temple in Jerusalem. Many Essenes livedtogether in the desert. They spent their lives praying andwaiting for God to rescue the Jews from the Romans.

In A.D. 1947, ancient scrolls were found in the desertnear the Red Sea. Called the Dead Sea Scrolls, they wereprobably written by the Essenes. They have helped histo-rians understand Judaism. Jewish Revolts During the A.D. 60s, the Jews hated theRomans. They were waiting for a messiah. A messiah is arescuer, sent by God. Other Jews known as Zealots didnot want to wait for deliverance. They wanted to fight theRomans for their freedom.

In A.D. 66, the Zealots revolted against the Romans anddrove them out of Jerusalem. Four years later, the Romansretook Jerusalem. They killed thousands of Jews. Otherswere forced to leave. The Romans also destroyed the tem-ple in Jerusalem.

The Jews revolted again in A.D. 132. Three years later,the Romans crushed the rebellion. This time, the Romansforbade Jews to set foot in Jerusalem. They renamedJudah Palestine. This name refers to the Philistines whomthe Israelites had conquered centuries before.Jewish Teachers The Jews no longer had priests. Instead, lead-ers called rabbis taught the Torah.

One of the most famous rabbis was Johanan benZakkai. After the revolt of A.D. 70, he founded a school innorthern Palestine. For centuries, this was a center ofTorah studies. Other rabbis also founded Torah schools.The rabbis wanted to save the Torah teachings and pass

50

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


51

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

them on. They combined them in a book called the Talmud. The Talmud remains an important record of Jewish law.

For 2,000 years, most Jews lived outside of Palestine.They often faced hatred and persecution. In A.D. 1948,Palestine was divided. The new Jewish nation of Israelarose.

9. Why were the teachings of the Pharisees popularamong the common people?


Drawing From ExperienceWhat if generations of your family lived along the

coast? Chances are good that your father was a fisher-man—or your grandfather fixed boats for a living.

Geography would influence their way of life.In this section, you will learn how geography deter-

mined the rise and spread of the early Greek kingdoms. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the following 4 W’s and an H chart to track howgeography influenced the early Greek kingdoms of Minoaand Mycenaea. Use details from the text to help you fill ineach blank.

52

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termspeninsula: a body of land with water on three sides (page 117)

colony: a settlement in new territory with close ties to its homeland (page 121)

polis: a Greek city-state (page 122)

agora: an open area used for a market and meeting place (page 122)


The Early Greeks For use with pages 116–123

Early Greeks Minoans Mycenaeans

WHO were they? 1. 6.

WHERE did they live? 2. 7.

WHAT geographical 3. 8.features shaped their land?

HOW did geography 4. 9.influence them?

WHY did their kingdom 5. 10.fall?

53

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Geography of Greece (page 117)

The geography of Greece influenced where people settled and whatthey did.

Greece is a peninsula—land with water on three sides.The Ionian Sea is in the west. The Aegean Sea is in theeast. The Mediterranean Sea is in the south. In thesewaters are hundreds of islands. The islands are coveredwith mountain ridges, hills, and forests. This geographyhelped shape Greek history.

The nearby sea led many ancient Greeks to fish orbuild boats. Others sailed across the sea to trade goodswith other lands. The nearby mountains and rocky soilmade farming a challenge. However, warm, mild weathermade it possible to grow wheat, barley, olives, andgrapes.

Greece’s seas and mountains also shaped its society.They divided the land. Early Greek communities becameisolated from each other. But this made them stronger.They became independent.

11. Name two ways that the sea influenced early Greeksand their societies.

The Minoans (page 118)

The Minoans earned their living by building ships and trading.

The island of Crete lies southeast of the Greek main-land. In 1900, a British archaeologist named Arthur Evanswent there. In Knossos, he uncovered the ruins of aMinoan palace. The Minoans had developed the first civi-lization in the region. This palace had once been the cen-ter of Minoan life and dated back more than 5,000 years.Its ruins had private rooms for the royal family, bath-rooms, storerooms, and workshops.


The Minoans used the oak and cedar trees from theforests of Crete. They built wooden ships that could sailas far as Egypt and Syria.

Minoan traders left port with pottery and stone vases.They returned with ivory and metals. Their island loca-tion worked well. They could control trade on theMediterranean Sea.

By 2000 B.C., Minoan society was thriving. But by 1450 B.C., it had collapsed. Historians disagree about whatcaused the downfall. Some think undersea earthquakescrushed Minoan cities under giant waves. Others believeinvaders from the mainland caused the destruction.

12. What helped the Minoans become great traders?

The First Greek Kingdoms (page 119)

Mycenaeans built the first Greek kingdoms and spread their poweracross the Mediterranean region.

The Mycenaeans first came from central Asia. In 1900 B.C., they invaded the Greek mainland and conqueredits people. What Were Mycenaean Kingdoms Like? In the late 1800s B.C., theruins of a walled palace were discovered in Mycenae.Long ago, a palace stood at the center of each Mycenaeankingdom. Built on a hill, each palace lay near farms andestates. These lands belonged to the nobles. Slaves andfarmers lived there. The palace was home to artisans, government officials, and civic life.Power From Trade and War Minoan traders soon visited Myce-nae from Crete. The Mycenaeans learned much from theMinoans. They learned bronze-working, shipbuilding,navigation, and religion. Around 1400 B.C., they replacedthe Minoans as the major power on the Mediterranean.However, 300 years later, earthquakes and in-fightingdestroyed their civilization.

54

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


55

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

What Was the Dark Age? Between 1100 B.C. and 750 B.C., was the Dark Age. Farmers grew only enough to feed theirfamilies, so there was no surplus food. Poverty set in.Overseas trade slowed down. Craft skills died out. Teachers stopped teaching. And Greeks forgot their written language.

During the Dark Age, thousands of Greeks moved to islands in the Aegean Sea. Still others moved to AsiaMinor, to what is now Turkey. This expanded Greek culture.

Meanwhile, people known as Dorians invaded Greece.They settled on the Peloponnesus peninsula. The Doriansbrought iron weapons. Greeks had used bronze, but ironwas stronger and cheaper. The Dorians gave Greece moreadvanced technology.

Over time, Greek farmers grew more food. Traderscame into contact with new ways of writing. The idea fora Greek alphabet came from the Phoenicians to the east.The new, simpler alphabet helped the Greeks revive read-ing, writing, and storytelling.

13. Name two positive changes that occurred duringGreece’s Dark Age.

A Move to Colonize (page 121)

Colonies and trade spread Greek culture and spurred industry.

Greece’s recovery from its Dark Age led to threeimportant developments:

• Colonization The population quickly began to out-grow Greek cities. People started Greek colonies. A colonyis a settlement in a new area. Between 750 B.C. and 550 B.C.,Greek colonies spread to Italy, France, Spain, NorthAfrica, and western Asia.


• Coins As trade grew, the Greeks began to make, or“mint,” coins. Merchants had traded with goods. Now,they “traded” for money. This gave trade a strong boost.

• Specialization As demand for goods quickly grew,people in different areas specialized in making certainproducts. For example, areas rich in clay specialized inmaking pottery.

14. How did minting coins help the growth of Greek civilization?

The Polis (page 122)

The idea of citizenship developed in Greek city-states.

By the end of the Dark Age, Greek society hadchanged. Instead of kingdoms, there were city-states.Each city-state, or polis, was made up of a town and its nearby area. Each polis had an acropolis, or main gathering place. The fortified acropolis sat on a hill. Itcould also be a religious center. Each polis also had anagora. This open area below the acropolis was a marketand a meeting place.What Was Greek Citizenship? The Greeks were the first todevelop the idea of citizenship. Each Greek city-state was run by its citizens.

In ancient Greece, only free, native-born men whoowned land could be citizens. Some city-states, such asAthens, dropped the land-owning requirement. Still,slaves and foreign-born residents were excluded. Womenand children could qualify for citizenship. However, theyhad no citizens’ rights. Citizens could choose officials andpass laws, vote, hold office, own property, and defendthemselves in court.Citizens as Soldiers Greek citizenship also included certainduties. Each citizen had to serve in government. They alsohad to fight for their polis as citizen-soldiers. Since the

56

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


57

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

rise of city-states, wars were no longer waged by noblesriding horses and chariots. By 700 B.C., each polisdepended on an army of citizen-soldiers called hoplites.

Hoplites fought on foot. Each soldier had a shield, ashort sword, and a spear. They went into battle in rows.They used their shields as one long protective wall.

Hoplites made good soldiers because they were citi-zens. They took pride in fighting for their own city-states.However, this “hometown” loyalty caused division anddistrust among Greeks as a whole.

15. How was citizenship in ancient Greece different fromcitizenship as we know it today?


Drawing From ExperienceMost people experience power struggles in their daily

lives. Sometimes, a bully uses force to get his way. Or agroup of popular friends can set trends by excluding oth-ers. Often, different kinds of people can band togetherwhen they become unhappy with a “leader.”

In the previous section, you learned about the geogra-phy of Greece. In this section, you will learn how twoGreek city-states found different methods of running—and changing—their governments. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the following chart to note similarities and differ-ences between Athens and Sparta. Use details from thetext to help you fill in each category.

58

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termstyrant: someone who takes power by force and rules with authority

(page 125)

oligarchy: rule by the few (page 126)

democracy: citizen-run government (page 126)

helot: workers captured and enslaved by the Spartans (page 126)


Sparta and Athens For use with pages 124–130

Sparta Athens

System of government 1. 6.

Government details 2. 7.

Expansion method 3. 8.

Boy’s life 4. 9.

Girl’s life 5. 10.

59

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Tyranny in the City-States (page 125)

Tyrants were able to seize power from the nobles with the support ofGreek farmers, merchants, and artisans.

Small farmers often needed money to live on until theycould harvest and sell their crops. They borrowed thismoney from the nobles. If the farmers could not pay theirdebts on time, the nobles took their land. Many farmerslost their land. They had to work directly for the nobles orbecome city laborers. Desperate farmers sometimes soldthemselves into slavery.

By 650 B.C., small farmers joined merchants and arti-sans in demanding change. Merchants and artisans hadbecome wealthy through trade. But they did not ownland. Therefore, they could not become citizens. They had no voice in running the polis.

This unrest led to the rise of tyrants. A tyrant is some-one who takes power by force and rules with total author-ity. Today we think of tyrants as being harsh. Early Greektyrants were wise and fair. They built new marketplaces,temples, and walls. Still, most Greeks wanted to be citizens.

By 500 B.C., most city-states had replaced the tyrants.Two new types of government arose. The first was oli-garchy, in which a few people hold power. The secondwas democracy, which is run by citizens. Sparta had anoligarchy. Athens had a democracy. They were both powerful Greek city-states.

11. Who joined with farmers in demanding change?


Sparta (page 126)

The Spartans focused on military skills to control the people they conquered.

Like other city-states, Sparta needed more land as itgrew. Unlike other city-states, Sparta did not set upcolonies. Instead, Spartans conquered and enslaved theirneighbors. They called their slaves helots.Why Was the Military So Important? Spartans worried that thehelots might rebel. So the government set up strict mili-tary training.

At age seven, boys went to live in army barracks. Theywere toughened with harsh treatment. At age 20, Spartanmen entered the army and stayed for ten years. Only then,could they return home. But they stayed in the army untilage 60. All were expected to win or die on the battlefield.

Girls kept fit by running, wrestling, and throwinglong, thin spears called javelins. Wives stayed home whiletheir husbands lived in the barracks. As a result, Spartanwomen were freer than other Greek women. They couldown property and go where they pleased.What Was Sparta’s Government Like? Under the Spartan oligarchy,two kings headed a council of elders. The council’s func-tion was to present laws to an assembly. It included 28 cit-izens over age 60. All Spartan men over age 30 belongedto an assembly. They voted on council law. They alsochose five people to be ephors. An ephor enforced lawsand managed tax collection.

The government adopted several policies to keep peo-ple from questioning their system, including:

• limiting foreign visitors• banning travel abroad• discouraging the study of literature and the artsThe Spartans successfully controlled the helots for

almost 250 years. But their focus on the military came at a

60

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


61

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

price. They fell behind other Greeks in trade. Theirknowledge of science and other subjects was poor. Still,their soldiers would play a key role in defending Greece.

12. How did ordinary citizens play a role in the Spartanoligarchy?

Athens (page 128)

Unlike Spartans, Athenians were more interested in building a democ-racy than building a military force.

What Was Life in Athens Like? Athens was at least a two-day tripfrom Sparta. The governments of the two city-states werevery different.

In Athens, citizens raised their children under a differ-ent set of values. In schools, one teacher taught reading,writing, and math. Another teacher led sports activities. A third focused on music. This included singing and play-ing a stringed instrument called a lyre. As you can tell,Athenians believed in creating well-rounded citizens—inboth body and mind.

At age 18, boys finished school and became citizens.Girls stayed at home. There, mothers taught them house-hold duties like spinning and weaving. Some wealthyfamilies taught their daughters to read, write, and playthe lyre.A Budding Democracy During the 600s B.C., Athens was ruledby landowning nobles. Then, farmers began to rebel.They demanded an end to all debts, and land for the poor.The nobles knew they were in trouble. So in 594 B.C., theycalled upon a noble named Solon. This man was trustedby both sides.

Solon acted swiftly. First, he cancelled all debts. Healso freed farmers who were forced to become slaves.Then he allowed all male citizens to participate in theassembly and law courts. Solon’s reforms were popular


among common people. But they did not address one keyissue: Solon refused to give away wealthy nobles’ land.

After Solon, 30 years of turmoil gripped Athens.Finally, a tyrant named Peisistratus seized power in 560 B.C. He did several things to win support of the poor. He divided large estates among landless farmers.He also loaned money to the poor. And he gave them jobsbuilding temples and other public works.

The next important leader was Cleisthenes. When hetook power in 508 B.C., he reorganized the assembly toplay a central role. Now, members had new powers. Theycould participate in open debate, hear court cases, andappoint army generals. Cleisthenes also created a new500-citizen assembly to conduct daily business. Thiscouncil proposed laws, dealt with foreign countries, andoversaw the treasury. The new council was an importantdevelopment for democracy. Athenians chose its mem-bers by lottery each year. They believed this system wasfairer because an election might favor the rich.

Cleisthenes’ reforms did not bring women, foreign-born men, and slaves into the political process. Still, he iscredited with bringing democracy to Athens.

13. Name one way that Cleisthenes made the govern-ment of Athens more democratic.

62

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


63

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


Persia Attacks the Greeks For use with pages 131–137

Drawing From ExperienceThree of you are working on a class project. Two of

you argue about what to do. The third student starts bul-lying you to do what he or she wants. Would you andyour classmate band together to stop the bully?

In the previous section, you learned about governmentin Greece. In this section, you will learn how Greek city-states put aside their differences to resist the PersianEmpire. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the following time line to track the major eventsthat occurred between 539 B.C. and 334 B.C. Use detailsfrom the text to help you.

Key Termssatrapies: the 20 states of the Persian Empire (page 133)

satrap: official ruler of a Persian state (page 133)

Zoroastrianism: Persian religion founded on principle of one god (page 133)

Date 539 B.C. 521 B.C. 499 B.C. 490 B.C. 480 B.C. 479 B.C. 334 B.C.

Events 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

The Persian Empire (page 132)

The Persian Empire united a wide area under a single government.

Long ago, the people of Persia lived in what is knowntoday as southwestern Iran. For a time, Persians were war-riors and nomads, or wanderers, who herded cattle. In559 B.C., Cyrus the Great united Persians into a powerful

kingdom. Then he built his kingdom into the largestempire in the world.The Rise of the Persian Empire Persia’s conquests began in 539 B.C. First, Cyrus’s armies captured Babylon. Then, theytook over northern Mesopotamia. On and on the armiesmarched, sweeping into Asia Minor, Syria, Canaan, andthe cities of Phoenicia. Cyrus treated his new subjects well.This helped hold his growing empire together.

The rule of Cyrus the Great ended in 530 B.C. The lead-ers who followed continued to add new territory—Egypt,western India, and Thrace. Now, the empire was aboutthe size of the continental United States.

Such a large empire presented a problem: How couldPersia connect all its holdings? Leaders conquered thischallenge by building miles and miles of roads. Thelargest was the Royal Road, which stretched from AsiaMinor to the Persian capital of Susa. Along the roadsidewere stations that supplied travelers with food, shelter,and fresh horses.What Was Persian Government Like? The empire’s growth meantmore difficulties. Leaders found government hard tomanage. When Darius came to the throne in 521 B.C., hereorganized the government.

Darius thought that smaller units would be easier torule. So he divided the empire into 20 separate statescalled satrapies. Each state was ruled by an official satrap,meaning “protector of the king.” A satrap was many offi-cials rolled into one. He was tax collector, judge, chief ofpolice, and army recruiter. Still, each satrap answered tothe king.

How did the king maintain his power? He dependedupon his troops. This army was unlike that of Greek city-states. In Athens, regular citizens defended theirhomeland. In contrast, Persia’s soldiers were full-time,paid, professionals. This large army included 10,000 sol-diers who were specially trained to guard the king.The Persian Religion The Persian religion was called Zoroastri-anism. Its founder was Zoroaster, who believed in one

64

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


65

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

god. He preached that this supreme being created allthings. His god was a force for goodness. But Zoroasterrecognized that the world contained evil. It was up toeach human to choose between good and evil, and rightand wrong. This religion still has followers today.

8. What prompted Persian rulers to build roads?

The Persian Wars (page 134)

Both Sparta and Athens played roles in defeating the Persians.

Persians often battled Greeks who set up colonies nearthe Mediterranean. By the mid-500s B.C., Greek cities inAsia Minor had already fallen to Persia. In 499 B.C., theAthenian army helped these cities rebel against their Per-sian rulers. The rebellion failed. But it prompted KingDarius to make a firm resolution: The Greeks must bestopped from challenging the Persian Empire.The Battle of Marathon In 490 B.C., Persia prepared an attacknear the city-state of Athens. This was the plan: 20,000soldiers would board a fleet of Persian ships. Then theywould sail across the Aegean Sea and land on the plain of Marathon. Athens was just a short distance away. Theywould wait for the Greeks to come and attack. Persia’splan had one slight problem: The Athenians were toosmart to be fooled. They had only half the number of soldiers as the Persians. Rather than risk certain defeat,they crept into the hills that overlooked the plain. There,they watched and waited.

Finally, the Persian commander grew impatient. Whatif the Greeks never came? He decided to sail south andlaunch a direct attack. So he ordered his troops back ontothe ships. His plan might have worked, but he made a bigmistake. He ordered the horsemen—the strongest part ofthe army—to board first. From the hilltops, the Greekswaited. When the cavalry was out of fighting range, they


charged down onto the plain. There, the Persian foot sol-diers were waiting their turn to board. Knee-deep in the water—and surprised—they were easily defeated.

Does the word marathon sound familiar? According to legend, its origin grew out of this battle. The storyexplains that the Greeks sent a messenger home fromMarathon to Athens—about 25 miles—with news of thefight. After collapsing from exhaustion, the messengerannounced, “Victory.” Then he died. Modern marathonraces, which are about 26 miles long, are named for thisfamous run.Another Persian Strike When Darius’s son Xerxes became kingof Persia in 486 B.C., he vowed revenge against the Greeks.In 480 B.C., he launched a new invasion. This time, thePersians sent 180,000 troops, with thousands of warshipsand supply boats. To defend themselves, the Greeks joinedforces. Sparta sent the most soldiers, with King Leonidasas commander. Athens provided the navy. Themistocles,an Athenian general, came up with a battle plan.

The Greeks knew that the huge Persian armydepended on supply boats for food. The Greeks’ bestchance would be to attack Persian ships and cut off thearmy’s source of food. The Greeks needed time to readytheir fleet for battle. So they stalled the Persian army,blocking it at the narrow mountain pass of Thermopylae.This place was easy to defend. So for two days, a mere7,000 Greek soldiers held off the Persians.

But a traitor spoiled the plan for the Greeks. Directingthe Persians to a mountain path, he led them around theGreeks. From there, the Persians mounted a rear attack.King Leonidas was able to send most of his troops tosafety. But he and a few hundred others stayed behindand fought to the death. The Greeks lost the battle atThermopylae. Still, they gave Athens enough time toready 200 ships for the broader fight.

Now, the Greek fleet attacked the Persian fleet in thestrait of Salamis, near Athens. A strait is a narrow strip of

66

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


67

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

water between two pieces of land. The Greeks knew theywould have the upper hand in a naval battle. Their shipswere smaller, faster, and easier to steer. So they were ableto move in and around the big Persian ships. After a fiercebattle, the Greeks destroyed almost the entire Persianfleet.

On land, Persian troops reached Athens. The Greekshad already fled. So the Persians burned the city. This actactually made the Greeks stronger. In 479 B.C., they unitedto form the largest Greek army ever. These soldiers hadsolid body armor, longer spears, and better training. AtPlataea, northwest of Athens, they crushed the Persianarmy.

This battle was a turning point for the Greeks. It con-vinced the Persians to retreat to Asia Minor. By workingtogether, the city-states had saved Greece from invasion.What Caused the Persian Empire to Fall? The rulers who followedDarius and Xerxes raised taxes. Gold and silver flowedinto the treasuries. The kings spent these riches on luxu-ries for the royal court. This caused anger and rebellion.

At the same time, the Persian royal family fought overwho was to be king. Many of the later kings were killedby power-hungry family members. Persian kings hadmany wives and children. The sons had little power, andconstantly plotted to take over the throne. Six of the ninerulers after Darius were murdered.

These problems left Persia open to attack. In 334 B.C., a young Greek conqueror named Alexander the Greatinvaded the empire. The Persians were no match for histroops. By 330 B.C., the last Persian king was dead andAlexander ruled over all his lands.

9. What two factors weakened the Persian Empire?


Drawing From ExperienceSuppose you are given a task—a school or community

project, for example. What is the best way to get thingsdone? Groups provide more workers and a variety ofideas. But when you do something yourself, you can skipmeetings and work faster.

In this section, you will learn how Greek city-statesconfronted and resolved these kinds of questions. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the following chart to summarize what Athenswas like during the Age of Pericles. Use details from thetext to help you.

68

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsdirect democracy: citizens run government at mass meetings (page 139)

representative democracy: citizens choose a smaller group to govern on theirbehalf (page 139)

philosopher: thinkers who study questions about life (page 140)


The Age of Pericles For use with pages 138–146

Government 1.

Economy 2.

Culture 3.

Wars 4.

The Athenian Empire (page 139)

Under Pericles, Athens became very powerful and more democratic.

As you read in Section 3, in 479 B.C., Persia retreatedfrom Greece at the Battle of Plataea. Still, the empireremained a threat. So one year later, Athens joined withother city-states—except Sparta—in the Delian League.

At first, the league was headquartered on the island ofDelos. However, its chief officers and most of its troops

69

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

were from Athens. Soon, Athens gained further control.Before long, the purpose of the Delian League changed.No longer a partnership to fight Persia, it became anAthenian empire. Key offices moved from Delos toAthens. By 454 B.C., the Athenians began sending troopsto other city-states to help common people rebel againstthe nobles. Democracy in Athens Athenians believed strongly in their sys-tem of government, direct democracy. In a direct democ-racy, people decide laws and policies at mass meetings.Can you imagine this in the United States? How impossi-ble would a mass meeting of 280 million citizens be! Oursystem is a representative democracy. Under this type ofgovernment, citizens choose a smaller group to makepolicies for them. With a large population, this systemmakes practical sense.

Direct democracy worked in Athens because of itssmall size. In the mid-400s B.C., about 43,000 male citizensover 18 years old made up the assembly. This bodypassed laws, elected officials, and made military deci-sions. Usually, fewer than 6,000 attended meetings, whichtook place every 10 days. Ten officials known as generalscarried out the assembly’s policies.The Achievements of Pericles After the Persian Wars, a generalnamed Pericles became Athens’ greatest statesman. Peri-cles guided Athens for more than 30 years—from his elec-tion in 461 B.C. to just before his death in 429 B.C.

Pericles helped Athens control the Delian League. Hetreated the other city-states like subjects. He demandedstrict loyalty and steady payments. He even insisted theyuse Athenian coins and units of measure.

Meanwhile, Pericles made Athens itself more demo-cratic. He believed that people’s talents mattered morethan social standing. So he allowed lower-class citizens to run for office. For the first time, poor citizens couldbecome part of government’s inner circle.

Pericles began a major reconstruction program. Newstatues, temples, and other structures were built to


replace those destroyed by war. Culture also blossomedunder the Age of Pericles. Creativity and learning flour-ished. Pericles supported artists, architects, and writers.He promoted philosophers—people who study questionsabout life. Pericles worked to make sure that Athens livedup to the name he gave it: “the school of Greece.”

5. Name at least three ways that Pericles improved lifefor the citizens of Athens.

Daily Life in Athens (page 142)

Athenian men and women had very different roles.

In the 400s B.C., more people lived in Athens than inany other Greek city-state. The following breakdownshows the different population segments of Athens:

• Citizens 150,000• Foreigners 35,000• Slaves 100,000

Total residents 285,000Even in democracies, slavery was common in the

ancient world. Most Athenian homes had at least oneslave. Wealthy households had many—servants, cooks,maids, and tutors. Other slaves toiled in the fields, facto-ries, and artisans’ shops. Without slave labor, the bustlingAthenian economy would collapse.What Drove the Athenian Economy? Many Athenians farmed for aliving. Herders raised sheep and goats for wool, milk, andcheese. Some farmers grew grains, vegetables, and fruitfor local use. Others grew grapes and olives to make wineand olive oil, two products sold abroad.

Athens did not have enough farmland to grow crops tosupport all its people. So the city had to import grain.During the 400s B.C., Athens became the trading center of

70

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


71

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Greece. Merchants and artisans grew rich making andselling pottery, jewelry, and leather goods.Roles of Men and Women The lives of Athenian men andwomen were quite different. Men usually worked in themorning, then exercised or went to meetings. In theevenings, upper-class men enjoyed all-male gatheringswhere they drank, dined, and discussed politics or philosophy.

The life of Athenian women centered on the home.Girls married at age 14 or 15. They were expected to havechildren and take care of the household. Poor womenmight also work alongside their husbands in the fields.Some sold goods in the agora. Upper-class women stayedat home. There, they supervised servants and madecloth—spinning, dyeing, and weaving it. They rarely leftthe house. Even when they went to funerals or festivals, amale relative had to accompany them.

Even though Athenian women could not attendschool, many learned to read and play music. Still, theycould not own property or have political rights. Eveneducated women were not considered equal to men.

A few women moved more freely in public life. Onefamous example is Aspasia, a well-educated woman. The fact that she was not a native Athenian gave her spe-cial status. She could not vote or hold office. Still, shemanaged to influence politics indirectly. Aspasia taughtpublic speaking to many Athenians. Leaders—includingPericles—often consulted with her. Her writings have not survived. Yet Plato, the famous Greek philosopher,claimed her work helped shape his ideas.

6. How were Athenian women unequal members of society?


The Peloponnesian War (page 144)

Sparta and Athens went to war for control of Greece.

As the Athenian empire became rich, other city-statesgrew suspicious. Led by Sparta, they joined forces againstAthens. Sparta and Athens had built different kinds ofsocieties. Neither state understood or trusted the other.Sparta and its allies believed Athens was too hostile. Thisled to several clashes. Finally, war broke out in 431 B.C. Itdragged on until 404 B.C. Now, any possibility for futurecooperation was gone. Historians call this conflict thePeloponnesian War.Pericles’ Funeral Oration During the first winter of the war,Athenians held a public funeral to honor its war dead.Relatives wept for their loved ones. All the citizenryjoined in a procession. Pericles addressed the crowd. He spoke about Athens’s greatness and reminded people it was citizens themselves who made their governmentstrong. This famous speech was called the Funeral Oration.

On that day, Pericles reminded Athenians that theybelonged to a community. They accepted certain duties,such as paying taxes and defending the city. They alsoenjoyed certain rights, such as the ability to vote and runfor office.

Pericles’ speech reminded Athenians of the power ofdemocracy. His words gave them the courage to keepfighting. His ideas still ring true for people in democraticnations today.Why Was Athens Defeated? As the Peloponnesian War began,both Sparta and Athens thought they knew how to win.The strategy Sparta and its allies used was to surroundAthens. They hoped Athens would send its army out tofight. However, Pericles knew that Athens did not fightbest in open battles. So he urged farmers and others tomove inside the safety of the city walls. While the Atheni-ans stayed inside the walls, their navy delivered supplies

72

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


73

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

from its colonies and allies. Sparta did not have a navy, so it could not attack the Athenian ships.

This strategy worked for Athens—for a brief time.Then, in the second year of the war, disease spreadthrough the overcrowded city. It killed more than a thirdof the people, including Pericles himself. Still, Athensfought on. The standoff continued for another 25 years.

It was Sparta that changed the standoff. Desperate towin, Spartans made a deal with the Persian Empire, theirformer enemy. In exchange for money, they gave Persiasome Greek territory in Asia Minor. With the money, theybuilt a navy.

In 404 B.C., Sparta’s new navy destroyed the Athenianfleet. The next year, Athens lost many land battles. Sothey surrendered. The Spartans and their allies tore downthe city walls and broke up the Athenian empire. Thelong war was over.

The Peloponnesian War weakened all the Greek city-states—both winners and losers. Many people died fight-ing. Many farms were destroyed, and thousands lost theirjobs. The war also made it impossible for the Greeks towork together again.

After defeating Athens, Sparta tried to rule all ofGreece. Within 30 years, however, the city-states rebelled.A new war began. As they fought amongst themselves,the Greeks failed to look beyond their own borders. Ifthey had, they might have noticed a greater threat. Totheir north, the kingdom of Macedonia was growing in power.

This mistake would cost Greece its freedom.

7. Why did Sparta seek support from the PersianEmpire?


Drawing From ExperienceDo you believe that a god throws the lightning bolts

during a thunderstorm? Probably not—today, scienceexplains many things about nature and life.

In this section you will learn how the ancient Greeksused stories about the gods to explain many things aboutnature and life. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the following table to see how the four types ofGreek stories are the same and different. Use details fromthe text to help you fill in each blank. Use A for always, Sfor sometimes, and N for never.

74

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsmyth: a traditional story about gods and heroes (page 155)

oracle: a holy shrine where a priest or priestess spoke for the god or goddess(page 156)

epic: a long poem about heroes and heroines (page 157)

fable: a short story that teaches a lesson (page 158)

drama: a story told by actors who pretend to be characters in the story (page 160)

tragedy: a drama, or story, with an unhappy ending (page 160)

comedy: a drama, or story, with a happy ending (page 161)


The Culture of Ancient Greece For use with pages 154–163

Story Epic Drama– Drama–Characteristics Myth Poem Fable Tragedy Comedy

The main 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.character is a hero or god.

The story has a 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.moral or point.

The story is 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.short.

The story is 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.funny or has a happy ending.

75

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Greek Mythology (page 155)

The Greeks believed that gods and goddesses controlled nature andshaped their lives.

The Greeks believed in many gods and goddesses. TheGreeks told myths about their gods. Myths are traditionalstories about gods and heroes. The Greeks believed thegods affected everyday life. That is why every city builtbeautiful temples to the gods. The Greeks hoped the tem-ples would make the gods happy because happy godswould not hurt the city.Greek Gods and Goddesses The Greeks believed that the godscontrolled nature. The god Zeus ruled the sky and threwlightning bolts. The goddess Demeter made the cropsgrow. Poseidon—one of Zeus’s brothers—ruled the sea.

The most important gods lived on Mount Olympus,the highest mountain in Greece. They lived above theclouds, where no human could see them.

Greek gods were perfect. In many ways, gods werelike humans with special powers. The gods got married,had children, made friends and enemies, fought witheach other, and played tricks on one another.

To convince the gods to be kind, the Greeks had festi-vals of the gods and performed religious rituals, or cere-monies. This included special prayers and giving gifts tothe gods.

The Greeks also believed in an afterlife. The spirits ofthe dead lived beneath the earth and were ruled by Hades.What Was a Greek Oracle? The Greeks believed that everyonehad a fate, or destiny. They also thought that the godsmade prophecies, or predictions, to help people plan forthe future. People who wanted to know the future, or listen to other advice, visited an oracle. An oracle is a holy shrine where a priest or priestess talks to one of the gods. People asked the priestess questions. She toldher answers to the priests. Then the priests translated the answers.


Many answers were riddles. Once King Croesus askedif he should go to war against the Persians. The oraclesaid that if Croesus attacked the Persians, he woulddestroy a mighty empire. Croesus attacked, but the Per-sian army crushed his army. It turned out that Croesus’sown—“mighty empire”—was destroyed!

21. Why did the Greeks have festivals and rituals fortheir gods?

Greek Poetry and Fables (page 157)

Greek poetry and fables taught Greek values.

Greek poems and stories are the oldest in the Westernworld. Many writers have copied ideas from these oldstories.

The earliest Greek stories were called epics. Epics arelong poems about heroic deeds. Two great epics are theIliad and the Odyssey. Homer wrote them both in the 700s B.C. They tell about a war between cities in Greeceand the city of Troy.

In the Iliad, a prince of Troy kidnaps Helen, the wife ofthe king of Sparta. The result is a battle to capture Troy.The Greeks eventually capture the city and win the war.

The Odyssey tells the story of Odysseus, a Greek heroat Troy. On his trip home from the Trojan War, Odysseusfaces storms, giants, and witches. It takes him 10 years toget home, which is why we call a long journey withadventures an odyssey.

The Greeks believed that the Iliad and Odyssey werenot just stories. They thought the epics were real history.These poems gave the Greeks a history filled with heroesand brave deeds. Homer’s epic poems taught that friend-

76

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


77

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

ship and marriage should be valued. Homer’s heroesbecame role models for Greek boys. Who Was Aesop? About 550 B.C., there was a Greek slavecalled Aesop. He made up fables, or short tales that teacha lesson. In most of Aesop’s fables, animals talk and actlike people. Fables always have a point, or moral. Fablespoint out human flaws as well as strengths.

One of Aesop’s best-known fables is “The Tortoise andthe Hare.” In it, a tortoise, or turtle, challenges a hare, orrabbit, to a race. As the hare oversleeps, the tortoise con-tinues at a slow but steady pace and wins the race.

The moral of that fable is “slow and steady wins therace.” Today, we still use sayings from Aesop’s fables.Aesop’s fables were part of Greece’s oral tradition forabout 200 years. That means that people told the storiesout loud. Eventually, people started writing down the fables. Since then, fables have been retold in manylanguages.

22. What are the characteristics of a fable?

Greek Drama (page 160)

Greek drama still shapes entertainment today.

A drama is a story told by actors who pretend to becharacters in the story. They speak, show emotion, andimitate the actions of those characters. Movies, plays, andtelevision shows are all drama. Greek dramas dealt withbig questions, such as the nature of good and evil, therights of people, and the role of gods in everyday life.Tragedies and Comedies The Greeks put on plays during reli-gious festivals in outdoor theaters. These outdoor theaterswere called amphitheaters. We still use that word today.


The Greeks developed two types of drama—tragedyand comedy. A tragedy has an unhappy ending. Peoplecannot solve their problems no matter how hard they try.Early Greek tragedies were about people who foughtagainst fate. Later tragedies were about people who madebad personal choices.

A comedy ends happily. Today we use comedy to meana funny story. But comedy actually means any story witha happy ending.

Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides wrote tragedy.Aristophanes wrote comedy.

Early Greek plays had only one actor. The actor stoodon a bare stage and gave speeches. A chorus stood behindthe actor and sang songs to describe what was happening.Aeschylus added a second actor to his plays. This let himwrite a story about problems that can happen betweentwo people. Aeschylus also added costumes, props, andstage decorations.

In 458 B.C., Aeschylus wrote a group of three playscalled the Oresteia. They describe what happened after theTrojan War. They teach that evil acts can cause more evilacts. The moral of the plays is that people should not tryto get revenge.

Euripides wrote after Aeschylus and Sophocles.Euripides wrote about everyday people. He challengedtraditional thinking.

The comedies of Aristophanes poked fun at politiciansand local scholars. Aristophanes’ plays included jokes,and they encouraged the audience to think while theylaughed.

23. What two types of drama did the Greeks create?

78

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


79

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Greek Art and Architecture (page 162)

Greek art and architecture expressed Greek ideas of beauty and harmony.

Greek artists hoped that their art would help teachpeople about reason, moderation, balance, and harmony.Greek artists painted murals and made pottery. Largevases often have pictures from myths. Small pieces, likecups, have pictures from everyday life.

The Greeks were also skilled architects—people whodesign buildings. The most important buildings were thetemples, like the Parthenon. Temples contained roomsthat housed statues of the gods and the gifts that peopleoffered to the gods.

Large columns supported the roofs of Greek buildings.At first, the columns were made of wood. Then, in 500 B.C.,they were marble, or stone. We still use marble columnsin churches and large buildings today. For example, theWhite House and the Capitol building both havecolumns.

Many Greek temples were decorated with sculpture.Sculpture, like all of Greek art, expressed ideas. Greekartists liked to copy the human body, but they did notcopy it exactly. They did not include flaws. Instead, artiststried to show their ideas of perfection and beauty.

24. What was the most important type of building inancient Greece?


Drawing From ExperienceMost of us have done something, and then realized

that we really had not thought about it first. Sometimeswe get into trouble or hurt someone’s feelings.

In the last section you learned how the ancient Greeksused stories about the gods to explain many things aboutnature and life.Organizing Your Thoughts

In this section you will read about Greek philosophersand historians. They are the Sophists, Socrates, Aristotle,Plato, Herodotus, and Thucydides.

In the box below each name, write an important factabout the person or group. Use details from the text tohelp you fill in each box.

80

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsphilosophy: comes from the Greek word for “love of wisdom” (page 169)

philosophers: Greek thinkers who believed that people could understandeverything by studying and thinking about it (page 169)

Sophist: professional teacher in ancient Greece (page 169)

Socratic method: a way of teaching in which the teacher asks students ques-tions that make the students use logic to figure out things (page 170)


Greek Philosophy and History For use with pages 168–173

Name Facts

1. Sophists

2. Socrates

3. Plato

4. Aristotle

5. Herodotus

6. Thucydides

81

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Greek Philosophers (page 169)

Greek philosophers developed ideas that are still used today.

The word philosophy means “love of wisdom.” Thefirst philosophers were Greek thinkers. They thought thatpeople could understand everything.

Many philosophers were teachers. Pythagoras was oneof them. He taught that numbers could describe all therelationships in the world. He invented the Pythagoreantheorem, which helps us figure out how long the sides ofa triangle are.Who Were the Sophists? The Sophists were teachers in ancientGreece. They thought that students should improve them-selves by reading and thinking. Sophists taught how tomake good arguments and political speeches.

Sophists did not believe that the gods influencedeveryday life. They also did not believe in a definite, or“absolute,” right or wrong. They thought that a thingcould be wrong for one person and right for another. The Ideas of Socrates Socrates was a sculptor in Athens. Heloved philosophy but left no writings behind. We knowabout him from his students’ writings.

Socrates did not agree with the Sophists. He thoughtthere was an absolute right and wrong. He thought thateverybody already knows everything. The knowledgewas buried deep inside each person.

Socrates believed that absolute truth existed. Socratestried to help people find the knowledge inside themselvesand through the Socratic method of teaching. In thismethod, he asked his pupils hard questions, forcing themto use their reason to answer these questions.

Some leaders in Athens thought Socrates was danger-ous. He encouraged people to question their leaders’ decisions. In 399 B.C., Socrates was arrested and foundguilty of teaching his students to rebel. He was sentencedto death.


Socrates could have left Athens, but he refused to do so. He said that he lived in Athens, so he had to obey the city’s laws. He drank poison to carry out hisdeath sentence.The Ideas of Plato Plato was one of Socrates’ students. He wrote a book called the Republic. Plato did not likedemocracy. His ideal government divided people intothree groups.

The top group was philosopher-kings. Philosopher-kings ruled with wisdom and logic. The second groupwas warriors. They protected the kingdom with theircourage. The third group was everyone else. Platothought they were not wise or brave. So they did all of the other jobs in the kingdom.

Unlike most men at that time, Plato believed thatwomen should also be educated and be allowed to do the same jobs as men.Who Was Aristotle? Plato started a school in Athens. It wascalled the Academy. His best student was Aristotle. Aristotle wrote more than 200 books on government, science, health, and the planets.

In 355 B.C., Aristotle opened his own school called theLyceum. Aristotle taught his students the “golden mean.”This idea says that people should not do too much ofsomething.

Aristotle told his students to see, or observe, the worldaround them. He was the first person to separate hisobservations by similarities and differences. For example,some animals fly, and others do not. Then he made gener-alizations based on groups of facts.

Aristotle also wrote about government in Politics. Hestudied the governments of 158 different places anddivided them into three types:

a. Government by one person, such as a king orqueen, or a tyrant

82

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


83

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

b. Government by a few people, such as an aristocracyor an oligarchy

c. Government by many people, such as a democracyAristotle thought that the best government was a

combination of types b and c. The United States tries tocombine these types of government.

7. How were Aristotle’s ideas on government differentfrom Plato’s?

Greek Historians (page 173)

Greeks wrote the first real histories in Western civilization.

For thousands of years, people did not write history.They used legends and myths to explain their past. Somecivilizations kept lists of rulers. But no one wrote downevents.

Then, in 435 B.C., Herodotus wrote a history bookabout the Persian Wars. He tried to separate fact from legend and is the first person to record events as theyhappened. Today, he is called the “father of history.”

Thucydides is thought to be the greatest historian ofthe ancient world. Thucydides fought in the Pelopon-nesian War. After he was forced to leave Athens, he wroteHistory of the Peloponnesian War. Thucydides wrote onlyabout what he saw or what eyewitnesses saw.

8. Who did Thucydides think was responsible for warand politics?


Drawing From ExperienceThink about the last time you did a project with school,

a club, or a religious group. Could everyone suggestideas? Good leaders—of projects, groups, and nations—try to use good ideas, no matter where they come from.

In the last section you learned about Greek thinkersand historians. In this section, you will learn about howAlexander the Great spread Greek culture.Organizing Your Thoughts

Philip II of Macedonia started building an empire.Alexander the Great finished it. In the time line below,write what they did. Use details from the text to help you.

84

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termslegacy: what a person leaves behind when he or she dies (page 178)

Hellenistic Era: a time when Greek ideas and the Greek language spread tonon-Greek people (page 178)


Alexander the Great For use with pages 174–179

6. In 323 B.C., Alexander




2. In 338 B.C., Philip

1. In 359 B.C., Philip

85

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Macedonia Attacks Greece (page 175)

Philip II of Macedonia united the Greek states.

Macedonia lay north of Greece. The people were warriors. They raised sheep and horses, and farmed. By400 B.C., Macedonia was almost as powerful as the Greekcity-states.A Plan to Win Greece In 359 B.C., Philip II became king of Mace-donia. He wanted to defeat the Persian Empire. But to dothat, he needed to increase Macedonia’s strength. Philiptrained his army to fight like the Greek hoplites. Then,one by one, he took over the Greek city-states.

Demosthenes was a lawyer and one of Athens’s greatpublic speakers. He warned that Philip threatened theirfreedom. He urged Athens and other city-states to fightthe Macedonians. But the Greeks were weak and dividedfrom the Peloponnesian War. Thousands of Greek menjoined the Persian army. The city-states were weak.

This was good news for Philip. The Athenians tried to fight Philip’s army, but they could not stop him. In 338 B.C., the Macedonians crushed the Greeks at the Battle of Chaeronea near Thebes. Philip now controlled all of Greece.

7. Why did Philip II invade Greece?

Alexander Builds an Empire (page 176)

Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire and spread Greekculture throughout southwest Asia.

Before Philip could conquer the Persian Empire, hewas murdered. His son Alexander took over. Alexanderwas only 20, but he had already been in battle manytimes.


Alexander’s Conquests Alexander invaded Asia Minor in 334 B.C. He had about 37,000 foot soldiers and 5,000 warriors on horseback. At the Battle of Granicus, hedestroyed the local Persian army.

At that time, the Persians ruled many Greek cities inAsia Minor. During the next nine months, Alexanderfreed those city-states. He also defeated a large Persianarmy at Issus.

Then Alexander went south. By the winter of 332 B.C.,he had captured Egypt and Syria. He built the city ofAlexandria in Egypt. It became famous for trade, science,and education. In 331 B.C. Alexander went east. Hedefeated the Persians at Guagamela, near Babylon. Thenhis army took over the rest of the Persian Empire. Hisfather’s dream was fulfilled.

But Alexander did not stop. He marched east for thenext three years. His army got as far as modern Pakistan.In 326 B.C. Alexander and his army crossed the IndusRiver and fought many battles in India. His soldiers grewtired of war, so Alexander agreed to go home.

Going home, the army crossed a desert in what is modern Iran. There was very little water. Heat and thirstkilled thousands of soldiers. When soldiers found somewater, they gave it to Alexander in a helmet. Alexanderpoured the water on the ground. He showed his soldiersthat he was willing to suffer the same thirst and pain thatthey did.

Alexander arrived back in Babylon in 323 B.C. Hewanted to invade southern Arabia, but he died 10 dayslater. He was 32.Alexander’s Legacy Alexander was a great and brave militaryleader. Sometimes he rode into battle before his army.Some considered this foolish, but his bravery inspired hissoldiers. Alexander always tried to copy his hero Achilles.Achilles was one of the warriors in the Iliad by Homer.

When he died, Alexander was the most powerful rulerin the ancient world. That is one reason we call himAlexander the Great.

86

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


87

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

A legacy is what a person leaves to other people whenhe or she dies. Alexander’s legacy was a world that knewabout Greek culture. Wherever Alexander and his armywent, they spread the Greek language, ideas, and art. Thisis another reason that Alexander is “the Great.” Alexan-der also learned things in Asia and Africa. He broughtthose ideas back to Greece.

Alexander began the Hellenistic Era. Hellenistic means“like the Greeks.” The Hellenistic Era is the time whenGreek ideas spread to people who were not Greek.The Empire Breaks Apart Alexander wanted the Macedonians,the Greeks, and the Persians to become one people. Heused Persians as local officials and encouraged his sol-diers to marry Asian women.

After Alexander died, the empire fell apart. It becamefour Hellenistic kingdoms: Macedonia, Pergamum,Egypt, and the Seleucid empire. Greek was the officiallanguage of these kingdoms. And the kings often gavejobs to Greeks or Macedonians.

By 100 B.C., Alexandria was the largest city in theMediterranean world. The Hellenistic kings built manyother cities, too. These cities needed many workers. Theyneeded architects and engineers. They also neededphilosophers, artists, and artisans. The kings asked Greeksand Macedonians to move to these cities. These colonistshelped spread the Greek culture as far east as modernAfghanistan and India.

8. What was Alexander’s legacy?


Drawing From ExperienceSuppose you are given a task—a school or community

project, for example. What is the best way to get thingsdone? Groups provide more workers and a variety ofideas. But when you do something yourself, you can skipmeetings and work faster.

The last section described how Alexander the Greatspread Greek culture. In this section, you will learn howthe kings after Alexander supported learning and newideas in philosophy, science, math, and astronomy. Organizing Your Thoughts

The Epicureans and the Stoics were philosophers.What were their beliefs? Use details from the text to helpyou fill in the table.

88

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key TermsEpicureanism: a philosophy that teaches that people are happy if they spend

time with friends and do not worry (page 184)

Stoicism: a philosophy that teaches that people are happy if they do theirduty and follow logic, not emotion (page 184)

astronomers: people who study stars, planets, and other heavenly bodies (page 185)

plane geometry: branch of mathematics that shows how points, lines, angles,and surfaces, or planes, relate to each other (pages 185–186)

solid geometry: branch of mathematics that studies spheres, or balls, andcylinders, or tubes (page 186)


The Spread of Greek Culture For use with pages 182–186

Philosophy Happiness People People People Doing Your FriendsIs Life’s Should Should Be Should Duty Make

Goal Ignore in Politics Not be Makes You YouEmotions in Politics Happy Happy

Epicurean 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Stoic 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

89

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Greek Culture Spreads (page 183)

Hellenistic cities became centers of learning and culture.

Thousands of scientists, writers, philosophers, and others came to the Hellenistic cities. Many came to useAlexandria’s library or to study literature, languages, and science.Architecture and Sculpture Greek architects helped design thenew cities and rebuild the old ones. The kings wantedGreek baths, temples, and theaters. The kings and otherrich citizens hired Greek sculptors to make statues asgood as any Greek statues. Literature and Theater Writers wrote drama, poetry, and histo-ries at this time, but most of it has been lost or destroyed.Appolonius of Rhodes wrote an epic poem called Argonautica. It is about Jason and his crew and their adven-tures. Another poet, Theocritus, wrote short poems aboutnature and its beauty.

Athens was still the center of Greek drama. Playwrights in Athens invented a new kind of comedythat told about love and people. Menander was the best-known of these new playwrights. He lived from 343 B.C.to 291 B.C.

13. How did the Hellenistic kings spread Greek culture?

Philosophy (page 184)

Epicurus and Zeno showed the world different ways to look at happiness.

During this time, the most famous philosophers stillwent to Athens. The two most important philosophers atthis time were Epicurus and Zeno.


Epicureans Epicurus developed Epicureanism. This philoso-phy taught people that happiness is the goal of life.Today, epicurean means a love of fine foods and fancy-but-comfortable things. To Epicurus, happiness meant spend-ing time with friends and not worrying. He said thatpeople should stay out of politics and public service. Who Were the Stoics? Zeno developed Stoicism. He taught at abuilding called the “painted porch.” Since the Greek wordfor porch is stoa, his school was called the stoics.

Stoics thought that happiness came from followinglogic and reason. Emotions like anger or sadness causedproblems. Today we call people stoics if they keep goingeven if they are hurt or sad. Stoics also thought that peo-ple were happy when they did their duty. They should bein politics and public service.

14. How was Stoicism different from Epicureanism?

Greek Science and Math (page 185)

Hellenistic scientists made major discoveries in math and astronomy.

Aristarchus was an astronomer. Astronomers studystars, planets, and other heavenly bodies. Aristarchus saidthat the sun was at the center of the universe. He said thatEarth went around the sun. No one believed him. Theythought that the sun went around the earth.

Eratosthenes was an astronomer in charge of Alexan-dria’s library. He figured out that the earth was roundand how big it was.

Here’s how he did it. Eratosthenes put two sticks in theground far apart from each other. He waited until the sunwas directly over one stick. It had a shorter shadow thanthe other stick. After measuring the shadows, Eratosthenesused math to figure out the curve of Earth’s surface.

90

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


91

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Eratosthenes estimated that the distance around theearth was 24,675 miles. He was only 185 miles off! He alsomeasured the distance to the sun and the moon. Both ofthese measurements are close.

Euclid was a mathematician who wrote Elements. Thebook teaches plane geometry—how points, lines, angles,and surfaces work together. Archimedes of Syracuseworked on solid geometry—the study of spheres, orballs, and cylinders, or tubes. He discovered pi, which isused to measure circles. Its symbol is π.

Archimedes was also an inventor. He invented a typeof lever called the catapult. Catapults are war machinesthat hurl rocks and arrows at the enemy.

The catapults worked well. In 212 B.C. the Romansattacked Syracuse. But they could not get past the cata-pults. It took the Romans three years to capture Syracuse.Finally the Romans got inside the city walls. They massa-cred everyone in the city, including Archimedes.

15. Who was the most famous scientist of the HellenisticEra? What did he contribute?


Drawing From ExperienceWhere are the major cities in your state? Many large

cities were built near rivers or other bodies of water thatpeople could use for food and transportation.

In this section, you will learn how India’s first civiliza-tion developed along the Indus River. Organizing Your Thoughts

When the Aryans invaded India, they changed it. Writesome of the changes or inventions on the web below. Usedetails from the text to help you fill in each blank.

92

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termssubcontinent: a large mass of land; part of a continent but separate because

of physical features like high mountains (page 195)

monsoon: strong winds that blow in one direction in the winter, and the oppo-site direction in the summer (page 195)

Sanskrit: the ancient written language of India (page 199)

raja: prince or tribal leader (page 199)

caste: social group that people are born into and cannot change (page 199)

guru: teacher (page 201)


India’s First Civilizations For use with pages 194–201

Aryanchanges or inventions

1.

2.

3.

4.

93

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Land of India (page 195)

Climate and geography influenced the rise of India’s first civilization.

India extends south from the continent of Asia. TheHimalaya separate India from the rest of Asia. This makesIndia a subcontinent. The Ganges and Indus Rivers are inIndia. The Ganges runs southeast into the Indian Ocean.The Indus flows southwest into the Arabian Sea. Theirwater comes from melting snow in the Himalayas. TheDeccan Plateau is south of the Ganges and Indus Rivervalleys. It is dry and hilly. The coastal regions have fertileplains.

India has monsoons, or strong winds. The winter mon-soon blows in cold, dry air from the mountains. The sum-mer monsoon brings warm, wet air from the Arabian Sea.Summer monsoons make the rainy season. If the raincomes in time, the crops will be good. If the rains are late,then there is a drought.India’s First Civilization India’s first civilization began in theIndus River valley where the floods create rich soil. TheHarappa or Indus civilization lasted from about 3000 B.C.until 1500 B.C. Over 1,000 towns and cities stretched fromthe Himalaya to the Arabian Sea. Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro werelarge cities with about 35,000 people each. The cities hadwide main streets and smaller side streets. Walls wentaround each neighborhood. And guards in fortresses protected the people.

Some houses were larger than others, but most werebuilt with mud bricks. The houses had flat roofs, an opencourtyard, wells, and indoor bathrooms. Pipes tookwastewater to pits outside the city walls. Houses also hadgarbage chutes that led to bins in the streets. The govern-ment had to be well organized to do these things.Harappan Society The Harappans left no written records.From the ruins, archaeologists learned that the royalpalace and the temple were inside the fortress. This


might mean that politics and religion were connected.Very few weapons have been found in Harappan cities.This suggests that they were a peaceful people.

Most Harappans were farmers. They grew rice, wheat,barley, peas, and cotton. City dwellers made toys; claypots; cloth; tools out of copper or bronze; and jewelryfrom gold, shells, and ivory.

The Harappans and the Mesopotamians began tradingwith each other about 2300 B.C. Some Harappan traderssailed across the Arabian Sea. Other traders traveled byland.

5. How is India separated from the rest of Asia?

The Aryans Invade (page 198)

The Aryans conquered India and introduced new ideas and technology.

About 1500 B.C., earthquakes destroyed Harappancities. Also, the Indus River changed its course, floodingcities and farms. At about the same time, the Aryansinvaded the river valley. They destroyed what was left ofthe Harappan civilization. Who Were the Aryans? The Aryans were from central and southcentral Asia. They had herds of cattle, sheep, and goats.Cattle were important for their meat, milk, and butter.The Aryans even used cattle as money. Like most herders,the Aryans were nomads. They stayed in an area untiltheir animals had eaten all of the good grass.

The Aryans were good warriors and expert horse riders and hunters. They had metal-tipped spears andwooden chariots. Sometimes they invaded nearby villages for food.

The Aryans left Asia about 2000 B.C. and crossed theHimalaya into India. They got to the Indus River valleyaround 1500 B.C. By 1000 B.C., the Aryans controlled northern India.

94

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


95

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Aryans Bring Change In India, the Aryans stopped living asnomads and became farmers. Over time, they said thatcattle were sacred. People in India stopped eating cattle,or beef.

The Aryans were skilled ironworkers. They inventedan iron plow and made iron tools. With these, theycleared India’s rain forests, dug canals, and made theGanges River valley good for farming. Farmers in northIndia grew wheat, barley, and a grain called millet. In theriver valleys, farmers grew rice. In the south, they grew a mix of crops, including spices like pepper, ginger, andcinnamon.

The Aryans had not written things down when theywere nomads. But when they became farmers, theyinvented a written language called Sanskrit. Using Sanskrit, they wrote down their songs, stories, poems,and prayers.

The Aryans lived in tribes ruled by a raja, or prince.Rajas often fought with each other over treasure, cattle, orwomen. These small kingdoms ruled from about 1500 B.C.to 400 B.C.

6. Why were the Aryans great warriors?

Society in Ancient India (page 199)

The Aryans created a caste system that separated Indians into groups.

A caste is a social group. In India, a person was borninto one social group, and could never change. The castesystem had rules for almost everything a person did. Yourcaste dictated whom you married, your job, and yourfriends. India’s society had thousands of castes, all tied toreligion and tradition.


No one knows for certain why the Aryans invented thecaste system. One reason could be that the Aryans hadlighter skin than the Harappans. Another could be becauseit helped the Aryans keep control of the Harappans. Therewere a lot more Harappans, and the Aryans needed a wayto keep people from revolting. They also needed to makepeople live by their rules. Social Levels of the Caste System Before they used the caste system, the Aryans divided society into four classes, orvarnas. The top varna was the Brahman. Brahmans werepriests and could perform religious ceremonies.

The next varna was the Kshatriyas. These were war-riors. They ran the government and the army. After theKshatriyas came the Vaisyas, or “commoners.” They wereusually farmers and merchants. Then came the Sudras.Sudras were not Aryan. They were manual laborers andservants with few rights. Most were Indians.

One group was too low to be part of the caste system—the Pariahs. Pariah meant “untouchable.” Pariahs did thework no one else wanted to do. They collected trash,skinned animals, and buried bodies. Most Indiansbelieved that being near a Pariah was bad. So, Pariahshad to live apart from everyone else. When they traveled,Pariahs had to tap two sticks together. That way peoplewould hear them coming and move away.The Role of Men and Women Grandparents, parents, and childrenall lived together with the oldest man in charge. This iscalled an extended family.

Men had many more rights than women. Daughterscould not inherit property unless there were no sons.Only men went to school or became priests. Men had tohave 12 years of schooling before they could marry. Whenthey were young, boys studied with a guru, or teacher.When they were older, they went to schools in the cities.

Parents arranged marriages for their children, whowere often as young as 13 years old. Divorce was notallowed. But if a couple could not have children, the hus-band could marry a second wife.

96

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


97

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

When a high-caste man died, his body was burned.Then his wife was supposed to throw herself into theflames. This is called suttee. If a widow did not die, it was a great shame.

7. What were the five major groups in Indian society?(Hint: four were castes, and one was below caste.)


Drawing From ExperienceDoes your family practice a religion? Many people

follow their religion by going to a church, temple, or mosque.

In the last section, you learned how India’s first civi-lization developed along the Indus River. In this section,you will learn about India’s two main religions, Hindu-ism and Buddhism.Organizing Your Thoughts

The Buddha said that people should follow the steps ofthe Eightfold Path. What are the steps of the path? Usedetails from the text to help you fill in the blanks.

98

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key TermsHinduism: one of the oldest religions in the world; has thousands of gods and

goddesses that are part of a universal spirit (page 203)

Brahman: the universal spirit (page 203)

reincarnation: the idea of living many different lives (page 204)

dharma: divine law; requires people to perform duties of their caste (page 204)

karma: the consequences of how a person lives; if you live a good life, youhave good karma (page 204)

Buddhism: a religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama based on Hinduism(page 205)

nirvana: a state of wisdom; achieved after giving up all desires (page 205)

theocracy: a government led by religious leaders (page 208)


Hinduism and Buddhism For use with pages 202–208

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

99

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Hindusim (page 203)

Hinduism grew out of the ancient beliefs of the Aryans.

Hinduism started when the Aryans arrived in Indiaabout 1500 B.C. The Aryan religion had many gods and goddesses who ruled nature. Over time, the Aryanreligion added ideas from the Indian people to create Hinduism.Early Hinduism Hindus believe in one universal spirit calledBrahman. They also believe in thousands of gods andgoddesses that are a different part of Brahman.

The Upanishads are very old religious writings. Thesewritings talk about how each person looks for the univer-sal spirit. They say our souls are like lumps of salt, andBrahman is a glass of water. When salt is put into water, itdisappears. But the water is salty. Like salt, our souls dis-appear and become part of the universal spirit.What Is Karma? Hindus believe that a soul joins Brahmanwhen a person dies. However, a soul must live manylives—even as an animal—before it joins Brahman. Theidea of living many lives, one after another, is called reincarnation.

If people do the duties of their caste, they will get abetter next life. So they must follow dharma, or the divinelaw. If you follow dharma, then you have good karma.Karma is the result of how a person lives. For example, ifyou live a good life and do your duty, you have goodkarma.

This belief in dharma and karma made people acceptthe caste system. A dedicated Hindu thinks that highercaste people really are better than lower caste people. Thisbelief meant that servants would not rebel. The idea ofreincarnation gave hope to everyone.

9. How is karma related to reincarnation?


Buddhism (page 205)

A new religion, Buddhism, appealed to many people in India and otherparts of Asia.

By 600 B.C., many Indians began to question Hinduideas. They wanted a simpler, more spiritual religion forcommon people. Who Is the Buddha? Prince Siddhartha Gautama was bornabout 563 B.C. He ruled a kingdom near the Himalaya. He was wealthy, married, and had a son. One day he left the palace and saw beggars and people suffering. He asked himself why people suffered.

To search for answers, he left his family, lived alone,fasted, and meditated, or emptied his mind of thought.Legend says that Siddhartha meditated for 49 days. Then,he came to an understanding about life.

Siddhartha spent the rest of his life teaching peopleabout his discovery. People called him the Buddha, whichmeans “Enlightened One.” His lessons about life and suf-fering are called Buddhism.What Is Buddhism? The Buddha taught that there was one wayto see truth in the world. Everyone should stop wantingfame, money, and worldly things. Then they would reachnirvana, or a state of wisdom.

The Buddha said that the only way to stop desiringthings is to follow the Eightfold Path, which gives rulesfor living a good life. The Buddha believed in reincarna-tion—with a difference. He thought that people couldstop being reborn if they followed the Eightfold Path.

The Buddha did not accept the caste system. Hethought that all people—even the lower castes—couldreach nirvana. This made Buddhism very popular amongthe lower castes and the Pariahs. They, too, could escapesuffering and find peace.Buddhism in Southeast Asia The Buddha preached his ideas formore than 40 years. When he died, his disciples spreadhis message all over Asia.

100

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


101

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Over time, the Buddhists split into two groups. Thefirst was Theraveda Buddhism. Theraveda means “teach-ings of the elders.” It says that the Buddha was a greatteacher, but not a god. Theraveda Buddhism spread southand east. It was adopted in Ceylon in the 200s B.C. It alsobecame popular in Indochina. Mahayana Buddhism The second kind of Buddhism isMahayana Buddhism. It says that Buddha is a god whocame to save people. Mahayanas think people can go toheaven if they worship the Buddha. In heaven, they canfollow the Eightfold Path to reach nirvana.

Mahayana Buddhists also honor the bodhisattvas.Bodhisattvas are enlightened people who do not go toheaven right away. They stay on earth to help others.

Mahayana Buddhism spread north into China, Korea,and Japan. In Tibet (in central Asia) it mixed with Hindu-ism and Tibet’s own religions. This mix made a specialkind of Mahayana Buddhism.

At that time, Tibet’s Buddhist and government leaderswere called lamas. When religious leaders also head thegovernment, it is called a theocracy. The Dalai Lama ledthe government. The Panchen Lama led the religion. Bothlamas were considered reincarnations of the Buddha.

Today, many Buddhists live in Thailand, Cambodia,and Sri Lanka. But very few live in India, where the Buddha first taught.

10. How could a Buddhist reach nirvana?


Drawing From ExperienceThink about cities where a lot of people visit—New

York City; Orlando, where Disney World is; and San Francisco. Visitors, or tourists, spend a lot of money inthose cities. This helps make those cities wealthy andgives people jobs.

In the last section, you learned about India’s two mainreligions, Hinduism and Buddhism. In this section youwill learn about the Maurya and Gupta empires. Theircities grew wealthy from trade and visitors.Organizing Your Thoughts

The Maurya and Gupta empires made many contribu-tions to India and the world. Fill in the chart below. Usedetails from the text to help you fill in each blank.

102

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsdynasty: a series of rulers from the same family (page 210)

stupa: a Buddhist shrine shaped like a dome or mound (page 211)

pilgrim: a person traveling to a religious shrine or place (page 213)


India’s First Empires For use with pages 209–216

Maurya Empire Gupta Empire

Dates the empire 1. 5.was in existence

Capital city 2. 6.

Contributions 3. 7.

Religion 4. 8.

103

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Mauryan Dynasty (page 210)

The Mauryan dynasty built India’s first great empire.

India began as many small kingdoms. India’s princesfought over these small kingdoms for years. Then Indiabecame part of the Persian Empire and was invaded byAlexander the Great. Who Built India’s First Empire? While Alexander kept one part ofIndia busy, Prince Chandragupta Maurya took over partof the Ganges River valley. When Alexander left, Chan-dragupta took over almost all of northern India.

In 321 B.C., Chandragupta founded the Mauryandynasty—a series of rulers from the same family. He set up a centralized government in the capital city ofPataliputra. To keep control, Chandragupta also set up astrong army and a good spy system. He made a postalsystem for fast communication.Emperor Asoka’s Reign Many historians think that the Mauryanempire’s greatest king was Asoka. Asoka ruled fromabout 273 B.C. to 232 B.C.

Asoka was a strong military leader who grew to hatewar. After one bloody fight, he promised to dedicate his life to peace. He promised to follow the Buddha’steachings.

Asoka was the first great Buddhist king. He built hos-pitals for people and animals. He also built new roadswith shelters and shade trees so travelers could rest.

Asoka sent many Buddhists out to teach Buddhism in India and Asia. In India, he had workers carve the Buddha’s teaching on stones. He also had workers buildthousands of stupas, or Buddhist shrines. Unlike mostrulers of the time, Asoka allowed Hindus to remain Hindus.

When there is a good road system and a strong ruler,trade is good. Trade was very good under Asoka. Indiabecame the center of a trade network that stretched all theway to the Mediterranean Sea.


The Fall of the Mauryan Empire Asoka died in 232 B.C. Unfortu-nately, the kings who followed him were not good leaders. The empire grew weak.

These kings made many bad decisions. They forcedmerchants to pay heavy taxes, but gave no services—likefixing the roads—in return. They took the peasants’ crops,leaving people to starve. The people turned against therulers. In 183 B.C., the last Mauryan king was killed byone of his own generals.

9. Why was Asoka an important ruler?

The Gupta Empire (page 213)

The Gupta empire reunited much of northern India and became wealthythrough trade.

For the next 500 years, India had no strong ruler. Thena prince in the Ganges River valley rose to power. Hisname was Chandragupta, just like the founder of the earlier empire.

Chandragupta founded the Gupta dynasty in A.D. 320.He ruled from the old capital city, Pataliputra. When hedied, his son Samudragupta took over. Samudraguptagained new lands for the empire until it covered almost allof northern India. The Guptas ruled for almost 200 years.

Trade made the Gupta empire rich. People traded salt,cloth, and iron. The Gupta rulers controlled much of thetrade. They also owned silver and gold mines, and largeestates, or farms.

Trade created jobs. Cities grew along trade routes andwere filled with inns and other places for travelers.

Merchants were not the only ones traveling. Pilgrims—people who travel to religious shrines or other holyplaces—used the trade routes. Cities with famous templesbecame rich because of pilgrims.

104

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


105

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Guptas made Hinduism the official religion. Theygave money to support Hindu scholars and shrines. Theshrines often had sculptures inside them of gods and goddesses.

Art and science developed during the Gupta empire. Itwas India’s golden age.

10. How did the Gupta empire become wealthy?

Indian Literature and Science (page 214)

The Mauryan and Gupta empires made important contributions in liter-ature, mathematics, and science.

Artists, builders, scientists, and writers were busyunder the Mauryan and Gupta empires. India’s Most Famous Poems The Vedas of India are ancient songsand prayers used in religious ceremonies. For a long time,they were part of India’s oral tradition. An oral traditionis a group of stories and songs that are told aloud, but notwritten. When the Aryans invented Sanskrit, the Vedaswere written down.

Other songs and stories were written down, too. Indiahas two very famous epic poems: the Mahabharata and theRamayana. Like all epics, these poems tell about heroesand their deeds.

Written about 100 B.C., the Mahabharata is the longestpoem in the world. It is about a war to control an Indiankingdom. The best-known section of the poem is the Bhagavad-Gita. That means “Song of the Lord.” In it, thegod Krishna tells people that they should do their duty inbattle, even when it is hard.

The Ramayana is another long poem written about thesame time as the Mahabharata. In the poem, King Rama’senemies kick him out of the kingdom. The demon Ravana


kidnaps Queen Sita, but Rama rescues her, and they livehappily ever after.

Both poems have religious and moral lessons. Yet theyare filled with excitement and danger. People enjoyedthem.

One of India’s best-known authors was Kalidasa fromthe Gupta dynasty. He wrote plays, poems, love stories,and comedies. His poem The Cloud is a Sanskrit poem thatis a love story.

Kalidasa’s Panchantantra is a set of stories in whichtalking animals give lessons about life. Like most Indianstories, Kalidasa’s stories said that people should followdharma and do their duty. They said that every personshould follow the rules of their caste.Indian Math and Science Aryabhata was the leading mathemati-cian of the Gupta empire. He was one of the first to usealgebra. Indian mathematicians invented the idea of infin-ity. Infinity is something that goes on without ending.They also invented the idea of zero, or nothingness, andthe number symbols for 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.

At that time, people in Europe and the Middle Eastwere using Roman numerals. Arab traders started usingIndian numbers in the A.D. 700s. By the A.D. 1200s, peoplein Europe used these symbols.

Early Indians also invented algorithms. An algorithmis a series of steps that you follow to solve a problem.Today, computer programmers use algorithms.

Indian astronomers mapped the movements of theplanets and stars. They knew that the earth was roundand that it went around the sun. People in Europe did notknow that until 1,000 years later. Indians also understoodgravity. They came up with the idea of atoms before theGreeks did.

Gupta doctors set broken bones, performed operations,invented medical tools, and used herbs in treating illness.A doctor named Shushruta even did plastic surgery.

106

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


107

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Indian doctors thought that it was important to find thecause of a disease.

11. In what branches of science did ancient Indians makeadvances?


Drawing From ExperienceHow do we get the people who head our government?

Our political leaders are elected. Then they appoint—orchoose—people to help them. The appointed people arecalled bureaucrats. Bureaucrats help elected leaders runthe government.

In this section, you will learn how geography helpedshape China’s civilization. You will also learn about theShang dynasty that ruled China. You will learn that theyhad bureaucrats, too! Organizing Your Thoughts

Many things were discovered during the Zhoudynasty. Use details from the text to help you name fourof them.

108

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsdynasty: a series of rulers from the same family (page 226)

aristocrat: nobles, or upper class people, whose wealth comes from their land(page 227)

pictograph: written characters that stand for objects (page 228)

ideograph: two or more pictographs that are joined together to represent anidea (page 228)

bureaucracy: appointed officials who take care of different parts of the government (page 229)

mandate: a formal command to rule or do something important (page 230)

Dao: the “Way,” or a king’s actions to keep the gods happy (page 230)


China’s First Civilizations For use with pages 224–231

1.

2.

3.

4.

109

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

China’s Geography (page 225)

Rivers, mountains, and deserts helped shape China’s civilization.

The Huang He, or Yellow River, flows 2,900 milesacross China. As it crosses the land, it picks up yellow dirt that turns the water yellow. Like the Nile, the HuangHe flooded the land. This deposited rich soil in the rivervalley.

When the Huang He flooded, many people drowned.Farms were destroyed and millions of people starved.That is why the Chinese call the Huang He “China’s Sorrow.”

The Chang Jiang, or Yangtze River, is longer than theHuang He. It flows east across China to the Yellow Sea.The Chang Jiang valley also has good farmland.

Only about one-tenth of China can be farmed. The restof the land includes mountains like the Himalaya, KunlunShan, or Tian Shun, or desert like the Gobi. For a longtime, mountains and desert separated China from the restof the world.

Over time, people in Chinese towns and cities unitedinto one kingdom. They called it “the Middle Kingdom.”The Chinese thought that it was the most important king-dom in the world and that they had the most knowledge.

5. Name two rivers that were important to early Chinesecivilization.

The Shang Dynasty (page 226)

Rulers known as the Shang became powerful because they controlledland and had strong armies.

Chinese civilization started near the Huang He. It hadrich farmland, so there was plenty of food. People beganbuilding towns and cities there. China’s first rulers were


probably part of the Xia dynasty, a line of rulers whobelong to the same family. Little is known about the Xia. Who Were the Shang? The Shang kings ruled from about 1750 B.C. to 1122 B.C. The Shang built the first big cities.One of these was Anyang in northern China. It wasChina’s first capital. The Shang kings ruled from there.

People in early China were divided into three majorgroups: the Shang kings and their families; the aristocrats,or warlords, and government officials; and the farmers. In addition, there were craftspeople and some enslavedpeople.

The first Shang king ruled over a small area in north-ern China. His armies used chariots and bronze weapons.In time, the Shang kings took over most of the Huang Hevalley. Later, warlords ruled portions of the area and hadtheir own armies.

The warlords were aristocrats. Many aristocrats weregovernment officials but most got their money from theirland. Aristocrats passed their land—and their power—totheir sons.

Most of the early Chinese were farmers. They workedon the aristocrats’ farms and grew grains like millet,wheat, and rice. They also raised cattle, sheep, chickens,and pigs.Spirits and Ancestors People in Shang China worshiped manygods and goddesses. They believed that angry spiritsmight ruin the crops or make the army lose a battle.

They also honored their ancestors. Many believed theirancestors could bring good luck. Today, many Chinese goto temples and burn paper copies of food and clothing.These are things that their ancestors will need in the afterlife.Telling the Future The Shang kings sought advice from gods,spirits, and ancestors. To do this, priests scratched ques-tions on oracle bones. Then, the bones were heated until

110

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


111

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

they cracked. Finally, the priests told the kings what thegods had “written” in the cracks. The Chinese Language Chinese writing began as pictures. These pictures—or pictographs—are characters thatstand for objects. Then people started using two or morepictographs together. This is an ideograph. Ideographsrepresent ideas.

Most written languages use alphabets. An alphabet is a set of symbols that stands for sounds. Some Chinesecharacters stand for sounds, but most are whole words.Shang Artists Weavers spun silk into cloth. Artisans madevases and dishes from clay. They also made statues fromivory and jade, a rare green stone.

The Shang are best-known for their works in bronze.Bronze objects are made when molten bronze is pouredinto clay molds. Artisans made sculptures, vases, drink-ing cups, and urns.

6. What was the role of Shang warlords?

The Zhou Dynasty (page 229)

Chinese rulers claimed that the Mandate of Heaven gave them the rightto rule.

Shang kings treated people cruelly. There was a gapbetween the rich and the poor. In 1045 B.C., an aristocratnamed Wu Wang rebelled. He began a new dynasty, orruling family. It was called the Zhou.The Zhou Government The Zhou dynasty ruled for more than800 years. The Zhou king was in charge. He had to defendthe kingdom against invaders. He also had to keep thegods and spirits happy.


The Zhou kings used many officials to help them runthe government. These officials made up the bureaucracy.Like the Shang, the Zhou divided their empire into terri-tories. Aristocrats were in charge of each territory. Whenan aristocrat died, his son or a relative took over.

The king’s main job was to carry out religious rituals.The Chinese believed these rituals made strong tiesbetween people and the gods. The Zhou kings claimedthat the Zhou ruled China because they had the Mandateof Heaven.What Was the Mandate of Heaven? A mandate is a formal order or law. The Mandate of Heaven was a heavenly law. TheZhou said that the gods chose the king because of his talent and virtue.

The Mandate of Heaven worked in two ways. First, thepeople expected the king to rule by the Dao. The Daomeans “the Way,” which included keeping the godshappy. Second, it gave the people, as well as the king,important rights. For example, people could get rid of anevil ruler. Each new dynasty claimed it had the Mandateof Heaven.New Tools and Trade During the Zhou dynasty, the Chineseimproved farm tools and developed irrigation and flood-control systems. As a result, more crops could grow.

By 550 B.C., the Chinese were using iron plows. Thesebroke up land that wooden plows could not. The Chinesecould farm more land. Even more crops could grow. Withmore food the population grew. In the late Zhou dynasty,China had a population of about 50 million people!

Trade and manufacturing also grew. Silk was tradedthroughout central Asia and as far away as Greece. The Zhou Empire Falls Over time, the local rulers of the Zhouterritories set up their own states. In 403 B.C. fightingbroke out and lasted almost 200 years. This is called the“Period of the Warring States.”

Aristocrats forced peasants to serve in the army. Thearmies fought with swords, spears, and crossbows. A

112

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


113

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

crossbow uses a crank to pull a string back and shoot anarrow.

After the Chinese invented the saddle and stirrup, the cavalry was born. In 221 B.C. the ruler of Qin used his cavalry to defeat the other states. The he set up a new dynasty.

7. What was the chief duty of Chinese kings?


Drawing From ExperienceWhat do you do when your friends are fighting with

each other? If you are playing a game, you can refer to therules. If something else is causing a problem betweenyour friends, you try another idea to solve it. Philoso-phers, or thinkers, have come up with many ideas forsolving problems between people.

In the previous section, you learned about the Shangand Zhou dynasties. In this section, you will learn whateveryday life was like during the Zhou dynasty. You willalso learn about three Chinese philosophies for solvingproblems between people. These philosophies are Confu-cianism, Daoism, and Legalism.Organizing Your Thoughts

The early Chinese thought of three ways to build peaceand a good way of living. They were Confucianism, Dao-ism, and Legalism.

To answer the questions below, mark C for Confucian-ism, D for Daoism, and L for Legalism. Use details fromthe text to help you fill in the blanks.

1. Which one said that anyone could be in governmentif they could do the work?

2. Which one thought that duty was important?

114

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termssocial class: includes people who share a similar position in society (page 233)

filial piety: children must respect their parents and older relatives (page 234)

Confucianism: philosophy that taught that all men, regardless of their socialclass, should be allowed to join the government if they can do the work(page 236)

Daoism: philosophy that promotes a peaceful society and giving up worldlydesires (page 238)

Legalism: philosophy that taught that people need a “School of Law” andharsh punishments to make them do their duty (page 239)


Life in Ancient China For use with pages 232–239

115

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

3. Which one thought that laws wereimportant?

4. Which one began in the 500s B.C.? 5. Which one began in 200 B.C.? 6. Which one thought that nature was important?

7. Which one did the aristocrats like? 8. Which two said that you must treat other people

well?

Life in Ancient China (page 233)

Chinese society had three main social classes: landowning aristocrats,farmers, and merchants.

A social class includes people who have a similar posi-tion in society. Early China had three main social classes:

• Landowning aristocrats• Peasant farmers• Merchants

Classes in Chinese Society China’s aristocratic families ownedestates. They lived in large houses. The houses had tileroofs, courtyards, and gardens. Fine furniture and silkhangings filled their rooms. Walls went around theirhouses to keep out bandits.

In the beginning, the estates were large. But they didnot stay large. That is because each aristocrat divided hisland among his sons. For example, if a man had four sons,each of them would get one-fourth of the land. As timewent on, each estate got smaller and smaller.

Aristocrats did not farm their own land. Instead, farm-ers share-cropped it. This means that the farmers plantedall of the crop but did not keep it all. In the north, the cropwas a grain like wheat or millet. In the south, farmersgrew rice.


The farmers harvested all of the crop, too. But thefarmers did not keep all of the crop. They gave most of itto the aristocrats as rent for the land. The aristocratsbecame very rich.

Nine out of ten Chinese were farmers. They lived insimple houses inside village walls. Most farmers owned asmall piece of land where they grew food for their family.The farmers paid taxes. They also had to work one monthof each year on government projects like building roads.Farmers also served as soldiers.

In Chinese society, farmers ranked above merchants.The merchant social class included shopkeepers, traders,and bankers. Merchants lived in towns. They providedgoods and services to the landowners.

Many merchants were very rich, but landowners andfarmers still looked down on them. Chinese leadersthought that government officials should not think aboutmoney. So merchants were not allowed to have govern-ment jobs.What Was Life Like in a Chinese Family? The family was the basicbuilding block of Chinese society. Farming in ancientChina required many workers. So people had big fami-lies. Everyone in the family—even the young children—worked in the fields. Older sons raised their own crops.They shared them with their parents. A typical family atefish, turnips, beans, wheat and rice, and millet.

Chinese families also took care of people in need—theaged, the young, and the sick.

Chinese families practiced filial piety. This means thatchildren had to respect their parents and older relatives. Ifthe head of the family said “Do this,” then everyone hadto do it. The head of the family was the oldest male, usu-ally the father. However, a son could take on this role.Then even his mother had to obey him!

Men and women had very different roles in earlyChina. Men were respected because they grew the crops.They went to school. They ran the government. They

116

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


117

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

fought wars. The Chinese considered these jobs moreimportant than the work that women did. Most womenraised children and ran the house.

Chinese women could not hold government posts.However, royal women did affect government decisions.Women in the royal family often talked the men intodoing things the way that the women wanted.

9. Why did the amount of land owned by each aristocratdecrease over time?

Chinese Thinkers (page 235)

Three Chinese philosophies, Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism, grewout of a need for order.

The Zhou kingdom grew weak in the 500s B.C. Violence became common. During the Period of the Warring States, whole villages of men, women, and children were beheaded. Many Chinese looked for a way to restore peace and order.

Chinese thinkers developed three major ideas aboutmaking a peaceful society. These theories are Confucian-ism, Daoism, and Legalism. Who Was Confucius? Confucius was born in 551 B.C. He wasancient China’s first great thinker and teacher. Confuciuswanted to end the problems in China. He tried to bringpeace to society.

Confucius believed that people needed a sense of duty.Duty meant that people should not think of themselvesfirst. He said that people must put the needs of familyand community first.

Confucius said that each person owed a duty toanother person. Parents owed their children love. Childrenowed their parents honor. Husbands owed their wives


support. Wives owed their husbands obedience. Peoplealso had a duty to try to improve their community.

Most of all, the rulers had to set good examples. If aking ruled well, his subjects would respect him. Societywould be strong and good.

Confucius believed that society would be fine if eachperson did his or her duty.

He also urged people to be good and to seek knowl-edge. He said:

“There are those who act without knowing; I willhave none of this. To hear a lot, choose the good, andfollow it, to see a lot and learn to recognize it: this isnext to knowledge.”

—Confucius, Analects

Confucius asked people to treat each other well. Hetold people to “measure the feelings of others by one’sown,” for “within the four seas all men are brothers.” Thismeans that everyone has the same basic feelings andneeds. We should think about what we do to others. If wewould not like it being done to us, then we should not doit to anyone else. Confucius thought that there would bepeace if people treated each other this way.

Confucius traveled through China teaching his ideas.These ideas became Confucianism. Confucius said thatall men—not just aristocrats—should be part of the gov-ernment. At that time, the government officials were allaristocrats. They did not like his ideas!

Other people liked his ideas, though. Over time, Con-fucius won many followers. They honored him as a greatteacher. They wrote down his sayings and carried hismessage. Confucius died in 479 B.C., but his sayings arestill taught today.What Is Daoism? Daoism is another Chinese philosophy thatpromotes a peaceful society. Daoism is also called Taoism.It is based on the Dao, or the “force that guides all

118

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


119

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

things.” Tradition says that Laozi, or the Old Master, firsttaught Daosim. No one knows if Laozi was a real person,but tradition says that he lived around the same time asConfucius. Daoism became popular between 500 B.C.and 300 B.C.

The ideas of Daoism are written in Dao De Jing. Daoistsbelieved that people should stop wanting worldly thingslike money or fame. Instead, people should follow natureand the Dao.

To show how to follow the Dao, Daoists used examplesfrom nature:

“Higher good is like water: the good in water bene-fits all, and does so without contention. It restswhere people dislike to be, so it is close to the Way.Where it dwells becomes good ground, profound isthe good in its heart, Benevolent the good itbestows.”

—Laozi, Dao De Jing

In some ways, Daoism is the opposite of Confucian-ism. Confucius taught that people should try to improvethe world. Daoism tells people to give up their concernsabout the world. It said they should seek inner peace.They should live in harmony with nature. Many Chinesefollowed both Confucianism and Daoism.What Is Legalism? A third group of thinkers thought thatstrong laws were the only thing that would bring peace.People called their thinking Legalism. This means the“School of Law.”

A scholar named Hanfeizi developed legalism duringthe 200s B.C. Confucius and Laozi thought that peoplewere basically good. Hanfeizi did not. Hanfeizi taughtthat humans were naturally evil. He thought that theyneeded laws and punishments to make them do theirduty. His followers believed that only a strong ruler couldkeep peace.


Many aristocrats liked Legalism. One reason was thatLegalism said that rulers did not have to be good to thelower classes. Legalism let the aristocrats pass laws tocontrol the farmers.

10. Why did Hanfeizi believe that people needed lawsand punishments?

120

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


121

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The Qin and Han Dynasties For use with pages 240–248

Drawing From ExperienceHave you ever eaten a peanut butter sandwich? How

about an orange from Florida or an apple from Washing-ton? We get our food, clothes, and other things from allaround the United States and the world. As we get goodsfrom other places, we also learn about different ideas.People have always shared ideas as they traded goods.

In the previous section, you learned about China’searly dynasties. In this section, you will learn about theQin and Han dynasties. You will also learn about trade on the “Silk Road,” and about how Buddhism spread into China. Organizing Your Thoughts

Many things were invented during the Han dynasty.Use details from the text to help you fill in the blanks.

Key Termsacupuncture: sticking thin needles into specific points on a patient’s body to

relieve pain (page 246)

Medicine 1.

Mining and ironwork 2.

Government 3.

Ships 4.

Mills 5.

Emperor Qin Shihuangdi (page 241)

Qin Shihuangdi used harsh methods to unify and defend China.

From about 400 B.C. to 200 B.C., the rulers of local statesfought one another. Eventually, Qin took over its neigh-boring states. In 221 B.C., the ruler declared himself QinShihuangdi. That means “the First Qin Emperor.” The Qinruler made changes in China’s government that wouldlast 2,000 years.A Powerful Ruler Qin used the ideas of Legalism. Anyone who did not agree with him was punished. Many peoplewere killed. Books that did not agree with him were pub-licly burned.

Qin made the central government stronger. Heappointed government officials called censors. Censorsmade sure that other government officials did their jobs.

In the provinces, the officials used to pass their postson to sons or relatives. Qin changed that. He now filledthose jobs with his friends and other people loyal to him.

Qin created one currency, or type of money. Everyonein the empire used that money. He also built roads and ahuge canal. The canal connected the Chang Jiang in cen-tral China to the city of Guangzhou in southern China. He used the canal to ship supplies to his armies all overChina.The Great Wall The Gobi is located at China’s northern bor-der. Nomads lived in the Gobi. Nomads are people whomove from place to place with herds of animals. The Chinese called the nomads the Xiongnu. The Xiongnuwere masters at fighting on horseback. They oftenattacked Chinese farms and villages. Several Chineserulers in the north built walls to keep out the Xiongnu.

Qin thought that walls were a good idea. He forcedfarmers to connect and strengthen the walls with stone,sand, and trash. The result: The Great Wall of China!However, Qin did not build the wall that we know today.That was built 1,500 years later.

122

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


123

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Why did People Rebel? Many Chinese thought Qin was a cruelleader. Aristocrats were angry because he reduced theirpower. Scholars hated him for burning their writings.Farmers hated him for making them build roads and theGreat Wall. Qin died in 210 B.C.. Four years later, the peo-ple overthrew his dynasty. Civil war followed. Soon therewas a new dynasty.

6. Why did no one rebel against Qin?

The Han Dynasty (page 244)

Developments during the Han dynasty improved life for all Chinese.

In 202 B.C. Liu Bang founded the Han dynasty. Born apeasant, he became a military leader.

Liu Bang called himself Han Gaozu. That means“Exalted Emperor of Han.” Han Gaozu threw out theharsh policies of the Qin dynasty. But he still used censorsto watch the other officials. He also kept the empiredivided into provinces and counties.What Was the Civil Service? Han Wudi was one of the greatestHan leaders. Han Wudi means “Martial Emperor ofHan.” He ruled from 141 B.C. to 87 B.C.

Wudi gave tests to the people looking for jobs. Thepeople with the highest scores got the jobs. In time,Wudi’s tests became the civil service examinations. TheChinese chose their government officials this way for twothousand years. The system favored the rich. Only theycould educate their sons for the exams.

Students prepared for these tests for years. They stud-ied law, history, and the teachings of Confucius. Theywere not allowed to do physical labor or play sports.After many years of schooling, the students took theexams. Only one in five passed. People who failed theexams taught or worked for government officials.


The Chinese Empire Grows The rulers needed a large bureau-cracy to help them keep order. That was hard because theempire grew from 20 million people to more than 60 mil-lion people!

Some changes occurred in how land was divided.Farmers used to divide their land among their sons. Aftermany years, the average farm was too small to growcrops. So many farmers sold their land to an aristocrat.The farmers became tenant farmers, or people who workon land owned by someone else. They paid rent for theland in crops.

Soon the aristocrats owned thousands of acres. Theyhired armies to force more farmers into selling their land.They made the farmers work as tenants.

China kept growing. Han armies added lands to thesouth and west. They also drove back the Xiongnu, or thenomads to the north. After Wudi’s death, the Chineselived in peace for almost 150 years.An Era of Inventions New inventions during the Han dynastyhelped Chinese workers produce more. Waterwheels, irondrill bits, steel, and paper were all invented.

Chinese medicine improved, too. Doctors discoveredthat certain foods prevented disease. They used herbs tocure illnesses. They also stuck thin needles into people toget rid of pain. This treatment is known as acupuncture.

The Chinese invented the rudder to steer ships and a new way to move the sails of ships. These changesallowed ships to sail into the wind for the first time. Now Chinese merchant ships could travel to the islandsof Southeast Asia and into the Indian Ocean. As a result, China established trade in India and the Mediter-ranean Sea.

7. How did China’s empire increase in size during theHan dynasty?

124

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


125

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Silk Road (page 246)

The Silk Road carried Chinese goods as far as Greece and Rome.

Chinese merchants shipped expensive things like silkto other countries. Some of it went by ship. However,most went overland on the Silk Road. The Silk Road wasa large network of trade routes. It stretched 4,000 milesfrom western China to southwest Asia.

Merchants began using the Silk Road between 200 B.C.and A.D. 100. Han Wudi sent out a general named ZhangQian to explore areas west of China. Thirteen years later,Zhang returned to China and told everyone about theRoman Empire. This sparked China’s interest in the West.Trade on the Silk Road increased. Merchants used camelsto carry their goods to central Asia. From there, Arabs car-ried them to the Mediterranean Sea.

The trip over the Silk Road was difficult, dangerous,and expensive. Merchants carried only silk, spices, tea,and porcelain. People paid a lot for these things, so themerchants made big profits. This helped pay the taxesalong the Silk Road.

8. Why were only expensive goods carried on the SilkRoad?

Major Changes in China (page 248)

Unrest in China helped Buddhism to spread.

Merchants and teachers brought Buddhism to Chinaduring the A.D. 100s. Many Chinese began to believe inBuddhism because of the fall of the Han dynasty.

The Han emperors after Wudi were weak and foolish.People did not respect the rulers. The central governmentlost power because its rulers could not keep control. The


aristocrats began stealing land from farmers. And thefarmers got upset because the central government wasnot protecting them. They rebelled.

There were wars and plots against the emperor, too.This ended the Han dynasty. A rebel army attacked thecapital of Luoyang in A.D. 190. By A.D. 220, China was in acivil war. To make things worse, the nomads invaded thecountry.

Many Chinese felt unsafe. Buddhist ideas helped people cope with their stress and fear. Followers of Confucius became Buddhists, too. So did many Daoists.By the A.D. 400s, Buddhism was popular in China.

9. What groups in China were the first to adopt Buddhism?

126

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


127

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


Rome’s Beginnings For use with pages 262–267

Drawing From ExperienceEvery day we use things and eat foods from other

parts of the world. We write on paper, which the Chineseinvented. We eat tacos and pizza. We play soccer andother games that came from other countries.

In this section, you will learn how Rome grew from asmall city to an economic and military power. Organizing Your Thoughts

There is a very famous saying, “Rome was not built ina day.” Many different groups of people contributed toRome. Use details from the text to help you fill in whateach group contributed.

Key Termsrepublic: a form of government in which rulers are elected by citizens

(page 265)

legion: Roman army units of 6,000 men each (page 266)

Latins (Romans) Greeks Etruscans

What did they 1. 2. 3.contribute to Rome?

The Origins of Rome (pages 263–265)

Geography played an important role in the rise of Roman Civilization.

Italy is a peninsula in the Mediterranean Sea. It isshaped like a boot. The heel points toward Greece, the toepoints toward the island of Sicily.

The Alps cross the top of Italy and separate it from therest of Europe. The Apennines Mountains run from northto south. These mountains could be crossed easily. Thishelped people in early Italy trade ideas and goods witheach other. Italy has a mild climate and rich soil. Many ofits lower mountains have flat tops that make good farms.

Historians do not know much about the first people inItaly. People in Europe crossed the Alps between 1500 B.C.and 1000 B.C. These people included the Latins, or theRomans. The Romans built the city of Rome. Where Was Rome Located? Rome was built on the Tiber River.The river could be used for fresh water and transporta-tion. And because it was built on a spot that could becrossed easily, Rome became a trading stop.

In addition, Rome was built 15 miles up the river fromthe Mediterranean Sea. That way, pirates could not attackthe city. To protect it further, the Romans built Rome onseven hills.How Did Rome Begin? Historians think that the Romans tendedherds and grew crops on Rome’s hills. Then around 800B.C. to 700 B.C., they realized that they would be safer ifthey lived together. Their community grew into Rome.Early Influences After 800 B.C., the Greeks and the Etruscanscame to Italy. The Greeks built many colonies in Italybetween 750 B.C. and 550 B.C. They taught the Romans togrow olives and grapes, and to use the Greek alphabet.Romans also copied Greek sculpture and other art forms.

The Etruscans were from Etruria, which was north ofRome. At that time, Rome was a village with straw huts.But that changed after 650 B.C. when the Etruscans con-quered Rome and enslaved its people. They had the

128

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


129

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

enslaved people build buildings, temples, streets, andpublic squares.

The Etruscans introduced togas and short cloaks. Atoga is like a sheet wrapped around your body, with oneend thrown over your shoulder.

Most important, the Etruscans showed the Romanshow an army could work. Later the Romans copied theEtruscan army and conquered an empire.

4. How did geography help the Romans prosper?

The Birth of a Republic (pages 265–267)

The Romans created a republic and conquered Italy. By treating peoplefairly, they built Rome from a small city into a great power.

The Etruscans ruled Rome for more than 100 years.The ruling family was named the Tarquins. Under them,Rome grew very rich and strong. But they were verycruel. So in 509 B.C., the Romans rebelled and set up arepublic. A republic is a form of government in whichleaders are elected.

Rome was still a small city when it became a republic.It had enemies all around it. Over the next 200 years,Rome fought war after war. In 338 B.C., the Romans beatnearby Latin cities. In 284 B.C., the Romans beat the Etruscan cities. By 267 B.C., the Romans had taken overthe Greek colonies in Italy. By 267 B.C., the Romans ruledalmost all of Italy.Why Was Rome So Strong? The Romans were great soldiers. Atthe beginning of the republic, every male citizen whoowned land had to join the army. Men who ran away, ordeserted, were killed. This turned Romans into fighterswho did not give up easily.


Roman soldiers did not just fight. They thought of bet-ter ways to organize their army. For example, at first theRomans marched next to each other with shields togetherto block enemy arrows and spears. But this way of fight-ing was slow.

Then the generals divided their armies into smallergroups, called legions. Each legion had about 6,000 menbroken into groups of 60 or 120 men. These small groupscould move quickly.

Roman soldiers were called legionaries. They had ashort sword called a gladius and a spear called a pilum.Each group also had a standard. A standard was a tall polewith a symbol on top—sometimes an eagle or other ani-mal. The person who carried the standard was called thestandard bearer. The standard bearer would hold up thestandard so the group stayed together during battle.Shrewd Rulers The Romans were also smart planners. Theybuilt military towns everywhere they conquered. Thenthey built roads to these towns. Soon their armies trav-eled quickly across Italy.

The Romans started the Roman Confederation. Thismeant that some of the people Rome conquered couldbecome full citizens. They could vote and be in the government. They were also treated the same as other citizens by the law.

The Romans made other people allies. Allies could runtheir own towns, but they had to pay taxes to Rome.Allies also had to fight in Rome’s armies. The Romans letthe allies know that if the allies were loyal, they mightbecome citizens.

The Romans treated the people they conquered well.They did that because people who are treated well do notrebel. If an area did rebel, Rome squashed it. As a result,the Roman republic grew stronger.

5. How did Rome rule its new conquests?

130

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


131

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The Roman Republic For use with pages 268–276

Drawing From ExperienceOur government is divided into three different parts:

Congress, the Supreme Court, and the president. In the previous section, you learned how Rome grew

from a small city to an economic and military power. In this section, you will learn how Rome became moredemocratic and how it took over the Mediterranean Searegion.Organizing Your Thoughts

Rome’s republic grew more democratic over time. Use the reading to help you complete the chart showingwhen each group got certain rights. Put in the year, or useA for always and N for never.

Key Termspatrician: wealthy landowner and member of the ruling class in ancient Rome

(page 269)

plebeian: member of the common people in ancient Rome (page 269)

consul: top government official (page 269)

veto: to reject another’s decision (page 270)

praetor: type of judge who interpreted the law (page 270)

dictator: someone who has complete control of the government (page 271)

Right to . . . Plebeian Men Patrician Men Women

marry outside of 1. 2. 3.their class

become consuls 4. 5. 6.

be in a 7. 8. 9.lawmaking body

make laws for 10. 11. 12.all Romans

Rome’s Government (pages 269–273)

Rome’s republic was shaped by a struggle between wealthy landownersand regular citizens as it gradually expanded the right to vote.

There were two main social classes in early Rome:patrician and plebeian. Patricians were wealthy land-owners. They were nobles who held government offices.However, most people were plebeians—shopkeepers,artisans, and small farmers. Patricians and plebeianscould not marry each other.

All patrician and plebeian men were citizens and hadthe right to vote. They had to pay taxes and join the army.But only patricians could be in the government. How Did Rome’s Government Work? The top government postswere the consuls, who served for one year. Two consulswere chosen every year. One consul headed the army. Theother headed the rest of the government. If one consulmade a bad decision, the other could veto it. This meansthey could reject the other’s decision.

The government of the Roman Republic also includedpraetors, or judges, tax collectors, and builders.

Rome had two major lawmaking groups. They werethe Senate and the Assembly of Centuries. The 200 Sena-tors served for life. At first, they only advised the consuls.By the 200s B.C., they passed laws and set building pro-grams. The Assembly of Centuries elected the consuls and praetors. Plebeians Against Patricians At first, only patrician men could beSenators, Assembly members, or consuls. But the ple-beians fought in the army and paid taxes, just like thepatricians. They wanted equal rights.

So, in 494 B.C., the plebeians went on strike. Theywould not join the army. Many left Rome, and set up their own republic.

This scared the patricians. In 474 B.C., the plebeians set up the Council of Plebs and elected tribunes. The trib-unes told the government what the plebeians thought

132

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


133

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

about issues. Later, the tribunes could veto governmentdecisions.

By 455 B.C. patricians and plebeians could marry eachother, and in the 300s B.C., plebeian men could becomeconsuls. In 287 B.C., the Council of Plebs could pass lawsfor all Romans. However, a few wealthy families still heldmost of the power. Who Was Cincinnatus? The Roman Republic included dictators.Today, a dictator is a cruel ruler who controls everything.In early Rome, the dictators were elected by the Senatewhen there was an emergency. As soon as the emergencyended, the dictator quit.

About 460 B.C., the Roman army was attacked. TheSenators elected a farmer named Cincinnatus to be dicta-tor. Cincinnatus gathered an army to help Rome. He andhis army defeated the enemy quickly. Afterward, he wenthome to his farm.Roman Law The U.S. legal system copied a lot of Rome’s sys-tem of law.

At first, Rome’s laws were not written down. Plebeiansthought that the judges agreed with the rich people toooften. The plebeians demanded that the laws be writtendown. That way everyone could know them and makesure the judges followed the laws.

In 451 B.C., the first code of laws was written down. Itwas carved on bronze tablets. The bronze tablets were putin the Forum. The Forum was Rome’s big marketplace.

The laws were called the Twelve Tables. They set upthe idea that all citizens should be treated equally by thelaw. All future Roman laws were based on the TwelveTables.

The Twelve Tables were only for Roman citizens. Thatmade problems when Rome began taking over othernations. The Romans saw that they also needed laws toprotect people who were not citizens.

They made a new set of laws called the Law ofNations. It listed ideas of justice. These ideas of justice


were for everyone. We still use some of these ideas today.For example, the Law of Nations said that people are seenas innocent until they are proven guilty. The Law ofNations said that judges had to study evidence beforemaking decisions.

The Romans’ main idea was that the law should treateveryone equally. This is called “the rule of law.” In earlyRome, this was a very new idea. Many rich people didnot like it. They were used to having special privileges. Infact, many rich people were not used to obeying the lawat all. The rule of law made the rich respect the rights ofthe poor.

The rule of law is the basis for our legal system today.

13. Before 471 B.C., what rights did patricians have thatplebeians did not?

Rome Expands (pages 274–276)

Rome slowly destroyed the Carthaginian Empire and took control ofthe entire Mediterranean region.

The Romans ruled most of Italy by 267 B.C. Now, Romewanted to control the trade routes, but so did Carthage.

Carthage was on the coast of North Africa. It was builtaround 800 B.C. by the Phoenicians who were sailors andtraders. Carthage had a great trading empire. It was thelargest and richest city in the western Mediterranean. The First Punic War Punicus is the Latin word for Phoenician.That is why the wars between Rome and Carthage arecalled the Punic Wars.

The First Punic War started in 264 B.C. because Romeand Carthage both wanted the island of Sicily. The Romanssent an army to Sicily. Carthage already had colonies onSicily. The colonies fought the Roman army. The Romans

134

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


135

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

did not win at first. They were used to fighting on land.But Carthage was a sea power. So Rome built a navy.

The First Punic War lasted 20 years. Finally, in 241 B.C.,Rome won. Carthage had to leave Sicily and pay a hugefine to the Romans. The Second Punic War Carthage then conquered southernSpain. That was very near Rome’s northern border. TheRomans helped the Spanish people rebel. So in 218 B.C.,Carthage sent the great general Hannibal to attack Rome.This began the Second Punic War.

Hannibal’s army landed in Spain. He had about 46,000men, horses, and 37 elephants. He marched them acrossthe Alps and into Italy. Cold weather and the attackskilled almost half of his men. Most of the elephants werekilled, too.

Hannibal’s army reached Italy in 216 B.C. They beat theRomans at Cannae and began raiding Italy. In 202 B.C., theRoman general Scipio attacked Carthage. Hannibal left toprotect his own people. Finally, Scipio’s army beat Hanni-bal’s. Carthage gave Spain to Rome. Carthage also had togive up its navy and pay another huge fine.

Rome now ruled the western Mediterranean. More Conquests Carthage was no longer a military power.But it was still a rich trading center. So, in 146 B.C., Romansoldiers burned the city. More than 50,000 men, women,and children were enslaved. Legend says that the Romansspread salt on the ground. Crops cannot grow in saltyearth. This was the Third Punic War. After that, Carthagewas a Roman province, or district.

Rome was fighting other battles, too. From 148 B.C. to129 B.C., Rome was at war with Macedonia and won itsfirst province in Asia. The Romans called the Mediter-ranean Sea mare nostrum. That means “our sea.”

14. How did Rome punish Carthage at the end of theThird Punic War?


Drawing From ExperienceHave you ever worked on a group project that no one

really wanted to do? It is hard to keep everyone working.It helps if there is a reward for hard work, such as a goodgrade.

In the previous section, you learned how Romebecame more democratic and how it took over theMediterranean Sea region. In this section, you will learnabout Julius Caesar and Augustus and why the RomanRepublic ended. Organizing Your Thoughts

Below are some people who lived when the RomanRepublic was ending. List one accomplishment for eachof them.

136

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termslatifundia: large farming estates (page 278)

triumvirate: a political alliance of three people (three people ruling as a team)(page 280)


The Fall of the Republic For use with pages 277–283

1. Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus

2. Marius

3. Sulla

4. Julius Caesar

Trouble in the Republic (pages 278–279)

The use of enslaved labor hurt farmers, increased poverty and corrup-tion, and brought the army into politics.

Even though Rome’s armies were doing well, Romehad problems at home.Rich Versus Poor By 100 B.C., the plebeian farmers were in trouble. Many could not work on their farms because

137

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

they were in the army. Others had watched Hannibal ruintheir small farms.

At the same time, rich Romans were buying land. Theyformed large farming estates called latifundia. Enslavedpeople from Carthage worked the land. Since there wereno wages, the rich could charge less for their crops thanthe plebeian farmers. This ran the plebeian farmers out ofbusiness.

Many farmers sold their farms and went to the citiesfor work. But enslaved people did most of the work. Jobswere hard to find and did not pay much. The plebeiansbecame very angry.

Roman politicians thought that the plebeians mightriot. They started giving the poor “bread and circuses.”This meant free food and shows. The “bread and cir-cuses” won the votes of the poor. Why Did Reform Fail? Two brothers—Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus—thought the poor should get their farms back.They asked the Senate to take public land from the richand give it to the poor.

Many Senators did not want to give up any of theirland. In 133 B.C., they killed Tiberius. Twelve years later,they killed Gaius.The Army Enters Politics Most soldiers had joined the armybecause it was their duty as citizens. However, they werenot paid, and they were losing their farms. In 107 B.C. amilitary leader named Marius became consul. He paidfarmers to be soldiers and promised them land.

By paying the soldiers, they became professionals. Butthey no longer felt loyalty to Rome. They felt loyalty tothe general who paid them.

Having a loyal army gave a general a lot of power.Generals became politicians. To keep their men’s loyalty,the generals worked to pass laws that gave the soldiersland. In 82 B.C., General Sulla forced Marius and othergenerals out of Rome. He made himself dictator.


Over the next three years, Sulla made the Council ofPlebs weaker and the Senate stronger. Then he retired.Sulla had shown other generals how to use their armies to grab power. For the next 50 years, civil war tore Rome apart.

5. What change did Marius make to the army?

Julius Caesar (pages 280–281)

Military hero Julius Caesar seized power and made reforms.

By 60 B.C., three men held the most power in Rome.They were three generals: Crassus, Pompey, and JuliusCaesar. The three joined together in the First Triumvirate.A triumvirate is a political partnership of three people.Caesar’s Military Campaigns Each member of the Triumvirate hada military command. Pompey was in Spain. Crassus wasin Syria. Caesar was in Gaul.

Caesar became a hero to Rome’s lower classes. But theSenators thought that he was too popular. When Crassuswas killed in 53 B.C., they gave Pompey complete controlof Rome. Four years later, they ordered Caesar to give uphis army. Caesar knew that if he obeyed the Senate, hisrivals might kill him. But if he did not obey, then he wasstarting a civil war against Rome.

Caesar kept his army and marched 5,000 men intoItaly. Pompey tried to stop Caesar, but Caesar drove Pompey out of Italy and into Greece. Then, in 48 B.C., he destroyed Pompey’s army completely. After that, theSenate named Caesar dictator of Rome for one year. Caesar’s Rise to Power In 44 B.C., Caesar made himself dictatorfor life. He also filled the Senate with people who sup-ported him. Caesar knew many reforms were needed. Sohe freed men in Rome’s territories, started new coloniesso that farmers and soldiers would have land, and forcedpatricians to hire free workers.

138

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


139

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Caesar also created the Julian calendar. It had 12months, 365 days, and a leap year. It was used in Europeuntil A.D. 1582. This is very close to our calendar today.

Caesar’s supporters thought he was a strong leaderwho brought peace to Rome. His enemies thought that hewanted to be king. Caesar was told to “beware the Ides ofMarch” (March 15), but he did not. On March 15, 44 B.C.,his enemies stabbed him to death. They were led by Sena-tor Cassius and Caesar’s good friend, Senator Brutus.

6. Why did Brutus, Cassius, and others kill Caesar?

Rome Becomes an Empire (pages 282–283)

The Roman Republic, weakened by civil wars, became an empire underAugustus.

After Caesar was killed, another civil war broke out.Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus won the civil war. Octa-vian was Caesar’s grandnephew. Antony and Lepiduswere Caesar’s best generals. In 43 B.C., they formed theSecond Triumvirate.The Second Triumvirate Soon Octavian, Antony, and Lepiduswere fighting with each other. Octavian forced Lepidus toretire. Then Octavian and Antony divided the Romanworld. Octavian took the west. Antony took the east.

While he was in the east, Antony fell in love withCleopatra VII, an Egyptian queen. They made an alliance.Octavian thought they wanted to take over Rome, so hedeclared war against them.

In 31 B.C. they fought the Battle of Actium. Actium isoff the west coast of Greece. Octavian crushed Antonyand Cleopatra’s army and navy. Antony and Cleopatraran back to Egypt and later killed themselves.


Their deaths ended Rome’s civil war. The RomanRepublic died with them. Octavian was 32 years oldwhen he became the ruler of the Roman world. Hedecided to build a different kind of government—theRoman Empire.Who Was Augustus? Octavian knew that many people wantedto be able to vote for their leaders. Cicero agreed. He wasa writer, political leader, and great speaker. Many peopleread Cicero’s books and heard him speak. They agreedwith his ideas.

Cicero supported Octavian. He thought that Octavianwould rebuild the republic. In 27 B.C., Octavian said hewould, but he did not. Octavian knew that the republicwas too weak to solve Rome’s problems. So he gave some power to the Senate, but he kept most of the powerhimself.

Octavian’s title was imperator, which means “commander in chief.” Soon, though, it meant “emperor.”Octavian also took the title of Augustus. Augustus means“the revered” or “the majestic one.” After that, everyonecalled him Augustus.

7. How did Octavian’s government reflect Cicero’sideas?

140

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


141

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The Early Empire For use with pages 286–294

Drawing From ExperienceHave you ever tried to ride your bike on a dirt road or

on the grass? It’s a lot easier to ride on a sidewalk or apaved road.

In the previous section, you learned about Julius Caesar and Augustus and why the Roman Republicended. In this section you will learn how Rome’s goodroads, its water systems, and its common money madethe empire rich.Organizing Your Thoughts

Augustus and other Roman emperors made manychanges. Use the reading to help you list four changesand their effects.

Key TermsPax Romana: “Roman Peace” (page 287)

aqueduct: a human-made channel that carries water long distances (page 291)

currency: money system (page 294)

1.

2.

3.

4.

The Emperor Augustus (pages 287–288)

By expanding the empire and reorganizing the military and govern-ment, Augustus created a new era of prosperity.

There had been fighting in the Mediterranean Sea areafor hundreds of years. Augustus (formerly called Octa-vian) ended the fighting. He took control of the wholearea. That brought Pax Romana, or “Roman Peace.” Thispeace lasted 200 years.What Did Augustus Achieve?

Augustus became emperor in 27 B.C. He decided tomake the empire strong and safe. He made a professionalarmy of about 150,000 men. All of them were Roman citi-zens. Augustus also made the Praetorian Guard, whichhad about 9,000 men. These men were specially picked toguard the emperor. Later the Praetorian Guard had a lotof political power.

Augustus’s armies took Spain and Gaul (France). Theyalso took land where Austria, Hungary, Romania, andBulgaria are today. At the same time, Augustus builtbeautiful buildings and supported the arts like music,sculpture, and writing.

Augustus also bought grain from Africa for the poor.He knew that well-fed people do not rebel as much ashungry people.

At that time, more than 50 million people lived in theRoman Empire. The Empire was divided into provinces.Augustus appointed a proconsul, or governor, for eachprovince.

He changed the tax laws. By making tax collectors gov-ernment workers, he stopped them from taking some ofthe taxes for themselves. He also made a set of laws forfree men who were not citizens. This meant that Romanlaws protected everyone. Many of these free men laterbecame citizens.

142

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


143

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Who Came After Augustus? Augustus ruled for almost 40 years.He died in A.D. 14. A relative named Tiberius had beentrained to follow him. The next three emperors—Caligula,Claudius, and Nero—were also relatives. They are calledthe Julio-Claudian emperors.

Not all of them were good rulers. Tiberius andClaudius ruled well, but Caligula and Nero were verycruel. Caligula was also mentally ill. He had peoplekilled, wasted a lot of money, and even made his horse aconsul! Finally the Praetorian Guard killed him, andmade Claudius emperor.

Nero was also cruel. He killed many people, includinghis mother and two wives. He finally killed himself. Leg-end says that Nero played his violin when the city ofRome burned in A.D. 64.

5. What did Augustus do to make the empire safer andstronger?

Unity and Prosperity (pages 290–294)

Rome’s system of roads, aqueducts, ports, and common currency madethe empire rich and prosperous.

A general named Vespasian restored peace. He alsobegan building the Colosseum, a huge amphitheatre inthe middle of Rome. Vespasian also stopped several rebel-lions. In addition, in A.D. 70, his son Titus’s army defeatedthe Jews. The Romans destroyed the Jewish temple inJerusalem.

After Vespasian died, his son, Titus, ruled. Two disas-ters struck when Titus ruled. First, the volcano MountVesuvius erupted and buried the city of Pompeii. Second,a large fire burned Rome.

After Titus, Vespasian’s other son, Domitian, ruled.Both of Vespasian’s sons helped Rome to grow.


The Good Emperors From A.D. 96 to A.D. 180, a series of “goodemperors” came to power. They were Nerva, Trajan,Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. Duringtheir rule, trade grew, and people had a better life thanbefore.

The five “good emperors” ruled wisely. Trajan gavemoney to the poor. Hadrian made the laws easier tounderstand. Antoninus Pius passed laws to help orphans.All five hired thousands of people to build roads, bridges,monuments, harbors and aqueducts. An aqueduct is ahuman-made channel that carries water for long distances.A Unified Empire The good emperors conquered new territoryfor Rome. The empire was biggest when Trajan ruled. Itspread from the Mediterranean to Britain andMesopotamia.

But the empire was too big to rule well. Hadrianpulled troops out of Mesopotamia. In Europe, Hadrianpulled back, too. He set the empire’s boundaries at theRhine and the Danube Rivers. Hadrian also builtHadrian’s Wall in northern Britain to stop the Picts andScots from attacking. The Picts and Scots were warriortribes in Britain.

In the A.D. 100s, the Roman Empire was one of thegreatest empires in history. It had 3.5 million square milesof land. Most people spoke Latin or Greek.

The empire held together because people thought ofthemselves as Romans. Even if they spoke different lan-guages, they had the same laws and rulers. They hadmany of the same customs, too. Soldiers and governmentworkers carried Roman culture with them, and peoplelearned it. In addition, the Romans gave many people therights of being a citizen. In A.D. 212, every free man wasmade a Roman citizen.A Booming Economy Agriculture was the most important partof the empire’s economy. Farmers in Italy, Gaul (France),and Spain grew grapes and olives. Making wine and oliveoil became big business. Farmers in Britain and Egyptgrew grains.

144

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


145

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

There was industry with potters, weavers, and jewel-ers. Some cities became centers for making glass, bronze,and brass.

Traders came from all over the world to ports in Italy.They brought silk from China, spices from India, tin fromBritain, lead from Spain, and iron from Gaul.Roads and Money The Roman Empire had a good transporta-tion system. This helped grow trade. During the PaxRomana, the empire had 50,000 miles of roads. The Romannavy kept pirates off the Mediterranean Sea. This meantthat merchant ships were safer.

By 100 A.D., everyone in the empire used a commoncurrency, or money. This made it easy to trade. It meantthat a merchant in Greece could sell to a person in Italy orEgypt.

The Romans also made a system of weights and meas-ures. People knew how much they were selling and buy-ing. This made trade easier, too.Ongoing Inequality Shopkeepers and merchants lived wellduring this time. So did skilled workers who madethings. Rich Romans made their fortunes bigger. Theylived in luxury.

However, most people in the cities and on the farmswere still poor. And many other people were stillenslaved.

6. Who were the “good emperors”? What did theyaccomplish?


Drawing From ExperienceHave you ever entered a science fair or had a piece of

artwork displayed on a bulletin board? In this section you will learn about life in Rome and

how its people accomplished many things in art, science,and engineering.Organizing Your Thoughts

The Romans copied the Greek ways of doing manythings. But the Romans did not do them exactly as theGreeks did. Use the text to help you fill in what changesthe Romans made.

146

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsvault: a curved ceiling (page 303)

satire: a writing that teaches by making readers laugh at the silly thingshumans do (page 304)

ode: an emotional poem about life (page 304)

anatomy: the study of body structure (page 305)

Forum: an open space that served as a marketplace and town square (page 306)

gladiator: a man who fought animals and other men in public arenas (page 306–307)

paterfamilias: “father of the family” (page 307)

rhetoric: public speaking (page 307)


Life in Ancient Rome For use with pages 302–310

Greek Way Roman Way

Ideas 1. 2.

Sculpture 3. 4.

Building 5. 6.

147

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Roman Culture (pages 303–305)

In addition to their own developments in science and engineering,Roman artists and writers borrowed from the Greeks.

The Romans copied the Greeks in many ways. Theystudied Greek statues, buildings, and ideas. But theychanged what they copied. For example, the Greeks lovedto talk about ideas. The Romans thought that ideas wereonly important if they could solve everyday problems. What Was Roman Art Like? The Romans put Greek-style statuesin their homes and public buildings. Roman artists didnot carve perfect people as the Greeks had. They carvedmore realistic statues of people with wrinkles and warts.

The Romans used Greek-style porches on buildings.They built rows of columns, or colonnades. They were thefirst to make full use of the arch. Arches supportedbridges, aqueducts, and buildings. They also used rows ofarches together to make a vault, or curved ceiling.

The Romans were the first people to use concrete. Con-crete buildings are stronger, so they can be built taller.One of the most famous is the Colosseum. The Colosseumwas finished about A.D. 80. It was a huge arena that couldseat about 60,000 people.

Another famous building is the Pantheon, a templebuilt for Rome’s gods. The Pantheon’s domed roof wasthe largest of its time.Roman Literature Roman authors based much of their writingon Greek works. For example, the Roman writer Virgil gotsome of his ideas from Homer’s Odyssey. Virgil wrote theepic poem called the Aeneid. This tells the adventures ofthe Trojan prince Aeneas.

The poet Horace wrote satires and odes. Satires makefun of human weaknesses. Odes are poems that expressstrong emotions about life. Ovid wrote stories that werebased on Greek myths. The poet Catullus wrote shortpoems about emotions like love, sadness, and envy.


A Roman historian named Livy wrote the History ofRome about 10 B.C. Livy thought that history could teachus moral lessons. The Roman historian Tacitus thoughtthat Rome’s emperors had taken people’s freedoms.

The Romans liked plays, too. Many plays were basedon Greek tragedies and comedies. Seneca wrote tragedies.Plautus and Terence wrote comedies.

Roman plays, histories, and stories were written inLatin, the main language in all of Europe. People used itfor government, trade, and learning until about A.D. 1500. Roman Science and Engineering The Romans also learned fromGreek science. A Greek doctor named Galen broughtmany medical ideas to Rome. For example, he taughtthem about anatomy. Anatomy is the study of a human oranimal body.

Galen used to cut open dead animals to study howtheir hearts and other organs worked. He wrote and drewpictures of what he saw. Doctors studied Galen’s booksand drawings for more than 1,500 years.

Ptolemy lived in Alexandria, Egypt. He mapped over1,000 different stars. He also studied the motion of planetsand stars. Ptolemy thought that Earth was the center ofthe universe. He was wrong about that, but he was rightabout many other things. People in Europe used his ideasfor hundreds of years.

Roman engineers built a huge system of roads to everypart of the empire. That is what people mean when theysay, “All roads lead to Rome.”

The Romans also built aqueducts. Aqueducts are longstone troughs that carry water. The aqueducts carriedfresh water from the hills into the cities. Roman cities alsohad sewers to remove waste.

7. Why was Roman literature written in Latin?

148

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


149

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Daily Life in Rome (pages 306–310)

The rich and poor had very different lives in the Roman Empire, as didmen and women.

The city of Rome was laid out in a square with theForum in the middle. The Forum was an open space thatserved as a marketplace and public square. Temples andpublic buildings sat around it.

Rich Romans lived in large houses. Each home had bigrooms, fine furniture, and gardens. In the center of eachhouse was an inner court called an atrium. Rich Romansalso had homes called villas on their country estates.

Most people in Rome were poor. They lived in apart-ment buildings made of stone and wood. Rents werehigh. Whole families lived in one room.

Roman apartment buildings could be six stories high.They were not well built. The people who lived in themused torches and lamps so there were a lot of fires.

This part of Rome was crowded and dirty. Peoplethrew trash into the streets. There were many thieves. The Roman government did some things to keep peoplefrom rioting. The government gave the poor “bread andcircuses.” This means that the poor got some free foodand shows.

Some of the shows were chariot races and gladiatorcontests. Gladiators fought animals and each other. Most gladiators were enslaved people, criminals, or poorpeople. What Was Family Life Like? Roman families included parents,young children, married children, their families, other relatives, and enslaved servants. The father was called the paterfamilias. That means “father of the family.” Hecontrolled the other family members.

Rich Romans hired tutors to teach their children. Someolder boys from rich families went away to learn reading,writing, and rhetoric. Rhetoric means “public speaking.”


Girls studied reading and writing at home. They alsolearned household duties. Poor people did not go toschool.

Roman boys “came of age” when they were between14 and 16. To celebrate, they burned their toys. Thisshowed that they were no longer boys. They couldbecome soldiers or join the government. Many becamepartners in family businesses. Men wore togas, which areloose robes.

Roman women did not become adults until they mar-ried. Women wore long flowing robes with cloaks. Thecloaks were called palla.Women in Rome Women in early Rome had some rights butwere not full citizens. They could not vote.

Rich women had a lot of freedom. They could ownland, run businesses, and sell property. They could go tothe theater or Colosseum. Enslaved people did the house-work. This gave rich women time to study literature, art,and fashion.

Women with less money worked in their homes or in family businesses. They were allowed to leave home to shop, visit friends, worship at temples, or go to thebaths. Some women did work independently outside the home. Some were priestesses. Others were hair-dressers or doctors.How Did Romans Treat Enslaved People? Slavery was always a partof the Roman Empire. But as the empire grew, more andmore people were enslaved. By 100 B.C., about 40 percentof the people in Italy were enslaved.

Enslaved people worked in homes, fields, mines, andworkshops. They helped build roads, bridges, and aque-ducts. Many enslaved Greeks were well educated. Theywere teachers, doctors, and artisans. Enslaved peoplewho earned wages could buy their freedom.

For most enslaved people, life was hard. They oftenrebelled. In 73 B.C. a gladiator named Spartacus led 70,000enslaved people against Rome. They beat several Roman

150

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


151

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

armies. Rome finally conquered them two years later.Spartacus and 6,000 others were killed.Roman Religion The ancient Romans worshiped many godsand goddesses. They believed that spirits lived in thingslike trees and rivers. Roman emperors called themselvesgods, too.

The Romans also adopted Greek gods and goddesses.They gave them Roman names. For example, the Greeksky god Zeus became the Roman god Jupiter.

Romans offered food and prayer to their gods andgoddesses. The important gods and goddesses of Romewere honored in the temples. In addition, every Romanhome had an altar for household gods.

Some Roman priests looked for messages from thegods. They studied the insides of dead animals andwatched the way that birds flew.

When the Romans conquered other people, they letthem keep their religion, as long as the religion did notthreaten the empire.

8. Describe the freedoms of upper-class women thatwere not available to women of other classes.


Drawing From ExperienceThink about why sports teams sometimes lose games.

Someone might not be able to play. The other team mightbe better. People make silly mistakes. Most of the timethere are a couple of reasons that a team loses.

In the previous section, you learned about life in Romeand how its people accomplished many things in art, science, and engineering. In this section, you will learnabout the problems Rome experienced and why theRoman Empire fell.Organizing Your Thoughts

Many things led to the fall of the Roman Empire. Usethe reading to help you fill in the boxes with reasons thatthe empire fell.

152

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsplague: a deadly disease that spreads fast and kills many people (page 319)

inflation: prices that rise quickly (page 319)

barter: to exchange goods and services without using money (page 319)

reform: political change to make things better (page 320)


The Fall of Rome For use with pages 317–326

1.+

+

+ +

=

2. 3.

4. 5.Fall of the Roman Empire

153

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Decline of Rome (pages 318–320)

Poor leadership, a declining economy, and attacks by Germanic tribesweakened the Roman Empire.

Marcus Aurelius died in A.D. 180. He was the last of the“good emperors.” His son, Commodus, became emperor.Commodus was cruel and wasted money. In A.D. 192 theemperor’s bodyguard killed him.

After Commodus, a new group of emperors ruledRome. They were named the Severans. People rebelledmany times while the Severans were rulers. The Severanspaid the army well, so they stayed in power. But the Sev-erans did not deal with the reasons why people wererebelling. They ignored the empire’s growing crime andpoverty.Political and Social Problems The last Severan ruler died in A.D. 235. Then army leaders fought for the throne. In 50 years, Rome had 22 different emperors.

Rome had many other problems. Government officialstook bribes. Many wealthy citizens stopped paying taxes.Fewer people went to school. Wealthy Romans supportedslavery because it was a cheap way to get work done.Economic and Military Problems Rome’s economy began to fallapart. Law and order broke down. Roman soldiers andinvaders seized crops. They destroyed fields. Farmersgrew less food. People went hungry.

People bought fewer things. Artisans made less. Shop-keepers lost money. People lost their jobs. Many workershad to leave jobs and serve in the army.

Then came the plague. A plague is a disease thatspreads quickly. The plague killed one out of every tenpeople in the empire.

Rome also faced inflation. During inflation, prices goup very quickly. Money loses its value. How does moneylose its value? As you just read, the rich were not paying


taxes. The bad economy meant that other people had nomoney to pay taxes. So, the government had less taxmoney to spend. But the government still needed to payfor things. It needed to pay soldiers and the people whobuilt things.

The government started making coins with less gold inthem. But people soon learned that the coins did not haveas much gold in them. The coins began losing value.Prices went up. Many people stopped using money. Theybartered for things. Barter means to trade goods withoutusing money.

Then Germanic tribes raided the western empire. Persian armies attacked the eastern empire. Soon the government did not have enough soldiers. The Romangovernment tried using Germanic warriors, but they were not loyal to Rome.What Were Diocletian’s Reforms? In A.D. 284 General Diocletianbecame emperor. He made reforms to stop the empire’sdecline, or fall. Reforms are political changes to makethings better.

Diocletian divided the empire into four parts. Henamed officials to rule these areas, but he ruled all foursections. He also tried to fix the economy. He set theprices of goods. He set wages. He also told workers tokeep the same jobs until they died.

Diocletian’s reforms failed. People ignored his rules,and he could not make them obey.Who Was Constantine? Diocletian retired in A.D. 305. Sevenyears later, General Constantine became emperor. Constantine made some new rules to help the economy.He said that the sons of workers had to do what theirfathers did. The sons of farmers had to farm the sameland their fathers worked. The sons of soldiers had toserve in the army.

154

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


155

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Constantine’s changes did not stop the empire’sdecline in the west. So Constantine moved the capitalaway from Rome. He moved the capital east, to the oldcity of Byzantium. He rebuilt the city and called it Constantinople. Today, Constantinople is called Istanbul.

6. How did Diocletian try to reverse the decline ofRome?

Rome Falls (pages 322–324)

Rome finally fell when invaders swept through the empire during theA.D. 400s.

Constantine died in A.D. 337. Fighting broke out again.Theodosius finally gained control and ended the fighting.He decided that the empire should be split into two.When he died in A.D. 395, it was split into the WesternRoman Empire with its capital at Rome and the EasternRoman Empire with its capital at Constantinople.Rome Is Invaded As Rome declined, it could not keep out theGermanic tribes. There were many Germanic groups—Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Franks, Vandals, Angles, and Sax-ons. They came from northern Europe.

These tribes wanted warmer climates and better landfor their cattle. They also liked Rome’s wealth and cul-ture. In addition, they were fleeing the Huns, warriorsfrom Asia.

In the late A.D. 300s, the Huns entered Eastern Europe.They beat the Ostrogoths. The Visigoths asked the EasternRoman emperor for protection. He let them settle justinside the empire’s border. In return they promised to beloyal to Rome.


The Visigoths and Romans soon started fighting. Theempire made the Visigoths pay very high prices for food.The Romans also enslaved many Visigoths.

The Visigoths rebelled. In A.D. 378 they defeatedRoman legions at the Battle of Adrianople. Rome had togive land to the Visigoths.

More and more Germanic warriors came into theRoman Empire for land. In the winter of A.D. 406, theRhine River in Western Europe froze. Germanic groupscrossed the frozen river into Gaul (France). The Romanswere too weak to keep them out.

In A.D. 410, the Visigoths captured Rome. They wereled by Alaric. It was the first time Rome had been con-quered in 800 years.

The Vandals—another Germanic group—overranSpain and northern Africa. They enslaved some Romanlandowners. They drove others away. Then the Vandalssailed to Italy. In A.D. 455 they entered Rome. They stoleand burned Rome for 12 days. The English word vandal-ism comes from these attacks. Vandalism means “the will-ful destruction of property.”Rome Falls By the mid-A.D. 400s, several Germanic leadersheld high posts in Rome’s government and army. In A.D. 476 a Germanic general named Odoacer threw outthe western emperor. The emperor was a 14-year-old boynamed Romulus Augustulus. Romulus Augustulus wasthe last emperor to rule from Rome. Historians say thatthis event was the end of the Western Roman Empire.

Odoacer controlled Rome for almost 15 years. Then agroup of Visigoths took over. They killed Odoacer. Theyset up a kingdom in Italy under their leader, Theodoric.Other Germanic tribes set up kingdoms in Europe, too.

By A.D. 550, the Western Roman Empire was gone. But people still did things in Roman ways. For example,Germanic rulers spoke and wrote in Latin. They usedRoman laws. They were also Christians.

156

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


157

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Western Roman Empire had fallen. But the EasternRoman Empire prospered. It became known as the Byzan-tine Empire and lasted nearly 1,000 more years.

7. Which event usually marks the fall of the WesternRoman Empire?

The Legacy of Rome (pages 325–326)

Rome passed on many achievements in government, law, language, andthe arts.

Our world would be very different if the RomanEmpire had never existed. Many words in the Englishlanguage come from the Romans. Many of our ideasabout government, laws, and building come from theRomans, too. As you will read in the next chapter, Romanrule led to peace and order. This let the Christian religionspread.Roman Ideas and Government Today As you read earlier, theRomans first wrote their laws on the Twelve Tables. Westill use those ideas today. For example, we believe thatall people are equal under the law. We expect our judgesto be fair. We think that people are innocent until they areproven guilty.

We use Roman ideas about government and citizen-ship, too. The U.S. is a republic made up of equal citizens.We think that that is the best form of government. We alsothink that people should vote and do their duty. We thinkthat people should try to make society better.Roman Influence on Culture Today, we use the Latin alphabet inmost of the Western world. Many modern languages—Italian, Spanish, French—come from Latin. Many Englishwords come from Latin, too. Scientists, doctors, andlawyers still use Latin phrases. Plants and animals haveLatin names.


We also use many Roman ideas about building. Manymodern buildings use concrete. Roman architecturalstyles are still popular, too. Many buildings—especiallychurches and city and state buildings—have domes andarches. Those were copied from Roman buildings.Christianity As you probably know, Christianity is a majorreligion today. Christianity began in the Roman Empire.Rome’s government adopted Christianity in the A.D. 300s.That helped the new religion to grow and spread.

8. Name some things from the Roman Empire that westill use today.

158

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


159

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The Byzantine Empire For use with pages 327–334

Drawing From ExperienceThink about your school and town. Are there people

from different cultures? Do these people share differenttypes of food, stories, and holidays with your commu-nity?

Constantinople had people from many different cultures, too. In the previous section, you learned the rea-sons the Roman Empire fell. In this section you will learnabout Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire. You willalso learn about Emperor Justinian.Organizing Your Thoughts

Constantinople was one of the greatest cities in theworld. Use the text to help you name three reasons thatConstantinople grew rich and strong.

Key Termsmosaic: picture made from bits of colored glass and stone (page 333)

saint: Christian holy person (page 333)

regent: a person who acts as a ruler when the real ruler is too young or sick(page 334)

1.

2.

3.

The Rise of the Byzantines (pages 328–329)

The Eastern Roman Empire grew rich and powerful as the WesternRoman Empire fell.

The Eastern Roman Empire was called the ByzantineEmpire. In the A.D. 500s the empire stretched west to Italy,south to Egypt, and east to Arabia. Many of the people inthe empire were Greeks, but Egyptians, Syrians, Arabs,Armenians, Jews, Persians, Slavs, and Turks lived in theempire, too.Why Is Constantinople Important? You already learned that Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire toConstantinople. After the western empire fell, Constan-tinople became the capital of the Byzantine Empire. Bythe A.D. 500s, Constantinople was one of the world’s greatcities.

One reason for Constantinople’s success was its loca-tion. It had good harbors near the Black Sea and theAegean Sea. Constantinople was also a major stop on thetrade routes between Europe and Asia. The trade routesmade the city rich.

Constantinople was also easy to protect. It was on apeninsula. Seas protected it on three sides. A huge wallguarded the city on the fourth side. Influence of Greek Culture At first, some Byzantines kept Romanways. Constantinople was known as the “New Rome.” Itspublic buildings and palaces were built in the Romanstyle. The city even had an oval arena called the Hippo-drome. Chariot races and other events were held there.

Emperors spoke Latin and enforced Roman laws. Theempire’s poor people received free bread and shows.Wealthy people lived in town or on large farming estates.Many of them had lived in Rome.

But many other people spoke Greek and had Greekhabits. Soon Byzantine rulers began to speak Greek. TheByzantines also copied ideas from the Egyptians, theSlavs, and the Persians. All of these cultures blended

160

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


161

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

together. This led to new ideas in learning and the arts.Between A.D. 500 and A.D. 1200, the Byzantines had one ofthe world’s greatest empires.

4. What cultures blended together in the ByzantineEmpire?

Emperor Justinian (pages 329–330)

The policies and reforms of Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodorahelped make the Byzantine Empire strong.

Justinian became emperor of the Byzantine Empire inA.D. 527. He ruled until A.D. 565. Justinian was a strongleader. He controlled the military, made laws, and wassupreme judge. His order could not be questioned.

Justinian’s wife was the empress Theodora. She helped Justinian make decisions and choose govern-ment officials.

Theodora was a former actress. She was intelligent andstrong-willed. Theodora convinced Justinian that womenshould have some rights. For the first time, a Byzantinewife could own land. That way, if she became a widowshe could still take care of her children.

In A.D. 532 Theodora helped save Justinian’s throne.Angry taxpayers threatened to overthrow Justinian. Theystormed the palace. Justinian’s advisors urged him toleave the city. Theodora told him to stay and fight. Justin-ian stayed and crushed the uprising.Justinian’s Conquests Justinian wanted to reunite the RomanEmpire. To do this, he had to conquer Western Europeand northern Africa. He ordered General Belisarius tolead the Byzantine army.

Belisarius added a lot of cavalry to the army. Cavalryare soldiers on horses. Byzantine cavalry wore armor.They carried bows and lances, which were long spears.


Justinian’s army conquered most of Italy and northernAfrica. It also beat the Persians in the east. But it was toomuch too quickly. When Justinian died, the empire couldnot keep all of the land in the west.Justinian’s Law Code Justinian thought that the empire’s lawswere too difficult to understand. He put together a groupof legal scholars headed by Tribonian. He ordered thescholars to reform the law code.

The new code became known as the Justinian Code.Common people could understand the empire’s newlaws. The Justinian Code influenced the laws of almostevery country in Europe.

5. What did Justinian accomplish during his reign?

Byzantine Civilization (pages 332–334)

The Byzantines developed a rich culture based on Roman, Greek, andChristian ideas.

The Byzantine Empire lasted about 1,000 years. Con-stantinople was the largest and richest city in Europe. TheByzantines were educated and creative. They sharedGreek and Roman ideas with other cultures. Theyinvented new types of art. They spread Christianity toEastern Europe.The Importance of Trade From the A.D. 500s to the A.D. 1100s, theByzantine Empire was the center of trade between Europeand Asia. There were trade goods from present-day Rus-sia, the Mediterranean, Europe in the west, and Persiaand China in the east. People traded spices, gems, metals,cloth, farm goods, furs, honey, and enslaved people.

162

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


163

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

All this trade made the Byzantine Empire very rich.However, most Byzantines were not merchants. Mostpeople were farmers, herders, laborers, or artisans. Amajor Byzantine industry was weaving silk. It developedaround A.D. 550. It started when Byzantine travelerssmuggled silkworm eggs out of China. They raised thesilkworms. The silkworms made silk threads. Weaversused the threads to make silk cloth.Byzantine Art and Architecture Justinian and other Byzantineemperors had many churches, forts, and public buildingsbuilt. Constantinople alone had hundreds of churches andpalaces. One of Justinian’s greatest achievements wasbuilding the huge church called Hagia Sophia. HagiaSophia means “Holy Wisdom.” It was completed in A.D.537. It was the religious center of the Byzantine Empire. Itstill stands today in Istanbul.

The walls of the Hagia Sophia are lined with beautifulmarble and mosaics. Mosaics are pictures made frommany bits of colored glass or stone. They were an impor-tant type of Byzantine art. Mosaics often showed saints,or Christian holy people.Byzantine Women The family was the center of social life.Religion and the government said that marriage and fam-ily life were important. It was hard to get a divorce.

Most Byzantine women did not lead independentlives. They had to stay home and take care of their fami-lies. However, women did gain some important rights,thanks to Empress Theodora. Some Byzantine womenbecame well educated. They got involved in politics. Sev-eral royal women served as regents. A regent is a personwho stands in for a ruler who is too young or too ill togovern. A few ruled the empire on their own.Byzantine Education Learning was highly respected. The gov-ernment paid for the training of scholars and governmentworkers. Boys studied religion, medicine, law, arithmetic,grammar, and other subjects. Wealthy Byzantines some-times hired tutors to teach their children. Girls usuallywere taught at home.


Most Byzantine authors wrote about religion. Theysaid that people needed to obey God. They wrote aboutthe lives of saints. Byzantine writers also copied andshared ancient Greek and Roman writings. WithoutByzantine copies, we would not have many importantworks from the ancient world.

6. Which church is one of Justinian’s greatest achieve-ments?

164

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


165

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The First Christians For use with pages 342–350

Drawing from ExperienceHave you ever been forced to do something that you

did not want to do? Did you fight back, or did you goalong with the rules?

In this section, you will learn how some Jews opposedthe Roman rule of Judaea peacefully, while others foughtback. You’ll also learn how Jesus’ teachings brought abouta new religion called Christianity. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on some of thefirst Christians.

Key Termsmessiah: a savior or someone who rescues another from harm (page 344)

disciple: a person who follows the teachings of another (page 344)

parable: a story that teaches a lesson using everyday events (page 345)

resurrection: act of rising from the dead or coming back to life (page 347)

apostle: one of the early Christian leaders who started new churches andtaught Jesus’ message (page 348)

salvation: being delivered or saved from sin, destruction, or evil (page 350)

People What did they do? (cause) What happened? (effect)

King David & 1. 2.King Solomon

Zealots 3. 4.

Jesus 5. 6.

Peter 7. 8.

Paul 9. 10.

The Jews and the Romans (page 343)

Roman rule of Judaea led some Jews to oppose Rome peacefully, whileothers rebelled.

During the 900s B.C., King David and King Solomonbrought the Israelites together to create the kingdom ofIsrael. Jerusalem became the capital. This kingdom didnot last long and was split into two smaller kingdoms:Israel and Judah. These did not last long either and weretaken over by more powerful neighbors. Israel wasruined, and its people went in different directions. Thepeople of Judah, called the Jews, survived. Roman Rule The Romans took over Judah in 63 B.C. For atime, Judah was ruled by Jewish kings. Then, in A.D. 6,Emperor Augustus changed the country’s name toJudaea. He made Judaea a Roman province or territory. Itwas ruled by a Roman governor called a procuratorinstead of a king.

The Jews were divided over what to do about theRomans. Some wanted to work with the Romans, but oth-ers did not. Some rebelled by closely following their Jew-ish traditions. Others rejected the Romans and movedaway to places where they could live by themselves andshare their belongings.The Jews Rebel Some Jews, called Zealots, wanted to fight theRomans and get their kingdom back. In A.D. 66, theZealots fought with many Jews against the Romans, butthey lost. The Romans destroyed the temple and killedthousands of Jews. Jewish general Josephus wrote abouthow horrible the war was. He had fought in the war, butchanged to the Roman side.

In A.D. 132, the Jews fought against the Romans againand lost again. This time the Romans forced all Jews toleave Jerusalem and would not let them return to the city.Many Jews were very sad they lost Jerusalem. They foundhomes in other places.

166

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


167

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

By A.D. 700, Jewish communities were set up as farwest as Spain and as far east as central Asia. In later cen-turies, they formed communities throughout Europe andthe Americas. Even though they were not all living in onelocation, they kept their faith alive by studying and fol-lowing their religious laws.

11. How many wars did the Jews fight against theRomans? Did they win any of them?

The Life of Jesus (pages 344–347)

Jesus of Nazareth preached of God’s love and forgiveness. He was even-tually crucified and then reported to have risen from the dead.

During Roman times, many Jews hoped that Godwould send them a messiah, or a leader who would res-cue them from the Romans and help them win back theirfreedom. Long ago, Israelites who heard from God pre-dicted that a messiah would come. Many Jews thoughtthis messiah would be a great king and would give themback their kingdom.

A few decades before the first Jewish fight against theRomans, a Jew named Jesus left his home in Nazareth andbegan preaching. From about A.D. 30 to A.D. 33, Jesus wentthroughout Judaea and Galilee to the north and taught hisideas. Crowds would come to hear him teach and soon hehad 12 close followers called disciples.What Did Jesus Teach? According to the Christian Bible, Jesustaught that following Jewish religious laws was not asimportant as having a relationship with God. Jesus saidthat God was his Father. He preached that God was com-ing soon to rule the world. He asked people to turn fromtheir sins.


Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount gives the main points ofhis teachings. He taught God wanted more than peoplewho just followed religious laws. He wanted people tolove and forgive from the heart. “Blessed are the merciful,for they will obtain mercy” and “Blessed are the peace-makers, for they will be called children of God” are two of Jesus’ sayings.

Jesus taught about love and forgiveness because Godloves and forgives people. He said that God’s commandis simple. He repeated the age-old Jewish teaching: “Lovethe Lord your God with all your heart and with all yoursoul and with all your mind and with all your strength.”Jesus also stressed another teaching: “Love your neighboras yourself.” Jesus’ message of love and forgivenesshelped shape the values many people in Europe andAmerica hold today.

Jesus used stories to teach a lesson. These are calledparables. He used everyday events to teach spiritualideas. In the story of the prodigal (wasteful) son, Jesustold how a father welcomed back his son with open arms.He forgave his son’s mistakes. In another story, he toldhow a shepherd left his entire flock of sheep to go findone lost sheep. Both stories taught that God forgives mis-takes and wants all people to turn away from bad deedsto be saved.

The best known parable is about the Good Samaritan.This story is about a man who is beaten by robbers. Apriest and another religious leader will not help the injuredman, but a Samaritan, a person looked down on by Jews,stops to help the man. He cleans his cuts and pays for hisstay at an inn (hotel). Jesus asked his followers, “Whichman do you think truly showed love to his neighbor?”What Is the Crucifixion? People had strong responses to Jesusand his message. Many said he healed the sick and didother miracles. They said he was the messiah. Other Jewsdid not agree and said he was tricking them. The Roman

168

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


169

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

rulers were scared of what might happen because ofJesus’ teachings. They thought a person who could getsuch strong reactions might threaten law and order.

To celebrate an important Jewish holiday, Passover,Jesus went to Jerusalem in about A.D. 33. Large, cheeringcrowds met him. In an event known as the Last Supper,Jesus celebrated the holiday with his 12 disciples. Theleaders in Jerusalem feared trouble, so they arrested Jesus.He was charged with not being loyal to the government.He was punished by being crucified, or hung from a cross until dead. This was Rome’s way of punishinglower-class criminals and people who spoke up againstthe government.

After Jesus’ death, his followers made a surprisingclaim. They said that Jesus had been resurrected, or raisedfrom the dead. Christian tradition states that Mary Mag-dalene, one of Jesus’ followers, was the first to see Jesusalive again. Others, including Jesus’ disciples, reportedseeing him as well. The disciples said that Jesus’ emptytomb was proof that he was the messiah. All of this led toa new religion called Christianity.

12. What is a parable? Give one example that Jesus used.

The First Christians (pages 348–350)

Jesus’ life and a belief in his resurrection led to a new religion calledChristianity.

Jesus’ disciples spread the news about his teachingsand resurrection. Small groups in the Greek-speakingcities of the eastern Mediterranean agreed with this mes-sage. Some were Jews, but others were not. People whobelieved Jesus Christ and his teachings became known asChristians. The word Christ comes from Christos, theGreek word for “messiah.”


The early Christians made churches for worship andteaching. They met in people’s houses. Many of thesehomes were owned by women. In these meetings, Chris-tians prayed and studied the Hebrew Bible. They alsoshared in a meal like the Last Supper to remember Jesus’death and resurrection.Who Were Peter and Paul? Christian leaders who started newchurches and taught about Jesus were called apostles.They helped to spread Christianity. Perhaps the two mostimportant apostles were Peter and Paul.

Simon Peter was a Jewish fisherman. When Jesus wasalive, Peter knew him and was one of the 12 people Jesuscalled to preach his message. Christian tradition says thatafter Jesus died, Peter went to Rome and helped set up achurch there. Today, the leader of Catholic Christians is inRome.

Paul of Tarsus was another important Christian leader.He was a well-educated Jew and a Roman citizen. At first,Paul hated Christianity and treated Christians very badly.The head Jewish priest in Jerusalem sent him to a city inSyria called Damascus. The priest wanted Paul to stopChristians in Damascus from spreading their ideas.

On his way to Damascus, something strange happenedto Paul. According to Christian belief, he saw a great lightand heard Jesus’ voice. Paul became a Christian on thespot. He spent the rest of his life spreading Jesus’ mes-sage. He traveled a lot and started many churchesthroughout the eastern Mediterranean.What Do Christians Believe? Christians taught that Jesus was theSon of God and had come to save people. By acceptingJesus and his teachings, people could gain salvation. Thismeans they could be saved from sin and allowed to enterheaven. Like Jesus, after death they would be raised tolive with God forever.

Because of their faith in Jesus, Christians began tounderstand God in a new way. Like the Jews, Christians

170

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


171

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

believed in the God of Israel. They studied the HebrewBible. But most Christians believed that the one God wasthree persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. This ideabecame known as the Trinity, which means “three.”

13. If someone was known as a Christian, what did thatperson believe in?


Drawing From ExperienceHave you ever joined a group or a club? What did you

like and dislike about it?The last section described how Jesus’ teachings led to

a new religion called Christianity. This section discusseshow the Roman Empire made Christianity its official religion and how early churches developed.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes. List the reasons why Christianity attracted so many people.

172

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termspersecute: to treat someone badly (page 353)

martyr: someone who is willing to die instead of giving up their beliefs (page 353)

hierarchy: a group of people with different levels of power or authority (page 355)

clergy: leaders of the church (page 355)

laity: regular church members (page 355)

doctrine: official church teaching (page 355)

gospel: one of the first four books of the New Testament: Matthew, Mark, Luke,and John (355)

pope: head of the Catholic church and bishop of Rome (356)


The Christian Church For use with pages 351–356

Why did Christianity attract so many people?

1. 2. 3.

173

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

A Growing Faith (pages 352–354)

Christianity won many followers and eventually became the officialreligion of the Roman Empire.

During the 100 years after Jesus’ death, many peoplethroughout the Roman world began to follow Christian-ity. The Roman Empire helped spread Christian ideas.The peace and order of the empire made it safe to travel.Christians used Roman roads to carry their message fromplace to place. Since most of the empire’s people spokeeither Latin or Greek, Christians could talk with themdirectly.

Why did so many people follow Christianity? First, the Christian teachings gave meaning to people’s lives.Rome’s religion told people to honor the government.Christianity gave hope and comfort to the poor and powerless.

Second, the ideas of Christianity were like ideas fromother religions already known by the Romans. These religions also appealed to people’s emotions and prom-ised happiness after death.

Finally, Christianity gave people the chance to be part of a caring group. Within their churches, Christiansworshiped together and helped each other. They took careof the sick, older people, wives who had lost their hus-bands, and children without parents. Many women couldtake on new jobs in Christianity. They ran churches fromtheir homes, spread Jesus’ message, and helped care forpeople in need.How Did the Romans Treat Christians? Over time, the Roman gov-ernment began to see Christians as a threat. Romansbelieved everyone should honor the emperor as a god.Christians, like the Jews, would not do this. They believedthat only God could be worshiped. They also would notserve in the army or hold public positions. They talked


badly about Roman festivals and games. Because of this,the Romans felt that Christians were not loyal. The gov-ernment began to punish them.

In A.D. 64, the Roman government began to badly treator persecute Christians. The emperor Nero blamed Chris-tians for starting a fire that burned much of Rome. Chris-tianity was made illegal, and many Christians werekilled.

During these hard times, many Christians becamemartyrs. This means they chose to die instead of give uptheir beliefs. In Rome, Christians were forced to bury theirdead in underground burial places, or catacombs.

Even with all the bad things that were happening,Christianity still spread. After a while, it attracted peoplefrom the lower class to the upper class. After A.D. 250,many Romans grew tired of war and were scared theempire would fall apart. They began to admire the faithand courage of the Christians. At the same time, manyChristians started to accept the empire.Rome Adopts Christianity In the early A.D. 300s, the emperorDiocletian persecuted many Christians. But he could notstop Christianity. The Roman government realized thatChristianity was too strong to be ended by force.

Then, in A.D. 312, the Roman emperor Constantineaccepted Christianity. According to tradition, Constantinesaw a flaming cross in the sky as he was about to go intobattle. Written beneath the cross were the Latin wordsthat mean “In this sign you will conquer.” Constantinewon the battle and believed that the Christian God hadhelped him.

In A.D. 313, Constantine ordered the Edict of Milan.This meant that people could practice whatever religionthey wanted. This made Christianity legal. Constantine’sgovernment supported Christianity. With the help of hismother, Helena, he built churches in Rome and Jerusalem.He also let church leaders have government jobs and didnot make them pay taxes.

174

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


175

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The emperor after Constantine, Theodosius, madeChristianity Rome’s official religion in A.D. 392. At thesame time, he made all other religions illegal.

4. Why did the Romans feel that Christians should bepunished?

The Early Church (pages 355–356)

Early Christians set up a church organization and explained theirbeliefs.

In its early years, Christianity was not well organized.Leaders like Paul traveled from one Christian communityto another. They tried to bring these different groupstogether. They taught that all the separate groups ofChristians were part of one body called the church. Butthey had a problem. How could they join together as one?Organizing the Church The early Christians organized thechurch in a surprising way. They copied the RomanEmpire structure that was a hierarchy. This is a groupwith different levels of power or authority.

The leaders of the church were the clergy. They hadspecial jobs. The regular church members were called thelaity. As the church grew, women were not allowed to beleaders of the church. However, as regular church mem-bers, they took care of the sick and needy.

By around A.D. 300, priests led local churches. Manychurches formed a diocese or a district, led by a bishop.Sometimes a bishop in charge of a city diocese was alsoput in charge of an entire region. This made him an arch-bishop. The five top archbishops became known as patri-archs. They led churches in large cities and were in chargeof large areas of land.


The bishops explained Christian beliefs. They alsowere in charge of church business. Every now and then,they met to discuss questions about Christian belief. Deci-sions they made at these meetings became doctrine, orofficial church teaching. What Is the New Testament? Church leaders explained Christianideas and took special care of the writings about the life ofJesus. These writings helped guide Christians. Jesus him-self did not leave any writings. Instead, his followersretold what they knew about him. By A.D. 300, fourrecords of Jesus’ life, teachings, and resurrection werewell known. Christians believed these were written byearly followers of Jesus named Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.

Each of these records was called a gospel. Gospelmeans “good news.” Christians put these four gospelstogether with the writings of Paul and other early Christian leaders. All of these writings form the New Testament of the Bible.

Early Christians were also affected by other importantwritings. Church Fathers wrote books to explain churchteachings. One leading Church Father was a bishop inNorth Africa named Augustine. In his writings, Augus-tine explained Christianity to people who did not believein it. He wrote The City of God—one of the first historybooks written from a Christian viewpoint. He also wrotea book called Confessions. It was a story of his personaljourney to Christian faith.Who Is the Pope? As the church grew, the bishop of Romestarted to claim power over the other bishops. Hebelieved that he had the power of Peter, Jesus’ leadingdisciple, or follower. Also, Rome was the district overwhich he ruled. Rome was the capital of the empire.

By A.D. 600, the bishop of Rome had gained a specialname—pope. This name comes from a Latin word mean-

176

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


177

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

ing “father.” Latin-speaking Christians accepted the popeas head of the church. Their churches became known asthe Roman Catholic Church. Greek-speaking Christianswould not welcome the pope’s authority or power overthem. You will read in the next section about Christians inthe Eastern Roman Empire. They had a different form ofChristianity.

5. What are the four gospels that form the New Testament of the Bible?


Drawing From ExperienceHave you ever lost a friend because each of you

believed in two different things? How did that make you feel?

The last section described how Christianity became theofficial religion of the Roman Empire and how earlychurches developed. In this section, you will learn howthe church was divided and how Christian ideas spread. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes. List the reli-gious conflicts that led to the split between the RomanCatholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.

178

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsicon: picture or image of Jesus, Mary (the mother of Jesus), and the saints

(Christian holy people) (page 359)

iconoclast: someone who attacks traditional beliefs or institutions (page 360)

excommunicate: to say that a person or group no longer belongs to thechurch (page 361)

schism: a separation or split (page 361)

monastery: a place where men called monks live together in a religious community (page 362)

missionary: person who teaches religion to those who do not believe (page 363)


The Spread of Christian Ideas For use with pages 358–364

Religious Conflicts

1.

2.

3.

179

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Byzantine Church (pages 359–361)

Church and government worked closely together in the ByzantineEmpire.

As you know, the fall of the Western Roman Empiredid not stop the church of Rome. The pope became thestrongest leader in Western Europe. Latin churches of thearea became known as the Roman Catholic Church. In theEast, however, the Roman Empire continued. It becamethe Byzantine Empire. Like Roman Catholics in the West,the Byzantines created their own form of Christianity. Itwas based on their Greek heritage and was known as theEastern Orthodox Church.Church and State Church and government worked closelytogether in the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantinesbelieved their emperor symbolized Jesus Christ on Earth.The emperor was given a crown in a religious ceremony.

The emperor controlled the Church and the govern-ment. He chose the patriarch, or person who would ruleConstantinople and lead the Church in the ByzantineEmpire. Byzantines believed that God wanted them toprotect and spread Christianity. All Church and govern-ment officials agreed with this goal.Religious Arguments All Byzantines were interested in religious matters. In homes and shops, they argued about religious questions. For example, Byzantines loved to discuss the exact relationship between Jesus and God.

In the A.D. 700s, a major argument separated theChurch in the Byzantine Empire. The argument was overthe use of icons. Icons are pictures or images of Jesus,Mary (the mother of Jesus), and the saints, or Christianholy people. Many people put them all over the walls oftheir churches. A few important icons were even believedto work miracles.


Some Byzantines wanted to end the use of icons. Theybelieved that people were worshipping the icons as idolsor false gods. People who supported icons believed thatthey were symbols of God in daily life. They also felt thaticons helped explain Christianity to people.

Emperor Leo III did not agree with icons. In A.D. 726,he ordered all icons to be taken out of the churches. Government officials who took the icons were known as iconoclasts or image breakers. We use this word today to mean someone who attacks traditional beliefs or institutions.

Most Byzantines, many church leaders, and even thepope in Rome disagreed with the emperor’s order. In fact,the argument over icons ruined the relationship betweenthe churches of Rome and Constantinople. Over the next100 years, the argument died down, and the use of iconsreturned. They are still an important part of EasternOrthodox religious practice.Conflicts Between Churches Icons were not the only reason forarguments between the churches of Constantinople andRome. The most serious argument was about howchurches should be organized. The pope said that he wasthe head of all the Christian churches. The Byzantines didnot agree with this. They believed the patriarch of Con-stantinople and other bishops were equal to the pope.

Also, sometimes one church would not help the otherwhen they were attacked from outside. This only madeproblems worse. In the late A.D. 700s when Italy wasinvaded, the Byzantine emperor refused to help the pope.So, the pope asked a Germanic group called the Franks tohelp. The Franks were Roman Catholics and loyal to thepope.

The pope was thankful to the Franks for stopping theinvasion. In A.D. 800, he gave the Frankish king, Charle-magne, the title of emperor. This made the Byzantinesangry. They felt the leader of the Byzantines was the onlytrue emperor.

180

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


181

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

This conflict showed the different ways that thechurches dealt with the government. In the ByzantineEmpire, the emperor was in control, and church leadersrespected his ideas. In Rome, however, the pope claimedboth spiritual and political power. He often argued withkings over church and government matters.

Finally, after hundreds of years of strain, the pope andthe leader of Constantinople made a huge decision. InA.D. 1054, they excommunicated each other. This meansthey stated that the other group did not belong to thechurch anymore. This began a schism, or separation, ofthe two most important branches of Christianity. The splitbetween the Roman Catholic and Eastern OrthodoxChurches has lasted to this day.

4. Why did Byzantines place the authority for the government and for the church in one person?

Christian Ideas Spread (pages 361–364)

Christians found new communities and spread their faith to variousparts of Europe.

After the fall of Rome, the people of Western Europewere confused. Christianity helped them find the orderand unity they wanted. It spread quickly into what usedto be parts of the Roman Empire. It also brought newways of thinking and living to these areas.What Are Monasteries? During the A.D. 300s, a new kind of reli-gious group formed in the Eastern Roman Empire. Mencalled monks lived together in religious communitiescalled monasteries. Monasteries were built near cities andin far away areas.

Anthony was one of the earliest monks. He organizeda monastery in the deserts of Egypt. Monks tried to live a


spiritual life away from the temptations of the world.Many also tried to do good deeds and be examples ofhow Christians should live. Women soon followed themonks’ example and created groups of their own. Thesewomen were called nuns, and they lived in convents.

In the early A.D. 400s, a Roman woman named Paulabuilt churches, a hospital, and a convent. When her hus-band died, she gave up her money and went to Palestine.She also helped a scholar named Jerome rewrite theHebrew and Greek Bible in Latin.

A bishop called Basil wrote a list of rules for monksand nuns to follow. This list, called the Basilian Rule,became the guide for Eastern Orthodox religious life.

In the West, an Italian monk named Benedict wroteanother set of rules for monks. Monks who followed theBenedictine Rule gave up their belongings, lived simply,and spent their time in work and prayer. Like Basil’s rulein the East, Benedict’s rule became the standard formonks and nuns in the West. Basilian and Benedictinecommunities are still around today.

Monks and nuns began to play important roles inRoman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox life. They ran hos-pitals and schools, and helped the poor. They also helpedprotect Greek and Roman writings. One important jobwas to be missionaries. Missionaries teach their religionto those who do not believe.Christianity Spreads North Two brothers, Cyril and Methodius,were very successful Byzantine missionaries. Theybrought Christian teachings to people in Eastern Europecalled the Slavs.

About A.D. 863, Cyril invented a new alphabet. Hewanted the Christian message to be in the Slavic lan-guages. He believed that people would be more inter-ested in Christianity if they could worship and read theBible in their own languages. He based the Cyrillic alpha-bet on Greek letters. It is still used today by Russians,Ukrainians, Serbs, and Bulgarians.

182

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


183

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Eastern Orthodox missionaries traveled in northernlands that bordered the Byzantine Empire. At the sametime, other missionaries from Rome were also busy.Christianity Spreads West In the West, Christian missionarieslooked to the islands of Britain and Ireland. In the A.D. 300s, Roman soldiers that were in Britain were calledback to Rome to fight against Germanic invaders. Whenthey left, Britain was opened to attack by others.

Starting in the A.D. 400s, Britain was invaded by tribesfrom what are today known as Germany and Denmark.These people were the Angles and the Saxons. They cametogether as the Anglo-Saxons. They built communitiesand set up several small kingdoms. The southern part ofBritain soon became known as Angleland, or England.

While invading Britain, the Angles and Saxons pushedout the people already living there. These people werecalled the Celts. Some Celts fled to the mountains ofBritain. Others went to Ireland.

A priest named Patrick brought Christianity to Ireland.He set up a lot of monasteries and churches. Over thenext centuries, Irish monks played an important role inprotecting Christian and Roman learning.

The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Britain were slowerthan Ireland to accept Christianity. In A.D. 567, Pope Gre-gory I sent about 40 monks from Rome to take Christian-ity to England.

The missionaries persuaded Ethelbert, the ruler of theEnglish kingdom of Kent, to believe in Christianity. Ethel-bert allowed the missionaries to build a church in his cap-ital city of Canterbury. In about 100 years, most ofEngland was Christian. Today, Canterbury is still animportant center of Christianity in England.

5. Why were people open to Christianity after the fall ofRome?


Drawing From ExperienceWhen it is sunny outside, what are some activities you

do? What about when it is raining? How does theweather affect your life?

In this section, you will learn how climate and geography affected early life in Arabia and how the religion of Islam began.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes about the reli-gious beliefs of Muslims, the followers of Islam.

184

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsoasis: a place in a desert that has water, plants, and trees (page 373)

sheikh: the head of a tribe (page 373)

caravan: a group of traveling merchants (page 373)

Quran: the holy book of Islam (page 377)


The Rise of Islam For use with pages 372–378

1.

MuslimReligious

Beliefs

2.

3.

4.

185

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Daily Life in Early Arabia (page 373–374)

The deserts, coastline, and oases of Arabia helped shape the Arab wayof life.

Arabia is mostly desert. It is very hot, and sandstormsmake it hard to see. Water and plant life are found atplaces called oases. It rains in the mountains of the south-west. Juniper and olive trees grow there.

Early Arabs lived in tribes. They were loyal to eachother. The head of the tribe was called a sheikh.Who Are the Bedouins? Some Arabs were desert herders. Theywould go from oasis to oasis so their camels, goats, andsheep could drink and eat. These people were calledBedouins.

Bedouins lived in tents and ate dried fruits and nuts.They drank milk from their animals. They did not eatmeat very often. Their animals were worth too much toeat.Trade and Towns Many Arabs lived in villages where they hada farm or animals. They were close to oases or in themountain valleys where there was rain.

Some of the people traded goods across the desert.Many traveled in a caravan, or group. In this way, theycould fight off any Bedouins who might attack them.

By about A.D. 500, Arabian merchants traded mostlybetween India and the Mediterranean Sea. As their busi-ness grew, they built towns along the routes where peopletraded. Makkah, also known as Mecca, became the largestand richest town. It was an important religious place. Themost holy place in Arabia was in this city.

In the middle of Makkah was the Kaaba. This was alow square building with statues of gods and goddessesall around it. The great stone inside the Kaaba wasthought to be from heaven. Pilgrims, people who travel toa holy place, came to Makkah. Arabians worshiped many


gods, but the most important was Allah. Allah wasbelieved to be the one who made everything.

5. How did life in the desert affect the Bedouins?

Muhammad: Islam’s Prophet (pages 374–375)

The prophet Muhammad brought the message of Islam to the people of Arabia.

Muhammad’s MessageIn A.D. 570, a man named Muhammad was born in

Makkah. As a teenager he led caravans and later had suc-cess as a merchant. He married and had children.

Even though he was successful, Muhammad was nothappy. He felt the rich town leaders should go back to theold ways. He thought they should honor their families, befair in business, and help the poor.

Muhammad went to the hills to pray. In about A.D. 610,he said he was visited by an angel and told to preachIslam. Islam means, “surrendering to the will of Allah.”Allah is the Arabic word for “God.”

Muhammad went back to Makkah. He told everyoneto break their statues of false gods. He told them to wor-ship only Allah, the one true God.

Muhammad also taught that all people were equal. Hesaid the rich should share their things. Being rich was notas important as leading a good life. When the Day ofJudgment came, God would reward the good people andpunish the bad people.Opposition to Islam Slowly, people began to believe Muham-mad. At first, only his family became Muslims, or follow-ers of Islam. Soon, many of the poor liked his idea that thewealthy should share their goods.

186

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


187

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Religious leaders and the rich did not like Muham-mad’s message. They thought he was trying to take away their power. They beat and tortured Muhammad’sfollowers.

In A.D. 622, Muhammad and his followers left Makkah.They moved north to a town called Yathrib that wel-comed them. This journey became known as the Hijrah.In Arabic that means “breaking off relationships.” LaterMuslims made A.D. 622 the first year of a new Muslim cal-endar. The city was renamed Madinah, which means “thecity of the prophet.”Muhammad’s Government The people of Madinah thought Godspoke to Muhammad. They also wanted him as theirruler. Muhammad was a good leader. He used the laws hebelieved God had given him in all areas of life. Theselaws even settled arguments between people. Muham-mad created a government that used its power in politicsto support Islam. This is called an Islamic state. Muham-mad required all Muslims to be loyal to the Islamic state.Loyalty to the state came before loyalty to a tribe.

Muhammad built an army. His soldiers took overMakkah in A.D. 630. Muhammad made it a holy city ofIslam. Two years later, he died. By this time, Islam wasspreading all over Arabia.

6. Name two things that Muhammad thought rich townleaders should do.

Islam’s Teachings (pages 377–378)

The Quran provided guidelines for Muslims’ lives and the governmentsof Muslim states.

Islam, Judaism, and Christianity believe some of thesame things. One idea they share is the belief in one God.Muslims believe this one God holds all power, created the


universe, and decides between right and wrong. If peopleobey God’s laws, they will be blessed in the next life.

Jews, Christians, and Muslims also believe that Godspoke to people through prophets. For Muslims, earlyprophets were Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad.For Christians, Jesus was more than a prophet. As the Sonof God, he was divine or god-like. In Islam, Muhammadis seen as a prophet and a very good person. But he is notseen as divine.What Is the Quran? Muslims wrote down what Allah toldMuhammad. These writings make up the Quran. TheQuran is the holy book of Islam. Muslims try to follow theQuran because they believe it is God’s written word.

The Quran teaches Muslims about how they shouldlive. Many of its lessons are like those of the Bible. Forexample, Muslims are told to be honest and treat othersfairly. They are to honor their parents, be kind to theirneighbors, and give to the poor. They should not murder,lie, or steal.

Many rules in the Quran affect daily life. According tothese rules, Muslims should not eat pork, drink alcohol,or gamble. The Quran also has rules about marriage,divorce, family life, property, and business.

Muslims are expected to take part in the Five Pillars ofIslam. These acts of worship are Belief, Prayer, Charity,Fasting, and Pilgrimage.

Wise teachers of Islam wrote a set of laws. The lawswere taken from the Quran and the Sunna. The Sunna isthe name given to customs based on Muhammad’s wordsand deeds. Islam’s laws cover daily life and how societyshould be run. It applies the teachings of the Quran tofamily life, business, and government.

7. What is the Quran?

188

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


189

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


Islamic Empires For use with pages 379–386

Drawing From ExperienceHave you ever been in a group in which you could not

agree on something? What did you do?In the last section, you learned about early life in

Arabia and how the Islam religion began. In this section,you will learn how Islam spread and split into twogroups and how Muslim empires were formed.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on who ruledfrom which major city.

Key Termscaliph: the ruler(s) after Muhammad died (page 380)

Shiite: a group of people who believed all caliphs should be related toMuhammad (page 382)

Sunni: a group of people who believed all caliphs should be from the Umayyaddynasty (page 382)

sultan: the Seljuk ruler; “holder of power” (page 383)

CALIPHS: CAPITAL CITY:

Rightly Guided 1.

Umayyad 2.

Abbasids 3.

Seljuk Turks 4.

Ottomans 5.

Moguls 6.

The Spread of Islam (pages 380–381)

Arabs spread Islam through preaching, conquest, and trade.

When Muhammad died, his followers chose the nextruler. He was called a caliph, which meant successor tothe Messenger of God.

The first caliph was Muhammad’s father-in-law, AbuBakr. The first four caliphs ruled from Madinah. Theywere called the Rightly Guided Caliphs because theytried to follow Muhammad’s ways. They lived simply,treated others fairly, and fought hard for Islam. Theywanted to spread Allah’s message to everyone. Undertheir rule, the empire grew to include all of southwestAsia.

Umayyad caliphs spread Islam to North Africa, Spain,and some of India. They ruled from A.D. 661 to A.D. 750.Their capital city was Damascus in Syria.The Muslims Build an Empire One hundred years after Muham-mad died, the Islamic state became a great empire. Whywere the Arabs so successful?

Arabs were good on horseback and with swords. Theywere motivated by their religion and fought to spreadIslam. Muslims believed anyone who died fighting forIslam would go to paradise.

The Arabs were also successful because they let otherspractice their own religion. They called Christians andJews “People of the Book,” because these groups believedin one God and had holy writings. But, Muslims did nottreat everyone the same. If you were not a Muslim, youhad to pay a special tax.

When a group of people is taken over, they usually fol-low the same religion and customs as their new rulers. So,many people became Muslims and learned the Arabiclanguage. The customs of these countries also affected theArabic rulers. Over time, the term Arab meant only that aperson spoke Arabic. It did not mean that he or she wasfrom Arabia.

190

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


191

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Preaching and Trading A group called Sufis spent their timepraying and teaching Islam. They persuaded many peo-ple to follow Islam.

Arab merchants also helped to spread Islam. They setup trading posts or stores throughout southeast Asia andtaught Islam. Today, the country of Indonesia has moreMuslims than any other country in the world.

Some Arab merchants went across the Sahara Desert to trade with kingdoms in West Africa. In the 1300s, thewest African city of Timbuktu became a leading place forMuslim learning.

7. What were the first four caliphs called? Why werethey called this?

Struggles Within Islam (pages 382–383)

While Muslims split into two groups, the Arab Empire reached newheights.

When Muhammad died, Muslims argued about whowould be caliph. This split the Muslim world into twogroups, the Sunnis and the Shiites. Today most Muslimsare Sunnis. Iran and Iraq have the largest numbers of Shiites. How Did Islam Split? Shiites believed that Ali, Muhammad’sson-in-law, should rule after him. They felt that all futurecaliphs should be related to Ali. Shiites thought theUmayyad caliphs in Damascus had no right to rule.

There were more Sunnis than Shiites. Sunnis thoughtthe Umayyad caliphs should rule. But sometimes they didnot agree with Umayyad policies. Although one in theirbasic beliefs, the Shiites and Sunnis created their own sep-arate religious practices and customs.


Who Were the Abbasids? The Abbasids were the dynasty, or ruling family, after the Umayyads. The Umayyads lostpower in A.D. 750 because their rule angered many Mus-lims, especially in Persia. Persian Muslims felt that ArabMuslims got the best jobs and paid fewer taxes.

When Persian Muslims fought back, people all overthe empire joined them. They pushed out the Umayyads,and the Abbasid dynasty began. The new caliph wasrelated to Muhammad’s uncle. His name was Abu al-Abbas. This dynasty lasted until 1258. The Abbasidsfocused their time on trade, education, and the arts. Theyalso built a new capital, Baghdad.

Baghdad was next to the Tigris River and near theEuphrates River. It was a good place to trade since manypeople used the rivers to ship goods north and south.Because of this, the Arab Empire became even richer.

The Abbasid dynasty brought Persian ideas into theempire. Baghdad was close to Persia. The Abbasid rulerscame to know and love the art and writings of Persia.The Seljuk Turks Many changes happened in the 500 years ofAbbasid rule. In Egypt and Spain, the Muslims wantedtheir own caliphs. Also, a new people, the Seljuk Turks ofcentral Asia, began moving south into the Arab Empire.The Abbasids were losing control.

The Seljuk Turks moved from place to place. Theywere great warriors. When they first moved into theempire, the Abbasids hired them as soldiers. The SeljukTurks saw how weak the Abbasids were and decided totake control.

First, the Seljuks took over a lot of what is now Iranand Turkey. Then, in 1055, they took Baghdad. TheSeljuks ruled only the government and army. They let theAbbasid caliph rule religion. The Seljuk ruler called him-self sultan, or “holder of power.”

For 200 more years, the empire continued like this. TheSeljuks ruled, but it was still the Abbasid dynasty. Then,

192

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


193

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

in the 1200s, another group came into the empire. Thesewere the Mongols of central Asia. The Mongols werebuilding their own empire and destroying many civiliza-tions. In 1258 they burned Baghdad to the ground. Thisended the Arab Empire.

8. Why was Baghdad a good place to trade?

Later Muslim Empires (pages 384–386)

Turks and Moguls build Muslim empires in Asia, Africa, and Europe.

The Arabs built—and lost—the first Muslim empire.Other Muslim groups built empires in Asia, Africa, andEurope. Two of the largest and most powerful empireswere the Ottoman Empire that began in Turkey and theMogul empire in India.Who Were the Ottomans? In the late 1200s, some Turks in thenorthwest corner of Asia Minor began to build a newempire. The ruler of these Turks was named Osman. Thatis why Turks were known as the Ottoman Turks.

The Ottomans quickly conquered most of the land thattoday is the country of Turkey. They attacked the Byzan-tine Empire and went north into Europe. In 1453 they cap-tured Constantinople, the Byzantine capital. Theychanged the city’s name to Istanbul and made it the cen-ter of their empire.

Ottoman armies also went south. They conqueredSyria, Palestine, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and parts of Arabiaand North Africa. They used guns and cannons to fight.To control the Mediterranean Sea they built a navy.

Like the Seljuks, the Ottomans called their leader a sul-tan. The most famous sultan was Suleiman I, who ruledin the 1500s. Suleiman loved the art of building. He builtmany schools and mosques (a Muslim house of worship).


Suleiman was a smart general in the army. He broughtmany Ottoman armies north into Europe. He even cameclose to the great European capital of Vienna. For all thesereasons, Ottomans called him Suleiman the Magnificent.

After Suleiman died, the Ottoman Empire began toweaken. It lost land. The empire finally fell apart at theend of World War I.How Were Non-Muslims Treated? The Ottoman Empire was madeup of Turks, Arabs, Greeks, Albanians, Armenians, andSlavs. While many were Muslims, others were Christiansor Jews.

The government had different laws for people whowere not Muslims. They had to pay a special tax to prac-tice their own religion. These groups chose leaders topresent their views to the sultan.

The sultan forced non-Muslims to do things. For exam-ple, Christian families in Eastern Europe had to send theirsons to Istanbul. The boys had to become Muslims andsoldiers for the sultan.Who Were the Moguls? During the 1500s, the Moguls from themountains of north India built another Muslim empire.They used guns, cannons, elephants, and horses to winland. In 1526 they made the city of Delhi the center oftheir empire.

The greatest Mogul ruler was Akbar. He treated hispeople fairly. This brought peace and order. Most ofIndia’s people were Hindu. He let them practice their religion. Both Hindus and Muslims worked in Akbar’sgovernment.

Times were good in India under Akbar. Farmers andcraftspeople made more food and goods than the Indiansneeded. They could trade more items and make money.Muslim traders brought paper, gunpowder, and fineporcelain from China to India. Muslim architects showedIndia new building styles like the arch and dome.

194

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


195

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

After Akbar, the Mogul empire began to lose itsstrength. Later rulers spent too much money trying togrow the empire. They made people pay large taxes. Oth-ers tried to force Hindus to switch to Islam. They did notlet them build Hindu temples. These changes led to manybattles, and parts of the empire fell away.

Moguls also had to deal with European merchants. Themerchants came to India to trade. But they used theirarmy to take over Mogul land. Finally, the Mogul empireended. Great Britain took control of most of India.

9. Give one reason why Suleiman was called Suleimanthe Magnificent.


Drawing From ExperienceHave you ever wondered who came up with numbers,

algebra, or chemistry? How does the study of math andscience affect your life today?

In the last section, you learned how Islam spread andsplit into two groups and how Muslim empires wereformed. In this section, you will learn about Muslim dailylife and some of the many ideas Muslims gave to math,science, history, literature, and the arts.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram below to help you take notes.Choose an area in which Muslims gave something

important to society. For example, you might name math,science, or art. List the contribution. Then give an exam-ple of how you use that today.

196

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsmosque: a Muslim house of worship (page 389)

bazaar: a marketplace (page 389)

minaret: tower on a mosque (page 394)

crier: a person who calls believers to prayer five times a day (page 394)


Muslim Ways of Life For use with pages 387–394

1. Subject:

2. Muslim Contribution:

3. My Example:

197

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Trade and Everyday Life (pages 388–390)

While Muslim traders enjoyed great success and cities grew, mostMuslims lived in villages in the country.

Muslims were the best merchants in the Middle Eastand northern Africa until the late 1400s. Their caravanstraveled from Baghdad to China. Their ships crossed theIndian Ocean to India and Southeast Asia. They carriedspices, cloth, glass, and carpets. They brought rubies, silk,ivory, gold, and slaves on their return home.The Success of Muslim Traders Muslims were successful in tradefor many reasons. When Muslim empires grew, so did theArabic language. Arabic became the language everyoneused to trade. Muslim rulers also made trade easier bygiving merchants coins.

Muslim merchants kept records of their business dealsand the money they made. This developed into a newbusiness—banking. Muslims respected traders for theirskills and the wealth they made.What Were Muslim Cities Like? Trade helped Muslim cities grow.Baghdad, Cairo, and Damascus were located on traderoutes from the Mediterranean Sea to central Asia. Mus-lim cities were not only places of trade. They also becameimportant places of government, learning, and the arts.

Muslim cities looked alike. The main buildings werepalaces and mosques. Mosques are Muslim houses ofworship. They are also used as schools and places forlearning.

Another important part of every Muslim city was thebazaar, or marketplace. Sellers sold goods from Asia installs or shops. Buyers from all over bought goods to takehome and sell.

Although cities were important, most Muslims lived invillages and farmed. Since there was not very muchwater, Muslim farmers had to bring water to their crops.


They grew wheat, rice, beans, and melons in the fields.They raised almonds, blackberries, apricots, figs, andolives in their orchards. Some farmers also grew flowersfor perfume.

At first, Muslim villagers owned small farms. Thenrich landowners took over some of these farms andformed large estates. Farmers and slaves worked for theselandowners.Muslim Society The Muslim people were in social groupsbased on how much power and wealth they had. At thetop were government leaders, landowners, and traders.Below them were artisans, farmers, and workers. Thelowest group was enslaved people.

Many people owned slaves. Because Muslims couldnot be enslaved, traders brought slaves from non-Muslimareas. Many of these people were captured in war. Theywere servants or soldiers and could buy back their freedom.

Men and women had different jobs. Men ran govern-ment, society, and business. Women helped run families.They also could inherit wealth and own property. Manyplaces had laws for women to cover their faces and wearlong robes in public.

4. Name four things Muslims sent to India and SoutheastAsia on ships.

Muslim Achievements (pages 390–394)

Muslims made valuable contributions in math, science, and the arts.

Most people spoke Arabic. This made trade easier. Italso helped different people in the empires share knowl-edge. For example, in A.D. 830 the Abbasid caliph Mamunfounded the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. Mamun hadwise Christian, Jewish, and Muslim teachers working

198

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


199

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

there. They shared ideas and rewrote Greek, Persian, andIndian writings in Arabic.

These wise men saved much of what was learned inthe ancient world. Europeans in the West had lost thisknowledge after the Western Roman Empire fell. ThroughMuslim scholars, western Europeans found out aboutAristotle and other ancient Greek thinkers.Mathematics and Science Muslims made important advances inmathematics. They taught these new ideas to Europeans.For example, Muslims invented algebra, a type of mathe-matics still taught in schools today. They borrowed thesymbols 0 through 9 from Hindus in India. Europeanslater used these numbers. Today, they are known as “Ara-bic numerals.”

Muslims also made progress in science. Muslim scien-tists who studied the heavens perfected the Greek astro-labe. Sailors used this tool to study the stars and thenfigure out their location at sea. Scientists used the astro-labe to measure the size and distance around the earth.This is how they discovered that the earth is round.

Other Muslim scientists invented chemistry. They didexperiments with metals and kept records of their work.One of the best-known chemists was al-Razi, who livedfrom A.D. 865 to A.D. 925. Al-Razi made a new system forputting animals, minerals, and vegetables in groups. Healso wrote books for doctors that helped them identifydiseases.

Arab doctors were the first to discover that bloodmoves to and from the heart. The Persian doctor Ibn Sinashowed how diseases spread from person to person. Asthey worked, Muslim doctors published their discoveries. Muslim Writing The Quran is the most famous book in theMuslim world, but Muslims have other famous works,too. One of the most well known is The Thousand and OneNights, also called The Arabian Nights. It has stories fromIndia, Persia, and Arabia. One of the stories tells aboutAladdin and his magic lamp.


The Persian poet Omar Khayyam wrote the Rubaiyataround 1100. Many consider it one of the finest poemsever written.

Muslims also wrote history. In 1375, Ibn Khaldunwrote that all civilizations rise, grow, and then fall. Healso was one of the first to study the effect of the earth’ssurface and climate on people.Art and Buildings Muslims developed their own type of artbased on Islam. Muslims cannot show pictures ofMuhammad in art. They believe people may worshipMuhammad instead of Allah. So, flowers, leaves, andstars make up most of their art. Muslims use thesedesigns to decorate walls, books, rugs, and buildings.

Muslims had beautiful buildings. Mosques filled Mus-lim cities like Baghdad, Damascus, Cairo, and Istanbul.

At the top of many mosques are domes. A mosque’smost striking feature is its minarets or towers. From thesetowers, a crier calls believers to prayer five times a day.

Islamic rulers lived in large brick palaces. They oftenhad courtyards at the center with porches, fountains, andpools. They surrounded the palaces with walls for safety.The most famous Muslim palace is the Alhambra inGranada, Spain. It was built in the 1300s.

Another famous building is the Taj Mahal in Agra,India. The Mogul ruler Shah Jahan built it as a tomb forhis wife after she died in 1629. Made of marble and pre-cious stones, the Taj Mahal is one of the world’s mostbeautiful buildings.

Today, the Muslim empires are gone. However, Islamis still a major world religion. About one out of every sixpersons in the world is a Muslim.

5. Describe a palace. List at least three things you wouldsee there.

200

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


201

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


China Reunites For use with pages 408–415

Drawing from ExperienceWhen life is confusing or hard, where do you go to

find comfort and peace? Do you turn toward a religion, a person, the government, or somewhere else? What does this source provide you?

In this section, you will learn how the Sui and Tangdynasties came together to rebuild China after years ofwar. You will also learn about the roles that Buddhismand Confucian ideas played in China. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on the Suidynasty. What were the causes and effects of Yangdi’sdecisions as leader?

Key Termswarlord: military leader who runs a government (page 409)

economy: system that includes the ways people produce, sell, and buy things(page 410)

reform: a change that make things better, an improvement (page 411)

monastery: a place where men called monks live together in a religious community (page 413)

Cause Effects/Causes Effects

Yangdi wanted to 1. 3.make China bigger.

2. 4.

5.

6.

Rebuilding China’s Empire (pages 409–412)

The Sui and Tang dynasties reunited and rebuilt China after years of war.

You already read about the end of China’s Han empirein A.D. 220. China had no government for the next 300years. It broke into 17 kingdoms. People were very poor,and fighting never stopped. Chinese warlords—militaryleaders who ran these kingdoms—fought with each other.At the same time, nomads—groups of people who wan-dered from place to place—took over parts of northernChina.

While China was divided and weak, it lost control ofsome of the groups it had conquered. A group of peoplewho lived on the Korean Peninsula to the northeast ofChina decided to break away from Chinese control. Thepeople of Korea built their own society and culture.The Sui Dynasty Reunites China China finally became one again inA.D. 581. Wendi, a general, made himself emperor. Hewon many battles and finally brought China backtogether. He founded a new line of rulers called the Sui.

After Wendi died, his son Yangdi took his place asemperor. Yangdi wanted to make China bigger. So he sentan army to fight the Koreans. The Chinese were badlybeaten. Yangdi also took on many large building projects.For example, he rebuilt the Great Wall.

Yangdi’s biggest job was rebuilding the Grand Canal.These waterways connected the Chang Jiang (YangtzeRiver) and Huang He (Yellow River). The Grand Canalwas a major shipping route. It was used to ship productsbetween northern and southern China. It helped makeChina’s economy stronger. An economy is a system forproducing, selling, and buying things.

Yangdi rebuilt China. But he also made life very hardfor the Chinese people. He made farmers work on the

202

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


203

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Great Wall and the Grand Canal. The people also had topay for these projects with high taxes. The farmersbecame so angry that they killed Yangdi and took controlof the government. When Yangdi died, the Sui dynastyended. The Tang Dynasty In A.D. 618, one of Yangdi’s generals madehimself emperor. He took over China and set up a newdynasty called the Tang. This dynasty lasted much longerthan the Sui. It was in power for about 300 years. TheTang capital of Changan was a very big and beautiful city.About one million people lived there.

Tang rulers made a number of reforms, or changes, tomake China’s government stronger. The most powerfulTang emperor was Taizong. He went back to using specialtests for government officials. Government officials had todo well on these tests to get their jobs. Their family con-nections could not get them their jobs. Taizong also gaveland to farmers and brought order to the countryside.

During the late A.D. 600s, a woman named Wu becamethe only woman in Chinese history to rule the country onher own. As a strong leader, Empress Wu made the gov-ernment bigger. She also made the military stronger.

China grew strong again in Asia under the Tang. It alsogained control of a larger area. Tang armies took control of the Silk Road in Tibet. They marched into Korea andforced the Korean kingdoms to pay tribute, or a tax, to China. And the Tang also took control of northern Vietnam.

But in the mid-A.D. 700s, the Tang dynasty began tohave problems. A new group of wandering people—theTurks you read about earlier—took control of central Asiaand the Silk Road. China’s economy became weak. Chi-nese farmers and people in Tibet also revolted. All ofthese events weakened the Tang. The dynasty ended inA.D. 907.


The Song Dynasty Military leaders ruled China for the next 50years. Then a general named Song set himself up asemperor in A.D. 960.

The Song dynasty was in power from A.D. 960 to A.D. 1279. This was a time of great wealth and rich culture.But Song rulers did not have enough soldiers to controltheir large empire. Tibet broke away, and nomads tookover land in northern China. The Song moved their capitalsouth to the city of Hangzhou for safety.

7. What events led to the end of the Tang dynasty?

Buddhism Spreads to China (pages 412–413)

Buddhism became popular in China and spread to Korea and Japan.

You already learned about how traders and mission-aries from India brought Buddhism to China in about A.D. 150. At the same time, the Han dynasty was veryweak. A short time later, China broke apart. A civil warstarted. Many people suffered greatly. People died fromthe war, and from a lack of food and housing. Buddhismtaught that people could escape their suffering. Thisteaching attracted many Chinese who were looking forpeace and comfort. Chinese Buddhism Early Tang rulers were not Buddhists. Butthey allowed people to practice Buddhism in China. Theyalso allowed people to build Buddhist temples. ManyChinese Buddhists became monks and nuns. They livedin places called monasteries. In these religious communi-ties, they prayed and worshiped.

Buddhist temples and monasteries ran schools. Theyalso provided rooms and food for travelers. Buddhistmonks served as bankers and gave medical care.

Some Chinese did not like Buddhism. Many thought itwas wrong for the temples and monasteries to accept

204

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


205

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

money. Others thought that monks and nuns did notencourage respect for families because they did notmarry.

In the early A.D. 800s, people in the Tang governmentfeared that Buddhism was gaining too much power. Theysaw Buddhism as an enemy of Chinese traditions. In A.D.845, the Tang destroyed many Buddhist monasteries andtemples. Buddhism in China was never the same. Buddhism Spreads East You already read that Korea broke freefrom China when the Han dynasty fell. For hundreds ofyears after A.D. 220, Korea was divided into three separatekingdoms.

In the A.D. 300s, Chinese Buddhists brought their reli-gion to Korea. In about A.D. 660, the Koreans cametogether to form one country. The new government sup-ported Buddhism.

Buddhism grew even stronger in Korea and spread tothe islands of Japan. According to an old story, one ofKorea’s kings wrote a letter to Japan’s emperor. The letterincluded a statue of Buddha and Buddhist writings. “Thisreligion is the most excellent of all teachings,” the kingwrote. Over time, Buddhism won many followers inJapan.

8. What events in China attracted many people to Buddhism?


New Confucian Ideas (pages 413–415)

The Tang dynasty returned to the ideas of Confucius and created a newclass of scholar-officials.

You have already read about Confucius and his teach-ings. Confucius and his followers believed that a goodgovernment depended on wise leaders. The tests givenfor government jobs came from Confucian ideas. The testswere supposed to bring in skilled people for these jobs.What Is Neo-Confucianism? The Tang dynasty wanted a newkind of Confucianism. They hoped this new neo-Confu-cianism would make Buddhism less popular. It taughtthat life in this world was just as important as life in thenext world. People were expected to take part in this lifeand help others.

While it was negative about some Buddhist ideas, neo-Confucianism did use some Buddhist and Daoist ideas.For many Chinese, Confucianism became more than a listof rules for being good. It became a religion. Confucianthinkers taught that people who followed the teachingswould find peace of mind and live at peace with nature.

The Song dynasty, which followed the Tang, also fol-lowed new-Confucianism. It was the main philosophy orbelief system for the Song.Scholar-Officials Neo-Confucianism also helped to make thegovernment stronger. Tang and Song rulers used tests tohire government workers. In the past, jobs had been givento people because of their wealth, family, or friends. Nowthey based their government system on what peoplecould do.

People taking the tests had to show how much theyknew about Confucian writings. To pass, they had towrite with style and understanding. The tests were sup-posed to be fair. But only men could take the tests. And

206

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


207

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

only rich people had enough money to help their sonsstudy for the tests.

It was very hard to pass the tests. But parents did allthey could to help their sons get ready. Beginning at fouryears old, boys were taught the characters of the Chineselanguage. Later, they had to memorize all of Confucius’swritings. If a student did not do a good job saying thewritings from memory, he might be hit by his teacher.

After many years of study, the boys took their tests.Even with all of their work, only one in five boys passed.Boys who failed got jobs helping officials or teaching. Butthey could never get a government job.

9. Why were the tests such an important part of the government?


Drawing From ExperienceWhat types of art and books do you like? How have

artists and writers affected your life? Artists and writerstell you a lot about their society.

The last section described the Sui, Tang, and Songdynasties. This section discusses how China’s economygrew during the same time. Artists, writers, and inventorsall added to Chinese society in this period.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes. List facts from your reading that support this statement: Chinesesociety and culture grew strong during the Tang and Songdynasties.

208

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsporcelain: material made from fine clay and baked at high temperatures

(page 418)

calligraphy: the art of fine handwriting (page 421)


Chinese Society For use with pages 416–422

Chinese society and culture grew strong during the Tang and Song dynasties.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

209

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

A Growing Economy (pages 417–418)

The Tang dynasty strengthened China’s economy by supporting farmingand trade.

China’s economy suffered when the Han dynastyended in the A.D. 200s. When the fighting started, citieswere ruined and farms were burned. People made fewergoods, and farmers grew fewer crops. Business peoplehad less to trade. Under the Tang dynasty, these problemswere solved.Why Did Farming Improve? The Tang rulers took power in A.D.618. They brought peace to the countryside and gavemore land to farmers. This allowed farmers to improveways of watering and growing crops. They also grew newkinds of rice that could grow well in poor soil. Farmerscould grow more per acre. This rice grew faster and washealthier.

These changes helped farmers grow more and morerice. They also began to grow tea. And they madeimprovements in other crops as well. As farmers pro-duced more food, the number of people in China grew. At the same time, more people moved to the south. Ricecould grow well in the Chang Jiang valley.

China’s Trade Grows Tang rulers also built roads and water-ways. Travel in and outside of China became easier. Andmerchants could increase trade with people in other partsof Asia. The Silk Road was under Tang control, and tradeincreased.

One of the things they traded was silk fabric. This pop-ular product gave the road its name. China also tradedtea, steel, paper, and porcelain. Porcelain is made of fineclay and baked at high temperatures. For these Chineseproducts, other countries traded gold, silver, preciousstones, and fine woods.


Other trade routes connected China with central Asia,India, and southwest Asia. The Tang also opened newports on China’s coast to help trade.

6. Why did the population in China grow during theTang dynasty?

New Technology (pages 418–420)

The Chinese developed new technologies, such as steelmaking andprinting.

During the Tang and Song dynasties, people madenew things that changed life in China. These discoverieswould soon spread to other parts of the world.China Discovers Coal and Steel Up until the Tang dynasty, peopleburned wood to keep their homes warm and to cookfood. But when it became hard for people to find wood,the Chinese found out that coal could be used to heatthings. Soon a coal-mining industry was born.

When the Chinese heated coal to make iron, the ironmixed with carbon from the coal. This made a new,stronger metal known today as steel.

The Chinese made armor, swords, and helmets fortheir army with steel. They also made stoves, farm tools,drills, steel chain, steel nails, and sewing needles. The Printing Process The Chinese also found a new way toprint books. Before this, people had to copy books byhand. This made books cost a lot. Few books were made.The Chinese began printing in the A.D. 600s. They cut thecharacters of an entire page onto blocks of wood. Thenthey put ink on the wood block and placed paper on topto make a print. Cutting the block took a long time. Butthe wood blocks could be used again and again to makecopies.

210

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


211

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Soon the Chinese began printing books. The firstknown printed book is from about A.D. 868. It is a Buddhist book called the Diamond Sutra. The ability to print was very important because it helped spreadideas.

In the A.D. 1000s, a Chinese printer named Pi Shengmade a new way to print. He used moveable type. Thismeant that each character was a separate piece. Thesepieces could be moved around to make sentences. Piecescould be used again and again. Pi Sheng printed bookpages with pieces made from clay. But because writtenChinese has so many characters, woodblock printing wasstill easier and quicker. Other Chinese Inventions The Chinese made gunpowder for usewith weapons and fireworks. One weapon was the firelance, something like the gun. It helped make the Chinesearmy a strong force.

The Chinese also built large ships with rudders forsteering and sails. About 1150, Chinese sailors also beganusing the compass to help them find their way. The com-pass let ships sail farther from land.

7. What contribution did Pi Sheng make to Chinese culture?

Art and Literature (pages 420–422)

During the Tang and the Song dynasties, China enjoyed a golden age ofart and literature.

The years of the Tang and Song dynasties were richyears—a golden age—for Chinese culture. Printinghelped spread Chinese ideas and art. Chinese rulers took an active part in supporting art and literature. Theyinvited artists and poets to live and work in the capitalcity of Changan.


What Was Tang Poetry Like? The Tang dynasty was the great ageof poetry in China. Tang poets wrote about the beauty ofnature, the changing seasons, and the joy of a good friend.Other poems were sad. Poets wrote about the shortness oflife and friends who have to part.

Li Bo was one of the most popular Tan poets. He oftenwrote about nature. This poem by Li Bo is probably thebest-known poem in China. For hundreds of years, Chi-nese schoolchildren have had to learn it by memory.

“Moonlight in front of my bed—I took it for frost on the ground!I lift my eyes to watch the

mountain moon,lower them and dream of home.”

—Li Bo“Still Night Thoughts”

Another favorite Tang poet was Duo Fu. He lived apoor and hard life working for the government. Civil warin China made life hard and food hard to find. Duo Fualmost died of starvation. All this helped him to see thesuffering of common people. Because of this, Duo Fu’spoems were serious. He often wrote about the lack of jus-tice in society and the problems of the poor. Duo Fu wrotethis poem after a rebellion destroyed the capital city.

“Rivers and mountains survivebroken countries.

Spring returns. The city grows lush again.

Blossoms scatter tears thinking ofus, and this

Separation in a bird’s cry startles the heart.

Beacon-fires have burnedthrough three months.

212

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


213

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

By now, letters are worth ten thousand in gold.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .”—Duo Fu

“Spring Landscape”

Painting in Song China Many Chinese painters painted largescenes from nature or landscapes during the Songdynasty. But these artists didn’t try to make their pictureslook just like the scenes they were painting. Instead, theytried to paint the “idea” of the mountains, lakes, andother parts of their landscapes. They also used emptyspaces in their paintings on purpose. They did thisbecause Daoists believed that a person cannot know thewhole truth about something.

Daoist beliefs can also be seen in the way people werepainted. People were small, fishing in small boats orwalking up a hillside trail. These people were living in,but not controlling, nature. They were a part of the har-mony of nature.

Chinese painters often wrote poetry on their works.They used a brush and ink to write beautiful characterscalled calligraphy.Chinese Porcelain During the Tang period, Chinese craftsmenmade very fine porcelain. Porcelain came to the West fromChina. For this reason, people today sometimes callporcelain by the name “china.”

Porcelain can be made into plates, cups, figurines, andvases. In A.D. 851, an Arab traveler wrote about the qual-ity of Tang porcelain: “There is in China a very fine clayfrom which are made vases…Water in these vases is visi-ble through them, and yet they are made of clay.”

Knowledge of the process for making porcelain spreadto other parts of the world. It reached Europe in the 1700s.

8. Why were the years of the Tang and Song dynasties agolden age for Chinese culture?


Drawing From ExperienceWhat people or groups do you know who use terror or

fear to get what they want? How do their actions affectyou? What can you do in response?

The last section described a golden age of culture during the Tang and Song dynasties. In this section, youwill learn about how the Mongols took over China andbuilt an empire that reached from the Pacific Ocean toEastern Europe.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes. List theempires and kingdoms conquered by the Mongols inorder.

214

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termstribe: a loosely organized group of family members or people of the same

culture (page 424)

steppe: wide rolling grassy land that stretches from the Black Sea to northernChina (page 424)

terror: actions that cause fear or scare people into giving up (page 426)


The Mongols in China For use with pages 423–429

China 1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

215

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Mongols (pages 424–426)

Genghis Khan and his sons built the Mongol Empire, which stretchedfrom the Pacific Ocean to Eastern Europe.

The Mongols lived in an area north of China calledMongolia. They lived in tribes, or groups of looselyrelated families. The Mongols raised cattle, sheep, goats,and horses. They moved with the animals as they fed onMongolia’s great steppes. Steppes are wide rolling grassylands that stretch from the Black Sea to northern China.

The Mongols were known for two things. One, theycould ride horses very well. Most Mongols learned to rideat the age of four or five. And, two, they could fight verywell. They could shoot arrows at enemies from far awaywhile riding toward them. Then they attacked with spearsand swords.Who Was Genghis Khan? The man who brought the Mongolstogether was born in the 1160s. He was named Temujin,which means “blacksmith.” A blacksmith is someone whomakes and fits horse shoes. Temujin was a leader from avery early age. As a young man, he began to bring theMongol tribes together.

Mongol leaders met in 1206 in a place somewhere inthe Gobi. The Gobi is a big desert that covers parts ofMongolia and China. At that meeting, they elected Temu-jin to be Genghis Khan or “strong ruler.” Genghis Khancollected the Mongol laws to make one set of rules. Healso used a group of tribal chiefs to help him plan militaryactions. From this point until the end of his life, GenghisKhan fought to take over lands beyond Mongolia.

Genghis Khan brought together an army of more than100,000 men. He put his soldiers into well-trained groups.Leaders for these groups were chosen for their skills, notfor their family ties. With these changes, Mongols werethe most skilled fighting force in the world.


Genghis Khan started to build his empire by takingover land on the steppes. Each time he won, he gainedwealth and new soldiers to fill the army. Soon the Mon-gols were strong enough to attack larger groups of peo-ple. In 1211, Mongol attacked China. In three years, theytook all of northern China. Then they moved west toattack cities and kingdoms that controlled parts of the SilkRoad.

Genghis Khan and his Mongol fighters were verymean to the people they attacked. They used terror or fearto scare people into giving up. Mongol fighters attacked,robbed, and burned cities. As the Mongols became knownfor their terror, many people gave in to them withoutfighting. The Mongol Empire Genghis Khan died in 1227. His four sonssplit up the large empire. The sons continued to make theempire bigger. The Mongols moved into parts of easternand central Europe. They also took over much of south-west Asia. In 1258, the Mongols took over the well-knowncity of Baghdad. Then their armies moved into Syria,Palestine, and Egypt. Finally, the Muslim leaders in Egyptstopped them in 1260.

The Mongols brought all of these lands together undertheir rule. Their empire reached from the Pacific Ocean inthe east to Eastern Europe in the west. And it reachedfrom Siberia in the north to the Himalaya in the south. Itwas the largest land empire ever.

While the Mongols did do a lot of damage, they alsobrought peace to their lands. Peace was good for trade,and this helped the Mongols. The Mongols now had con-trol of many of Asia’s trade routes. They gained greatwealth by taxing the products they traded.

The Mongols felt great respect for the cultures theynow ruled. Sometimes they took on some of the beliefsand customs of the people. For example, the Mongols insouthwest Asia accepted Islam and took on Arab, Persian,and Turkish ways.

216

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


217

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Mongols also learned many things from the Chi-nese. They learned about gunpowder and the fire lance asthey fought the Chinese. The Mongols began to use bothof these weapons in their army. With these new weapons,their enemies were even more afraid of the Mongols.

7. What did the Mongols learn from the Chinese?

Mongol Rule in China (pages 428–429)

The Mongols conquered China and created a new dynasty that tried toconquer Japan and began trading with the rest of Asia.

In 1260, the Mongols named Genghis Khan’s grand-son, Kublai, as the new khan or ruler. Kublai Khan tookover more and more of China. In 1264 Kublai moved hiscapital from Karakorum in Mongolia to Khanbaliq innorthern China. Today the city of Beijing stands in thesame place.What Did the Mongols Do in China? In 1271 Kublai Khan madehimself China’s new emperor. The Mongols had takenover southern China and ended the Song dynasty in lessthan 10 years. Kublai Khan started the Yuan dynasty. Yuanmeans “beginning.” This name showed that the Mongolswanted to rule China for a long time. But the Yuandynasty lasted for only about 100 years. Kublai was theleader for 30 of those years.

Kublai Khan gave Mongol leaders the top jobs inChina’s government. But he knew he needed Chineseofficials to run the government. So he let many of the Chinese keep their government jobs.

The Mongols and Chinese were different in manyways. The Mongols had their own language, laws, andcustoms. The Mongols were rulers over Chinese society.But their different ways kept them separate. They did notmix with the Chinese people.


Like many Chinese, the Mongols were Buddhists. Theydid accept other religions though. For example, KublaiKhan invited Christians, Muslims, and Hindus from out-side China to practice their faiths and share them withothers.

China reached its greatest wealth and power underMongol rule. Its beauty drew people from other countriesto China. They came on the Silk Road. Khanbaliq, the cap-ital, was known for its wide streets, beautiful palaces, andnice homes.

One of the most famous people from Europe to cometo China was Marco Polo. He came from the city of Venicein Italy. Kublai Khan liked Marco Polo’s stories about histravels. For about 16 years, Kublai sent Polo on manytrips to learn things. When Polo finally went back toEurope, he wrote a book about his travels. His stories ofChina filled Europeans with wonder.Trade and Conquest The Mongols ruled a large empire, cover-ing land between China and eastern Europe. Because ofthis, China grew wealthy from trade. They traded tea,silk, and porcelain for silver, spices, carpets, and cottonfrom Europe and Asia. Europeans and Muslims broughtChinese steel, gunpowder, and the compass back to theirhomes.

The Mongols made China’s empire larger. They tookover Vietnam and northern Korea. The rulers of Koreawere called the Koryo. They stayed in power because theyaccepted Mongol control. The Mongols made thousandsof Koreans build warships. The Mongols used these shipsto take over Japan. You will read about this in a laterchapter.

8. Who was Marco Polo?

218

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


219

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The Ming Dynasty For use with pages 430–436

Drawing From ExperienceThink about all the different things the government

does for you. How would your life be different if the gov-ernment didn’t do these things? What changes or reformswould you make in the government if you could?

The last section described the affects of the Mongols onChina. In this section, you will learn about the rise of theMing dynasty. Ming rulers brought peace and wealthback to China.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes. List thechanges and reforms made during the Ming dynasty.

Key Termstreason: an act against the government; a disloyal act (page 431)

census: a count of the number of people (page 432)

novel: books with long, made up stories (page 432)

barbarian: a person who is not civilized (page 435)

1.

MingDynastyReforms

5. 2.

3.4.

The Rise of the Ming (pages 431–432)

Ming rulers strengthened China’s government and brought back peaceand prosperity.

Kublai Khan died in 1294. Weak rulers followed him,and the Mongol empire lost power. During the 1300s, theYuan dynasty had many problems. Groups in north Mon-golia broke away. And many Chinese wanted to havetheir own dynasty free of Mongol control.How Did the Ming Dynasty Begin? The Chinese fought againstMongol control and won. In 1368, a leader named ZhuYuanzhang became emperor. Zhu brought the countryback together again and set up his capital at Nanjing insouthern China. He started the Ming, or “Brilliant,”dynasty.

As emperor, Zhu took the name Hong Wu. Hong Wumeans “Military Emperor.” He brought back order. But hewas also a cruel, or mean, leader. Hong Wu did not trustanyone. He killed people he suspected of treason, or peo-ple he thought were not loyal to him. Hong Wu ruledChina for 30 years. His son became emperor when hedied in 1398. He took the name Yong Le.

Yong Le worked hard to show his power as emperor.In 1421 he moved the capital north to Beijing. In Beijing,he built a large area of palaces and government buildings.This area was called the Imperial City. The middle of theImperial City was known as the Forbidden City. This iswhere China’s emperors lived.

The Forbidden City had beautiful gardens and manypalaces with thousands of rooms. The emperor and hiscourt lived there for more than 500 years. You can visit theForbidden City today if you go to China. How Did the Ming Reform China? Ming emperors made all thedecisions. But they needed government workers to carryout their orders. So they brought back the tests for gov-

220

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


221

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

ernment jobs. And they made the tests even harder. Fromtime to time, Ming leaders took a census, or counted thenumber of people. This helped them to collect the rightamount of taxes.

China’s economy began to grow under the strongMing government. The early Ming emperors providedpeace and safety. Many canals and farms had beendestroyed by the Mongols. Hong Wu had these rebuiltand made people move to the new farms. He also hadnew forests planted and built new roads.

Farming grew. Farmers worked on the new farms andgrew more crops. Ming rulers fixed the Grand Canal andmade it bigger. Rice and other goods could again beshipped from southern to northern China. They broughtin new types of rice from southeast Asia. This new ricegrew faster. And this helped feed the growing number ofpeople living in cities. The Ming also helped the silkindustry. They asked farmers to grow cotton and makecloth. For the first time, most Chinese wore clothes madeof cotton. Chinese Culture Chinese culture also went further under theMing. Business and crafts people became more wealthy.They wanted to learn more and to be entertained. Duringthe Ming period, Chinese writers wrote many novels, orlong, made-up stories. The Chinese also liked seeing dra-mas on stage. Dramas used words with songs, dances,and costumes.

6. What is the Forbidden City?


China Explores the World (pages 433–436)

During the Ming dynasty, China sent a fleet to explore Asia and EastAfrica.

Early Ming emperors had questions about the worldoutside of China. They also wanted to increase China’spower in other places. So Ming emperors built a largegroup of ships. The new ships sailed along China’s coast.They could also sail in the open sea.Who Was Zheng He? From 1405 to 1431, Emperor Yong Le sentthe ships on seven trips. He wanted to trade with otherkingdoms. He also wanted them to see China’s powerand make weaker kingdoms pay tribute or money toChina.

Zheng He led these trips. He was a Chinese Muslimwho was part of the emperor’s court. His trips had a bigeffect. His first group of ships had 62 large ships, 250smaller ships, and almost 28,000 men. The largest shipwas over 440 feet long. It was more than five times as longas the Santa Maria that Christopher Columbus sailedalmost 90 years later!Where Did Zheng He Travel? Zheng He took his first ships tosoutheast Asia. On later trips, he went as far as India. Hesailed up the Persian Gulf to Arabia, and even landed inEast Africa. In these areas, Zheng He traded Chinese silk,paper, and porcelain. He brought back silver, spices,wood, and other goods. Zheng He brought giraffes andother animals for the emperor’s zoo from Africa.

After Zheng He’s trips, Chinese merchants settled insoutheast Asia and India. They traded goods there andspread Chinese culture. China and Chinese merchantsgrew rich from the trade.

Many good things came from these trips. But people inthe Chinese government thought the trips cost too much.They also said that trips were bad for China’s way of life.The trips brought in new ideas from the outside worldand helped merchants become rich.

222

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


223

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Confucius had taught that people should be loyal totheir society. This loyalty was more important than peo-ple’s own desires. The officials thought that China’s mer-chants were not obeying this teaching. They wereworking to gain money for themselves.

After Zheng He’s death, the Confucian officials got theemperor to stop the trips. The boats were taken apart. Nomore ships were built. As a result, China’s trade withother countries went down. Within 50 years, the knowl-edge for building the ships was lost. The Europeans Arrive in China Chinese officials were not able tocut China off from the outside world. In 1514, ships fromthe European country of Portugal came to China. It wasthe first time that Europeans had ever sailed to China. Itwas also the first direct contact between China andEurope since the travels of Marco Polo.

The Portuguese wanted China to trade with them.They also wanted the Chinese to become Christians. TheMing government did not think much of the Portuguese.China had great power at this time. They didn’t feel thatoutsiders were a threat. The Chinese thought the Euro-peans were barbarians, or uncivilized people.

At first, the Chinese said they would not trade with thePortuguese. But by 1600, they had let Portugal set up atrading post at the port of Macao. European ships carriedgoods between Macao in south China and Japan. Still,trade between China and Europe was limited.

Even with little contact, ideas from Europe came toChina. Christian missionaries came to China on Europeanships. Many of these missionaries were Jesuits, a specialgroup of Roman Catholic priests. They knew a lot, andtheir knowledge of science impressed the Chinese. To get the Chinese to accept European ideas, Jesuits gavethem clocks, eyeglasses, and tools for science. They tried, but the Jesuits did not get many Chinese to become Christians.


Why Did the Ming Dynasty Fall? After many years of wealth andgrowth, the Ming dynasty became weak. Ming emperorskept too much power in their own hands. With theemperor in control, officials did not work to make thingsbetter. As time passed, the Ming rulers became weak.Officials who wanted money and easy living took overthe country. They made the poor people pay high taxes.These people revolted.

Without law and order, China was open to attack. TheManchus attacked China’s northern border. They lived tothe northeast of the Great Wall in an area known today asManchuria. The Manchus beat the Chinese armies andtook Beijing. In 1644 they set up a new dynasty.7. Why did the government stop Zheng He’s trips?

224

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


225

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The Rise of African Civilizations For use with pages 444–453

Drawing From ExperienceHave you ever traded anything? Was it a video game,

a book, or clothes? What did you get in return?In this section, you will learn about the physical land-

scapes of Africa and the importance of trade to Africanempires.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes. Choose one ofthe African empires. List three facts about that empire.

Key Termsplateau: an area of high flat land (page 446)

griot: a storyteller (page 449)

dhow: a sailboat (page 452)

Africa’s Geography (pages 445–446)

Africa has a vast and varied landscape.

In 1906, Hans Vischer traveled the “death road.” This was a trade route that was longer than 1,500 miles(2,414 km). It ran across the world’s largest desert, theSahara. The route ran from western Africa to the

African Empire

1.

2.

3.

Mediterranean Sea. No one from Europe or America hadever traveled it before.

Only nomads knew the way. Vischer wanted to mapthe route. In order to survive, he found oases. He toldamazing stories after he came back. He told about thewinds and sand dunes.A Vast and Diverse Continent Africa is one of the world’s biggestcontinents. Only Asia is larger. The United States fits intoAfrica three times. Most of Africa is in the tropics. TheEquator goes through the middle of Africa, which is cov-ered by hot, wet rain forests. They cover only 10 percentof Africa’s land.

Africa also has thousands of miles of dry grasslands.These are called savannas. Most savannas have high tem-peratures and uneven rains. These wide-open grasslandsare good for raising herds of animals. People of the savan-nas were hunters and herders.

The Sahara is north of the savannas. Another desert,the Kalahari, is southwest. These deserts blocked travelfor many years. People followed the coastline to get pastthem. In northern Africa, land along the MediterraneanSea has a mild climate. This is a good area for growingcrops.The African Plateau Plateaus are areas of high flat land. Mostof Africa, except the coast, is made up of plateaus. Riversfall off the plateaus to make waterfalls. These make travelto the interior of Africa difficult. The Nile River in Egyptis Africa’s longest river. The Congo River is 2,700 miles. Itflows near the Equator in central Africa.

Some of the earliest human fossils have been found inEast Africa’s Great Rift Valley. Millions of years agomovements of the earth cracked the continent. Then, parts of the plateau fell to form the Great Rift Valley. Thisvalley goes through eastern Africa from the Red Sea to thepresent-day country of Mozambique.

4. Name two African deserts. Which one is larger?

226

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


227

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

West African Empires (pages 447–449)

West African empires grew rich from trade.

To outsiders, stories of golden lands south of theSahara seemed hard to believe. One story claimed thatthere was a country “where gold grows like plants in thesame way as carrots do, and is plucked at sunset.”

The Berbers of North Africa told these tales. They saidthey had seen the gold with their own eyes. Berbers werethe first known people to settle in North Africa. About400 B.C., they crossed the Sahara to trade with people inwestern Africa.

For hundreds of years, Berber traders carried goods onhorses and donkeys. These animals often died in the hotdesert. When the Romans conquered North Africa, theyhad camels from central Asia. Camels were suited to thedesert environment. They were called “ships of thedesert.” Trade was much easier now. The wide feet ofcamels did not sink in the sand. Their humps stored fatfor food. They could also travel many days without water.

Hundreds to thousands of traders used camels to formcaravans or trading groups that crossed the desert. Theytraded salt and cloth from North Africa and the Sahara.They got gold and ivory from western Africa. Citiesbegan to form in western Africa due to trade. Rulers ofthese cities built empires. During the Middle Ages, theseAfrican empires were larger and wealthier than mostEuropean kingdoms. The first empire was Ghana.Rise of Ghana Ghana became powerful in the A.D. 400s.Because trade routes came together there, Ghana wascalled a “crossroads of trade.” Trade routes went acrossthe Sahara into North Africa. They then went down theNiger River to kingdoms in the rain forest. Some went toAfrica’s northeastern coast.


Traders had to travel through Ghana. And to passthrough, they had to pay a tax. These taxes made Ghanarich. Why did traders pay the taxes? First, Ghana knewhow to make iron weapons. It used them to take over itsneighbors. That gave Ghana control over gold mines. Sec-ond, Ghana built a big army. “When the king of Ghanacalls up his army,” one trader said, “he can put 200,000men in the field.”

Third, people traded items at almost any price. Saltand gold had extra value. West Africans needed salt toflavor and preserve food. And their bodies needed salt tostay healthy. They paid taxes for salt from Berber mines inthe Sahara. The Berbers paid taxes to get gold. Then theywould sell the gold in Europe. This brought them a lot ofmoney.Rise of Mali Ghana eventually weakened. New gold mineswere found outside of Ghana. Tax collections began todecrease. Also, too much farming ruined the soil. Itbecame harder to grow crops. Constant fighting also hurtGhana. Ghana’s rulers practiced Islam, but they foughtwith the North African Muslims who wanted to buildseparate empires.

The kingdom of Mali took over after Ghana fell in the1200s. West African griots, or storytellers tell of SundiataKeita, a great warrior-king or the “Lion Prince.” Sundiataruled Mali from 1230 to 1255. He captured the capital ofGhana in 1240. He won control of lands from the Atlanticcoast to Timbuktu, a city located far inland in West Africa.He controlled the gold-mining areas. This helped himrebuild the gold and salt trade.Rise of Songhai Mali began to weaken after the death of itslast strong king, Mansa Musa, in 1332. The kings who fol-lowed could not stop Berber warriors. Berbers even ruledTimbuktu for a while.

228

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


229

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

In 1468, Sunni Ali, the leader of Songhai, invaded Tim-buktu and forced the Berbers out. The land of Songhaiwas next to the Niger River. Sunni Ali used force to con-trol the river trade. His armies took over the Berber saltmines. By the time of his death in 1492, Sunni Ali hadbuilt the largest empire in West Africa.

The empire lasted almost 100 more years. But in 1591,a small army from Morocco crossed the Sahara. These sol-diers had cannons, guns, and gunpowder. They easilyfought the Songhai soldiers who had swords, spears, andbows and arrows. Within months, Songhai’s empire wasover.

5. What were camels nicknamed? Name at least two fea-tures that made them good desert travelers.

Kingdoms of the Rain Forest (pages 450–451)

Africa’s rain forests blocked invaders and provided resources.

Ghana, Mali, and Songhai ruled the savannas. How-ever, the rain forests stopped them from expanding to thesouthern coast. The rain forest people built their ownkingdom empires. Benin was in the Niger delta. Kongowas in the Congo River basin.

Griots in the Niger delta tell stories about KingEwuare. He started the Benin empire around 1440. Onestory says,

“He fought against and captured201 towns and villages. . . .He took their . . . rulers captiveand caused the people to paytribute to him.”

—J.V. Egharevba,A Short History of Benin


Farmers in the rain forest kingdoms had good soil anda warm, wet climate. In open areas of the forest they oftenproduced a surplus of foods such as bananas, yams, orrice.

Extra food helped rulers and craftspeople. Kongoweavers made fabrics from bark and plant fibers. Itlooked like velvet to Europeans. In Benin, artists sculptedand carved metal, wood, and ivory.

Rain forest kingdoms traded with nearby savannas.They traded extra food and crafts for copper, salt, andleather goods. When the Europeans came, Benin andKongo traders met ships along the coast. They tradedpeople captured in war.

6. Why was farming so good in rain forest kingdoms?

East Africa (pages 451–453)

East African kingdoms and states became centers for trade and newideas.

In 1005 B.C., Queen Makeda ruled a great empire inEast Africa called Saba or Sheba. The heart of her territorylater became known as Ethiopia. The Glory of Kings wasEthiopia’s oldest written history. It tells the story ofMakeda’s meeting with King Solomon. He was the rulerof the Israelites. Makeda brought Israel’s religion back toher empire. Christianity and Islam later came to EasternAfrica as well.The Rise of Axum Like other empires, Saba weakened. But itscore territory—Ethiopia—did not. Ethiopia’s power wasbased in the city state called Axum. Axum was strongbecause it was on the Red Sea. Goods from Africa flowedinto Axum. It became a trading center for the ancientMediterranean and East Asian worlds.

230

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


231

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Axum fought its neighbor, Kush. They both wantedcontrol of trade routes to inland Africa. Around A.D. 300,King Ezana of Axum fought Kush and won. A few yearslater, Ezana brought Christianity to Africa. In A.D. 334, itbecame the official religion of Axum. Within a few hun-dred years, Islam brought many changes to Axum andother trading states on the eastern coast.Coastal City-States Arab traders had been coming to EastAfrica long before Islam rose in the early A.D. 600s. Theyinvented a dhow, or a sailboat. The triangular sail moreeasily caught the wind than earlier sails. This let Arabtraders sail to Africa.

In the A.D. 700s, many Arab Muslim traders lived inEast African city-states. Africans and Arab Muslimsshared goods and ideas. By the 1300s, the East Africancoast had many trading ports. They included Mogadishu,Kilwa, Mombasa, and Zanzibar. These ports were impor-tant to trading in the Indian Ocean. They traded withplaces as far away as China. Great Zimbabwe In southeastern Africa, the Shona peoplestarted Zimbabwe around A.D. 700. It was a great tradingcenter. It supplied gold, copper, and ivory to the EastAfrican coast. From there, African goods were shipped toArabia, Persia, India, and China.

Zimbabwe became a large empire during the 1400s.Two kings—Mutota and his son Matope—made Zim-babwe great. It stretched south of the Zambezi River tothe Indian Ocean. Great Zimbabwe was the capital. Morethan 300 big stone buildings still stand there. Theseremind people of Zimbabwe’s past greatness.

7. What goods did Zimbabwe supply to the East Africancoast?


Drawing From ExperienceDoes your school have a student government? Who is

the main person or group of people in charge? Do youlike the way they represent you and other students? Howwould you change it?

In the last section, you learned about the physical landof Africa and the importance of trade to African empires.In this section, you will learn how different Africanempires ruled and about the religions they supported.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes. Compare andcontrast two of Africa’s governments.

232

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsclan: a group of people from the same family (page 461)

sultan: a leader (page 467)

Swahili: an African language and culture (page 467)


Africa’s Government and Religion For use with pages 460–467

1. 3. 5.

2. 4. 6.

233

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Government and Society (pages 461–462)

The growth of West African empires led to the growth of centralizedgovernments ruled by kings.

Loud drums called a meeting with the king. Anybodywith a problem could speak. The king sat in an open silktent in the royal courtyard. He wore a cap of gold and ajewel-covered robe. Royal officials surrounded him.Guard dogs with gold and silver collars stood watch. Peo-ple poured dust over their heads or fell to the groundbefore talking to the king. They would bow, speak, andwait for the king’s answer.Ruler and Subjects This is how government worked in WestAfrica centuries ago. Kings dealt with problems, managedtrade, and protected the empire. Everyone had to obeythem.

Africans developed new ways to govern themselves.Ghana had a king or queen who had all the power. Thiswas good for both rulers and people. Merchants gotfavors from the kings. Kings got taxes from merchants.Local rulers kept some power and were loyal to the kings.Kingdoms grew richer and bigger. This helped keep thepeace. Ghana’s Government A group of advisers helped Ghana kingsmake decisions. Lesser kings would rule small areascalled provinces. District chiefs were in charge of smallerdistricts. Each district included a chief’s clan. A clan is agroup of people from the same family.

Kings held their power tightly. They made local rulerssend their sons to the royal court. They travelled aroundtheir lands to find out about problems. They also con-trolled trade.

The king said who could trade. And only the kingcould own gold nuggets. People could trade only in golddust. “If kings did otherwise,” said one Arab traveler,


“gold would become so abundant as practically to lose toits value.”

“It is their custom,” wrote one Arab, “that the kingdomis inherited only by the son of the king’s sister.” This didnot make sense to Arabs. In Arab states, things passed toa man’s sons. In Ghana, the throne went to the king’s sis-ter’s son (or nephew). Mali’s Government Mali formed their government like Ghana.But Mali had more land, more people, and more trade. Soofficials were in charge of more things. They had to watchover fishing on the Niger and the forests. They also had towatch over farming and take care of money.

The Mali Empire was divided into provinces, likeGhana. But in Mali, King Sundiata put generals in chargeof these areas. The generals protected the people. Andthey often had grown up in the provinces they ruled. Sothe people accepted the generals.

Mali’s other great king was Mansa Musa. He gave thepeople gold, land, and horses to keep them loyal. He gavemilitary heroes the “National Honor of the Trousers(pants).” As one Arab said:

“Whenever a hero adds to thelists of his exploits, the king giveshim a pair of wide trousers. . . .[T]he greater the number of the knight’s [soldier’s] exploits, thebigger the size of his trousers.”

—al-Dukhari, as quoted in Tropics in West African History

Only the king and royal family could wear sewnclothes. So this was a big honor. Most people worewrapped clothes.

234

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


235

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Songhai’s Government Songhai used many of Ghana and Mali’sideas. Sunni Ali divided the empire into provinces. But henever finished setting up his empire. He was always mov-ing and fighting in battles.

No one knows how Sunni Ali died in 1402. Some sayhe drowned while crossing a stream. Others say enemieskilled him. The next year, a Songhai general namedMuhammad Ture took control. He was a loyal Muslim.Sunni Ali was not. Muhammad’s religious ideas affectedSonghai.

7. What award did Mansa Musa give his military heroes?Why was this a big deal?

Traditional African Religions (page 463)

Traditional African religions shared certain beliefs and provided a guidefor living together.

Many Europeans believed Africans did not have a religion. Olaudah Equiano was a member of the Igbo. Hedid not agree. He wrote, the Igbo “believe that there isone Creator of all things, and that he . . . governs events,especially our deaths and captivity.”

Most African groups believed in one god like Chris-tians and Muslims. But, many wanted to go on with theirown religious practices.

These practices were different from place to place. TheNanti in East Africa thought people could talk directlywith their god. The Igbo thought people had to talk totheir god through less powerful gods and goddesses.

Africans had different practices. But these practiceswere all done for the same reasons. They gave peoplerules for living. And they helped people stay in touchwith their history.


When relatives died, Africans believed their spiritsstayed with the community. These spirits could talk to thehighest god or help with problems. Many Africans hon-ored their dead family because of this.

8. What did the Nanti people believe about their god?What did the Igbo people believe?

Islam in Africa (pages 464–467)

Islam played an important role in medieval Africa, but long-held Africanbeliefs and customs still remained strong.

Ibn Battuta was an Arab lawyer from Morocco. In 1325he began to travel throughout the Muslim world. Sincethe A.D. 600s, Islam had spread from the Arabian Penin-sula to Africa and other places.

Ibn Battuta traveled for almost 30 years. His journeyscovered more than 73,000 miles. When he arrived in WestAfrica in 1352, Islam had been there for hundreds ofyears. But not all people there had accepted Islam. Manypeople followed their African religions. Islam was popu-lar in cities. It helped African city dwellers in their tradewith Muslim Arabs.

Some Muslims were not happy with Sundiata Keitaand Sunni Ali. They thought these great leaders shoulddo more to win people over to Islam. But these leaderswere more worried about stopping rebellions.

Ibn Battuta was surprised that women did not covertheir faces with a veil. He believed that this was the Mus-lim way. West Africans did study the Quran, the Muslimholy book. “They zealously [eagerly] learn the Quran byheart,” Battuta wrote.

236

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


237

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Mali and Mansa Musa Ibn Battuta admired the work of MansaMusa. He allowed people to practice different religions.But he also helped make Islam stronger. He built moremosques, or Muslim places of worship. He also builtlibraries and brought books from all over the Muslimworld.

In 1324, Mansa Musa went on a long trip to the holycity of Makkah, or Mecca. You read earlier about this tripthat Muslims are supposed to take to their holy city atleast once in every person’s life. He made sure that every-one knew that the leader of a great empire was taking thistrip.

Mansa Musa’s caravan had thousands of people. Hehad enslaved servants and 100 pack camels. Each camelcarried gold. While in Makkah, Mansa Musa convincedsome of Islam’s finest builders, teachers, and writers to gohome with him to Mali. They helped teach Islam in WestAfrica.Songhai and Askia Muhammad Sunni Ali said he was a Muslim sopeople would support him, but he practiced the religionof the Songhai people. After he died, his son would notdo what his father had done.

At this time, Muhammad Ture made himself king. Hedrove out Sunni Ali’s family from Songhai. He took thename Askia. This is a rank in the Songhai army.

Askia Muhammad built the largest empire in medievalWest Africa. He organized the provinces into five smallerkingdoms. A member of his own family was in charge ofeach one. He kept local courts but told them to obey Mus-lim laws.

Askia made Timbuktu an important place of learningand culture. One hundred and fifty schools were set up toteach the Quran. One Muslim scholar called him “a bril-liant light shining after a long darkness.” In 1528, Askia’sown sons fought against him.


The empire survived the family fights. But it did notsurvive the Moroccans. They invaded in 1591 and ruinedthe empire.Islam in East Africa In 1331, Ibn Battuta visited Mogadishu.This was a trading port on the East African coast. Its sultan, or leader, said in perfect Arabic, “You have honored our country by coming.” A moment later, hespoke in Swahili.

The word Swahili means “people of the coast.” By 1331,it meant both the culture of East Africa’s coast and thelanguage spoken there.

Swahili is still a part of East Africa’s culture today. Itblends the cultures of people from inland Africa withthose of Muslim settlers from Arab and Persian lands.

In the early 1500s, Europeans came from Portugal.They tried to end the Swahili culture. The Swahili peoplestopped inland trade. In the end, the Swahili culturelasted longer than European rule.Islam’s Impact on Africa Islam reached North and East Africa.Africans who accepted Islam followed Islamic laws andideas about right and wrong. Sometimes people wholiked traditional African ways opposed these changes.

Islam also helped learning. Muslim schools drew stu-dents from many parts of Africa. They taught the Arabiclanguage. Islam also influenced African art and buildings.Muslims built mosques and palaces in Timbuktu andother cities.

9. In what empire did the king’s own sons fight againsthim? What was the king’s name?

238

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


239

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


African Society and Culture For use with pages 468–476

Drawing From ExperienceIs there a story in your family that your parents or

grandparents like to tell? Do you think that you will tell itto your children someday?

In the last section, you learned how different Africanempires ruled and about their beliefs. In this section, youwill learn about daily life and culture in medieval Africa.You will also learn how slavery changed their way of life.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on the musicthat came from Africa.

Key Termsextended family: a family made up of many generations (page 469)

matrilineal: tracing a family through the mother rather than the father (page 469)

oral history: stories told to pass on history from generation to generation(page 470)

1.

AfricanMusic

4.

6.

5.

2.

2.

Life in Medieval Africa (pages 469–470)

The Bantu migrations helped shape many cultures in Africa south of theSahara.

Around 3000 B.C., fishing groups along the Benue Rivermoved south. They called themselves Bantu, meaning“the people.”

The Bantu traveled slowly. Some went down theCongo River through the rain forests. This river twists for2,700 miles. Some lived in the grasslands of central Africa.Then, they moved to south of the Sahara. By A.D. 400,Bantu peoples lived in most of Africa.

People do not know why the Bantu left their home-land. Maybe the land was too crowded. Maybe the soilwas not good for farming. Or maybe they just picked upand moved.

The Bantu people took their culture with them. Theyintroduced skills such as pottery making, mining, andiron working. They also spread their language. Today,more than 120 million Africans speak hundreds of Bantulanguages, including Swahili.

Today, people all over Africa share common ideas andtraditions. This is because the Bantu people moved allover Africa. One common idea is that most people believein one great creator and a spirit world where the deadlive.Importance of Family African society was based on the family.People lived in extended families. These families aremade up of many generations. They could have ten tohundreds of people.

Many villages were matrilineal. They traced their fam-ily through the mother instead of the father. But a womanjoined her husband’s family when she got married. Thehusband’s family gave gifts to her family. Some of thegifts were cloth, metal tools, cattle, or goats.

240

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


241

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Children were very important. They connected thepast and the future. Some people believed a dead familymember might be reborn in a child. A child made surethat the family would live on. In praising the family, oneYoruba poet wrote:

“When a group of boys, girls, men, or wives,Go together in a happy company,Dignity attends them in every step.”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

—Yoruba, “Dignity”Education and Community Family and other villagers taught thechildren. Children learned the history of their people.They also learned the skills they would need when theygrew up.

In West Africa, griots (storytellers) helped teach. Theytold the oral history—stories told to pass on history fromgeneration to generation. Many stories had lessons aboutliving. Lessons were also taught through short sayings, or proverbs. One Bantu proverb stated: “A good deed will make a good neighbor.” Older people also kept oralhistories alive.Role of Women Women were mostly wives and mothers. Menhad more rights. They controlled much of what womendid. But, there were some exceptions. Women were sol-diers in some African kingdoms.

Women also were rulers. In the A.D. 600s, Queen Dahiaal-Kahina led the fight against Muslim attackers. Thishappened where Mauritania is today. Queen Nzingaruled what is now Angola and Congo. She spent almost40 years fighting Portuguese slave traders.

7. Why were children so important?


Slavery (pages 472–473)

The African slave trade changed greatly when Muslims and Europeansbegan taking captives from the continent.

In 1441, a sea captain sailed down Africa’s westerncoast. His goal was to bring the first enslaved Africansback to Portugal. He took 12 African men, women, andboys. Millions more would follow.Slavery Within Africa Europeans did not invent slavery. Itoccurred all over the world. In Africa, Bantu chiefs gotenslaved people from nearby villages. They would usethem as workers, or they would make them pay to befree.

Criminals and enemies of war were also taken asslaves. Then they were traded. Enslaved people had hopethey could escape and return to their homes because theywere still in Africa. They could also become free throughhard work or by marrying a free person.

Slavery grew as the trade with Muslim merchantsgrew. The Quran did not allow Muslims to be madeslaves, but Muslims could enslave non-Muslims. Theybegan to trade horses, cotton, and other goods for non-Muslim African slaves.

When Europeans came, they began buying enslavedpeople. Africans with European guns would raid villagesto take people to sell.

The European Slave Trade In 1444, a Portuguese ship dockedin Portugal. The ship held 235 African slaves. Some criedfor help. A Portuguese official described the scene:

“But to increase their sufferingsstill more, . . . was it needfulto part fathers from sons,husbands from wives,brothers from brothers.”

—Gomes Eannes de Zurara,as quoted in The Slave Trade

242

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


243

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

About three years later, merchants who had hoped tosell gold from Africa now sold humans. At first, mostslaves stayed in Portugal. They did hard labor. Thischanged when the Portuguese went to the Atlanticislands of Madeira, the Azores, and Cape Verde. The cli-mate was good for growing cotton, grapes, and sugar-cane. They grew these on plantations, or huge farms.

Farming sugarcane was hard work. It cost a lot to payworkers, so enslaved people were used instead. ManyAfricans had farming skills and could make tools. Theywere not paid and could be fed for little money. By 1500,Portugal was the world’s top seller of sugar.

The rest of Europe copied Portugal. In the late 1400s,Europeans went to the Americas. They set up large sugarfarms. They brought enslaved people to work them. Theyalso grew tobacco, rice, and cotton.

8. Why were enslaved Africans used to harvest sugar-cane? List two reasons.

African Culture (pages 474–476)

Enslaved Africans developed rich cultures that influenced many othercultures, including our own.

To describe the Igbo people of West Africa, OlaudahEquiano said, “We are almost a nation of dancers, musi-cians, and poets.” He could have also said artists,weavers, woodcarvers, and metalworkers. African peo-ples were good at many types of art.

Enslaved Africans took their culture with them whenthey were taken to a new place. This is known as theAfrican Diaspora—the spreading of African people andculture around the world.


Africans passed on their cultures through their chil-dren. These cultures can be seen and heard in the UnitedStates today. African Art Cave paintings were the first type of African art.They show people hunting animals, dancing, and doingchores. They usually had religious meaning or use. Forexample, woodcarvers made masks and statues to showreligious beliefs. Each carving showed some part of thespirit world.

Artwork also told stories and had practical use. Facesof important leaders, everyday people, and Europeanexplorers and traders were shown in wood, ivory, orbronze. Weavers made brightly colored kente cloth. Themaking of kente cloth still goes on today.Music and Dance Music was in almost all parts of African life.It was used to express religious feelings. It helped a per-son get through daily work, like planting a field.

In many African songs, a singer calls out a sentence.The other singers repeat it back. Drums, whistles, horns,flutes, or banjos were used to keep the beat.

Enslaved Africans believed dance let the spirits expressthemselves. They danced to celebrate events such as birthand death. Almost everybody danced. Lines of peoplewould sway and clap their hands. Dancers leaped. Drum-mers played the beat.

African slaves used music to remember their home-land. Many types of music came out of their hard timesand hopes for freedom. These types of music includeblues, gospel, ragtime, jazz, rock and roll, and, morerecently, rap.Storytelling Africans also told stories. Some enslaved peopleescaped and wrote their stories. Others told them outloud. Those who heard the stories told them to others.Stories from griots in Africa were also told. These storiesoften told how small animals outsmarted larger ones.

244

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


245

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

In more recent times, African Americans have madenew ties with their past. They take African names or givethem to their children. This also helps keep African his-tory and culture alive.

9. List at least three instruments used in African music.


Drawing from ExperienceDo you like to experiment with new things? Or would

you rather rely on someone else’s ideas that you knowwill work?

In this section, you will learn how Japan was settledand organized into clans. You will also learn how Japanused China as a model and about the Japanese religioncalled Shinto. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on the firstpeople in Japan. List at least three important things abouteach group.

246

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsclan: a group of families related by blood or marriage (page 487)

constitution: a written plan for government (page 488)

animism: belief that all natural things are alive and have their own spirits(page 490)

shrine: a holy place where people worship (page 490)


Early Japan For use with pages 484–490

The Jomon 1.

2.

3.

The Yayoi 4.

5.

6.

The Yamato 7.

8.

9.

247

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Japan’s Geography (page 485)

Japan’s mountains and islands isolated Japan and shaped its society.

Japan is made up of a chain of islands. These islandsreach north to south in the northern Pacific Ocean. Japanhas more than 3,000 islands. Many of these islands arevery small. For hundreds of years, most Japanese havelived on the four biggest islands: Hokkaido, Honshu,Shikoku, and Kyushu.

Like China, Japan has a lot of mountains. In fact, theislands of Japan are really the tops of mountains thatbegin on the ocean floor. About 188 of Japan’s mountainsare volcanoes. Japan has many earthquakes because theislands are in an area where the earth’s surface oftenmoves.

Because of the mountains, only about 20 percent of theland in Japan can be farmed. Local armies often foughtover the little bit of good farmland. The rugged landmade many Japanese, like the Greeks, turn to the sea for aliving. From very early on, they lived in villages along thecoast and fished for food. Fish and seafood are stillimportant in the Japanese diet.

The sea made it easy for people in ships to travel alongthe coast and from island to island. It helped people tobecome merchants because they could travel with goodsto trade. But the seas around Japan’s islands kept theJapanese people separate from the rest of Asia. Because ofthis, Japan became very independent. It has its own reli-gion, art, literature, and government.

10. What effect did the mountains have on life in Japan?


The First Settlers (pages 486–487)

Japan was settled by people who came from northeast Asia. They wereorganized into clans and ruled by warriors.

Japan’s first people probably came from northeast Asiabetween 30,000 and 10,000 B.C. At that time, dry landjoined Japan to Asia. These early people hunted animalsand gathered wild plants. They used fire and stone tools.And they lived in pits in the ground.Who Were the Jomon? In about 5000 B.C., these groups of peo-ple began to develop a culture. They made clay pottery.And they used cords with knots to make designs on theclay. Today, this culture is called Jomon, which means“cord marks” in Japanese. Many pieces of Jomon potteryhave been found in Japan. Over time, the Jomon peoplecame to live in fishing villages on the coast. Fishingbecame their way of life.Why Are the Yayoi Important? The Jomon culture lasted untilabout 300 B.C. Then a new group of people called Yayoiappeared in Japan. The name Yayoi comes from the placewhere scientists first dug up things made by the Yayoipeople.

The Japanese people came from the Yayoi, whobrought farming to Japan. The Yayoi also used manyskills that they may have learned from the Chinese andKoreans. They made pottery on a potter’s wheel. Andthey grew rice in paddies. A paddy is a rice field that isflooded when rice is planted and drained for the harvest.

The Yayoi were skilled in making things with metal.They made axes, knives, and hoes from iron. They alsomade swords, spears, and bells from bronze. Bells wereused in religious acts. This is still common in Japan today.

By A.D. 300, the Yayoi had formed clans. A clan is agroup of families related by blood or marriage. Yayoiclans were led by a small group of warriors. The rest of

248

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


249

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

the people were under the warriors—farmers, artisans,and servants. The warrior chiefs kept the people safe. Inreturn, the people gave the chiefs part of the rice theygrew each year.

The Yayoi buried their chiefs in large mounds knownas kofun. These dirt graves were carefully made. A ditchcircled each one. The graves were filled with personalthings, such as pottery, tools, weapons, and armor. Manyof the graves were as big as Egypt’s pyramids. Thebiggest grave still stands today. It is longer than five foot-ball fields and at least eight stories high.Who Are the Yamato? Like many people from long ago, theJapanese have myths or stories that tell how things began.The most important myth told about the making of Japan.It says that hundreds of years ago, two gods dipped aspear into the sea. When they pulled it out, drops of saltywater fell on the water and made the islands. The twogods then made the sun goddess, Amaterasu, to rule overEarth. They also made the storm god, Susanowo, as herfriend.

Susanowo was sent to Earth. His children were thefirst people of Japan. But Amaterasu sent her grandsonNinigi to rule over them. To make sure that all peoplewould accept his power, she gave Ninigi her mirror, herjewel, and a great sword. These things became the holysymbols of leaders in early Japan.

People who study history do not know if this mythcomes from real events. But they do know that during theA.D. 500s, a clan called the Yamato ruled most of Japan.The other clans still held their lands. But they had to beloyal to the Yamato chief.

Yamato chiefs said that they were from the sun god-dess. Because of this, they had a right to rule Japan. Sto-ries from Japan say that a Yamato leader named Jimmutook the title “emperor of heaven.” He began a line of


rulers in Japan that has not been broken. Akihito, Japan’semperor today, is from Jimmu’s family.

11. Why are the Yayoi important?

Prince Shotoku’s Reforms (page 488)

Prince Shotoku created Japan’s first constitution and borrowed manyideas from China.

About A.D. 600, a Yamato prince named Shotoku tookcharge of Japan. His aunt Suiko had been empress. Hewanted to make a strong government. He used China as amodel. In China, a powerful emperor ruled with the helpof trained officials chosen for their skill.

To reach his goal, Shotoku wrote a constitution. A con-stitution is a plan of government. This plan gave allpower to the emperor. The Japanese people had to obeyhim. He also made a system of government with groupsof officials at different levels. The emperor had the powerto choose all the officials. The constitution listed rules forworking in the government. The rules came from theideas of Confucius.

Shotoku also wanted Japan to learn from China’s greatsociety and culture. He sent officials and students toChina to study. The Japanese learned about Buddhismand about Chinese art, medicine, and beliefs.

Shotoku built Buddhist temples and monasteries inJapan. You can still see one of them, called Horyuji, today.It is Japan’s oldest temple and the oldest wooden buildingin the world.

Many officials after Shotoku made Japan’s governmentlook like China’s. In A.D. 646, the Yamato began the Taika,or Great Change. They divided Japan into smaller areasor provinces. The officials who ran these areas reported

250

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


251

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

to the emperor. All land in Japan was in the emperor’scontrol.

Clan leaders could direct farmers, but they could nottax them anymore. Government officials took part of thefarmers’ crops as taxes for the emperor. This plan plusShotoku’s reforms made Japan’s first strong government.

12. In what ways did Shotoku use China as a model forJapan?

What Is Shinto? (page 490)

The Japanese religion, called Shinto, was based on nature spirits.

The early Japanese believed that all things in natureare alive and have their own spirits. This idea is calledanimism. When people needed help, they asked thenature spirits, called kami, to help them.

To honor the kami, the Japanese worshiped at shrines,or holy places. Priests, musicians, and dancers were partof the worship. The people asked the gods for help.

These early Japanese beliefs became the religion ofShinto. The word Shinto means “way of the spirits.” ManyJapanese still follow Shinto today. They believe the kamiwill only help them if they are pure. Many things, such assickness, cause spiritual stains. These stains must becleaned by bathing and other acts before praying.

13. What are kami?


Drawing From ExperienceHave you ever made a promise or made a deal to get

something you wanted? What promise did you make?Did you get what you wanted in return?

The last section described how the Japanese looked toChina as a model for their government and society. Thissection discusses how Japan’s government became ruledby leaders called shoguns. Shoguns gained power by giv-ing land in return for people’s support. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes. What do youalready know about Japanese shoguns and samurai?What do you want to learn? Fill in the chart with yourquestions. Then, as you read, fill in what you learn andhow you can learn more.

252

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termssamurai: warriors who fought in private armies led by rich landowners

(page 494)

shogun: leader of all of the emperor’s fighting forces (page 495)

daimyo: military leaders or lords who ruled their own lands (page 496)

vassal: person who got land from a daimyo and promised to serve him inreturn (pages 496–497)

feudalism: bond of loyalty between a lord and a vassal (page 497)


Shoguns and Samurai For use with pages 491–497

What I Know What I Want to What I Learned How I CanFind Out Learn More

1. 3. 5. 9.

2. 4. 6. 10.

7.

8.

253

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Nara Japan (pages 492–493)

During the A.D. 700s, Japan built a strong national government at Nara,and Buddhism became a popular religion.

Japan’s emperors built the new capital city of Nara inthe early A.D. 700s. For that 100 years, Nara was the centerof government and religion in Japan. This period of his-tory in Japan is called the Nara Period.

Nara looked a lot like the Chinese capital of Changan,but it was smaller. It had wide streets, large publicsquares, government offices, Buddhist temples, andShinto shrines. Nobles, or the highest members of society,and their families lived in large homes. These homeslooked a lot like Chinese homes. A noble’s home usuallyhad wooden walls, a heavy tile roof, and shiny woodenfloors. It also had an inner garden.The Emperor’s Government At Nara, Japanese emperors mademore changes to the government. They placed govern-ment officials into ranks, or levels of importance from topto bottom. But Japan did not use tests like the Chinese tohire officials. The emperor gave the jobs to nobles fromfamilies with power. Once a man got a job, he could giveit to his son or other family members. For their work, topofficials got estates, or large farms. They also got farmersto work their land.

The emperor had so much power because he con-trolled the land and crops. The government used a censusto measure Japan’s wealth. The census counted all thepeople in the country. It also listed the lands where peo-pled lived and worked. The census was used to tax allpeople who had land from the emperor. Taxes were paidin rice or silk cloth. Men counted in the census had toserve in the army.Buddhism Spreads in Japan As the emperor’s government wasgrowing stronger, Buddhism became popular in Japan.


Buddhism came to Japan from Korea in the A.D. 500s.Japanese government officials and nobles accepted thenew religion first. During the A.D. 600s and A.D. 700s, Buddhism spread quickly among the common people. It had a big part in government and society.

As Buddhism gained power, nobles who were notBuddhists began to fight against it. People who were forBuddhism fought people who were against it to controlthe government. In A.D. 770, a Buddhist monk in the gov-ernment tried to become emperor. The emperor’s familyand nobles stopped him.

This scared the emperor and his family. And theyturned away from Buddhism for a short time. Rememberhow the government in China attacked Buddhist monas-teries when they became strong? In Japan, something dif-ferent happened. The emperor left Nara and its manyBuddhist monks.

11. How was the Japanese government at Nara differentfrom the Chinese government?

The Rise of the Shogun (pages 493–495)

Japan’s civilian government and the emperor came to be dominated bymilitary rulers known as shoguns.

In A.D. 794, Emperor Kammu of Japan started buildinga new capital city. This city was called Heian. Later, thename was changed to Kyoto. Heian was built to look likethe Chinese city of Changan. It was the capital of Japanfor more than 1,000 years.The Government Weakens Emperors began to have less powerin the A.D. 800s. After many strong emperors, some weakemperors led the country. Many of these emperors werechildren. Court officials had to govern for them. These

254

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


255

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

officials were called regents. They ruled for an emperorwho was too young or too sick to rule. But when theemperors grew up, the regents did not want to give uptheir power.

Most regents came from a clan called the Fujiwara. TheFujiwara honored the emperors. But the emperors did notrule. They studied Buddhism or wrote poetry in theirpalace at Heian.

The Fujiwara grew rich and powerful in Heian. At thesame time, other nobles with power took control of a lotof the land in Japan. This happened because the govern-ment paid the nobles for their work with lands. TheJapanese empire also grew. The nobles who put farmerson these new lands were allowed to keep the lands.

To keep the nobles happy, the government let themstop paying taxes. It gave them the power to govern thelands in their control. To govern their lands, the noblestaxed the people working the land. Who Were the Samurai? The nobles set up their own armies toprotect their lands and keep the law. To form their armies,they gave land to warriors or fighters who agreed to fightfor them. These warriors were called samurai.

The samurai fought on horses with swords, knives,and bows and arrows. They wore armor made of leatheror steel. Their helmets had horns or crests. And they worescary masks.

The word samurai means “one who serves.” The samurai lived by a system or code of rules. It was calledBushido, or “the way of the warrior.” The rules said that asamurai had to be loyal and brave. He also had to havecourage and honor. Samurai were not supposed to careabout money. They thought that merchants did not havehonor.

A samurai would rather die in battle than fail his lord.He also did not want to lose his honor by being capturedin battle. This idea of loyalty continued into modern


times. In World War II, many Japanese soldiers fought tothe death. They would not accept loss or capture. Sincethat time, the Japanese have turned away from the mili-tary beliefs of the samurai.What Is a Shogun? By the early 1100s, the most powerfulJapanese families were fighting each other. Their samuraiarmies were fighting over land. They wanted to controlthe emperor and his government. In 1180, the GempeiWar began. This was a civil war between the two mostpowerful clans: the Taira family and the Minamoto family.In 1185, the Minamoto beat the Taira. They won a sea bat-tle near the island of Shikoku.

The leader of the Minamoto was a man namedMinamoto Yorimoto. (In Japanese, a person’s family namecomes before the personal name.) Yorimoto led theMinamoto armies. After he won the Gempei War, theemperor worried that the Minamoto family would try torule Japan. The emperor gave Yorimoto a reward to keephim loyal.

In 1192, the emperor gave Yorimoto the title of shogun.As shogun he was commander of all of the emperor’s mil-itary forces. Now Japan had two governments. Theemperor stayed in his palace at Heian with his govern-ment. He was still the head of the country. But he had nopower. The shogun set up his own government atKamakura, a small seaside town. This military govern-ment was called a shogunate. Shoguns ran Japan’s gov-ernment for the next 700 years.

Yorimoto was a cruel ruler. He killed most of his fam-ily because he was afraid they would try to take hispower. Yorimoto and the shoguns after him used samuraias advisers. These samurai lords swore to be loyal. Theyruled Japan’s villages, kept the peace, and took up thetaxes. They became the leading group in Japanese society. The Mongols Attack In 1274 and in 1281, China’s Mongolemperor Kublai Khan sent ships and warriors to attack

256

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


257

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Japan. Both times, the Mongols were defeated by the Kamakura shogunate. The Mongols lost because bad Pacific storms smashed many of their ships. TheMongol troops who made it to land were defeated by the Japanese.

The Japanese named the bad storms kamikaze, or“divine wind.” They believed the spirits in the wind hadsaved their lives. In World War II, Japanese pilots crashedtheir planes into enemy ships on purpose. They werenamed kamikaze pilots after the storms of the 1200s.

12. Who were the samurai?

The Daimyo Divide Japan (pages 496–497)

As the shogun’s power weakened, Japan broke into warring kingdomsrun by rulers known as daimyo.

The Kamakura shogunate ruled Japan until 1333. Bythat time, many samurai were angry. Over years, landhad been divided by the samurai among their sons. Now,the pieces of land owned by the samurai were smallerand smaller. By the 1300s, many samurai felt they did nothave to be loyal to the shogun. He had not given themenough land.

In 1331, the emperor rebelled against the shogun.Many samurai helped him. The emperor won. But hewould not give more land to the samurai, so he was notable to gain control of Japan. A general named AshikagaTakauji turned against the emperor. He made himselfshogun in 1333. This was the start of the Ashikaga shogunate.

The Ashikaga shoguns were weak. People across thecountry turned against them. The country soon dividedinto many small areas. Military lords known as daimyoled these areas.


The daimyo swore to be loyal to the emperor and theshogun. But they ruled their lands as separate kingdoms.They made their own armies of samurai warriors to pro-tect their lands.

Many samurai became vassals of a daimyo. Thismeans the samurai promised to serve the daimyo in timesof war. In return, each daimyo gave land to his samuraiwarriors. The samurai received more land than they hadbeen given by the shogun. This bond of loyalty between alord and a vassal is called feudalism. In the next chapter,you will learn about feudalism in Europe during the Middle Ages.

With no central government, Japan’s warriors foughteach other. The Onin War lasted from 1467 to 1477. Dur-ing this war, the city of Kyoto (Heian) was almostdestroyed. Armies passed through the city, burning tem-ples and palaces. Times were very hard.

For almost 100 years after the Onin War, weak shogunstried to bring Japan back together. Powerful daimyofought against their control. Fighting spread through thecountry. Finally, the Ashikaga shogunate ended in 1567.By that time, there were only a few powerful daimyo.Each of the daimyo wanted to beat the others and rule allof Japan.

13. What caused the Onin War?

258

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


259

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


Life in Medieval Japan For use with pages 498–504

Drawing From ExperienceHave you ever thought about what makes some peo-

ple rich and some people poor? Why are some countriesricher than others?

The last section described the rise of the samurai andshoguns who ruled Japan. In this section, you will learnabout the growth of Japan’s economy and its beautiful art,buildings, and literature. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes. Compare andcontrast Pure Land Buddhism and Zen Buddhism. Howare they the same? How are they different?

Key Termssect: small religious group (page 499)

martial arts: sports that involve fighting or self-defense (page 499)

meditation: the practice of calming the mind to find inner peace (page 499)

calligraphy: the art of fine handwriting (page 501)

tanka: Japan’s oldest form of poetry (page 501)

guild: a group of people from the same trade formed for protection (page 503)

1.

2.

3.

5.

6.

7.

4.

Pure Land Buddhism Zen Buddhism

Japanese Religion and Culture (pages 499–501)

Buddhism and Shinto shaped much of Japan’s culture. These religionsaffected Japanese art, architecture, novels and plays.

During the Middle Ages, religion was an importantpart of life for the Japanese. Most Japanese peoplebelieved in both Buddhism and Shinto. They worshipedat Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples. Each religion metdifferent needs for them. Shinto helped people with dailylife. Buddhism helped people prepare for the life to come.During the Middle Ages, Buddhist ideas led many Japan-ese to build temples, make paintings, and write poemsand plays.Pure Land Buddhism You already know that Mahayana Bud-dhism began in India and spread to China and Korea.When Buddhism came to Japan, it had many differentsects, or smaller religious groups.

One of the most important sects in Japan was PureLand Buddhism. This is a type of Mahayana Buddhism.Many followed Pure Land Buddhism because of its beliefin a happy life after death. Pure Land Buddhists looked toLord Amida, a Buddha of love and mercy. They believedAmida had founded a paradise in the clouds. To get there,people just had to have faith in Amida and chant hisname. What Is Zen Buddhism? Zen was another important Buddhistsect in Japan. Monks brought Zen to Japan from Chinaduring the 1100s. Zen taught that people could find innerpeace through self-control and a simple way of life.

Zen Buddhists control their bodies through martialarts. These sports involve fighting and self-defense. Thesamurai liked this because they trained to fight.

Followers of Zen also practiced meditation. In medita-tion, a person crosses their legs and sits without movingfor hours. They clear their mind of all thoughts anddesires. The practice helps people to relax and find innerpeace.

260

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


261

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Art and Architecture During the Middle Ages, the Japaneseused ideas about art from China and Korea. Then, theywent on to create their own styles. The arts of Japan showtheir love of beauty and simple things.

Artisans made wooden statues, furniture, and itemsfor the home. They often used a shiny black and red coat-ing called lacquer. Japanese artists learned to do land-scape paintings from the Chinese. They painted sceneswith ink or watercolors on paper or on silk. Japanesenobles at the emperor’s court learned to fold paper tomake objects. This art of folding paper is called origami.They also arranged flowers. Buddhist monks and thesamurai turned tea drinking into a beautiful act.

Builders in Japan used styles from China and Japan.Shinto shrines were built in the Japanese style. They werebuilt near something beautiful in nature, like a holy rockor tree. Most shrines were wooden buildings. They hadone room and a room made of rice straw. People came inthe shrine through a holy gate called a torii.

Buddhist temples were built in the Chinese style. Theyhad very big tile roofs held up by big wooden pillars. Thetemples were very fancy. They had many statues, paint-ings, and altars.

The Japanese put gardens around their buildings.These gardens were designed to look like nature in asmaller form. Some gardens were designed with rocks,raked sand, and a few plants. They were made this wayto bring a feeling of peace. Poems and Plays The Japanese began using China’s writingsystem in the A.D. 500s. They used Chinese characters thatstood for whole words. But the Japanese and Chinese lan-guages were very different. So using Chinese charactersdid not work very well. In the A.D. 800s, the Japaneseadded symbols that stood for sounds, like the letters of analphabet. This made it much easier to read and write.


The Japanese liked calligraphy, the art of writingbeautifully. Every person with a good education did cal-ligraphy. The Japanese thought that a person’s writingshowed a lot about his or her education, social level, andmorals.

During the Middle Ages, the Japanese wrote poems,stories and plays. Their oldest form of poetry is tanka.Tanka poems were five lines that did not rhyme. Theywere about beauty in nature and the joy and sadness inlife. This tanka was written by an unknown poet:

“On autumn nightsthe dew iscolder than ever—in every clump of grassesthe insects weep.”

—author unknown,tanka from the Kokinshu

Women living in Heian wrote Japan’s first great storiesaround A.D. 1000. Lady Murasaki Shikibu wrote The Tale ofGenji. This story tells about the adventures of a Japaneseprince. Some people think this is the world’s first novel,or long made-up story.

About 200 years later, writers wrote exciting storiesabout warriors in battle. The greatest set of stories wasThe Tale of Heike. It tells about the war between the Tairaand the Minamoto clans.

The Japanese also wrote plays. The oldest kind of playis called Noh. Noh plays were used during the 1300s toteach Buddhist ideas. Noh plays took place on a simple,bare stage. The actors wore masks and fancy robes. Theydanced and chanted poetry to the music of drums andflutes.

8. How were Shinto temples different from Buddhisttemples?

262

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


263

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Economy and Society (pages 503–504)

Some Japanese nobles, merchants, and artisans grew wealthy duringthe shogun period, but the lives of women remained restricted in many areas of life.

Under the shoguns, Japan developed its arts and pro-duced more goods. The country grew richer. But only asmall number of Japanese enjoyed this wealth. Theemperor, the nobles, and the head military officials hadmost of the money. A small but growing group of mer-chants and traders also began to make money. But mostJapanese were poor farmers.Farmers and Artisans A lot of Japan’s wealth came from thehard work of farmers. Japanese farmers grew rice, wheat,millet, and barley. Some had their own land. Most livedand worked on the daimyo lands. Life was hard, but itdid get better for the farmers during the 1100s. They hadbetter ways to get water to crops. And they could plantmore. This meant they could send more food to the mar-kets that were growing in the towns.

At the same time, the Japanese were making moregoods. Artisans on the daimyo land started to makeweapons, armor, and tools. Merchants sold these in townmarkets. New roads made travel and trade much easier.As trade grew, each area made more of the goods it couldproduce well. These goods included pottery, paper, fabrics, and lacquered ware. All of these new productshelped Japan’s economy grow.

The capital of Kyoto was the center for making and trading products. Many artisans and merchants lived there. They formed groups called guilds (or za inJapanese). These groups helped to protect their trade andmake more money. The guilds sold goods to the daimyothat he could not get from his own lands. In return, thedaimyo protected them from other artisans.


Japan’s wealth also grew as they traded more withKorea, China, and Southeast Asia. Japanese merchantstraded lacquered goods, sword blades, and copper forsilk, dyes, pepper, books, and porcelain. The Role of Women In Japan, grandparents, parents, and chil-dren lived in the same house. A man headed the family.He had total control over all the family. A woman was toobey her father, husband, and son. In rich families, par-ents set up the marriages of their children to add to thefamily’s wealth.

In the time of Prince Shotoku, wealthy women had ahigh position in society. Several women ruled, andwomen could own their own property. When Japanbecame a warrior society with samurai and daimyo,women lost these rights.

Women in farming families had a greater say abouttheir marriage. But they worked long hours in the ricefields. They also cooked, made cloth, and cared for thechildren. In the towns, wives of artisans and merchantshelped with the business and ran the home. The wives ofmerchants probably had the best lives.

Even without freedom, some women became impor-tant artists, writers, and warriors. The Tale of the Heike, tellsthe story of one female samurai:

“Tomoe was indescribably beautiful; the fairness of herface and the richness of her hair were startling to behold.Even so, she was a fearless rider and a woman skilledwith the bow. Once her sword was drawn, even the gods . . . feared to fight against her. Indeed, she was amatch for a thousand.”

—Heike Monogatori, The Tale of the Heike

9. Why did Japan’s wealth grow in this period?

264

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


265

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The Early Middle Ages For use with pages 512–521

Drawing From ExperienceThink about something you believe in strongly. Do you

share your belief with others? How do they react to you? In this section, you will learn how geography and reli-

gion shaped lives in Europe. You will also learn how newkingdoms and the Catholic Church grew.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes to learn abouthow monks spent their time.

Key Termsfjord: a body of water between steep slopes where the sea cuts into the land

(page 518)

missionary: a person who teaches his or her religion to those who do notbelieve (page 520)

excommunicate: to exclude a person from church membership (page 521)

concordat: an agreement between the pope and the ruler of a country (page 521)

A Monk’s Life

1. 2. 3. 4.

The Geography of Europe (pages 513–514)

Geography influenced where medieval Europeans settled and what they did.

The Roman Empire had united all the land around theMediterranean Sea. When the last Roman emperor in theWest fell in A.D. 476, this unity ended. Western Europedivided into many kingdoms. German invaders con-quered large areas of Europe.

Europe’s geography now played an important role inshaping events. Europe is a continent. It is also a verylarge peninsula made up of many smaller peninsulas. So,most of Europe is within 300 miles (483 km) of an oceanor sea. This made trade and fishing easy. This helpedEurope’s economy grow.

Rivers were also important. The Rhine, Danube, Vis-tula, Volga, Seine, and Po Rivers made it easy to travelinto Europe. This made it easier to trade.

The seas and rivers gave safety. For example, the Eng-lish Channel kept Britain and Ireland apart from the restof Europe. This protected people from the many warsfought in Europe. The Rhine River kept people apart, too.It was very wide. Different cultures developed in thesedifferent areas.

Europe has many mountains. The Carpathians are inthe east. They cut off what is now Ukraine and Russiafrom southeast Europe. The Alps are in the middle. Theyseparate Italy from central Europe. The Pyrenees are inthe southwest. They kept Spain and Portugal apart fromother countries. The mountains, like the rivers, made ithard for one group to rule all of Europe. Independentkingdoms formed.

5. How were mountains important in the growth ofkingdoms in Europe? Give one example.

266

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


267

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Germanic Kingdoms (pages 514–519)

The Franks, Angles, and Saxons of Western Europe built new societiesand defended them against Muslims, Magyars, and Vikings.

After Rome fell, Western Europe was divided intomany kingdoms. These kingdoms were very differentfrom each other. The Visigoths in Spain and the Ostro-goths in Italy were close to the center of the old RomanEmpire. They lived much like the Romans. People fartherfrom Rome held to their Germanic traditions.

As the empire in Britain grew weak, Roman culturewas lost. In the A.D. 300s, Roman soldiers in Britainheaded home to fight Germanic invaders. In the early A.D. 400s, the Romans pulled out of England. Soon theAngles and Saxons invaded Britain from Denmark andGermany. These people became the Anglo-Saxons.

The Angles and Saxons pushed out the people living insoutheastern Britain. These people were called the Celts.Some went north and west to the mountains. Others wentto Ireland. Scottish, Welsh, and Irish people today arerelated to the Celts.Who Were the Franks? During the A.D. 400s, a Germanic peoplecalled the Franks settled in France. In A.D. 496, King Clo-vis of the Franks became Catholic. The Romans liked this.Nearly all of the Franks became Catholic.

After Clovis died, each of his sons took part of thekingdom. Then, their sons each took a part. They oftenfought over land. While they fought, the nobles underthem took over many royal jobs. The “mayor of thepalace” was the most important noble. By A.D. 700, themayors were giving out land, settling arguments, andfighting their own wars.

The most powerful mayor was Charles Martel. Hewanted to rule all the Frankish nobles. The CatholicChurch wanted the Western Roman Empire back. They


supported rulers who had a chance to unite Europe. Thehead of the Catholic Church is the pope. He offered hissupport to Charles Martel.

Christianity in Europe was threatened by Islam. In A.D. 711, Muslims from North Africa conquered Spain.They wanted to spread Islam across Europe. In A.D. 732,Charles Martel fought the Muslims. He won at the Battleof Tours. This stopped Muslims from advancing fartherinto Europe. Christianity was still Western Europe’s majorreligion.

When Charles Martel died, his son Pepin becamemayor of the palace. He also became the new king of theFranks. The Lombards, a Germanic group, said theywould harm the pope. So, Pepin fought them and won.He gave the land he had won to the pope. It was calledthe Papal States. The pope ruled these lands as if he werea king. Who Was Charlemagne? After Pepin died, his son Charlesbecame king. When the Lombards tried to get their landback, Charles fought them. He also invaded Germany. Hedefeated the Saxons living there. Charles said they mustbelieve in Christianity. He then invaded Spain. He tookcontrol of the northeastern corner from the Muslims.

By A.D. 800, Charles’s kingdom was an empire. It cov-ered much of western and central Europe. He was calledCharlemagne. This means Charles the Great.

The pope liked Charlemagne. On Christmas Day inA.D. 800, Charlemagne was at the church of St. Peter inRome. The pope gave Charlemagne a crown. He was nowthe new Roman emperor. Charlemagne was happy, but hewas also worried. He did not want people to think thepope had the power to choose who was emperor.

Aachen was the capital of Charlemagne’s empire. Theemperor set up courts to be sure people obeyed his laws.Nobles called counts ran the courts. Charlemagne sentpeople to make sure the counts were obeying orders.These people were called “the lord’s messengers.”

268

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


269

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Charlemagne believed in education. When he wasolder, he tried to learn to write. He wanted his people tolearn. A school was started in a royal palace by a teachernamed Alcuin. He trained the children of governmentofficials. They studied religion, Latin, music, literature,and math.Europe Is Invaded Charlemagne died in A.D. 814. His empiredid not last long after that. His son Louis was not a strongleader. When Louis died, his sons split the empire intothree kingdoms.

Muslims attacked these three kingdoms in the A.D. 800sand A.D. 900s. They invaded France and Italy from Spainand North Africa. The Magyars came from the east. Theywere nomads who had settled in Hungary. The Vikingscame from Scandinavia. They frightened all of Europe.

Scandinavia is in northern Europe. It is made up ofNorway, Sweden, and Denmark. It has a long, jaggedcoastline. There are many fjords. Fjords are deep placeswhere the water cuts into the land. The Viking peoplelived in villages in the fjords. They were known as theNorsemen, or “north men.”

Scandinavia has little farmland. Vikings had to use thesea for food and trade. They were good sailors. They builtstrong boats called longboats. These boats could sail therough Atlantic Ocean. They could also be used in shallowrivers.

In the A.D. 700s and A.D. 800s, the Vikings began raid-ing Europe. They probably needed more land to supportall the people at home. The word Viking comes from theirword for raiding. They robbed villages and churches.They would take grain, animals, and anything else ofvalue. They took over part of western France. This areawas named Normandy, after the Norsemen who ruled it.The Holy Roman Empire Muslim, Magyar, and Viking raidsended the Frankish kingdoms. In the A.D. 900s, the easternFrankish kingdom split into many tiny states. Counts,


dukes, and other nobles ruled these. This is known asGermany today. In A.D. 911, a group of nobles tried tounite Germany by electing a king. But the king did nothave much power. The nobles wanted to have their ownpower.

Otto I was one of the strongest kings of Germany. Hefought the Magyars. He sent troops into Italy to protectthe pope. To reward Otto for this, the pope named himemperor of the Romans in A.D. 962. The Holy RomanEmpire was Otto’s land. This included most of Germanyand northern Italy.

Most of the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire werenot very powerful. Two of the strongest were Frederick Iand Frederick II. They tried to bring northern Italy andGermany under one ruler in the 1100s and 1200s. Thepopes fought this. They did not want the emperor to con-trol them. Both Germany and Italy were made up of smallkingdoms until the 1800s.

6. What were the boats called that the Vikings built?Why were those boats so unique?

The Rise of the Catholic Church (pages 519–521)

The Catholic Church spread Christianity through Western Europe.

Life in Europe was shaped by religion and geography.Christianity was the official religion of Rome. After theRoman government fell apart, the Roman CatholicChurch had a big part in the growth of a new civilization.Why Were Monks Important? When Rome fell, much of north-west Europe was not Christian. In the A.D. 400s, a priestnamed Patrick went to Ireland. He taught the Christianmessage. He set up churches and monasteries. For hun-dreds of years, Irish monks passed on Roman learning tothe people of Europe.

270

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


271

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Pope Gregory I was pope from A.D. 590 to A.D. 604. Hewas known as Gregory the Great. He saw Patrick’s suc-cess and wanted all of Europe to become Christian. Heasked monks to become missionaries. These are peoplewho are sent out to teach their religion.

In A.D. 597, Gregory sent 40 monks to southern Britain.The ruler of the kingdom of Kent, Ethelbert, became aChristian. He let missionaries build a church in his capitalcity of Canterbury. Meanwhile, Irish monks broughtChristianity to northern Britain. By A.D. 800s, monksthroughout Europe spread Christianity. Most people inWestern Europe became Catholics by 1050.

Monasteries were important. Monks taught, gave foodand rest to travelers, and gave care for the sick. Theytaught carpentry and weaving. They invented better waysto farm. They also helped save knowledge.

Many monasteries had writing rooms. These werecalled scriptoria. Monks made copies of important worksthere. They copied many Christian writings like the Bible.They also copied works by Roman and Greek writers.

Monks made a promise to be poor, wore simpleclothes, and ate simple food. But, their monasteries couldmake money. Each monastery made goods and ownedland. Over time many became wealthy. The leader of amonastery is called an abbot. Many abbots becameinvolved in politics. They were advisers to kings. Theyacted as rulers of the lands near their monasteries.Why Is Gregory VII Important? Because abbots and other Churchleaders had roles in politics, many people did not agreeabout who was in charge. Kings wanted Church leadersto obey them. And the pope claimed he could crownkings.

In 1073, Gregory VII was named pope. He wanted tostop nobles and kings from meddling in Church business.He gave an order, or a decree. Kings could not name high-ranking Church officials.


The pope’s decree made Henry IV angry. He was theHoly Roman emperor. For many years, the Holy Romanemperor had named bishops in Germany. Without thebishops, Henry IV might lose power to the nobles.

Henry would not obey Gregory. He said that Gregorywas no longer pope. Gregory then said that Henry was nolonger emperor. He excommunicated Henry. This meanshe said Henry could not be a member of the Church.Catholics believed that people who were excommuni-cated could not go to heaven.

When German nobles fought for the pope, Henrybacked down. He went to Italy and stood barefoot in thesnow outside the pope’s castle. He asked to be forgiven.The pope forgave Henry, but the German nobles stillchose a new king. When the pope accepted the new kingas emperor, Henry went to war. He captured Rome andnamed a new pope. Henry was driven out, but the argu-ment was still not solved.

In 1122, a new pope and the German king finallyagreed that only the pope could choose bishops. Theemperor could give them jobs in the government. Thisdeal was called the Concordat of Worms. It was signed inthe city of Worms. A concordat is an agreement betweenthe pope and the ruler of a country.

By the time Innocent III became pope in 1198, theCatholic Church was very powerful. Innocent was able tocontrol kings. If a ruler did not obey, he would be excom-municated. Or he would be given an interdict. An inter-dict does not allow priests to perform Christian acts for agroup of people. The pope hoped that the interdict wouldpressure rulers to obey.

7. What did the decree say that Gregory VII ordered?

272

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


273

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


Feudalism For use with pages 522–531

Drawing From ExperienceThink back on fairy tales or stories you have read

about kings, castles, knights, and maidens. What do youthink it was really like to live in those times?

In the last section, you learned how geography andreligion shaped lives in Western Europe. In this section,you will learn what life was like for knights and poorpeople. You will also learn how trade helped towns andcities grow.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on the workpeasants did during each time of the year.

Key Termsvassal: a noble who obeyed a lord of higher rank (page 523)

fief: the land granted to a vassal (page 524)

knight: a warrior in armor who fought on horseback (page 524)

serf: someone who could not leave, own land, or marry without the lord’sapproval (page 524)

guild: a group of craftspeople who join together to protect their businesses (page 530)

Early August/Sept. October November Feb./March Summer

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Peasants’ Year-Round Work Schedule

What Is Feudalism? (pages 523–526)

Feudalism developed in Europe in the Middle Ages. It was based onlandowning, loyalty, and the power of armored knights on horseback.

Charlemagne’s grandfather, Charles Martel, needed anarmy to fight when the Muslims attacked France. So hegave large farms, or estates, to nobles willing to fight forhim. The nobles used money from the farms to pay fortheir horses and weapons. This new way of organizingsociety spread across most of Europe.

When Charlemagne’s empire fell, the main govern-ment was gone. Nobles who owned land became morepowerful. They collected taxes and made laws on theirestates. When invaders came, the people could not rely onthe king for help. The peasants, or farmers, looked tonobles for protection.

During the A.D. 800s, power moved from kings tonobles. This led to a new system called feudalism. Noblesruled and protected the people. In return, the peopleworked for the nobles. They would fight in an army orfarm. By A.D. 1000, the kingdoms of Europe were dividedinto thousands of areas ruled by nobles. Some of thesefeudal territories were large, but most were very small. Anoble’s castle, or fortress, stood at the center of each.The Role of Vassals and Knights Feudalism was about loyalty andduty. Nobles were both lords and vassals. A vassal was anoble who obeyed a lord of a higher rank. In return, thelord protected the vassal.

The tie between a lord and his vassal was made in apublic ceremony. The vassal put his hands together andplaced them between the hands of his lord. Then the vassal swore “to keep faith and loyalty to you against allothers.”

A vassal was in his lord’s army. The lord paid him backwith land. The land given to a vassal was called a fief.Vassals had power over the people who lived on theirfiefs.

274

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


275

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The vassals were knights, or warriors in armor whofought on horseback. Up until the A.D. 700s, nobles inWestern Europe fought on foot. They wore armor madefrom metal links. They carried swords and shields. In theA.D. 700s, the stirrup was invented. An armored mancould sit on a horse and charge while holding a lance, along heavy spear. From the A.D. 700s to the 1200s, theseknights were the most powerful soldiers in Europe.

Japan also had a feudal society between A.D. 800 and1500. Powerful nobles were loyal to the Japanese emperor.The nobles counted on samurai. Like knights, the samuraiwere loyal to their lords. They gave them military service.They also wore armor and fought on horseback.What Was the Manorial System? The fiefs of the Middle Ages werecalled manors. The lords ruled the manor. Peasantsworked the land. Some peasants were free. They paid thenobles for the right to farm the land. They had rightsunder the law. They could move when and where theywished.

Most peasants were serfs. Serfs could not leave themanor, own property, or marry without the lord’s permis-sion. Serfs could not even go to court. They were notslaves though. Lords could not sell the serfs or take awaythe land given to serfs. Lords protected their serfs.

Serfs worked long hours. They spent three days work-ing for the lord on his land and in his manor. The rest ofthe week they grew food for themselves. They had to givethe lord a part of their own crops. They also had to payhim for the use of the village’s mill, bread oven, andwinepress.

It was not easy for serfs to gain freedom. They couldrun away to the towns. If a serf stayed in a town for morethan a year, he or she was considered free. By the end ofthe Middle Ages, many serfs could buy their freedom.How Did Farming Improve? New inventions made farming better.Perhaps the most important was a heavy wheeled plowwith an iron blade. It moved the thick clay soil easily.


Another important invention was the horse collar. Ahorse could pull a plow. Horses pulled plows much fasterthan oxen. Peasants could plant more crops and growmore food.

There were new ways to use water and wind power.Water mills used power from rivers to grind grain intoflour. Windmills were used when there was no river.Wind power was used to grind grains, pump water, andcut wood.

Peasants learned another way to grow more food.They would plant only two of three fields at a time. Thiskept the soil fertile, or healthy. One field was planted infall and another in the spring. The third field was leftunplanted. Only one-third, instead of one-half, of the landwas unused at any time. This helped to grow more crops.

6. How could a serf become free?

Life in Feudal Europe (pages 526–528)

Knights followed a code of chivalry and lived in castles, while peasantslived in simple houses and worked hard all year long.

During the Middle Ages, nobles were the most power-ful people in Europe. Great lords had more wealth andland than knights. The feudal system brought lords andknights together. They wanted to defend their society.How Did Nobles Live? Knights followed certain rules called thecode of chivalry. A knight was to obey his lord, be brave,show respect to women of noble birth, honor the church,and help people. They were also to be honest and to fightfairly against enemies. The code of chivalry became theguide to good behavior. Many of today’s ideas aboutmanners come from this.

276

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


277

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

When noblemen went to war, their wives or daughtersran the manors. This was a big job. There were many offi-cials and servants. Keeping track of everything took greatskill. The lady of the manor was also in charge of storingfood and other supplies.

The center of the manor was a castle. They were firstbuilt of wood. Later, they were built of stone. A castle hastwo basic parts. One was a steep-sided hill called a motte.The bailey was the open space next to the motte. Highstones surrounded both parts. The central building of thecastle, or the keep, was built on the motte.

The keep had a number of stories. The basement hadrooms to store tools and food. Kitchens and stables wereon the ground floor. Above the ground floor was a greathall. This is where people of the household ate and some-times slept. The lord held his court here and also met hisguests. Smaller rooms opened off the great hall. Theywere chapels, toilets, and bedrooms with huge beds.

In the later Middle Ages, nobles owned more jewelry,better clothes, and exotic spices. They also built fanciercastles. These castles had thicker walls, more towers, better furniture, and richer decoration.What Was Peasant Life Like? Peasant homes were simple. Theywere wood-frame cottages with clay walls. The roofs were made of straw. The houses of poorer peasants hadone room. Better cottages had two rooms. They had amain room for cooking and eating, and another room for sleeping.

Peasants worked all year. They picked grain in Augustand September. In October they got the ground ready forwinter crops. In November they salted meat for the win-ter. In February and March, they plowed the land. Theygot it ready to plant oats, barley, peas, and beans. In earlysummer they weeded the fields, sheared the sheep, andtook care of small vegetable gardens.


On Catholic feast days, peasants took a break fromwork. They went to church and celebrated. There weremore than 50 feast days each year. The most importantwere Christmas and Easter. On feast days and on Sun-days, the village priest taught them the basic beliefs ofChristianity.

Peasant women worked in the fields and raised chil-dren. They gathered and made their food. They mixedbread dough and baked it in community ovens. Breadwas a basic food in their diet. It was dark and heavy.Peasants ate it with vegetables, milk, nuts, and fruits.Sometimes they added eggs or meat. They often had aleto drink.

7. Name at least three foods peasants ate.

Trade and Cities (pages 528–531)

Increased trade led to the growth of towns and cities and the rise ofguilds and city governments.

When the Roman Empire fell, almost all trade in West-ern Europe stopped. Bridges and roads fell because theywere not taken care of. There was no law and order.Money was no longer used. Most people stayed in thetiny villages where they were born. They knew almostnothing about the rest of the world.

By 1100, feudalism had made Europe safer. New tech-nology helped produce more food and goods. Noblesfixed bridges and roads. They enforced the law andarrested robbers. Trade began again.

As trade increased, towns grew. Many cities becamewealthy. For example, the city of Venice in Italy builtmany trading ships. Venice became a major tradingpower by A.D. 1000. Venice and other Italian cities begantrading with the Byzantine Empire. Soon they became thecenter of trade in the Mediterranean.

278

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


279

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Towns in Flanders were the centers of trade for north-ern Europe. This is part of Belgium today. It was knownfor its wool cloth. Merchants from England, Scandinavia,France, and the Holy Roman Empire met there to tradetheir goods for wool. Flemish towns such as Bruges andGhent became centers for making and trading cloth.

By 1100, Flanders and Italy were trading on a regularbasis. The counts of Champagne in northern France heldtrade fairs. They traded furs, tin, honey, and wool forcloth. In return, they got swords from northern Italy andsilks, sugar, and spices from Asia.

During the early Middle Ages, people traded goods forother goods. This is called bartering. As trade grew, morepeople wanted gold and silver coins. Slowly, peoplebegan using money to pay for things. Merchants set uptrading companies. Banks managed the sale of goods andthe use of money.How Were Cities Governed? Towns were usually built on landowned by lords. The lords controlled this land, but, peo-ple needed freedom to trade. They wanted to make theirown laws. They were willing to pay for the right to makethem. So, they paid taxes. These taxes gave them certainbasic rights. They got to buy and sell property. They alsodid not have to serve in the army if they did not want to.

Over time, medieval towns set up their own govern-ments. Only males who had been born in the city or who had lived there for a certain number of years werecitizens. These citizens chose the members of a city coun-cil. The council served as judges, city officials, and law-makers. People from the most wealthy and powerfulfamilies were usually able to control the elections so theywould be elected.Crafts and Guilds Trade encouraged people to make things.They made cloth, metal goods, shoes, and other goods in their houses. These craftspeople organized guilds.These were business groups. By 1200, tanners, carpenters,bakers, and almost every other type of craftspeople hadguilds.


Craft guilds set standards for quality in products. Theydecided how goods were to be made. They set prices.They also decided who could join a trade and the stepsthey had to follow.

A person could become an apprentice around the ageof 10. Apprentices learned a trade from a mastercraftsperson. This craftsperson gave them a place to sleepand food, but did not pay them. After five to seven years,the apprentice became a journeyman. Then they werepaid. To become a master, a journeyman had to make amasterpiece. This was an outstanding example of thecraft. The guild’s master craftspeople decided if the jour-neyman was good enough to become a master based onhis work. They also decided if he could join the guild.What Was City Life Like? Medieval cities had narrow, windingstreets. Houses were right next to each other. The secondand third stories were built out over the streets. Candlesand fireplaces were used for light and heat. The houseswere built mostly of wood. If a fire started, a medievalcity could be destroyed.

The cities were often dirty and smelly. Wood fires filledthe air with ashes and smoke. Brewers, dyers, and poorpeople could not afford wood. So, they burned cheapcoal. This polluted the air even more. Butchers and tan-ners dumped blood and other animal wastes into therivers. Cities did not use rivers for drinking. Instead, theyused wells.

City women did many things. They ran their house-hold, made meals, raised children, and kept track of thefamily’s money. Often they helped their husbands in theirtrades. Some women had their own trades to earn extramoney. Sometimes when a master craftsperson died, hiswife continued his trade. Women could be independent.Many women became brewers, weavers, and hat makers.

8. What decisions were made by craft guilds?

280

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


281

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


Kingdoms and Crusades For use with pages 534–543

Drawing From ExperienceThink of a television show or movie you have seen that

had a court scene. Was there a jury? Was there a judge?Was the person set free?

In the last section you learned about life for knightsand peasants. You also learned how trade helped townsand cities grow. In this section, you will learn about manypowerful kings and how they fought for their kingdoms.You will also learn about how English law and the courtsystem developed. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on the namesof the three major Slav groups.

Key Termsgrand jury: a group that decides if a person should be accused of a crime

(page 537)

trial jury: a group that decides if a person is innocent or guilty of a crime(page 537)

clergy: priests (page 538)

Southern Western Eastern

1. 4. 7.

2. 5. 8.

3. 6. 9.

Major Groups of Slavs

England in the Middle Ages (pages 535–537)

England developed a system in which the king’s power was limited byParliament.

You have learned about the Germanic peoples calledthe Angles and Saxons. They invaded Britain in the earlyA.D. 400s. They took over much of the country from theCelts. Then they set up many small kingdoms. In the laterA.D. 800s, Vikings attacked Britain. King Alfred of Wessexwas called Alfred the Great. He united the Anglo-Saxonkingdoms. He also drove away the Vikings. Alfred’sunited kingdom became known as “Angleland,” or England.

Alfred ruled England from A.D. 871 to A.D. 899. He setup schools. He hired people to rewrite Latin books intothe Anglo-Saxon language. But, the Anglo-Saxon kingswho ruled after him were weak.Who Was William the Conqueror? In the A.D. 900s, the Vikings tookover part of western France. This land was across theEnglish Channel from England. It was called Normandyafter the Vikings who ruled it. Vikings were known asNorsemen. By the middle of the A.D. 1000s, William ruledNormandy. He was from the family of the Viking rulerwho had conquered Normandy. He was also a cousin ofKing Edward of England.

When Edward died, a noble named Harold Godwin-son claimed England’s throne. But, William thought heshould be king, not Harold. In 1066, William and his armywent to England. They won the Battle of Hastings.William was then crowned king of England. He becameknown as William the Conqueror.

The Anglo-Saxons fought against William’s rule.William gave land to his Norman knights. He made themswear loyalty to him as ruler of England.

282

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


283

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

William wanted to know all about his new kingdom.He counted people, manors, and farm animals. This wasthe first census in Europe since Roman times. It wasknown as the Domesday Book.

The Normans brought Europe’s customs to England.Officials and nobles spoke French. Ordinary Anglo-Saxons spoke their own language. This is known now asEnglish. They learned new skills from Norman weaversand other craftspeople. The Normans kept many of theAnglo-Saxons’ ways of running the government. Forexample, local officials called sheriffs kept order. A newEnglish culture was formed as many Normans andAnglo-Saxons married.Henry II and the Common Law Henry II ruled England from 1154to 1189. He had more power than earlier kings. He gotthis power by setting up a court system. He had lawyersand judges. He also had circuit judges who traveledacross the country hearing cases. Henry formed a body ofcommon law. This is law that was the same throughoutthe whole kingdom.

Henry set up juries to settle arguments about land.There were two kinds of juries. The grand jury decidedwhether people should be accused of a crime. The trialjury decided whether an accused person was innocent orguilty.What Was the Magna Carta? Henry’s son John became king ofEngland in 1199. King John raised taxes. He also punishedenemies without trials. Many English nobles refused toobey him unless he gave them certain rights.

The nobles met with King John at a meadow calledRunnymede in 1215. They forced him to sign a documentof rights called the Magna Carta. This means the GreatCharter. It took away some of the king’s powers. Taxescould not be collected unless a group called the GreatCouncil agreed. Freemen accused of crimes would have


fair trials decided by their peers, or equals. The king andvassals both had certain rights and duties. The MagnaCarta was important because it said that people haverights. It also said that government should not have allthe power.

In the 1200s, Edward I, another English king, called ameeting of people from different parts of England. Theirjob was to help him make laws. This meeting was calledParliament. It was a big step toward giving people a voicein government. At first, Parliaments were made up of twoknights from every county, two people from every town,and all high-ranking nobles and church officials. Later, itwas divided into two houses. The House of Lords wasmade up of high-ranking nobles and church officials. TheHouse of Commons was made up of townspeople.

10. How did William the Conqueror get to know his newkingdom?

The Kingdom of France (page 538)

French kings called the Capetians conquered lands held by the English inwestern France and set up France’s first parliament.

In A.D. 843, Charlemagne’s empire was divided intothree parts. The western part became the kingdom ofFrance. In A.D. 987, Hugh Capet was king. He was the firstof the Capetian kings of France. The Capetians controlledthe area around Paris, the capital. Many French nobleshad more power than kings. This changed when Philip IIwas king of France.

Philip ruled from 1180 to 1223. When he took thethrone, England’s king ruled part of western France.Philip went to war and won the land. Since French kingshad more land, they had more power.

284

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


285

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Philip IV was called Philip the Fair. He ruled from 1285to 1314. In 1302, he met with people from three classes, orestates, of French society. The first class was the clergy.These were priests. The second class was nobles. Thethird class was townspeople and peasants. This wasFrance’s first parliament. It was called the Estates-General. It was the first step toward representative government in France.

11. What were the three groups of people who made upthe Estates-General, or France’s first parliament?

Eastern Europe and Russia (pages 539–540)

After the Mongols destroyed the Kievan state, the rulers of Moscowbuilt a new Russian state headed by a czar.

About A.D. 500, Slavs organized villages in EasternEurope. These were made up of families related to eachother. They shared their land, animals, tools, and seeds.Each family built part of its house under ground. Thiskept them warm in the winters.

Slavs divided into three major groups: the southern,western, and eastern Slavs. The southern Slavs were theCroats, Serbs, and Bulgarians. The western Slavs were thePoles, Czechs, and Slovaks. The eastern Slavs became theUkrainians, Belorussians, and Russians.

By A.D. 600, the eastern Slavs controlled the landbetween the Carpathian Mountains and the Volga River.They opened farmland by cutting down forests. Theyburned the trees to fertilize the soil. They planted barley,rye, and flax.What Was the Kievan Rus? In the late A.D. 700s, Vikings movedinto the Slavs’ land. They ruled the Slavs. The Slavs calledtheir Viking rulers the Rus. They became one group as theVikings and Slavs began to marry.


Around A.D. 900, a Viking leader named Oleg made aRus state around the city of Kiev. This was called theKievan Rus. It was a group of small territories. The mainruler was the Grand Duke of Kiev. Local princes, richmerchants, and landowning nobles called boyars helpedhim run the government.

The rulers after Oleg made the Kieven Rus bigger. Itreached the Baltic Sea in the north to the Black Sea in thesouth. It went from the Danube River in the west to theVolga River in the east.

Many missionaries from the Byzantine Empire went tothe Kieven Rus. One Rus ruler, Vladimir, married theByzantine emperor’s sister. He became an Eastern Ortho-dox Christian. He made his people Eastern Orthodox too.Kiev Falls to the Mongols About 1240, the Mongols invaded theKievan Rus. They were called “Tatars” because one of theMongol tribes was the Tata people. The Mongolsdestroyed nearly all the major cities. They also killedmany people.

The northern city of Novgorod survived. The Mongolscontrolled this land. Novgorod’s rulers had to obey theMongol leader. He was called the khan.

Germans and Swedes attacked Novgorod. But, Alexan-der Nevsky led them to victory. He was named grandduke by the Mongol khan. The Rise of Moscow As the Slavs rebuilt their land, the city ofMoscow began to grow. Many important trade routes metin Moscow. Alexander Nevsky’s son Daniel and hisdescendants became grand dukes of Moscow.

The dukes of Moscow married women from the rulingfamilies in other Slavic towns. They fought to get moreland. Moscow became the headquarters of the Russianbranch of the Eastern Orthodox Church. This made iteven more important. Ivan I, the Grand Duke of Moscow,ruled from 1328 to 1341. He collected taxes for the Mon-gols. Moscow grew even greater.

286

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


287

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

In 1462, Ivan III was known as Ivan the Great. Hebecame the grand duke. He married Sophia, the niece ofthe last Byzantine emperor. He then began living like anemperor. He built fine palaces and large churches in theKremlin at the center of Moscow. He called himself czar.Czar was a shortened version of Caesar. In Russian, czarmeans “emperor.”

Ivan IV was a great ruler. In 1480, he finally endedMongol rule over Moscow’s territory. He grew his terri-tory to the north and west. When Ivan IV died in 1505, theRussians were building a great empire.

12. Why were the Mongols who invaded Kievan Ruscalled the “Tatars”?

The Crusades (pages 541–543)

European crusaders captured Jerusalem but were later driven out bythe Muslims.

During the Middle Ages, the Byzantine Empire in theeast was attacked. In 1071, Muslim Turks defeated theByzantines. They also took control of most of the Byzan-tine lands in Asia Minor.

The Byzantine emperor did not have enough money to drive out the Turks. He asked the pope for help. He needed to defend his Christian empire against theMuslims.

In 1905, Pope Urban II spoke to a large crowd in east-ern France. He asked Europe’s lords to launch a crusade,or holy war, against the Muslim Turks. He wanted themto capture Jerusalem. He wanted them to free the HolyLand where Jesus had lived. The pope explained why thecrusade was needed:

“Jerusalem is the navel [center] of the world. . . . This is the landwhich the Redeemer [Jesus] of


mankind illuminated by his coming. . . . This royal city, situated in the middle of the world, is now held captive by hisenemies. . . . It looks and hopesfor freedom; it begs unceasinglythat you will come to its aid.”

—Pope Urban II,as quoted in The Discoverers

The excited crowd cried out, “It is the will of God, it isthe will of God.” The Crusades had begun.Early Victories Several thousand soldiers on horses headedeast. At least 10,000 soldiers on foot went also. Many ofthem wore a red cross on their clothes. This was a signthat they were obeying the pope.

In 1098, the First Crusade took Antioch in Syria. Thecrusaders entered Palestine. They reached Jerusalem in1099. They killed Muslims, Jews, and Christians.

The Crusaders forced the Muslims out and createdfour states. These were the Kingdom of Jerusalem inPalestine, the country of Edessa and the principality ofAntioch in Asia Minor, and the country of Tripoli whereLebanon is located today. Muslims surrounded these fourstates. They depended on the Italian cities of Genoa, Pisa,and Venice for supplies.

The Muslims fought back. They captured Edessa in1144. Crusaders were sent to get it back. This Second Crusade failed.

In 1174, a Muslim named Saladin became ruler ofEgypt. He united the Muslims. He declared war againstthe Christian states and won. He captured Jerusalem in1187. Saladin was a great leader.

The fall of Jerusalem led to the Third Crusade.Emperor Frederick of the Holy Roman Empire, King Richard I of England (known as Richard the

288

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


289

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Lion-Hearted), and King Philip II of France united armies.They headed east to fight Saladin.

The Third Crusade had many problems. Frederickdrowned crossing a river. The English and French cameby sea and captured the coastal city, but they were notable to go inland. After Philip went home, Richard got asmall territory along the coast. He agreed to a truce afterSaladin promised that Christians could travel toJerusalem safely.

Around 1200, Pope Innocent III called for a FourthCrusade. Merchants from Venice tried to weaken theByzantine Empire. They got the crusaders to attack Con-stantinople, the Byzantine capital. For three days, the citywas burned and robbed. This shocked Western Euro-peans. It also weakened the Byzantine people.

Six more crusades were launched over the next sixtyyears. But they did very little. Muslims won back all ofthe territory they had lost to the First Crusade. In 1291,the Muslims won the last Christian city.

The Crusades changed Europe. Trade grew betweenEurope and the Middle East. Feudalism broke down.Nobles who joined the Crusades sold their lands andfreed their serfs. They had less power. Kings builtstronger governments. Kings also taxed the new tradewith the Middle East. These taxes helped them buildstronger kingdoms in Western Europe.

13. How did the Crusades change Europe?


Drawing From ExperienceHave you ever visited a university? Would you like to

go to college someday? What part do learning and studyplay in your life?

In the last section, you learned about many powerfulkings and how they fought for their kingdoms. In this sec-tion, you will learn how the Catholic Church shapedMedieval Europe’s culture. You will also learn what uni-versities were like then.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on whatmedieval churches looked like. In the center circle, writeeither Romanesque Style or Gothic Style. In the smallercircles, describe what that style of church looked like.

290

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsmass: the Catholic worship service (page 546)

heresy: religious beliefs that go against Church teachings (page 547)

anti-Semitism: hatred of Jews (page 548)

theology: the study of religion and God (page 550)

scholasticism: the use of reason to explore questions of faith (page 550)

vernacular: everyday language used in a specific region (page 552)


The Church and Society For use with pages 544–552

1.

4.

3.

2.

291

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Religion and Society (pages 545–548)

The Catholic Church played an important role in medieval Europe andused its power to uphold its teachings.

Between 1050 and 1150, religion was very important inWestern Europe. More monasteries were built. Newgroups of priests, monks, and nuns were started. Thesewere called religious orders.New Religious Orders The Cistercian order began in 1098. Cistercian monks farmed land, worshiped, and prayed.They invented many new ways of farming that helpedgrow more crops.

The most famous Cistercian monk was Bernard ofClairvaux. He supported the Second Crusade. He advisedthe pope. He also defended the poor against the rich.

Many women entered convents between A.D. 1000 and1200. Most of them were from noble families. They werewomen whose husbands had died or women who wereunable or unwilling to marry. Convents were good placesto study and write.

Most educated women were nuns. Hildegard of Bin-gen was in charge of a convent in Germany. She wrotemusic for the Church. Usually only men wrote churchmusic.

Until the 1200s, most people stayed in their monaster-ies separate from the world. They lived a simple life. Theyprayed and worked hard. In the 1200s, many new reli-gious orders were created. The men in these groups werecalled friars. Friar is Latin for “brother.”

Friars were different from monks. They did not stay intheir monasteries. They went out into the world topreach. Friars lived by begging. They could not ownproperty. They could not keep any personal wealth.

Francis of Assisi started the first order of friars in 1209.They were called Franciscans. They lived in towns and


taught Christianity. They also helped the poor and weremissionaries.

The Dominicans were another group of friars. ASpanish priest named Dominic de Guzman started them.They defended the Church teachings. Dominican friarsspent years in study so they could preach to well-educated people.The Role of Religion Daily life centered around the CatholicChurch. Priests ran schools and hospitals. They recordedbirths, performed weddings, and funerals. On Sundaysand holy days, people went to mass. This is the Catholicworship service.

During mass, Christians took part in Church acts or rit-uals. These were called sacraments. The most importantsacrament was communion. This is where people tookbread and wine. This reminded them of Jesus’ death onthe cross for their sins. Only clergy could perform thesacraments.

Many Christians prayed to saints. Saints were holymen and women who had died. They were believed to bein heaven. These saints could ask God for favors for thepeople who prayed to them.

Mary, the mother of Jesus, was the most honored saint.Many churches were named for her. Several Frenchchurches carried the name Notre Dame, or “Our Lady,” inhonor of Mary.

Some people tried to get close to the saints by touchingrelics. Relics were usually bones or personal belongings ofsaints. They were thought to have special powers. Forexample, they could heal the sick.

Medieval Christians also believed that God blessed pil-grims. These were religious travelers who went to holyplaces. The holiest place was Jerusalem.What Was the Inquisition? The Catholic Church was very pow-erful. Its leaders wanted everyone to accept the Church’steachings. If not, people would not get into heaven. Non-believers could make the Church weak.

292

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


293

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Church tried to stop heresy. This was religiousbeliefs that did not agree with the Church teachings. Friars were sent out to preach. Then in 1233, the pope created a Church court. This was called the Inquisition.Heresy was a crime against God. The Inquisition’s jobwas to put people on trial. These people were calledheretics.

People brought before the Inquisition were told to con-fess their heresy and to ask forgiveness. If they did, theywere punished. Then, they were allowed to return to theChurch. People who would not confess could be tortureduntil they did. Those who did not confess were thought tobe guilty. The Inquisition turned them over to politicalleaders. They could be killed.How Were the Jews Treated? Church leaders mistreated Jews,too. Many Europeans resented Jews because they wouldnot become Christians. They also resented them becausethey lent money and charged interest. Christians believedcharging interest was a sin.

People blamed the Jews for problems in society. Jewsbecame scapegoats—people who are blamed for otherpeople’s troubles. Hatred of Jews is anti-Semitism.

Thousands of Jews were killed. Jews had to wear spe-cial badges or clothing. In some places, Jews had to live inseparate places known as ghettos. Jews also could notown land. They could not practice certain trades. This iswhy many of them became peddlers and moneylenders.These were jobs that Christians did not want.

In the 1100s, Jews were forced out of many places. Eng-land forced Jews out in 1290. France and some Germancities did as well. Many of these Jews went to Poland.Others went to Eastern European countries. They hadgrowing communities that were based on their religioustraditions.

5. What is a heretic?


Medieval Culture (pages 549–552)

Church and government leaders supported learning and the arts inmedieval Europe.

People in medieval Europe felt safer because of stronggovernments. Trade, banking, and business grew. Moremoney could be used for education and the arts. Newchurches and other buildings could be built.Medieval Art and Architecture Many buildings were built in theA.D. 1000s and 1100s. Religion was an important part oflife, so Church leaders, wealthy merchants, and nobleshad cathedrals built. These are large churches. They wereeither the Romanesque style or the Gothic style.

Romanesque churches were rectangular. They had long,rounded roofs called barrel vaults. These roofs needed hugepillars and thick walls to hold them up. Windows weresmall and set back in the thick walls. They let in little light.

Gothic cathedrals had ribbed vaults and pointedarches instead of rounded barrel vaults. They were tallerthan Romanesque churches. Gothic churches also usedflying buttresses. These were built onto the outside walls.They made it possible to build thinner walls and largeglass windows.

Stained glass windows were picture Bibles for Chris-tians who could not read. They often were scenes of Jesus’life and teachings. They let in sunlight. This was a symbolof the divine light of God.The First Universities Two of the first European universitieswere in Bologna, Italy, and Paris, France. Masters, orteachers, were also teaching at Oxford, England, by 1096.Oxford University was started in 1231.

Universities educated and trained scholars. They werelike the guilds that trained craftspeople. University isLatin for “guild.” Students studied grammar, logic, math,music, and the stars and planets. They did not havebooks. Books were rare before the European printingpress was created in the 1400s.

294

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


295

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

University students studied for four to six years. Acommittee then gave them a verbal exam. If the studentpassed, they were given a degree.

After getting a basic degree, a student could earn adoctor’s degree. This degree could be in law, medicine, ortheology—the study of religion and God. It could take 10years or more to get.Who Was Thomas Aquinas? A new way of thinking changed thestudy of theology. Scholasticism used reason to explorequestions about faith. A Dominican friar and priestnamed Thomas Aquinas was scholasticism’s best cham-pion. He combined Church teachings with the ideas ofAristotle, a Greek philosopher.

Europeans had forgotten about Aristotle after Romefell and his works had been lost. In the 1100s, Muslim andJewish scholars used copies of his books to teach his ideasto Europe. Aristotle’s ideas upset many Christianthinkers. He used reason, not faith, to find the meaning oflife.

In the 1200s, Thomas Aquinas wrote several works.They explained that Aristotle would have agreed withmany Christian teachings. About 1267, Aquinas wroteSumma Theologica. This was about the knowledge on theology. Aquinas asked hard questions such as “DoesGod exist?”

Aquinas wrote about government and natural law. Natural law is the belief that some laws are part of humannature. These laws do not have to be made by governments.

Aquinas claimed that natural law gave people certainrights that the government should not take away. Thesewere the right to live, to learn, to worship, and to havechildren. These writings have influenced governments tothis day. Our belief that people have rights can partly betraced to the ideas of Thomas Aquinas.Medieval Literature Educated people throughout Europe gen-erally spoke or wrote in Latin. The Church used Latin inits worship and daily affairs. University teachers taughtLatin. Serious authors wrote in Latin.


Each region also had its own language. This everydaylanguage is called vernacular. It was early versions ofSpanish, French, English, Italian, and German.

During the 1100s, new literature was written in vernac-ular. Educated people enjoyed vernacular writings, espe-cially troubadour poetry. These were poems about love.They were usually about the love of a knight for a lady.

Another type of vernacular writings was the heroicepic. In these, brave knights fight for kings and lords.Women are not usually in these stories. The Song of Rolandis an example of a heroic epic. It was written in French inabout 1100.

In the Song of Roland, a knight named Roland fights forCharlemagne against the Muslims. Roland blows his hornfor Charlemagne to help, but it is too late:

“The Count Rollanz [Roland], with sorrow and with pangs,

And with great pain sounded his olifant [horn]:

Out of his mouth the clear blood leaped and ran,

About his brain the very temples cracked.

Loud is its voice, that horn he holds in hand;

Charlès [Charlemagne] hath heard, where in the pass he stands,

And Neimès [a commander] hears, and listen all the Franks.”

—Song of Roland,Charles Scott Moncrief, trans.

6. How long would it take to earn a degree at a univer-sity? How long for a doctor’s degree?

296

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


297

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The Late Middle Ages For use with pages 553–558

Drawing From ExperienceWhen you get a cold or the flu, what do you do? How

would your life be different without doctors or medicineto help you?

In the last section, you learned how the CatholicChurch shaped Medieval Europe’s culture. In this section,you will learn about how and where the disease called theBlack Death spread. You will also learn about how Spainand Portugal fought the Muslims.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on the spreadof the Black Death.

Key Termsplague: a disease that spreads quickly and kills many people (page 554)

Reconquista: the Christian fight to get the Iberian Peninsula back from theMuslims (page 558)

1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8.

9. 10. 11. 12.

The Black Death (pages 554–555)

A terrible plague, known as the Black Death, swept through Europe inthe 1300s, killing millions.

The Middle Ages in Europe reached a high point during the 1200s. In the 1300s, disaster struck. A terribleplague swept across Europe and Asia. A plague is a dis-ease that spreads quickly and kills many people. This wascalled the Black Death. Most scientists think it was thebubonic plague—a disease carried by fleas. These fleaswere on black rats that were everywhere.

The Black Death probably began somewhere in theGobi desert in central Asia. This plague had been aroundfor hundreds of years. But for some reason it spread far-ther and more quickly in the 1300s.

Historians think the Mongol Empire may have helpedto spread the plague. The empire had all the land fromEastern Europe through central Asia to China. The Mon-gols traded between China, India, the Middle East, andEurope. They used the Silk Road and other trade routes.

By the early 1300s, more goods were shipped acrosscentral Asia than ever before. This made it possible for theBlack Death to spread quickly. Caravans traveled fromcity to city. They had a lot of rats.

The first outbreak was in China in 1331. It happenedthere again in 1353. The disease killed between 40 and 60million people. It cut China’s population almost in half.The disease was in India in the 1340s. It reached Makkahin 1349. It also spread to Europe.

In 1346, the Black Death reached Europe. It appearedin the city of Caffa on the Black Sea. The Mongols wereattacking the city when it hit. Troops were dying, so theMongols stopped the battle. In anger, they threw bodiesof sick soldiers into the city.

298

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


299

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Italian merchants from the city of Genoa controlledCaffa. It was a trade colony. Their ships carried the plagueto Sicily in October 1347. By the end of 1349, it had spreadthrough France, Germany, and England. By 1351, it hadreached Scandinavia, Eastern Europe, and Russia. Asmany as 38 million Europeans died between 1347 and1351. That is nearly one out of every two people in fouryears.

The death of so many people hurt Europe’s economy.Trade slowed. Workers wanted to be paid more. Fewerpeople meant less need for food. So, food prices fell.

Landlords had to pay workers more and charge lessrent. Some peasants were able to pay rent in place of ser-vices. This meant they were no longer serfs. In this way,the plague, like the Crusades, helped weaken the feudalsystem and change European society.

13. How many Europeans died of the Black Death?

A Troubled Continent (pages 557–558)

Western Europe was devastated by war in the 1300s and 1400s asEngland and France fought each other, and Spain and Portugal fought against theMuslims.

The plague was not Europe’s only problem. The Eng-lish and French were at war. The Spanish and Portuguesefought to drive out Muslims who had conquered themcenturies before.The Hundred Years’ War In Section 3, you learned that Williamof Normandy became king of England in 1066. He alsoruled Normandy.

French kings did not want the English in Normandy.English kings said they owned the land. In 1337, EdwardIII named himself king of France. He was already an


English king. This made the French mad. War began. Itlasted over 100 years.

The first major battle of the Hundred Years’ War was atCrecy. English archers beat the French army. They forcedthe French king to give up some of his kingdom.

Under a new king, the French slowly won back theirland. Then in 1415, Henry V of England attacked. Eng-land’s archers won again. The English controlled northernFrance.Who Was Joan of Arc? Charles, the prince who ruled southernFrance, wanted the north back. In 1429, a French peasantgirl named Joan was brought to him. She told him thather favorite saints told her to free France. Charles let hergo with a French army to Orleans. Joan’s faith excited thesoldiers. They captured the city.

Shortly after, Charles was named king. A few monthslater, the English captured Joan. They handed her over tothe Inquisition. She was burned at the stake. She laterbecame known as Joan of Arc.

The French finally defeated the English in 1453. Theking had spent almost all his money. But, the warstrengthened French feelings for their country. Frenchkings developed a strong government.

The Hundred Years’ War was also hard on the Englishand their economy. They also had a civil war to deal with.The War of the Roses involved English nobles fightingover who should be king. The winner, Henry Tudor,become King Henry VII.Spain and Portugal Fight the Muslims During the Middle Ages,Muslims ruled most of Spain and Portugal. These twolands are the Iberian Peninsula. Most of the peninsula’speople were Christians. Some were also Jews.

The Muslims had a rich culture here. They builtmosques and palaces. One example was the Alhambra inthe southern kingdom of Granada. They also started

300

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


301

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

schools. Muslims, Jews, and Christians studied together.Most Christians disagreed with Muslim rule. Their fightto take back the Iberian Peninsula was called the Recon-quista, or “reconquest.”

By the 1200s, the Christians had set up three king-doms: Portugal in the west, Castile in the center, andAragon on the Mediterranean coast. Muslims slowly lostland until all that was left was Granada in the south.

In 1469, Princess Isabella of Castile married Prince Fer-dinand of Aragon. Within 10 years, they became king andqueen. They joined their lands into one country calledSpain. Ferdinand and Isabella wanted all of Spain to beCatholic. They first concentrated on the Jews. Some Jewsbecame Christians to escape bad treatment. The king andqueen thought many were still Jews in secret. So theyestablished the Spanish Inquisition.

The Spanish Inquisition tortured thousands of peoplecharged with heresy. In 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella gaveJews the choice to switch to Christianity or leave Spain.Most Jews decided to leave Spain.

The king and queen then turned to the Muslims. In1492, Spain’s army conquered Granada. Ten years later,Muslims had to become Christians or leave. Most left forNorth Africa.

14. When Princess Isabella and Prince Ferdinand joinedtheir land into one country, what was it called?


Drawing from ExperienceHave you ever planted a garden or tried to grow some-

thing? What happened to your plants? What would yourlife be like if people had never learned to farm?

In this section, you will learn about the first people tocome to the Americas. You’ll also learn about how farm-ing began. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the time line to help you take notes on the firstpeople in the Americas. List dates for the events listedbelow.

1. Teotihuacán reaches its height

2. Mayan civilization ends

3. Moche rule begins

4. The Hohokam begin to plant lands near rivers

5. The Anasazi move into canyons and cliffs

6. End of Adenas and Hopewells

7. End of Mississippians

302

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsglacier: huge sheet of ice (page 573)

monopoly: control by one group of the sale of a product (page 576)


The First Americans For use with pages 572–581

A.D. 100 A.D. 400 A.D. 900

A.D. 300 A.D. 600 A.D. 1300

303

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Pathway to the Americas (page 573)

It is believed that the first people in the Americas came from Asia dur-ing the Ice Age.

How did people first come to America? A long timeago, America was connected by land to the rest of theworld. During the Ice Age, the earth became very cold.Scientists have studied the earth’s surface during the IceAge. They think that much of the earth’s water froze intohuge sheets of ice, or glaciers.

As the ice froze, the seas fell. Dry land appearedbetween Asia and Alaska. Scientists call this land bridgeBeringia. It is named after Vitus Bering, a Europeanexplorer. They think that people in Asia followed animalsacross the land bridge into the Americas. Scientists testedthe age of bones and tools in very old campsites. Based onthese tests, they think that the first people came between15,000 and 40,000 years ago.

The Ice Age ended about 10,000 years ago. The glaciersmelted and the water went back into the seas. The landbridge to America was covered by water. Hunting and Gathering Hunters in the Americas were alwaysmoving and looking for food. They fished and gatherednuts, fruits, or roots. They also hunted huge animals suchas the woolly mammoth, antelope, caribou, and bison.

A woolly mammoth could weigh as much as 9 tons. Ittook several hunters to kill it. They got meat, hides forclothing, and bones for tools from these big animals.

With the end of the Ice Age, some animals disappearedfrom the earth. But the warm weather was good for earlyAmericans.

8. When did the first people come to the Americas?


First American Civilizations (pages 574–578)

The invention of farming led to the rise of civilizations in the Americas.

The first Americans were hunter-gatherers. But the endof the Ice Age brought warmer weather, and peoplelearned something new. They learned that they couldplant seeds that would grow into crops for food.

Farming began 9,000 to 10,000 years ago in Meso-america. Meso comes from the Greek word for “middle.”This area includes lands from the Valley of Mexico toCosta Rica in Central America.

The land in this area was good for farming. A lot of thearea had rich soil from volcanoes. It also had a warm cli-mate. Rain in the spring helped seeds grow. Dryerweather in the summer helped the crops get ripe. Morerain in the fall made the soil wet for next year’s crops.

The first American crops included pumpkins, peppers,squash, gourds, and beans. Corn grew as a wild grasswith only one, one-inch cob. After hundreds of years, theearly Americans learned how to cross corn with othergrasses to get bigger cobs. They also learned how to growmore cobs on each plant. This made corn, also calledmaize, the most important food in the Americas. Mesoamerican Civilizations When Mesoamericans started grow-ing crops, they could stop moving around looking forfood. Their societies changed. The first civilizationappeared around 1500 B.C.

Around 1200 B.C., people called the Olmec built a trad-ing empire. It lasted about 800 years. They lived neartoday’s city of Vera Cruz, Mexico.

The Olmec had good land for farming. But they didnot have other things they needed. They traded salt andbeans to get jade for jewelry. They traded for obsidian, orvolcanic glass, to make sharp knives. They used a shinyvolcanic stone to make polished mirrors. And they usedbasalt for carving big stone heads.

304

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


305

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Olmec used the area’s many rivers for trade, but intime the inland peoples took control of the trade. One ofthese groups built the first planned city in the Americas. It was known as Teotihuacán, or “Place of the Gods.” Thecity was at its most powerful around A.D. 400. Between120,000 and 200,000 people lived there.

As Teotihuacán became more powerful, a people calledthe Maya built another civilization. They lived in the wetrain forests of the Yucatan Peninsula. They also traded.Their location made it easy for them to reach as far assouthern Mexico and Central America. Mayan traders incanoes paddled along the coast. They may have gone asfar north as the present-day United States.What Happened to the Maya? Teotihuacán and Mayan cities wereat their best in the A.D. 400s and 500s. Around A.D. 600,Teotihuacán started to weaken. No one knows why. Somebelieve that the city did not have enough food for somany people. Others believe they had a long period with-out rain. Still others say that the poor people turnedagainst their rich rulers. Whatever the reason, the city wasgone by A.D. 750.

The Mayan civilization lasted about 200 years longer.No one knows why this civilization ended either. TheMaya left their cities. By the A.D. 900s, the cities wereempty and covered in vines.

At the same time, a people called the Toltec took con-trol of what is now northern Mexico. These warriors builtthe city of Tula. It was northwest of present-date MexicoCity. From Tula, they took over lands all the way to theYucatán Peninsula.

Toltec rulers controlled trade. They held a monopoly.They were the only ones who could trade in obsidian.This meant other people could not make weapons asstrong as Toltec weapons.

Around A.D. 1200, people from the north took overTula. One group called the Aztec copied the ways of the


Toltec. Aztec warriors then took control of trade. Theybuilt a large empire. When Europeans arrived in the A.D. 1500s, the Aztec ruled about five million people. The Moche and Inca Other civilizations grew south ofMesoamerica. The Moche people lived in the dry desertalong the coast of South America. Today, this is calledPeru.

The Moche ruled from about A.D. 100 to A.D. 700. Theydug canals to bring water from the Andes Mountains.Because of this water, they could grow crops in the desert.

The Moche grew lots of food. They ate corn, squash,beans, and peanuts. They also hunted llamas and guineapigs. They fished in the Pacific Ocean.

Because they did not have to worry about food, theMoche could do other things. They built big pyramids,like the Pyramid of the Sun. And they traded with peopleas far away as the Amazon rain forests. Their goodsincluded pottery, cloth, and jewelry.

The Moche did not have a written language. Theirstory is told through art. Pottery showed important ani-mals, like the llama. The llama carried goods for long dis-tances. It also provided meat and wool.

The Moche did many things. But they never grew farbeyond their homeland. A people called the Inca built theempire.

The Inca’s home was in the Andes mountain ranges ofpresent-day Peru. They lived in high river valleys. Overtime, the Inca built the biggest empire in the ancientAmericas. It was built around the capital of Cuzco. Cuzcowas founded in A.D. 1100.

9. How did the ability to farm change life in theseancient civilizations?

306

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


307

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Civilizations in North America (page 578–581)

Early people in the northern part of the Americas built complex cultures based on farming and trade.

Native Americans who lived north of Mesoamericahad their own ways of living. But they learned the skill offarming from the Mesoamerican people.

In the present-day United States, farming began in theAmerican Southwest. It moved along the coast and up theMississippi, Missouri, and Ohio Rivers. As farming grew,civilizations grew as well. The Hohokam and Anasazi Mesoamerican traders told peopleabout farming as they traveled. But it took a long time forthe people in the Southwest deserts to try farming.

Around A.D. 300, a people called the Hohokam plantedgardens on lands between the Salt and Gila Rivers. Theydug over 500 miles of canals to carry water to their fields.They grew corn, cotton, beans, and squash. They madepottery and turquoise jewelry. And they made the world’sfirst etchings, or pictures made with acid. They used cac-tus juice to eat through the top of shells.

The Hohokam lived well for about 1,000 years. In themid-A.D. 1300s, they moved away. The reason for this isnot known. A long period without rain or floods mayhave made them leave. No one is sure.

Around A.D. 600, the Anasazi moved into the area’scanyons and cliffs. They also farmed. But they did not userivers to get their water for farming. They used the waterthat ran off the cliffs during heavy rains.

Anasazi culture was at its highest point at ChacoCanyon. This is in present-day New Mexico. The peoplethere controlled the trade in turquoise. They used it likemoney to buy goods from many areas, includingMesoamerica.

The Anasazi lived in big houses dug into the cliffs. Thecliff houses had hundreds of rooms and held thousands


of people. Spanish explorers later called these housespueblos. This is the Spanish word for “village.” TheAnasazi lived well until the early A.D. 1000s. Then therewas a period of 50 years without rain. Like the Hohokam,the Anasazi also moved away. Who Were the Mound Builders? Across the Mississippi River,another civilization was growing. It started around 1000B.C. and lasted until about A.D. 400. Its people built largemounds made of earth. Some mounds were in the shapeof animals. These gave the people their name—“MoundBuilders.”

Two groups formed from the mound-builders—theAdena and the Hopewell. They settled the lands from theGreat Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico.

The Mound Builders lived mostly as hunters and gath-erers. But they did try farming. Scientists think theytamed many wild plants, like sunflowers, gourds, andbarley. Women probably planted the first seeds. Womenprobably also knew the most about plants. They foundwild foods while the men hunted.

Traders probably brought corn to this area around A.D. 100. These traders were looking for materials to makeweapons, jewelry, and carvings. Many of these objectswere placed with the dead in the mounds.The Mississippians The mound-building culture changed whenthe Hopewell culture ended. A new people known as theMississippians appeared. Their name came from theirhome in the Mississippi River valley. Their lands reachedfrom present-day Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, south to theGulf of Mexico.

The Mississippians found that plants grew well alongthe river. They could grow enough crops to become full-time farmers. The crops grown most were corn, squash,and beans.

308

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


309

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

This farming led to the growth of cities. As many as10,000 people or more lived in the cities. The largest city,Cahokia, may have had 30,000 people. You can still seewhat is left of the city in southwest Illinois.

Mississippian mounds were different. They built pyra-mid shaped mounds with flat tops. The base of thebiggest one covered 16 acres. This is more than the base ofthe Great Pyramid in Egypt.

This mound, known as Monks Mound, was more than100 feet high. From the top of the mound, rulers couldlook down at many smaller mounds. The flat tops of themounds held temples, homes for the rich, and graves.

In the early A.D. 1300s, the Mississippian civilizationended. The cities were left empty. Maybe other NativeAmericans attacked them. Or they may have run out offood.

10. Which civilization was able to farm full-time? Whateffect did this have?


Drawing From ExperienceHave you ever lived in or visited a different part of

your country? Was it warmer? Colder? How did these differences affect the lives of people living there?

The last section described the first civilizations in theAmericas. This section discusses Mayan, Aztec, Incan,and North American cultures. The places where eachgroup lived shaped their lives and culture. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes. Fill in the tableto help you learn about the lives of the groups in NorthAmerica.

310

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsquipu: a rope with knotted cords of different lengths and colors used by Incas

to do math or keep records (page 588)

igloo: dome shaped home made from blocks of ice (page 590)

adobe: mud bricks dried in the sun (page 591)

confederation: government that links several groups (page 592)


Life in the Americas For use with pages 582–592

Group Climate Food Sources Homes

Far North 1. 2. 3.

West Coast 4. 5. 6.

Southwest 7. 8. 9.

Life in North America

311

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Mayan People (pages 583–585)

The Maya adjusted to life in the tropical rain forest and built a culturebased on their religious beliefs.

In A.D. 1839, John Lloyd Stevens and Frederick Cather-wood found the ruins of an ancient city. Stevens was anAmerican lawyer. Catherwood was an English artist. Asthey cut their way through the Yucatán rain forest, theymade a great discovery.

Stevens and Catherwood learned that the people whobuilt the city were called the Maya. These people wererelated to the millions of Maya who still live today inMexico, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Belize.Mayan City-States It looked at first like the Maya lived in oneof the worst spots on Earth. They picked the Petén inpresent-day Guatemala. Petén is the Mayan word for “flatregion.” The forests there nearly blocked out the sun.Stinging bugs filled the air. Deadly snakes were on theground. Monkeys and parrots screeched in the trees. Evenwith all of this, the Maya grew rich.

The Maya saw the good things about their land.Swamps and sinkholes gave them a steady source ofwater. Sinkholes are areas where the earth has fallen.These holes gave the Maya a system of undergroundrivers and streams. They served as Mayan wells.

The Maya had water. But without an organized cul-ture, they could not have built cities and fields in thisland. Many people had to work together. This meant theyneeded an organized government.

The Maya set up city-states. Rulers in each city-stategave the leadership and military force needed for build-ing projects. Leadership was passed from one king to thenext. The city-states often fought with each other.Life in the Mayan Cities Mayan rulers said they came from thesun. They said they had the right to rule as god-kings.


They expected every person to serve them. They alsoexpected people to put up big buildings or statues tohonor them.

Mayan rulers told the people how to make the godshappy. One way was by killing people. The Mayabelieved that the gods gave them their life in rain. Sohumans should give the gods their life in blood.

In battle, the Maya wanted to take people more thanthey wanted to take land. During times when they had norain, Mayan priests killed the captives. The deaths werean offering to Chac, the god of rain and sunlight. TheMaya believed that Chac lived in the waters below thesinkholes. They threw people into the holes to make thegod happy.

The Maya believed that the gods controlled all of lifeon Earth. For this reason, religion was at the center ofMayan life. Every city had a huge pyramid with a templeat the top. Priests set up a class system. In this system,everyone had a place.

Royal Mayan women often married into royal familiesin far away city-states. This helped with trade. It alsohelped form alliances. Alliances are agreements to worktogether.

Women played a big role in the city-states. In oneMayan carving, a woman wears a war headdress and iscarried on a table by soldiers. At least two women werequeens in the city-state of Calakmul. One of them mayhave helped start the city.Mayan Science and Writing Both queens and kings asked Mayanpriests for help. The priests thought that the gods showedtheir plans through the sun, moon, and stars. They stud-ied the sky closely.

The sky also showed the Maya when to plant theircrops. By watching the sky, the priests made a 365-daycalendar to track the stars and planets. They used it topredict eclipses and to plan religious festivals, plantings,

312

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


313

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

and harvests. To track time, the Maya developed a systemof math. They created a way to count based on 20.

The Maya also invented a written language. They usedit to write numbers and dates. Like the Egyptians, theMaya used a system of symbols. Symbols stood forwords, sounds, or ideas. But only nobles could read them.After the end of the Mayan civilizations, no one couldread them at all. But today people have started to under-stand the stories told by the symbols.

10. Who was Chac?

The Aztec (pages 585–587)

The Aztec moved into the Valley of Mexico, where they created anempire based on conquest and war.

The Aztec, who moved from place to place, arrived inthe Valley of Mexico about A.D. 1250. They were not wel-come there. One king thought he had a way to get rid of them. He gave the Aztec land filled with snakes. Hethought the deadly snakes would kill them. But the Azteccooked and ate the snakes. Then they built their ownkingdom.The Aztec Government The Aztec knew how to stay alive. Theyhad moved about for hundreds of years looking for ahome. They believed that their sun god—a serpent withfeathers named Quetzalcoatl—had promised them aplace. An old story said that the Aztec would know theyhad found their home when an eagle “screams andspreads its wings, and eats . . . the serpent.”

An old story says that the Aztec found their homewhen they killed a local princess for one of their gods.The princess’s father said he would kill all of the Aztec.There were only a few hundred of them. The Aztec ranaway. In A.D. 1325, they went to a wet, swampy island in


Lake Texcoco. An eagle sitting on a prickly pear cactusgreeted them. It tore apart a snake hanging from its beak.Then it spread its wings and screamed in victory. Whenthey saw this, the Aztec believed they had come to theend of their search.

Priests who were speaking for the gods told the Aztecwhat to do next. They were to build a great city. Peopleworked day and night. They dug dirt from the lake bot-tom to build bridges to the land. They piled dirt on raftsto build floating gardens.

The Aztec called the new city Tenochtitlán. This means“place of the prickly pear cactus.” As the city grew, theAztec dreamed of taking new lands and wealth. Theywanted to get tribute, or payment for protection, from thepeople they controlled.

To do this, the Aztec turned to strong kings. Thesekings said they came from the gods. A group of warriors,priests, and nobles picked each king from the royal family. They usually chose the last king’s son, but notalways. They looked for a king who would make themgreat. A king had to prove himself by leading the peopleinto battle.Life in the Aztec Empire The king was at the top of Aztec soci-ety. The rest of the people fell into four classes. They werenobles, commoners, unskilled laborers, or enslaved peo-ple. The largest group was commoners. They worked asfarmers, artisans, or traders. They could join the nobleclass by doing one brave deed in war. They received landand the rank of noble. The land went to their children ifthe soldier died.

The Aztec saw honor in death for their gods. Soldierswho died in battle, captives who were sacrificed, andwomen who died in childbirth were all worthy of lifeafter death. Others went to the “Land of the Dead.” Thiswas the lowest part of the underworld.

Children learned about the glory of war and theirduties as an Aztec. When a boy was born, the woman

314

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


315

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

who helped with the birth cried: “You must understandthat your home is not here where you have been born, foryou are a warrior!”

But when a girl was born, the words were different.The woman said: “As the heart stays in the body, so youmust stay in the house.” Women stayed at home. Butwomen who gave birth were heroes in Aztec society.

Almost everything the Aztec did grew out of a prom-ise. Priests spoke the words of the god Huitzilopochtli.He said, “We shall conquer all the people in the uni-verse.”

Because of this promise, the Aztec built a huge pyra-mid to honor the god. Built in the center of Tenochtitlán, it was 135 feet high. Known as the Great Temple, it hadmore than 100 steps. Thousands of people were taken tothe top. There they were killed for the gods.

11. Why did the Aztec name their city Tenochtitlán?

Life in the Inca Empire (page 588)

To unite their huge empire, Incan rulers set up a highly organized gov-ernment and society.

The Inca said that the god Pachacamac caused earth-quakes. Pachacamac means “Lord of the earth.” When hegot angry, the earth shook. Pachacamac was the highestgod. So the greatest Incan leader took the name Pachacuti.This means “Earthshaker.”

Pachacuti lived up to his name. Around A.D. 1438,Pachacuti and his son built the largest ancient empire inthe Americas. It was as big as the distance between LosAngeles and New York today, about 2,500 miles.

Pachacuti made a plan to keep his empire together. Heset up a strong government. But he let local rulers stay inpower. To make sure they stayed loyal, he took their sonsto Cuzco for training.


Pachacuti brought the empire together in other ways,too. He made people learn the Inca language of Quechua.And he designed 25,000 miles of roads.An Organized Society The Inca believed the sun god Inti pro-tected the Incan capital. The rulers who lived there werecalled “sons of the sun.” These rulers and their wives,known as Coyas, were at the top of society.

The head priest and the leader of the armies were justbelow the royal couple. Then came army leaders whocommanded different regions. Below them were templepriests, army commanders, and skilled workers. At thebottom level were farmers, herders, and soldiers.

The Inca also split society into 12 types of jobs. Everyman, woman, and child over age five had work to do.Young girls were babysitters. Young boys chased birdsfrom gardens.What Was Incan Culture Like? The Inca did not kill many peoplefor their gods. They made sacrifices only in hard times,such as earthquakes, or at special times. Priests most oftenkilled children. The Inca thought they were more purethan adults. The Inca worshiped these children as gods.

To make their gods happy, the Inca built big works ofstone. They had no way of writing, no wheels, and noiron tools. But they built places like Machu Picchu. It wasa place for kings to get away and rest.

To build these large works, the Inca needed to usemath. They used a quipu, a rope tied with cords of differ-ent lengths and colors. Each knot stood for a number oritem. This also helped the Inca keep records.

The Inca were good builders. Workers fit stones sotightly that a knife could not slip between them. The Incadid not use mortar to hold the stones together. The stoneblocks could slide up and down without falling duringearthquakes.

12. How did Pachacuti unite his empire?

316

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


317

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Life in North America (pages 590–592)

The geography in lands north of present-day Mexico shaped the devel-opment of many different Native American cultures.

By A.D. 1500, about two million people lived north ofMesoamerica. They spoke about 300 languages. Theycalled themselves thousands of names.

These Native Americans lived by the cultures of thepeople who had come before them. As these peoplesspread out across North America, they made changes toadjust to their new homes. They lived well.The People of the Far North Scientists think the people who set-tled to the north around 3000 B.C. came by boat. Theylived in the Arctic (present-day Canada) and Alaska. Thiswas long after the Ice Age. These people called them-selves the Inuit, which means “the people.”

The Inuit found ways to live in the cold and snow.They built igloos. Igloos are round homes made fromblocks of ice and snow. They used sleds pulled by dogs totravel on land. And they used small boats made of sealskin to travel by sea.

Most peoples of the Far North hunted. They ate seals,walruses, and land animals like caribou and polar bears.Blubber, or fat, from seals and whales had extra value. The fat gave them oil for lamps. It also provided neededcalories.Life on the West Coast The groups that lived along the Pacificcoast had a warmer climate. Peoples like the Tlingit,Haida, and Chinook lived in the Pacific Northwest. Theybuilt wooden houses and huge canoes from big cedartrees. They fished the seas for otters, seals, and whales.Each spring, salmon filled the rivers.

The Pacific Northwest had many rich food sources. Forthis reason, more people lived in this area than in anyother part of Mesoamerica. Only the area that is todayCalifornia had more people.


Scientists think California was home to about 500 earlyAmerican cultures. Each learned to use the many naturalresources found in California.

People like the Chumash fished along the northerncoast. The Cahuilla picked dates, seeds, roots and pods inthe southern desert. The Pomo picked acorns and madeflour in the central valley. Life in the Southwest The dry deserts of the Southwest did nothave the rich resources of California. But the people wholived in this area learned a lot from the Hohokam,Anasazi, and other early Americans. The Hopi, Acoma,Pueblo, and Zuni knew how to farm dry land. Like thepeople before them, they dug canals for water. And theybuilt homes like apartments using adobe or bricks driedin the sun.

Two groups of hunters—the Apache and the Navajo—moved into this area in the A.D. 1500s. The Apache werehunters. But, over time, the Navajo began to farm.Life on the Great Plains People on the Great Plains farmed. Butit was not easy. Grass covered the land between the RockyMountains and the Mississippi River. The thick grassroots made it hard to farm. And the people did not haveiron tools. The Mandan, Hidatsa, Pawnee, and othersgrew gardens in the good land along the Missouri,Arkansas, and Red Rivers.

The women worked in the gardens. The men huntedbuffalo on the grasslands. There were no horses in Amer-ica, so they hunted on foot. The buffalo provided meat,bones for tools, and skins for clothes and homes.Life in the Eastern Woodlands Thick forests covered lands east ofthe Mississippi River. Here people farmed, hunted, andfished. More people farmed in the Southeast Woodlands.It was warmer, so they had a longer growing season.More people were hunters in the cooler Northeast Wood-lands.

318

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


319

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Groups formed governments all over the Woodlands.Peoples like the Natchez (in present-day Mississippi) setup social groups. Others, like the Cherokee in Georgiaand North Carolina, had sets of laws.

Some Native Americans in the Woodlands set up con-federations. These were governments that linked severalgroups. The best known one was formed by the Iroquois.The Iroquois League included the Onondaga, Seneca,Mohawk, Oneida, and Cayuga.

The Iroquois came together to end fighting amongtheir peoples. A set of laws, known as the Great Peace, setthe rules for the group. Women controlled the Iroquoisland. They chose men to sit on a Grand Council. Councilmembers worked out problems together. Everyone had to agree on a decision. The Council helped members unite against other Woodland peoples, like the powerfulAlgonquian.

13. How did people in the Far North live in the cold?


Drawing From ExperienceHave you ever really wanted something that was not

easy for you to get? What was it? What were you willingto do to get it?

The last section described the rise of the Aztec and Incaempires. In this section, you will learn about how Spanishexplorers came to the Americas. And you will learn howtwo men seeking riches caused the end of these greatempires. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes. What is themain idea of this section? What details support the mainidea?

320

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsconquistador: Spanish soldier-explorer sent to America (page 595)

treason: disloyalty to a government (page 599)


The Fall of the Aztec and Inca Empires For use with pages 593–600

Main Idea1.

Supporting Detail2.

Supporting Detail4.

Supporting Detail6.

Supporting Detail3.

Supporting Detail5.

Supporting Detail7.

321

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Spanish Arrive in America (pages 594–595)

Christopher Columbus found the Americas while trying to find a searoute to Asia.

In 1492, the Aztec were very strong. About 250,000people lived in Tenochtitlán. It was the biggest city in theAmericas. It may have been the biggest city in the world.But in just a few years, people from Europe would endthis empire.Columbus Arrives in America By the 1400s, several strong king-doms had grown in Western Europe. Leaders there knewthat they could make a lot of money from trade with EastAsia. But they needed to find a way to get around theMuslim lands in the middle.

The people of Western Europe started looking for away to get to Asia by sea. The Portuguese were first. Theybegan to map Africa’s east coast. They were looking for away around Africa.

The Spaniards were next. They paid for a trip by anItalian sea captain named Christopher Columbus. He toldSpain’s rulers that he could get to Asia by sailing westacross the Atlantic Ocean. He did not know that two con-tinents stood in his way.

Columbus set out with three ships in August 1492. InOctober, he landed on an island in the Caribbean Sea.Columbus thought he was in Asia. He went farther intothe Caribbean and landed on the island of Hispaniola.Today, this is Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Hereturned to Spain with bright parrots, gold and spices,and several Native Americans. Spain’s rulers were sur-prised and happy. They paid to send Columbus onanother trip.Columbus Returns Columbus set out again in 1493. This time,he came to gain land. He brought soldiers to help him. Inthe spring of 1494, they landed on Hispaniola.

The Taino who lived there were scared of the conquis-tadors. These soldier-explorers wore armor and covered


their horses with armor. Growling dogs ran by their sides.To show their power, the soldiers fired guns.

The soldiers took the island for Spain. Then they madethe Taino slaves. They made them work for the Spanish.Spain now had land in the Americas.

8. Was Columbus’s first voyage successful?

Spain Conquers Mexico (pages 595–597)

Spanish conquerors defeated the Aztec with the help of horses, guns,and European disease.

Columbus sailed to America four times. Many poornobles came after him, looking for riches. Many camefrom the part of Spain known as the Extremadura. Badsoil, very hot summers and cold winters made life hardthere. One of these nobles was 19-year-old Hernán Cortés.

As a teenager, Cortés had to choose from three jobs. Hecould be a priest, lawyer, or soldier. His parents wantedhim to be a lawyer. But Cortés chose to become a soldier.In 1504, he left for Hispaniola. In 1511, he was part of theSpanish attack on Cuba. His commander saw that Cortéswas very brave. He gave Cortés control over severalNative American villages and the goods they made.

Six years later, thousands in Cuba were killed by small-pox. The commander asked Cortés to find new people towork for the Spanish. Cortés knew just where to look.

That same year, a ship came back to Cuba from theYucatán. In the past, soldiers who went to the Yucatánhad fought with the Maya. This time, the Maya werefriendly. As one soldier recalled:

“They brought gold cast in bars . . . a beautiful goldmask, a figurine [statue] of a man with a half mask ofgold, and a crown of gold beads.”

—Juan Diaz, as quoted in“Conquest and Aftermath”

322

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


323

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

That was all Cortés needed to hear. He made plans tosail. On February 18, 1519, Cortés left for Mexico.Cortés Invades Mexico The Aztec emperor Montezuma II knewthe Spanish were coming. In a dream, he looked in a mir-ror and saw a huge army coming over the mountains.“What shall I do?” he cried. “Where shall I hide?”

Cortés arrived and began his attack in April 1519. Hecame to the beach near present-day Veracruz with 550 sol-diers, 16 horses, 14 cannons, and a few dogs. How couldsuch a small number conquer a huge empire?

Cortés knew how to use his horses and guns to scareNative Americans. He showed his power by makingthousands of Tabascans surrender. Then the Tabascansgave Cortés another weapon. This weapon was a Mayanwoman named Malintzin. She spoke both Mayan andNahuatl, the language of the Aztec.

Malintzin spoke to Cortés through a Spaniard whoknew Mayan. She told him about the Aztec empire. Shealso told him that the Aztec were angry with their rulers.She said they would fight with Cortés against Mon-tezuma. Cortés spoke through her to the people andmade agreements.

Cortés also had help from germs and sicknesses. Themeasles, smallpox, and other diseases killed more Aztecthan the Spanish swords.Cortés Defeats the Aztec The Spaniards marched 400 miles tothe Aztec capital. Messengers told Montezuma abouttheir every move. The Aztec believed in a light-skinnedgod named Quetzalcoatl. This god had sailed away longago. He promised to come back someday to take back hisland. Montezuma was afraid that Cortés was this god. Sohe did not want to attack the Spanish right away.

As Cortés marched closer, Montezuma decided toattack the troops. Cortés heard about the plan andattacked first. He killed 6,000 people. In November 1519,the soldiers marched into the capital and took control ofthe city. Cortés held Montezuma as a prisoner. Then hetold the Aztec to stop sacrificing people.


Cortés made the Aztec people angry. They fought back.The Spanish killed thousands of Aztec. Montezuma triedto stop the fighting. But he was also killed. The Spanishfought their way out of the city. They moved into the hillswith their allies.

While Cortés got ready for a second attack, smallpoxbroke out in the city. The Aztec were weak and no matchfor Cortés. In June 1521, the Spanish destroyed the Azteccapital.

9. What weapons did Cortés have in his fight against theAztec?

Pizarro Conquers the Inca (pages 599–600)

The riches of the Aztec Empire led other Spanish conquerors to seektheir fortunes in South America.

In 1513, Vasco Núñez de Balboa led his soldiersthrough the jungle and mountains of present-dayPanama. Native Americans told him that he would find agreat empire filled with gold as he went south along awestern sea.

Balboa found the sea, known today as the PacificOcean. But he never found the golden empire. A Spanishofficial lied and charged Balboa with treason. He said Balboa was not loyal to the government. The official hadhim beheaded.

Francisco Pizarro marched with Balboa. He took up thesearch for the empire. Pizarro could not write his name.But he knew how to fight. Like Balboa and Cortés, Pizarrocame from the Extremadura. But he was not of noblebirth.

At age 16, Pizarro left a job herding pigs to fight inItaly. In 1502 he came to the Americas. He helped explorePanama and became a rich landowner. But he wanted tofind the golden empire.

324

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


325

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Pizarro and the Inca By the 1530s, the Inca thought they ruledmost of the world. But smallpox and Pizarro proved theydid not. The Inca could not stop the spread of smallpox.And they could not scare away Pizarro. He led 160 menup the mountains to the Incan land.

The Inca tried to ignore Pizarro. But Pizarro, in his 50s,would not leave. He stole from the Inca and fired guns atthem. The emperor Atahualpa thought Pizarro was crazyor a fool. How would this man stand up to 80,000 fightingInca?

Atahualpa was wrong about Pizarro. The Inca did notknow much about Europeans. But Pizarro knew a lotabout the Inca. He had spent more than 30 years fightingNative Americans. And his good friend Cortés gave himan inside look at the conquest of the Aztec. In late 1532,Pizarro made a bold plan.Pizarro Defeats the Inca The Spanish invited Atahualpa to ameeting. He agreed to come. But he made the mistake ofnot bringing his army. He thought his 5,000 guards wouldkeep him safe. He also thought they would not need anyweapons.

When they met, Pizarro asked the emperor to give uphis gods. When Atahualpa laughed at this, Pizarroordered an attack. Cannons went off. Trumpets sounded.Soldiers yelled. Pizarro had pulled Atahualpa off the fieldof battle.

Atahualpa tried to buy his freedom. He said he wouldfill his jail cell with gold and another room with silver.Pizarro took the deal. Atahualpa kept his word. Pizarrodid not. He charged the emperor with many crimes.These crimes included planning a rebellion, worshipingfalse gods, and having too many wives. In 1533 an armycourt found the emperor guilty. He was put to death.

As a reward, the Spanish king made Pizarro governorof Peru. Pizarro chose a new emperor of the Inca. But theemperor had to obey Pizarro. Pizarro’s conquest opened


more of South America to Spanish rule. Spain controlled ahuge land covering 375,000 square miles. The land heldalmost 7 million people. Spain was building the firstglobal empire.

10. How did Pizarro defeat the Inca?

326

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


327

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The Renaissance Begins For use with pages 608–615

Drawing From ExperienceHave you ever played the game Marco Polo in a swim-

ming pool? Did you ever wonder who Marco Polo was?In this section, you will learn how the rich Italian city-

states became interested in art and learning again. Youwill also learn how Italy became rich.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on how trademade Italian city-states rich.

Key TermsRenaissance: “rebirth”; period in European history from 1350 to 1550 when

people became interested again in art and learning (page 609)

secular: more interested in the world than in religion (page 609)

diplomacy: the practice of making deals with other countries (page 615)

How Trade Made Italian City-States Rich

1. 2. 3. 6.4. 5.

The Italian Renaissance (pages 609–610)

The wealthy urban society of the Italian city-states brought a rebirthof learning and art to Europe.

Renaissance means “rebirth.” In European history, theyears from about 1350 to 1550 were called the Renais-sance. This is because people became interested again inart and learning. People were also interested in thingsthat the Greeks and Romans studied.

After the hard years of the Black Death, Europeanslooked to the past. Life seemed to be better then. Theywanted to learn how to make their own lives better.

During the Renaissance, people focused on the indi-vidual. Many people thought that a person could helpmake the world better.

Religion was still very important. But human successwas also important. People became more secular. Theywere more interested in the world than in religion andgetting into heaven.

Why did the Renaissance begin in Italy? First of all,Italy had been the center of the Roman Empire. Ruins andart were all around. This reminded the Italians of theirpast. They became interested in Greek and Roman art.They tried to make their own art as good.

A second reason was because Italy’s cities were veryrich. People had money to pay painters, sculptors, archi-tects, and other artists to make new works.

A third reason was because there were many smallcity-states. Florence, Venice, Genoa, Milan, and Romewere some of the most important cities of the Renais-sance.

The city-states competed with each other. This helpedthe Renaissance. Wealthy nobles and merchants wantedartists to make works that would make their cities morefamous.

In most of Europe, most people lived in the country.This included knights and nobles who owned estates. InItaly’s city-states, most of the people were living in thecity. This meant more people were there to buy art andspend money.

It also led to more sharing of ideas about art. Italy’scities produced many great works of art and literature.

7. Name one reason why the Renaissance began in Italy.

328

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


329

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Rise of Italy’s City-States (pages 611–613)

Italy’s location helped its city-states grow wealthy from trade andbanking, but many of the cities fell under the control of strong rulers.

During the Middle Ages, no one was able to unite Italyinto one kingdom. There were many reasons for this.First, leaders in the Roman Catholic Church tried to pre-vent it because they were afraid a strong ruler would tryto control the pope and the Church.

Secondly, the city-states were about equal in strength.They fought many wars. They often took land from eachother. But no state was able to beat all the others.

Probably the most important reason was because allthe city-states were very rich. They could build manyships and hire people to fight in their armies. A personwho fights in an army for money is called a mercenary.The city-states also loaned money to the kings of Europe.The kings left the city-states alone so they could borrowmore money in the future.Italy’s City-States Grow Wealthy The Italian city-states becamerich through trade. Most of the city-states were on thecoast. They had ports where merchant ships could dock.They were also in a great spot on the Mediterranean Sea.Spain and France were to the west. The Byzantine andOttoman Empires were to the east. North Africa was tothe south.

The Italians bought Chinese silk and Indian spicesfrom the Byzantines, Turks, and Arabs. They would thensell these goods to Western Europe at very high prices.They also bought wool, wine, and glass from the Spanish,French, Dutch, and English. They sold these in the MiddleEast. The Italian cities also had many skilled craftspeople.They could take raw materials and make goods that couldbe sold for high prices.


Geography was not the only reason for the success ofItalians. Trade became important. The Crusades broughtItalian and Arab merchants together to trade. Also, theMongol Empire united almost all of Asia into one hugetrade network.

The Mongols helped trade. They protected the SilkRoad from China to the Middle East. This made it cheaperand easier for caravans to carry goods from China andIndia to Muslim and Byzantine cities. As more silk andspices came from Asia, prices became lower. More peoplecould buy nice things. Business grew because peoplewanted to buy.Who Was Marco Polo? Marco Polo was a merchant from Venice.In the 1270s, he went on a journey to China with hisfather and uncle. They wanted to meet Kublai Khan. Hewas the ruler of the Mongol Empire.

When they made it to the khan’s court, the greatemperor liked Marco Polo. He sent Marco Polo on business all over China. Marco Polo learned more aboutAsia than any other European. He wrote a book about histravels. His stories got many people interested in China.They wanted to buy China’s goods.The Wealth of Florence Florence was the most famous city ofthe Renaissance. It was the first to grow rich. It had manyfamous artists. It sat on the Arno River. Beautiful hills andwalls were all around it. Tall towers helped people watchfor invaders. The people loved fancy clothing.

Florence became rich from trading cloth, mainly wool.The wool came from England. It was woven into fine fab-rics. Banking was another way they made money.

Goods were coming into Italy from all over the world.Merchants needed to know how much coins from differ-ent countries were worth. Florentine bankers became theexperts. The florin was the gold coin of Florence. Theyused this to measure the value of other money. Bankers

330

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


331

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

also loaned money and charged interest. Florence’s rich-est family was the Medici. They were bankers. Theyowned banks as far away as London.The Rise of Venice The wealthiest city of all was Venice. It islocated at the northern end of the Adriatic Sea. The Vene-tians were great sailors and shipbuilders. They built theircity on many small, swampy islands. They put longwooden poles into mud to support their buildings.

Instead of making roads, Venetians made canalsthrough their swampy islands. They used boats to moveabout. Even today, many of the streets in the older partsof Venice are canals and waterways. Gondolas are longnarrow boats. They are still used to take people up anddown the canals.

Some of Venice’s wealth came from building ships.They were built at a shipyard called the Arsenal. Some-times they needed ships quickly. When the Turks tried to take a Venetian colony in the Mediterranean, 100 shipswere built in only two months.

8. How did people travel in Venice?

The Urban Noble (pages 614–615)

Unlike medieval nobles, the nobles of the Italian city-states lived incities and were active in trade, banking, and public life.

The urban noble was a new type of leader. These wererich men from Italian city-states. Before this time, noblesgot their wealth from land, not trade. They actuallythought they were above people who traded.

In the city-states, old noble families moved to thecities. They decided that money from trade was just asgood as money from land.


Rich merchants tried to live like the noble families. Thesons and daughters of nobles and rich merchants marriedeach other. The old noble and rich merchant familiesblended together. They became the upper class.How Were Italian City-States Run? Many of the city-states wererepublics at first. A republic is a government controlled byits citizens. Only guild members could be citizens. Thesewere artists and merchants.

When the cities faced war or rebellion, they gavepower to a dictator. This is one powerful man or womanwho runs the government.

In Venice, the ruler was the duke, or doge. At first, thedoge had power over his council of nobles. Later, he lostpower to a small group of nobles.

The Medici family took control of Florence in 1434.They ruled there for many decades. Lorenzo de’ Mediciruled the city from 1469 to 1492. He was known as “theMagnificent.” He gave money to artists, architects, andwriters. He helped many of Italy’s Renaissance artists.

Politics in Italy was tricky. The rulers of each city hadto keep the poor from fighting against them. They alsohad to stop other rich people from getting power. Theymade deals with merchants, bankers, landlords, churchleaders, and mercenaries. They also had to work withleaders from other city-states.

To work with the other states, the Italians createddiplomacy. This is making deals with other countries.Each city-state sent an ambassador to live in the othercity-states. Ambassadors were representatives of theircity. Many of the ideas of diplomacy we use today firstbegan in Italy.

Niccolò Machiavelli was a diplomat in Florence. Hewrote a book called The Prince in 1513. In his book, Machiavelli wrote that people were greedy and self-centered. Rulers should not try to be good. They shoulddo anything they could to keep power and protect their

332

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


333

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

city. This included killing and lying. Today when we saysomeone is being Machiavellian, we mean they are beingtricky and not thinking about being good.

9. What was Venice’s ruler called?


Drawing From ExperienceHave you read or seen any plays written by William

Shakespeare? Romeo and Juliet? Hamlet? MacBeth? Why doyou think his plays are still so popular today?

In the last section, you learned how the rich Italiancity-states became interested in art and learning again.You also learned how Italy became rich. In this section,you will learn about humanism, how it spread, and aboutmany famous artists.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on famousRenaissance works of art.

334

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termshumanism: a belief that humans are important (page 619)

vernacular: everyday language people speak in a region (page 620)


New Ideas and Art For use with pages 618–626

Leonardo da Raphael Sanzio Michelangelo Vinci Buonarroti

1. 3. 5.

2. 4. 6.

Famous Renaissance Works of Art

335

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Renaissance Humanism (pages 619–621)

Humanists studied the Greeks and Romans, and the development of theprinting press helped spread their ideas.

In the 1300s, a new way of understanding the worldstarted. It was based on ancient Greek and Roman values.It was called humanism. Humanists believed thathumans were important. They wanted a balance of reli-gion and reason. Their new ideas said that men could beactive in their cities and do great things.Ancient Works Become Popular Italians began to study earlyRoman and Greek works. The Crusades opened tradewith the Middle East. Italians learned about the Greekand Roman works from the Arabs. When the Turks con-quered Constantinople in 1453, many Byzantine scholarsmoved to Venice or Florence. They also knew a lot aboutthese works.

One famous scholar and poet was Francesco Petrarch.He lived in the 1300s. He studied Roman writers likeCicero. He also wrote about the lives of famous Romans.

Petrarch told Europeans to look for Latin writings inmonasteries. New libraries were built to hold these writ-ings. The Vatican Library in Rome was the largest.

Italians also studied old buildings and statues. Work-ers cleaned up broken columns and statues. Artists stud-ied parts of these statues to understand what made thembeautiful.Changes in Literature Educated people wrote in “pure” Latin.This was the Latin used in ancient Rome. Petrarchthought classical Latin was the best way to write. But,when he wanted to write poems to the woman he loved,he wrote in the vernacular. This is the everyday languagepeople speak. When authors wrote in the vernacular,many more people could read their work.


Dante Alighieri was a poet of Florence in the early1300s. He wrote one of the world’s greatest poems in thevernacular. It is called The Divine Comedy. As a youngman, Dante was active in politics. But when noble fami-lies began fighting over power, he had to leave Florence.That is when he wrote his long poem. It is more than14,000 lines. The Divine Comedy tells the story of a journeyfrom hell to heaven. He describes how people suffered fordifferent sins.

Another important writer who used the vernacularwas Chaucer. He wrote in English. The Canterbury Tales ishis famous book. He describes the journey of 29 pilgrimsto the city of Canterbury. He talks about the nobles at thetop of society as well as the poor at the bottom. The Printing Press Spreads Ideas The printing press was the key tospreading humanist ideas. In the early 1450s, JohannesGutenberg invented a printing press. It used movablemetal type. Many books could be printed quickly. Morepeople learned to read. Scholars read one another’sworks. They wrote letters to discuss their thoughts. Ideasgrew and spread more quickly than ever before.

The Chinese had already invented movable type.Because of their large alphabet of characters, it did notwork well. For Europeans, the printing press was a bigimprovement. It was easy to use with linen paper, anotherChinese invention.

Gutenberg’s Bible was printed in the 1450s. It was thefirst European book made on the new press. About 40,000books were made by 1500. Half of these were religiousworks like the Bible or prayer books.How Did Humanism Affect Society? Humanists studied the Greeksand Romans to learn about many subjects. They studiedplants, animals, the human body, medicine, stars, andplanets. Their study of math helped them in many subjects.

336

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


337

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Leonardo da Vinci was one of the best Renaissance sci-entists and artists. He studied dead bodies to learn aboutthe human body. He studied fossils to understand history.He was also an inventor and engineer.

Most of what we know about Leonardo comes fromhis notebooks. He had many sketches of scientific andartistic ideas. Hundreds of years before they wereinvented, Leonardo drew inventions such as a glider, ahelicopter, and a parachute. He also drew a type of mili-tary tank and a scuba diving suit.

7. What book was printed on the printing press first?

Artists in Renaissance Italy (pages 623–624)

Renaissance artists used new techniques to produce paintings thatshowed people in an emotional and realistic way.

Rich Italian families and church leaders paid artists tomake paintings, sculptures, and buildings. They put themout in their cities for people to see. The pope paid formany works of art for the Vatican. Renaissance artists fol-lowed examples of the ancient Romans and Greeks. Butthese new works expressed humanist ideas.What Was New About Renaissance Art? Medieval and Renaissancepaintings were very different. Renaissance art tries toshow people as they would look in real life. It also tries toshow how people feel.

Renaissance painters also painted in new ways. Theylearned to make a drawing or painting look three-dimen-sional. This technique is called perspective. Artists hadused perspective before, but Renaissance artists perfectedit. Objects in the paintings seemed to be at different dis-tances. This made them look more real.


Painters also used a technique called chiaroscuro. Theyused light and shadows instead of stiff outlines to sepa-rate objects and soften edges. Chiaro means “clear orlight” in Italian. Chiaroscuro created more drama andfeeling.The Peak of the Renaissance The artistic Renaissance lasted fromabout 1350 to 1550. The years between 1490 and 1520were its greatest. Three famous artists were Leonardo daVinci, Raphael Sanzio, and Michelangelo Buonarroti.

Leonardo was trained as an artist. But he also became agreat scientist and inventor. Born in 1452, he studied inFlorence as a young man. Training in workshops was anold tradition. But, during the Renaissance, artists began todo something new. They signed their own work.

One of Leonardo’s most famous works is The Last Supper. He began painting it in 1494 on a wall behind achurch altar. He painted on wet plaster with watercolorpaint. This is called fresco. In Italian, it means “fresh.”Frescoes were painted in churches all over Italy.

One of Leonardo’s greatest skills is seen in The LastSupper. This painting shows Jesus and his disciples.Leonardo made each disciple look different to help showhis feelings. He showed this skill again in the Mona Lisa.

Raphael worked at the same time as Leonardo. He wasmuch younger. He became known as one of Italy’s bestpainters. He painted gentle Madonnas and many frescoesin the Vatican palace. The School of Athens is perhaps oneof his best-known paintings. It shows many Greekphilosophers.

Michelangelo painted, sculpted, and designed build-ings. He painted one of the best-known Renaissanceworks. He painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel inRome.

Michelangelo was a sculptor at heart. He felt God gavehim his talents. He made his statues to show perfecthuman beings. These were symbols of God’s beauty and

338

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


339

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

perfection. His best-known sculpture is the 13-foot-tallstatue David. David seemed calm, yet ready for action.Michelangelo also made a statue of Moses from the Bible.This huge figure seems both wise and powerful.

8. Name the three best-known artists of the Renaissanceperiod.

The Renaissance Spreads (pages 625–626)

Renaissance ideas and art spread from Italy to northern Europe.

In the late 1400s, the Renaissance spread to northernEurope and later to England. The printing press and trav-elers helped spread humanist ideas.What Is the Northern Renaissance? The Northern Renaissance tookplace in present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany,and the Netherlands. These artists used different methodsthan the Italians to make their art seem real. Theyinvented oil painting. Oils let artists paint with moredetail. They could paint textures like the gold braid on adress. Jan van Eyck was a master of oil painting. In one ofhis best-known paintings, two people just married standside by side in a fancy bedroom. Every fold in their richclothes and every detail in the room are clear.

Albrecht Dürer is one of the greatest artists of theNorthern Renaissance. Dürer could paint in both perspec-tive and in fine detail. He is best known for his engrav-ings. An engraving is made from an image carved onmetal, wood, or stone. Ink is put on the surface. Then, theimage is printed on paper.

Dürer’s Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse is an exampleof a woodcut. This is a print made from carved wood. Init, four men on horses ride to announce the end of theworld.


Who Was William Shakespeare? In England, the Renaissance tookplace more in writing and theater. It began in the late1500s. Elizabeth I was ruler.

Theater was popular during this time. It cost only oneor two cents for a ticket. Even poor people could go. Play-wrights were writers of plays. They wrote about people’sstrengths, weaknesses, and feelings.

The greatest English writer of that time was WilliamShakespeare. He wrote tragedies, comedies, and historicalplays. Some of the great tragedies include Hamlet, Mac-Beth, and Romeo and Juliet. In each story, the characters’flaws bring them down. Some of his most famous come-dies include A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Twelfth Night,and Much Ado About Nothing. His best-known historicalplays include Henry V and Richard III. Shakespeare’s playsare still very popular.

9. What three types of plays did William Shakespearewrite?

340

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


341

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The Reformation Begins For use with pages 633–641

Drawing From ExperienceHave you ever disagreed with a friend, a club, or some

other group that you belonged to? What did you do? In the last section, you learned about humanism, how

it spread, and about many famous artists. In this section,you will learn how new Christian churches started andgrew.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on JohnCalvin’s main ideas.

Key TermsReformation: a time when people tried to change the Catholic Church and

many new Christian churches started (page 634)

indulgence: a pardon or forgiveness from the Church for a person’s sins (page 634)

denomination: an organized branch of Christianity (page 636)

theology: the study of questions about God (page 640)

predestination: a belief that no matter what you do, the outcome of your lifeis already planned (page 640)

Calvin’s Main Idea

1.

2.

3.

Calls for Church Reform (pages 634–637)

The reforms of Martin Luther led to the creation of new Christianchurches.

In 1517, a monk named Martin Luther challenged theCatholic Church. He said that the pope could not decidewhat a person had to do to get into heaven. Eventually,his ideas led to new churches in Western Europe.

At first, Martin Luther only wanted to reform (change)the Catholic Church. This is why we call these events theReformation. This was the beginning of a movement inChristianity known as Protestantism. By the end of theReformation, Europe had many new Christian churches.People were no longer joined together as part of the oneCatholic Church.What Ideas Led to the Reformation? In the last section, you readabout humanism. Humanism in northern Europe led toChristian humanism. Its first leader was a scholar andclergyman. His name was Desiderius Erasmus.

Erasmus wrote that humans could use their reason tobecome better Christians. This could make the Churchbetter. He studied ancient Christian works for ideas.

He wanted to write the Bible in the vernacular. Hewanted a farmer to be able to read the Bible. He believedthat people should be good in their everyday lives. It wasnot enough just to go to church on Sunday.The Church Upsets Reformers By the 1300s, the Church had someproblems. It charged high taxes on peasants. Bishopsacted like they were kings. They spent money on palacesand fine art and gave good jobs to their family members.In many villages, priests could barely read.

Many Catholics became angry at the Church for focus-ing on money. They were angry that the Church was sell-ing indulgences. An indulgence was a pardon orforgiveness from the Church for a person’s sins. The

342

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


343

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Church had given indulgences before, but did not chargemoney for them. In the 1500s, the pope needed money torepair the church of St. Peter’s in Rome. He sold indul-gences in northern Germany to collect money.

The sale of indulgences made Martin Luther veryangry. Luther looked in the Bible and found nothing thatsaid an indulgence could forgive a sin. The whole idea ofselling God’s forgiveness seemed wrong to him.

Martin Luther was not the first person to question thepope’s power. In the 1370s, an English priest named JohnWycliffe preached that Jesus Christ is the only powerabove Christians, not the pope.

Wycliffe and Luther both challenged the pope’s power.They also held up the Bible. Wycliffe wanted everyone toread the Bible. After he died, his followers wrote the Biblein English for the first time.Who Was Martin Luther? Martin Luther is one of the mostfamous men in history. His disagreement with theCatholic Church led to a big change in Christianity. Whywould a religious man disagree with his faith? Lutherwas angry about how Church leaders acted. He also wor-ried about his own soul.

Luther was born in 1483 in a small German village. Hisfather wanted him to study law. But Luther wanted toserve the Church. One day, he was out riding when light-ning knocked him to the ground. Luther decided tobecome a monk at that moment.

When Luther went to Rome he was shocked at howthe Roman clergy acted. Back in Germany, he taught at auniversity in the town of Wittenberg. He worried aboutthe Church’s problems. And with so many people dyingfrom the plague, he worried about his own soul.

The Church said that Luther would be saved. It alsosaid that he would go to heaven if he did good works andreceived sacraments. Still Luther worried that this wasnot true. He prayed and looked for answers.


Luther found answers in the Bible. He found that faith,not good works, brought salvation. He believed salvationwas a gift from God, not something to be earned by doinggood works.

In 1517, when the Church started selling indulgences,Luther was shocked. How could the Church tell peasantsthat buying an indulgence would save them? He listed 95reasons why indulgences were wrong. He sent the list tohis bishop. Some believe he also nailed them to the doorof Wittenberg Cathedral for everyone to read. The list wascalled the Ninety-Five Theses. Thousands of copies weremade. People across the German kingdoms read them.Revolt Leads to New Churches The Church did not take Lutherseriously at first. But, they soon saw him as dangerous. Ifpeople believed Luther, they would rely on the Bible.Who would need priests if the sacraments were notneeded to get to heaven?

The pope and Luther argued for many years. Lutherwould not change his views. This meant he was not amember of the Church anymore. He could not receive thesacraments. He also was not a monk.

Luther’s ideas led to a new denomination. This is anorganized branch of Christianity. It was known atLutheranism. It was the first Protestant denomination.

Lutheranism has three main ideas. The first is that faithin Jesus Christ, not good works, brings salvation. The sec-ond is that the Bible is the final truth about God, notchurch and ministers. Finally, Lutheranism says that theChurch is made up of all its believers, not just the clergy.Peasant Revolts Luther’s debate with the pope was so famousthat even peasants in the country had heard about it.They liked what they heard about Luther.

Life for a peasant in the 1520s was hard. The crops hadbeen bad for many years. Also, landowners made thepeasants pay even higher taxes.

344

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


345

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Luther’s ideas led the peasants to rebel. If Luther couldrebel against the pope, then peasants could stand up togreedy nobles.

The peasants listed their demands. They based theirideas on the Bible. One leader said the peasants would nolonger work for the nobles, “unless it should be shown usfrom the Gospel that we are serfs.”

The nobles did not give in. Major fights broke out. Thepeasants lost. The nobles had better weapons and horses.They won easily. At least 70,000 peasants were killed.

At first Luther felt bad for the peasants. Then hechanged his mind. He was afraid of what might happenwithout a strong government. Luther told peasants thatGod had put the government above them and they mustobey it.

4. Why did the pope in the 1500s start selling indul-gences?

Politics and Lutheranism (page 639)

Political leaders often supported Protestantism because they wantedmore power.

In the past, some people had disagreed with theCatholic Church. But the Church always kept its power.But in the 1500s, some of Europe’s kings saw that theycould become more powerful if they supportedLutheranism.

You read earlier about the Holy Roman Empire. It was made up of about 300 German kingdoms. In 1519,Charles V became emperor. His empire included thelands of the Holy Roman Empire, plus Spain, the Netherlands, parts of Italy, and land in the Americas.


The local kings and nobles of the Holy Roman Empireworried about Charles V’s power. They did not want onestrong leader. They wanted to keep ruling their own littlekingdoms.

Many German rulers became Lutherans. They did thisfor religious and political reasons. This made their king-doms Lutheran. After breaking with the Catholic Church,they took lands owned by Catholic monasteries in theirkingdoms. They would earn money from those lands, notthe Church.

Rulers could now set their own church taxes. Theykept the money for themselves. Protestant rulers becamestronger. Catholic Church rulers became weaker.

Charles V went to war with the Lutheran Germanrulers. He could not beat them. In 1555 the fighting endedwith the Peace of Augsburg. Each German ruler couldnow decide if his kingdom would be Lutheran orCatholic. Most of northern Germany became Protestant.The south stayed Catholic.

5. Why did local kings and nobles of the Holy RomanEmpire worry about Charles V’s power?

Calvin and Calvinism (pages 640–641)

John Calvin’s Protestant teachings spread across Europe and into NorthAmerica.

Who Was John Calvin? John Calvin was born in France in theearly 1500s. He went to Paris to study theology. This isthe study of questions about God.

Calvin wanted to learn about religion. He studied veryhard. Calvin heard about Martin Luther’s ideas. Secretly,he read about Luther. He whispered with his friendswhen talking about Luther’s ideas. The more Calvin read,the more he believed.

346

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


347

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Calvin had to leave Paris because it was too dangerousto talk about Lutheranism. Sometimes he hid at hisfriends’ houses. He tried to return home but was arrestedand spent months in jail. Calvin went to Geneva, Switzer-land. This was a Protestant city. His powerful preachingpersuaded many people to follow him.What Is Calvinism? Calvin agreed with Martin Luther thatfaith was more important than good works. He addedother ideas too. Calvinism became the basis of manyProtestant churches.

Calvin’s main idea was that God’s will is final. Goddecides everything in the world ahead of time. He hasdecided who will go to heaven and who will not. Thisbelief is called predestination. This means that no matterwhat people do, the outcome of their life is alreadyplanned.

Some people argued. If their life’s outcome werealready set, why would it matter if they were good andbad? But most people decided that they were probablysaved. To prove it, they worked hard, were good, andobeyed the laws. Calvinism became powerful. It said people should work hard and follow the rules.

Another important idea of Calvinism is that kings andbishops should not control the Church. The people of thechurch should choose their own elders and ministers torun the church.

This idea had a strong effect on England and on manyEnglish settlers in America. It supported the idea that thepeople should also be allowed to choose their own politi-cal leaders.

6. What was Calvin’s main idea?


Drawing From ExperienceHave you heard the phrase “Off with your head”? Did

you know that Henry VIII was the one who said it?In the last section, you learned how new Christian

churches started and grew. In this section, you will learnabout how the Catholic Church tried to change, manyreligious wars, and how Calvinism affected England.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on the Counter-Reformation. List ways that the Catholic Church tried tochange.

348

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsseminary: a special school for training and educating priests (page 643)

heresy: a religious belief that is different from Church teachings (page 643)

annul: to cancel a marriage (page 648)


Catholics and Protestants For use with pages 642–650

1.

Counter-Reformation

4.

3.

2.

349

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Counter-Reformation (pages 643–646)

Catholics and Protestants fought religious wars across Europe.

In the 1500s and 1600s, the Catholic Church tried tostop Protestantism. They wanted people to return to theChurch. This was called the Counter-Reformation. As youlearned earlier, the Reformation started many warsbetween Catholic and Protestant rulers. Europe wasdivided into Catholic and Protestant areas when the warsended in 1648.The Church Tries to Reform Itself The Catholic Church knew itneeded to change. Pope Paul III called a church meetingat Trent near Rome. The meetings lasted for 20 years,from the 1540s to the 1560s.

The Council of Trent made Catholic beliefs clear. It setup rules for how bishops and priests should act. Theclergy had to work even harder at teaching the faith.Seminaries were set up to train new priests. A seminaryis a special school for training and educating priests.

In 1540, Pope Paul III took another important step. He started a new order of priests. They were called theSociety of Jesus, or the Jesuits. They taught, preached, and fought heresy. A heresy is a religious belief that is different from what the Church says is true.

Ignatius of Loyola, a Spaniard, started the Jesuits. Hewas a brave soldier, but his life changed when he washurt in battle. He read about Christian saints who didbrave things to defend their faith. Ignatius decided hewould be a soldier for Jesus Christ.The Religious Wars in France John Calvin was from France. ManyFrench people became interested in his ideas. FrenchProtestants became known as Huguenots.

Only about seven percent of the French people becameProtestants. Almost half of France’s nobles did. Thisincluded the Bourbon family. They were the second mostpowerful family in France. They ruled a kingdom in


southern France called Navarre. They were also in line forthe throne of France.

Many French nobles wanted a weaker king. TheHuguenot nobles wanted this so they could practice theirreligion freely. Henry II was France’s king. He wanted tobuild a strong government.

Henry II died in 1559. His son Francis II died the nextyear. This meant that Francis’s brother Charles, a 10-year-old boy, was now king. Since Charles was too young torule, his mother ruled for him. She was Catherine de’Medici. Her father was Lorenzo de’ Medici. He was themost powerful Italian leader in Florence.

Catherine wanted to keep the French kingdom strongfor her son. She thought the Huguenots were a threat. Shewould not work with them. In 1562, Protestant andCatholics in France started fighting a war. It lasted morethan 30 years.

In 1589, Henry of Navarre led the Huguenot armies.He was also the head of the Bourbon family. He becameKing Henry IV of France. The war kept going becauseCatholic nobles would not accept a Protestant king.Henry won most of his battles. But, he was not able totake Paris.

Henry IV made a famous deal. He knew most Frenchpeople were Catholic and they wanted a Catholic king.He agreed to become Catholic so the French peoplewould accept him.

In 1593, Henry went to Paris. He put on white satin forthe Catholic ceremony. As he walked through the churchdoors, he smiled. He said that Paris was “worth a mass.”He meant it was worth becoming a Catholic to rule all ofFrance.

Henry IV did not forget his Huguenot followers. Heissued an order, or edict, in 1598. It was called the Edict ofNantes. Nantes was the city he was visiting at the time. Itsaid that Catholicism was France’s official religion. It alsogave the Huguenots the right to worship as they wanted.

350

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


351

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

What Was the Thirty Years’ War? The worst religious war of theReformation was fought in the Holy Roman Empire in the1600s. It began in Bohemia—today known as the CzechRepublic. Protestant nobles in Bohemia turned againsttheir Catholic king. Other Protestant kings in Germanydecided to help the rebels. They fought throughout theempire.

The war lasted for 30 years, from 1618 to 1648. It was awar of kingdoms. France, Sweden, Denmark, England,and the Netherlands sent troops to help the Protestants.Spain and the Holy Roman Empire supported theCatholics.

Town fought against town. Peasants were killed on theroads. When it was over, only wolves were found wan-dering where some towns used to be. The war weakenedSpain. It helped make France one of Europe’s most pow-erful countries.The Reformation in Spain The ideas of Luther and Calvin werenever popular in Spain. When Protestants fought inEurope, it affected Spain. Spanish rulers did not trustProtestant countries or anyone in Spain who was notCatholic.

The country of Spain began in 1469 when King Ferdi-nand and Queen Isabella married and joined their twokingdoms. They wanted a strong nation. They felt ifeveryone in Spain were Catholic, Spain would be unitedand loyal.

Muslims had ruled Spain from about A.D. 700 to 1200.When Ferdinand and Isabella began to rule, many Mus-lims still lived there. Catholics and Muslims livedtogether well at that time.

The Muslims made non-Muslims pay special taxes.Non-Muslims also did not have as many rights. But Mus-lims did not try to drive out or kill non-Muslims. Forexample, Jews had a better life in Spain than in otherplaces in Europe. Muslim Spain was a great place for Jew-ish thinkers and poets. The most famous Jewish scholar


was Maimonides. Born in Spain, he wrote books on reli-gion and medicine. He was a much-respected man.

This golden age ended when Catholics took overSpain. Jews and Muslims were not welcome. In 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella ordered all Jews and Muslims tobecome Catholic or leave the country. They set up theSpanish Inquisition to find out people’s beliefs.

The Spanish Inquisition was a Catholic court. It wasmuch crueler than the Inquisition in Europe. People werefound guilty just to get rid of enemies. Horrible tortureswere used to make people confess. Tomás de Torquemadaled the Spanish Inquisition. He killed about 2,000Spaniards. Even the pope in Rome could not stop him.

5. Why did King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella start theSpanish Inquisition?

The English Reformation (pages 648–649)

Henry VIII created the Anglican Church in England.

Because England is an island, ideas from Europe some-times took longer to get there. However, England brokeaway from the Catholic Church earlier than the rest ofEurope. That was because of a decision made by the English king. Later, the English people argued aboutReformation ideas.Henry VIII Starts His Own Church In England’s history, no king ismore famous than Henry VIII. He ruled from 1509 to1547. He was stubborn, impatient, and mean. Henry mar-ried six queens. He divorced two and ordered two havetheir heads cut off. He put bishops and nobles in prison inthe Tower of London for disagreeing with him. He alsohad their heads cut off.

Henry and his father were from the Tudor family. Inthe 1400s, England’s nobles were at war with each other.

352

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


353

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Henry wanted to keep the peace. He also wanted to keepthe Tudor family as rulers of England.

Henry needed a son to rule after him. But, he only haddaughters with his wife Catherine. Henry asked Pope Leoto annul, or cancel, his marriage to Catherine.

An annulment is not the same as a divorce. It says thatthe marriage never happened. It would mean that Henrycould find a new wife who would give him sons. Thosesons would rule after Henry, not the daughters he hadwith Catherine.

The pope would not annul the marriage. Catherinewas the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. Hernephew was the Holy Roman Emperor. Spain was thestrongest Catholic kingdom at that time. The pope did notwant to make Catherine’s family angry.

Henry asked the archbishop of Canterbury to annulthe marriage. He was the highest bishop in England. Thepope excommunicated Henry for doing this. Henry thensaid that the king, not the pope, was the head of theChurch in England.

Henry ordered all priests and bishops to accept him asthe new head of their church. Some would not and werekilled. The most famous was Sir Thomas More. He waskilled in 1535. Henry took the Catholic Church’s land inEngland. He gave some of it to his nobles. This kept thenobles loyal to him. If they let the Catholic Church havepower again, they would have to give up their land.Who Was Bloody Mary? The Church of England was called theAnglican Church. It kept most of the rituals and sacra-ments of the Catholic Church. But many English Catholicswere not happy. They wanted to stay Catholic. Theyagreed with Henry’s oldest daughter when she becameQueen Mary I in 1553. She had been raised Catholic. Shewanted to make England a Catholic country again.

Mary arrested Protestants who were against her. Sheburned 300 people at the stake in order to make England


Catholic again. The English were horrified. She was called“Bloody Mary.”

Mary ruled for about five years. When she died herhalf-sister became Queen Elizabeth I. She was Protestant,so she brought back the Anglican Church. She becameone of the greatest rulers in English history.How Did Calvinism Affect England? Religious battles were not over.A new fight began. The Anglican Church wanted to bemore Protestant in its beliefs and rituals.

By the late 1500s, the ideas of John Calvin had reachedEngland. Many educated people read his works. They felthe was right. They demanded that the Anglican Churchgive up its Catholic ways. They were known as Puritansbecause they wanted to purify the Anglican Church ofCatholic ideas.

Puritans started their own congregations. These wereindependent. They made their own decisions about whatpeople should and should not do. They did not report to abishop of the Anglican Church. They chose their ownministers.

Queen Elizabeth I put up with the Puritans. However,when James I became king in 1603, he did not. He did notallow anyone to disagree with the Anglican Church. Hewas the head of the church. He named the leaders. Theleaders chose the priests. James believed that when thePuritans chose their own ministers they were challengingthe king’s power.

James I and the king who came after him, Charles I,mistreated the Puritans. They shut down Puritanchurches. They put Puritan leaders in jail. Many Puritansmoved to America to practice their religion freely. Therethey started the colonies. These became the states ofMassachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and RhodeIsland.

6. Who were the Puritans?

354

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


355

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Missionaries Go Overseas (page 650)

As part of the Counter-Reformation, Catholic kingdoms began sendingmissionaries overseas to convert people to Christianity.

When the Counter-Reformation began, many Catholicswanted to spread their faith. Catholic kingdoms sent mis-sionaries overseas to America and Asia.

The Jesuits were missionaries in the 1500s and 1600s.French and Spanish Jesuits went to America and Asia. InAmerica, the Native Americans called them the “BlackRobes.”

The first Jesuit missionary to go to Japan was FrancisXavier. He arrived in 1549. The Japanese welcomed theJesuits. By 1600, thousands of Japanese believed in Chris-tianity.

The Jesuits disagreed with people who believed inBuddhism and Shintoism. The Japanese Shogun was amilitary ruler. He did not allow Christianity in Japan. Heforced all missionaries out.

Spanish missionaries were successful in the PhilippineIslands. Most of the people there became Catholic. Todaythe Philippines are the only Asian country with mainlyCatholics. French missionaries tried to get the people inVietnam to change their religion. Instead, Vietnam’semperor forced the missionaries out.

7. Which Asian country is made up of mainly Catholics?


Drawing From ExperienceWhat is your favorite food? Do you know what coun-

try that food is from? Have you ever thought about therole that exploration played in the food you eat today?

In this section, you will learn how trade and technol-ogy helped people explore the world. You will also learnwhere they explored and how this increased trade.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on the Ameri-can foods they sent to other countries.

356

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsmercantilism: the idea that a country gets more power by building up its

supply of gold and silver (page 666)

export: to sell goods to other countries (page 666)

import: to buy goods from other countries (page 666)

colony: a group of people living in a new area controlled by their home country (page 666)

commerce: the buying and selling of goods in large amounts over long distances (page 666)

invest: to put money into a project (page 667)


The Age of Exploration For use with pages 658–669

1.

American FoodsSent to Other

Countries

4.

3.

2.

357

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Europe Gets Ready to Explore (pages 659–660)

In the 1400s, trade, technology, and the rise of strong kingdoms inWestern Europe led to a new era of exploration.

In the 1400s and 1500s, countries in Western Europebegan exploring the world. They controlled the Americasand parts of India and Southeast Asia. Why did theybegin exploring? Many events led to this.Trade With Asia Europeans wanted spices, silk, and othergoods from Asia. In the 1400s, these goods were hard toobtain.

First of all, the Mongols had kept the Silk Road run-ning well. When their empire fell, local rulers along theSilk Road charged new taxes. This made goods from Asiacost more.

Next, the Ottoman Turks took over the ByzantineEmpire. They would not let Italian merchants go into theBlack Sea. The Italians had trading posts on the coast ofthe Black Sea where they bought from Asia. Now, theycould not reach them. They had to trade with the Turksinstead. This made prices even higher.

Europeans still wanted the spices and silk of East Asia.Merchants looked for a way to get to East Asia that didnot go through the Middle East. If they could not getthere by land, maybe they could get there by sea.New Technology Europeans needed the right tools for explo-ration. Ships could not travel the dangerous AtlanticOcean.

By the 1400s, they had the technology they needed.From the Arabs, Europeans learned about the astrolabeand the compass. The astrolabe was an ancient Greek toolused to find latitude. The compass was a Chinese toolthat helped find the magnetic north.


They also needed better ships. They used sails shapedlike triangles invented by the Arabs. These sails let a shipzigzag into the wind.

They also built ships with many masts and smallersails. This made the ships faster. A new type of ruddermade steering easier. A Portuguese ship called the caravelhad all of these new things. With ships like the caravel,Europeans could begin exploring the world.The Rise of Strong Nations Even with new technology, explo-ration still cost a lot and was dangerous. For most of theMiddle Ages, Europe’s kingdoms were weak. They couldnot afford to explore. This changed in the 1400s.

The growth of towns and trade helped make govern-ments stronger. Kings and queens taxed the trade in theirkingdom. They used the money to build armies andnavies. They used their new power to build strong gov-ernments.

By the end of the 1400s, Europe had four strong king-doms: Portugal, Spain, France, and England. They hadharbors on the Atlantic Ocean. They wanted to find a searoute to Asia. The question was where to go.Did Maps Encourage Exploration? By the 1400s, most educatedpeople in Europe knew the world was round. But, theyonly had maps of Europe and the Mediterranean. Whenthe Renaissance began, people began to study old maps.They also studied books written by Arab scholars.

Twelve hundred years earlier, Claudius Ptolemy haddrawn maps of the world. He was a Greek-educatedEgyptian geographer. Europeans found his book Geo-graphy in 1406, although it was printed in 1475. Ptolemyhad many ideas about cartography, the science of map-making. His basic system of latitude and longitude is stillused today.

Cartographers also read a book by al-Idrisi. He was anArab geographer. In 1154, al-Idrisi published a book thatshowed parts of the world known by Muslims. Europeans

358

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


359

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

learned the geography of East Africa and the IndianOcean by studying Ptolemy and al-Idrisi. If they couldfind a way around Africa, they could get to Asia.

5. What four strong kingdoms existed at the end of the1400s?

Exploring the World (pages 661–664)

While the Portuguese explored Africa, the Spanish, English, and Frenchexplored America.

By the early 1400s, Europeans were ready to explore.England and France were still fighting each other. Spainwas still fighting the Muslims. This gave Portugal thechance to explore first.Who Was Henry the Navigator? In 1419, Prince Henry of Portugalset up a research center in southern Portugal. He wasknown as “Henry the Navigator.” He asked sailors, car-tographers, and shipbuilders to help him explore theworld.

In 1420, Portugal began mapping Africa’s coast. Theytraded with Africa’s kingdoms. They took over theAzores, Madeira, and Cape Verde islands. They soonlearned that sugarcane would grow on the islands.

Sugar was very valuable in Europe. The Portuguesebrought African slaves to work in their sugarcane fields.This was the beginning of the slave trade. Millions ofslaves would be brought to the Americas.

In 1488, the Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Diasreached the southern tip of Africa. Nine years later, Vascoda Gama rounded the tip of Africa. He raced across theIndian Ocean. He had found a water route to East Asia.Christopher Columbus While the Portuguese explored Africa,an Italian navigator had a brave plan to get to Asia. His


name was Christopher Columbus. He would sail acrossthe Atlantic Ocean.

Columbus needed money to make the trip. The rulersof Portugal, England, and France said no. Finally, in 1492Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain said yes. Earlier that year,they had finally driven the Muslims out of Spain. Theycould now afford to pay for exploration.

Columbus had three ships: the Santa Maria, the Niña,and the Pinta. They left Spain in 1492 and headed west.After many weeks, they finally saw land. It was probablythe island of San Salvador. Columbus claimed the land forSpain. They then explored the nearby islands of Cuba andHispaniola.

Columbus thought he was in Asia. He did not realizehe was in the Americas. He made three more trips. Europeans finally realized they had found two huge continents.Who Was Magellan? Many Spaniards explored the Americas inthe 1500s. Only Ferdinand Magellan tried to finish whatColumbus had tried to do. He left Spain in 1520. Heheaded west to sail around the Americas to Asia.

Magellan sailed south along South America. He founda way around the continent. This is called the Strait ofMagellan. He passed through stormy waters into a hugesea. It was peaceful, so he named the body of water thePacific Ocean. Pacific means “peaceful.”

Magellan then went west. His sailors almost starved.They had to eat leather, sawdust, and rats. After fourmonths at sea, they reached the Philippines. The peoplethere killed Magellan. His crew then went west across theIndian Ocean. They went to Africa and back to Spain.They were the first known people to circumnavigate, orsail around, the world.The First English and French Explorers The English heard about Columbus’s trip. They also wanted to find a route to Asia. In 1497, John Cabot headed across the Atlantic.

360

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


361

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Cabot came to a large island. He named it Newfound-land. He then went south along the coast of Canada. Hedid not find a path to Asia. Cabot was lost on his secondtrip. He was never heard from again.

In 1524, France sent Giovanni da Verrazano to mapAmerica’s coast and find a route through to Asia. Ver-razano mapped from North Carolina up to Newfound-land. He did not find a path to Asia.

Ten years later, the French tried again. They sentJacques Cartier. Cartier sailed past Newfoundland. Heentered the St. Lawrence River. He made two more tripsto map the river. He thought he had found a passage toAsia. After these trips, France stopped exploring. By themid-1500s, French Protestants and Catholics were at war.No one explored until the war was over.Spain Fights England After Columbus, the Spanish built a hugeempire in America. They forced Native Americans togrow sugarcane and mine gold and silver. They broughtAfricans by force to work on their farms.

Spanish nobles were called conquistadors. They wentto America to get rich. Hernán Cortés was a conquistador.He conquered the Aztecs. Francisco Pizarro was another.He conquered the Incas. Soon after their victories, Spain’sempire in America sent gold and silver to Europe.

During this time, England was Spain’s enemy. In 1527,King Henry VIII of England left the Catholic Church. Hemade his kingdom Protestant. The Dutch were part ofSpain’s Catholic empire. But by the 1560s, the Dutch hadalso become Protestant. Spain tried to stop Protestantismin the Netherlands. England helped the Dutch fightagainst Spain.

Queen Elizabeth I of England let English privateersattack Spanish ships. Privateers are men who commandprivately owned ships. They were allowed to attack shipsof other countries. People nicknamed them “sea dogs.”They raided Spanish treasure ships that were bringinggold back from America.


England’s raids upset the king of Spain, Philip II. In1588, he sent a huge navy of ships, called the SpanishArmada, to invade England. In July 1588, the Armadawent to the English Channel. This is the narrow body ofwater between England and Europe. The Spanish shipswere large and had many guns. But, they were hard tosteer. The smaller English ships moved faster. They forcedthe Armada to go back north. There was a great stormand the Armada fell apart.

The loss of the Spanish Armada was a big event. TheSpanish were still strong, but England now had the powerto stand up to them. This gave the English and Dutchcourage to explore North America and Asia.

6. What country helped the Dutch fight Spain?

The Commercial Revolution (pages 666–667)

To increase trade, Europeans set up colonies and created joint-stockcompanies.

While Spain built its empire in America, Portugal builta trading empire in Asia. In 1500, the Portuguese sent 13ships back to India. They fought the Muslim merchants inthe Indian Ocean. Pedro Alvares Cabral led this war.

After winning, the Portuguese built trading posts inIndia, China, Japan, the Persian Gulf, and in the Moluc-cas, or Spice Islands of Southeast Asia. They controlledmost of southern Asia’s sea trade.What Is Mercantilism? Europeans watched Spain and Portugalmake money. They wanted to become rich, too. Theycame up with the idea of mercantilism. This is the ideathat a country gains power by getting more gold and silver. The best way to do this is to export (or sell to othercountries) more goods than you import (or buy fromthem). This means that more gold and silver comes infrom other countries than goes out.

362

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


363

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Mercantilists also thought countries should set upcolonies. A colony is a group of people living in a newarea that their home country controls. Colonists hadgoods that their home country did not have. That way, the home country did not have to buy those goods fromother countries.Trade Empires in Asia Europeans set up trading posts andcolonies in Asia and North America. By the end of the1500s, Spain had set up a colony in the Philippines. TheSpanish shipped silver to the Philippines from America.Then they used it to buy Asian spices and silk in Europe.

In the 1600s, English and French merchants landed inIndia. They traded there. In 1619, the Dutch built a fort onthe island of Java, in what is today Indonesia. Theyslowly pushed the Portuguese out of the spice trade.What Are Joint-Stock Companies? Trading overseas cost a lot. Inthe 1600s, Europeans started doing business a new way. Itwas called the “commercial revolution.” Commerce is thebuying and selling of goods in large amounts over longdistances.

Merchants needed a lot of money to trade goods faraway. They had to buy a large amount of goods, storethem in warehouses, and ship them over land and sea.They had to know what people far away wanted. Theyneeded to know what their prices were like.

This new business created entrepreneurs. Entrepre-neurs invest, or put money into a project. Their goal is tomake even more money when the project is done.

Many projects were so large that a group of entrepre-neurs had to work together. They would form a joint-stock company. This is a business that people can investin by buying a share of the company. These shares arecalled stocks.What Is the Cottage Industry? To trade over a long distance, merchants needed a large amount of goods. They had to buy at low prices. Then they could make money byselling at higher prices somewhere else.


By the 1600s, merchants were upset with artisans andguilds. They charged too much. They could not makegoods fast enough. Merchants began asking peasants tomake goods for them, like wool cloth. The peasants werehappy to make extra money. They were glad to have workthey could do in their homes.

This was called the “putting out” system. Merchantswould buy wool and put it out to the peasants. This sys-tem is also called “cottage industry.” The small houseswhere peasants lived were called cottages.

7. Where did the Portuguese build trading posts?

A Global Exchange (pages 668–669)

Exploration and trade led to a worldwide exchange of products, people, and ideas.

After the Age of Exploration, the economies of Europe,Africa, Asia, and America changed. Europe traded peo-ple, goods, technology, ideas, and even diseases with theworld. This is called the Columbian Exchange afterChristopher Columbus.

Corn and potatoes were taken from Europe to NorthAmerica. Corn was fed to animals. Larger animals produced more meat, leather, and wool. If one plantedpotatoes instead of grain, about four times as many people could live off the same amount of land.

Other foods went from America to Europe. These weresquash, beans, and tomatoes. Tomatoes changed cookingin Italy. This is where tomato sauces became popular.Chocolate was from Central America. Europeans wouldmix it with milk and sugar. This sweet is still populartoday.

364

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


365

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Chili peppers, peanuts, and other American foodswere taken to Europe. They also made their way to Asiaand Africa. Both Europeans and Asians smoked tobacco.Tobacco was an American plant.

Many European and Asian grains were planted in theAmericas. These included wheat, oats, barley, rye, andrice. Coffee and tropical fruits were brought to America.Thousands of people worked on Central and South Amer-ican coffee and banana farms.

Animals such as pigs, sheep, cattle, chickens, andhorses were brought to America. Chickens changed thediet of people in Central and South America. Horseschanged the lives of Native Americans on the GreatPlains. Horses moved people faster from place to place.This allowed Native Americans to hunt buffalo. Thisbecame their main food source.

Millions of people were also moved to America. Thesewere enslaved Africans. They were brought to work onsugarcane farms.

Asian society also changed. European guns and shipseasily crushed Arab fleets and Indian princes. Europeansforced Asian rulers to let them set up trading posts. TheEast India Company of England had built an empire inIndia. The Dutch East India Company had an empire inIndonesia.

Europeans in Japan also changed things. Japan usedguns and cannons from Europe. They finally defeated thefeudal lords and the daimyo. This reunited Japan.

Not everything exchanged between Europe and Amer-ica was good. Europeans gave germs to the Native Ameri-cans in America. Many diseases killed millions of peoplein America. Some of these were smallpox, measles, andmalaria.

8. What food changed the diet of people in Central andSouth America?


Drawing From ExperienceDo you like to test new ideas? How does science

change the way you look at the world around you? Science may play a bigger part in how you view theworld than you think.

In the last section, you learned how trade and technol-ogy helped people explore the world. You also learnedwhere they explored and how this increased trade. In thissection, you will learn about the many new discoveriesthat were made in mathematics, medicine, chemistry,physics, and astronomy.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on some ofGalileo’s important discoveries and inventions.

366

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termstheory: an idea about how or why something happens (page 671)

rationalism: the belief that reason is the main source of knowledge (page 678)

scientific method: an orderly way of collecting and analyzing facts (page 679)

hypothesis: a way of explaining facts (page 679)


The Scientific Revolution For use with pages 670–679

Galileo’s Discoveriesand Inventions

1.

2.

3.

367

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Scientific Revolution (pages 671–673)

The thinkers of the ancient world developed early forms of science andpassed this knowledge to later civilizations.

Thousands of years ago, people began to use numbers,study the stars and planets, and watch the growth ofplants and animals. This was the beginning of science.Science is any organized study of the natural world andhow it works.Early Scientists Different kinds of science were invented tosolve everyday problems. The first were math, astronomy,and medicine. Math was used for record keeping andbuilding projects. Astronomy helped tell time and figureout when to plant and pick crops. Early medical inven-tions included surgery, acupuncture, and the use of herbsfor treating sickness.

The ancient Greeks had a lot of scientific knowledge.They thought that reason was the only way to understandnature. As they studied the world, they created theories.A theory is a way to explain how or why something hap-pens. A theory is based on what you can see about some-thing. It may not be correct, but it seems to fit the facts.

The Greek philosopher Aristotle watched nature. Hecollected large amounts of facts about plants and animals.He divided these facts into groups. He grouped thembased on how they were alike and different.

The Greek way of science did have some problems. Forexample, they did not experiment, or test, new ideas tosee if they were true. Many of their ideas were falsebecause they were based on “common sense,” not onexperiments.

For example, in the A.D. 100s, Ptolemy said that the sunand the planets moved around the earth in paths like cir-cles. It seemed like the earth was the center of the uni-verse. People believed his earth-centered theory for morethan 1,400 years.


Science During the Middle Ages Under Roman rule, Westernthinkers agreed with Greek science. After the fall ofRome, most Europeans wanted to study God more thannature. They relied on Greek and Roman writings fortheir ideas about science. They felt they did not need tocheck facts or study on their own. Many of the ancientworks were either lost or in bad shape. In the writingsthat did survive, errors were added as copies were made.

During this time, Arabs and Jews in the Islamic Empiresaved a lot of Greek and Roman science. They carefullycopied many works into the Arabic language. They stud-ied the science of the Persians and the Indian system ofmath.

Arabic and Jewish scientists also had new ideas inmath, astronomy, and medicine. But they did not experi-ment or invent the tools needed to increase their knowl-edge.

During the 1100s, European came in contact with theIslamic world again. And they became interested in sci-ence again. Major Islamic scientific works were brought toEurope and written in Latin. The Hindu-Arabic system ofnumbers spread to Europe. It took the place of Romannumerals. Thomas Aquinas was a Christian thinker. Hetried to show that Christianity and reason could gotogether. During the 1100s, Europeans built universities.They played an important part in the growth of science.

Beginning in the 1400s, trips to explore the worldadded to scientific knowledge. Better charts, maps, andnavigational tools helped explorers reach different partsof the world. The size of oceans and continents was betterknown. Scientists wrote down new information aboutplants, animals, and diseases in different parts of theworld.

Scientific knowledge grew. And this new way of look-ing at the world led to a major change in Europe.

4. What did the Greek philosopher Aristotle observe?

368

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


369

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

A Revolution in Astronomy (pages 673–675)

European interest in astronomy led to new discoveries and ideas aboutthe universe and Earth’s place in it.

During the 1500s, mathematics and experiments werethe only way to learn more about science. This new wayof thinking led to a revolution, or a very big change.

Astronomy was the first science affected by the Scien-tific Revolution. New discoveries brought changes in theway people saw the universe. People questioned the oldway of thinking. Did God really make the earth as thecenter of the universe?Who Was Copernicus? Nicolaus Copernicus was from Poland.He studied math, and he led the Scientific Revolution. In1543, he wrote a book called On the Revolutions of the Heav-enly Spheres. He did not agree with Ptolemy’s idea that theearth was the center of the universe. He had a simplertheory. He believed that the Sun, not Earth, was the centerof the universe. The planets moved in circles around theSun. Kepler’s Revolution Johannes Kepler was a Germanastronomer. He agreed with Copernicus’s theory. But hemade changes to it. He thought the planets moved inellipses, or oval paths, not circles. This theory made it eas-ier to explain the movements of the planets. It also wasthe beginning of modern astronomy.Who Was Galileo? Galileo Galilei was an Italian scientist. Hehad the third great new idea in the Scientific Revolution.He thought that new knowledge could come throughexperiments. For example, Aristotle thought heavierobjects would fall to the ground faster than lighter ones.Galileo questioned this. And his experiments provedAristotle was wrong. Objects fall at the same speed nomatter how heavy they are.


Galileo found that scientific tools could help peopleexplore the natural world. He made tools like the clockand telescope even better. He used the telescope to findfacts to support the idea that the Earth moves around thesun.

Galileo also made new instruments. In 1593, he made a water thermometer. For the first time, temperaturechanges could be measured. His assistant, EvangelistaTorricelli, used mercury to make the first barometer. Thisis an object that measures air pressure.

When Galileo published his ideas in 1632, the CatholicChurch did not like them. The Church believed the earth-centered theory. They thought it was what the Bibletaught. The pope ordered Galileo to come to Rome and goon trial for heresy. Threats from the Church made Galileotake back many things he had said. Even so, Galileo’sideas spread through Europe. They changed people’sviews about the universe.

5. Why did the Catholic Church put Galileo on trial forheresy?

New Scientific Discoveries (pages 675–676)

The Scientific Revolution led to new discoveries in physics, medicineand chemistry.

Who Is Isaac Newton? The ideas of Copernicus, Kepler, andGalileo needed to be put together in one system. IsaacNewton from England did this. He studied math.

According to an old story, Newton was sitting in hisgarden one day. He saw an apple fall to the ground. Theapple’s fall led him to the idea of gravity. Gravity is thepull of the earth and other bodies on objects at or neartheir surfaces.

370

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


371

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

His book called Principia was published in 1687. Hestated his laws, or well-tested ideas, about the motion ofobjects in space and on Earth. The most important wasthe law of gravity. It explains that the force of gravityholds the entire solar system together by keeping the sunand the planets in their orbits. Newton’s ideas led tomodern physics. This is the study of matter and energy.Medicine and Chemistry Many changes happened in medicinein the 1500s and 1600s. Since Roman times, European doc-tors used the ideas of the Greek doctor Galen. Galenwanted to study the human body. But he was onlyallowed to dissect, or cut open, animals.

In the 1500s, a Flemish doctor began cutting open deadhuman bodies for research. His name was Andreas Vesal-ius. He published his book, On the Structure of the HumanBody, in 1543. He wrote details about the human body.These facts replaced many of Galen’s ideas.

Other breakthroughs in medicine occurred. In the early1600s, William Harvey proved that blood flowed throughthe human body. In the mid-1600s, an English scientistnamed Robert Hooke used a microscope. He found thesmallest parts of living material—cells.

New ideas in chemistry were found in the early 1600s.Chemistry is the study of natural substances and howthey change. Robert Boyle was an Irish scientist. In themid-1600s, he proved that all things are made up of basicelements. These elements cannot be broken down.

New ways to study gases were found in the 1700s.Hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and oxygen were discovered.By 1777, Antoine Lavoisier of France had shown thatobjects need oxygen to burn. Marie Lavoisier was also ascientist. She added to her husband’s work.

6. What scientist used a microscope? What did he find?


The Triumph of Reason (pages 678–679)

Using the scientific method, Europeans of the 1600s and 1700s devel-oped new ideas about society based on reason.

As scientists discovered new things, European thinkersbegan to connect science to life. Science had shown thatthe universe followed natural laws. People could learnhow the universe worked. They could solve human prob-lems and make life better.Descartes and Reason One of the most important scientificthinkers was the French philosopher René Descartes. In1637, he wrote a book called Discourse on Method. Hebegan with the problem of knowing what is true. To find truth, he started from scratch. He knew one thing for sure. He knew that he was alive. He said, “I think,therefore I am.”

Descartes stated that math was the source of all scien-tific truth. In math, the answers were always true. Thiswas because it began with simple truths. It then used rea-son to move to other truths. Today, Descartes is viewed asthe founder of modern rationalism. This is the belief thatreason is the main source of knowledge.What Is the Scientific Method? English thinker Francis Bacon alsohad an effect on scientific thought. He lived from 1561 to1626. He believed that ideas based on tradition should beput aside. He developed the scientific method. This is anorderly way of collecting and analyzing facts. It is still theprocess used in scientific research today.

The scientific method has many steps. A scientist startsby carefully looking at the facts. He then tries to find ahypothesis, or a way to explain the facts. He tests thehypothesis through experiments to see if it is true. Finally,if experiments show that the hypothesis is true, then it isconsidered a scientific law.

7. What phrase did René Descartes say about himself?

372

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


373

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The Enlightenment For use with pages 680–689

Drawing From ExperienceThink about your national and state government. Now

think about other governments around the world. Do youthink a country should be ruled by a king or a queen orby the people? Why?

In the last section, you learned about the many newdiscoveries made in mathematics, medicine, chemistry,physics, and astronomy. In this section, you will learnabout a new way of thinking called Enlightenment andhow many tried to follow these ideas.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on some of themost important philosophers of this time.

Key Termsnatural law: a law based on reason that applies to all people (page 681)

social contract: an agreement between rulers and the people (page 682)

separation of powers: a system in which the power of government is equallydivided among the branches of government: executive, legislative, andjudicial (page 682)

deism: a religious belief based on reason that says God created the world andlets the world run itself by natural law (page 685)

absolutism: a system in which kings and queens hold total power (page 686)

Philosopher Their Ideas/Contributions

Voltaire 1.

Diderot 2.

Wollstonecraft 3.

Rousseau 4.

New Ideas About Politics (pages 681–682)

During the 1700s, many Europeans believed that reason could be usedto make government and society better.

Many thought that reason was a much better guidethan faith or tradition. To them, reason was a “light” thatshowed mistakes and the way to truth. The 1700s becameknown as the Age of Enlightenment.

During this time, people applied reason and scientificideas to government. They said there was a natural law.This was a law based on reason that is true for all people.This law was the key to government. As early as the1600s, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke used natural lawto develop very different ideas about how governmentshould work.Who Was Thomas Hobbes? Thomas Hobbes wrote about Englishgovernment and society. During his life, England wastorn apart by the civil war. King Charles I fought againstthose who supported Parliament. Charles I wanted tohave total power as king. Parliament said it representedthe people and wanted more power. Charles was killed.This shocked Thomas Hobbes. He supported the king.

In 1651, Hobbes wrote a book called Leviathan. He saidthat natural law made a king with total power the bestform of government.

Hobbes felt that humans were selfish and violent. Theycould not be trusted to make decisions on their own. Peo-ple would make life “nasty, brutish, and short.” So, theyneeded to obey a government that had the power of aleviathan, or sea monster. This meant the rule of a king.He felt only a strong ruler could give people direction.Why Is John Locke Important? English thinker John Locke did notagree. He used natural law to support people’s rights. Hewanted to make government answer to the people.

374

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


375

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

During Locke’s life, another English king wanted totalpower. This was King James II. In 1688, there was threatof a war. James left the country. Parliament then askedMary, James’s daughter, and her husband, William, tobecome king and queen. This event was called the “Glori-ous Revolution.”

William and Mary agreed to a Bill of Rights. Theyagreed to obey Parliament’s laws. The Bill of Rights alsoguaranteed all English people basic rights. For example,people had the right to a fair trial by jury. They also couldnot be punished cruelly for a crime.

John Locke wrote a book called Two Treatises of Govern-ment in 1690. Many ideas of the Glorious Revolution werein the book. For example, he wrote that governmentshould be based on natural law. This law gave all peoplecertain rights from when they were born. These rightsincluded life, liberty, and the right to own property.

Locke thought it was the government’s job to protectthese rights. All governments, he said, were based on a social contract. This is an agreement between rulers and the people. If a ruler took away people’s rights, thepeople had a right to fight and set up a new government.Who Was Montesquieu? France liked England’s governmentafter the Glorious Revolution. They liked it better than their own absolute monarchy. In 1748, Baron Montesquieu published a book called The Spirit of Laws.

In this book, Montesquieu said that England’s govern-ment was the best because it had a separation of powers.Separation of powers means that power should beequally divided among the branches of government: exec-utive, legislative, and judicial. The legislative branchwould make the laws. The executive branch wouldenforce laws. The judicial branch would interpret lawsand decide when they were broken. By separating these


powers, government could not become too powerful andthreaten people’s rights.

5. Who was asked to rule England when King James IIIleft the country?

The French Philosophes (pages 684–686)

The Enlightenment was centered in France, where thinkers wrote aboutchanging their society and met to discuss their ideas.

During the 1700s, France was the center of the Enlight-enment. Thinkers were called by the French namephilosophe. This means “philosopher.” Most philosopheswere writers, teachers, journalists, and watchers of society.

The philosophes wanted to use reason to change society. They attacked false beliefs. They disagreed with Church leaders who were against new scientific discoveries. The philosophes believed in freedom ofspeech and the right to liberty. They used their skills aswriters to spread their ideas across Europe.Who Was Voltaire? The greatest thinker of the Enlightenmentwas François-Marie Arouet. He was known as Voltaire.He wrote many novels, plays, letters, and essays. Thesebrought him fame and wealth.

Voltaire did not like the Roman Catholic Church. Hesaid Church leaders kept knowledge from people in orderto keep their power. He did not think the governmentshould support one religion. He thought people shouldbe free to choose their own beliefs.

Voltaire supported deism. This is a religious beliefbased on reason. Deism says that God created the worldand put it in motion. God let the world run itself by natural law.

376

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


377

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Who Was Diderot? Denis Diderot was the French philosophewho did the most to spread Enlightenment ideas. He pub-lished a large, 28-volume encyclopedia with the help offriends. It took 20 years to complete.

The Encyclopedia included many topics, such as science,religion, government, and the arts. It was important in thephilosophe’s fight against traditional ways. Many articlesattacked false beliefs. They supported freedom of religion.Others called for changes that would make society morejust and caring.The Enlightenment and Women The Enlightenment raised ques-tions about women. Before, many male thinkers felt thatwomen were less important than men. They thoughtwomen had to be controlled and protected. By the 1700s, women thinkers wanted women’s rights. The most powerful supporter was the English writer MaryWollstonecraft. Many people today see her as the founderof women’s rights.

In 1792, Mary Wollstonecraft wrote a book called AVindication of the Rights of Woman. She stated that allhumans have reason. Because women have reason, theyshould have the same rights as men. They should haveequal rights in education, work, and politics.Rousseau’s Social Contract By the late 1700s, some Europeanthinkers were speaking against Enlightenment ideas.Jean-Jacques Rousseau was one of them.

Rousseau felt that supporters of Enlightenment reliedtoo much on reason. Instead, people should pay moreattention to their feelings. Human beings were naturallygood. But life in society made them bad. To improvethemselves, people should live simple lives closer tonature.

Rousseau published a book in 1762 called The SocialContract that expressed his political ideas. He said that a


good government should be based on a social contract.Everyone should agree to be ruled by what society as awhole wants.

6. Who is considered to be the founder of women’srights?

The Age of Absolutism (pages 686–689)

Many of Europe’s monarchs, who claimed to rule by the will of God,tried to model their countries on Enlightenment ideas.

During the 1600s and 1700s, many European thinkersagreed government power should be limited. However,powerful kings and queens ruled most of Europe. Thissystem was known as absolutism. Kings and queens(monarchs) held absolute power. They claimed they ruledby divine right, or by the will of God, so they did notanswer to their people. They answered only to God.

As the Enlightenment spread, many of Europe’sabsolute rulers asked philosophes for help. They wantedtheir governments to work better. At the same time, theydid not want to lose any of their power. These rulers wereknown as enlightened despots. Despots are rulers whohold total power.Louis XIV: France’s Sun King During the 1600s, France was one ofEurope’s strongest countries. Louis XIV became king in1643. He was the most famous absolute monarch. Heruled for 72 years. This was the longest reign in Europeanhistory. He set the style for Europe’s kings and queens.He was known as the Sun King because Europe’s rulersand nobles all “revolved” around him.

Louis relied on bureaucracy, but he was the main polit-ical authority in France. He bragged, “I am the State.”Louis’s army fought and won wars to expand France’s

378

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


379

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

land. But these wars were costly in money and men. Themany wars and large amounts of money spent weakenedFrance and the monarchy.Frederick the Great During the 1600s and 1700s, Germany hadover 300 separate states. Prussia and Austria became greatpowers.

The most famous Prussian ruler was Frederick II. Hewas also called Frederick the Great. He ruled from 1740 to1786. He strengthened the army and fought wars. He gotnew land for Prussia. He tried to be an “enlightened des-pot.” He supported the arts and learning. He tried tocarry out enlightened changes. He let his people speakand publish more freely. He also allowed other religionsto be practiced. Austria’s Hapsburg Rulers By the 1700s, Austria ruled a largeempire. It had many different peoples, languages, andcultures. It covered much of central and southeasternEurope. The Hapsburgs family ruled it.

In 1740, a Hapsburg princess named Maria Theresabecame Austria’s ruler. She was clever and talented. Sheworked to improve the serfs’ lives. She also tried to makegovernment work better.

After Maria Theresa died in 1780, her son, Joseph II,became ruler. He liked Enlightenment ideas. He freed theserfs. Nobles and farmers paid the same land tax. He letbooks be published freely. Most of Joseph’s changes didnot work. The nobles did not like them. Joseph was forcedto back down. However, the people who were once serfskept their freedom.Russia’s Peter I and Catherine II To the east of Austria was a greatempire of Russia. It was ruled by all-powerful rulersknown as czars. Peter I, or Peter the Great, was one of themost powerful rulers. He ruled from 1689 to 1725. Petertried to make Russia into a strong and up-to-date power.He made changes to make the government work better.


Peter also improved Russia’s military. He expandedRussia’s land west to the Baltic Sea. He founded the cityof St. Petersburg in 1703. A few years later, Russia’s capi-tal moved there from Moscow.

After Peter died, Russia’s nobles began to fight. Then,in 1762 a German princess named Catherine came topower in Russia. She was loyal to Enlightenment ideas.She studied and wrote letters to the philosophes. Shethought about freeing the serfs, but a serf revolt changedher mind. In the end, she let the nobles treat the serfshowever they wanted to.

Under Catherine, Russia acquired even more land. Itspower grew. Catherine became known as “the Great.”Catherine died in 1796. By that time, ideas of liberty andequality had spread across Europe. These ideas threat-ened the rule of powerful kings and queens.

7. What family ruled in Austria in the 1700s?

380

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


381

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The American Revolution For use with pages 690–700

Drawing From ExperienceThink about movies you have seen or books you have

read about American’s fight for freedom. What causedthem to fight? What moves you to fight for somethingyou believe in?

In the last section, you learned about the Enlighten-ment and how many tried to follow this new way ofthinking. In this section, you will learn how the Americancolonists broke away from Britain and started their owncountry—the United States of America.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the table to help you take notes on the coloniesowned by Spain and France.

Key Termsrepresentative government: a government in which people elect members to

make laws and run the government (page 694)

constitution: a written plan of government (page 694)

popular sovereignty: the idea that government gets its powers from the people (page 700)

limited government: the idea that a government may use only those powersgiven to it by the people (page 700)

Spain France

1. 5.

2. 6.

3.

4.

Settling North America (pages 691–694)

European colonies in North America developed differently from eachother and from Europe.

Spain and Portugal had colonies in the Americas in the1500s. In the early 1600s, the French, English, and otherEuropeans began setting up colonies in the Americas.Most of Spain’s colonies were in the Caribbean, Mexico,and South America. Most of France and England’s werein North America.The Spanish in North America In the 1500s, the Spanish exploredthe southeastern corner of North America. They alsoexplored lands north of Mexico. They had hoped to findrich empires like the Aztec and Inca. Instead, they foundonly small villages of Native Americans. Spain was moreinterested in its colonies in Mexico, Peru, and theCaribbean. Those colonies had a lot of silver and gold.

The Spanish did not ignore the rest of North America.They built settlements and forts along the northern edgeof their territory. These helped to keep other Europeansout of their territory. St. Augustine in Florida and Santa Fein New Mexico are two examples.

Spanish priests also went north. They set up missions,or religious communities. They taught Christianity andEuropean ways to the Native Americans. Missions wereestablished in California, New Mexico, Florida, and otherareas in North America.France Settles North America The French came to North Americato make money from trading fur. By the 1600s, many peo-ple in Europe wanted beaver fur. French merchants hiredexplorer Samuel de Champlain in 1608 to help them. Heset up a trading post named Quebec in what is nowCanada. Quebec was the capital of the colony of NewFrance.

382

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


383

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

From Quebec, French fur trappers, explorers, and missionaries moved into other parts of North America.

In 1673, Louis Joliet and Jacques Marquette found theMississippi River. Then in 1682 a French explorer namedLa Salle followed the Mississippi all the way to the Gulfof Mexico. He named the region Louisiana in honor ofKing Louis XIV. The French in southern Louisianabrought enslaved Africans to grow sugarcane, rice, andtobacco.The English Settle in America English settlers came to NorthAmerica for many reasons. Some people wanted to makemoney. Others wanted religious freedom. England’scolonies grew quickly because of problems in Englandthat made many people want to leave. They had beenforced off their farms. In America, they had a chance toown land. Others came because they did not have a joband needed work.

By 1600, England’s rulers agreed with mercantilism.Colonies and trading posts in Asia and America weremaking Europe’s kingdoms rich. They thought theyneeded colonies to keep England strong.

The Virginia Company was an English joint-stock company. It had the first permanent English settlement inNorth America in 1607. It was called Jamestown afterKing James I. Jamestown was the first town of a newcolony called Virginia.

Life in Virginia was very hard. There was not enoughto eat. Many people died from lack of food. Some died inthe cold winters. Others were killed in fights with theNative Americans.

During those first years, the colony made no money.But John Rolfe held the colony together. He discoveredthat tobacco would grow in Virginia’s soil.

People in Europe wanted tobacco. Colonists in Virginiagrew a lot of it. They could sell it for a lot of money.Tobacco was the first cash crop of the English colonies. Acash crop is grown in large amounts to sell and makemoney.


Tobacco was grown on large farms called plantations.Africans were brought by force and made to work onthese farms. The English government set up morecolonies in America because Virginia was so successful.They wanted to grow more cash crops. The colony ofSouth Carolina grew rice and indigo. There were alsoEnglish colonies in the Caribbean. They grew sugarcanethere.

Not all English settlers came to North America tobecome rich. Some wanted religious freedom. As youread in the last chapter, many Protestants in Englandwere Puritans. Puritans did not want the AnglicanChurch to use Catholic forms of worship. They wantedeach church to choose its own leaders. King James I andhis son King Charles I both thought Puritans were athreat. They treated them badly.

In 1620, a group of Puritans went to America so theycould worship freely. They were called the Pilgrims. Theysailed on a ship called the Mayflower to North America.They landed north of Cape Cod, in what is now Massa-chusetts. They named their new home Plymouth.

Many other Puritans left England for America whenthey saw the Pilgrims were successful. John Winthrop leda group of Puritans to America. They started the colony ofMassachusetts. By 1643, more than 20,000 Puritans hadmoved to America. They started Rhode Island, Connecti-cut, and New Hampshire.

Other people who wanted religious freedom startedcolonies, too. English Catholics started Maryland in 1634.The Quakers were another religious group. They weremistreated in England. They started Pennsylvania in 1680.

By the early 1700s, the English had created 13 coloniesalong the coast of North America. These colonies had dif-ferent economies and societies. They did have one thingin common: they wanted to rule themselves.

384

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


385

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Self-Government in America Self-government began early in thecolonies. The Virginia Company let Virginia colonistschoose burgesses, or representatives. They needed tochoose among the men who owned land. The first Houseof Burgesses met in 1619. It was like the English Parlia-ment. They voted on laws for the Virginia colony.

The House of Burgesses set an example for representa-tive government. This is government where peoplechoose others to make laws and run the government.They also had their own legislatures.

A year after the Virginia House of Burgesses met, thePilgrims came to North America. They had their ownideas about government. Before leaving the boat, the Pilgrims signed an agreement called the Mayflower Compact. They agreed to rule by choosing their own leaders and making their own laws.

Over the years, most of the colonies wrote constitu-tions. These are written plans of government. These con-stitutions let colonists choose assemblies and protectedtheir rights.

7. What colony was settled by English Catholics?

Trouble in the Colonies (pages 695–698)

Great Britain faced problems in North America, because the Americancolonists objected to new British laws.

During the early 1700s, there were many changes inEngland and its colonies. In 1707, England joined withScotland to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain.The term British came to mean the English and the Scots.

By 1750, Great Britain was the world’s strongest trad-ing empire. It had 13 wealthy colonies in America, India,and the Caribbean. For years, Britain and its Americancolonies got along. This changed when the British tried to


control trade. They also tried to tax the colonies. Thesetwo things made the colonists angry.Colonial Government and Trade For many years, Great Britain letthe American colonies run their own government. In eachcolony, men who owned land chose representatives to alegislature. The legislatures passed laws and taxed peo-ple, but the governor of a colony could stop laws that thelegislature had already passed. The king chose the gover-nor in most colonies.

Great Britain controlled the colonies’ trade. Thecolonies made many raw materials, such as tobacco, rice,indigo, wheat, lumber, fur, deerskin leather, fish, andwhale products. These were sent to Great Britain. Thenthey were traded for goods such as clothing, furniture,teas, and spices.

To control trade, Britain passed many laws in the1600s. These were called the Navigation Acts. Colonistshad to sell their raw materials to Britain even if theycould get a better price somewhere else. Any goodsbought by the colonies from other countries in Europehad to go to England first. The goods would be taxedbefore they could be sent to the Americas. The trade lawsalso said that all the goods had to be carried on ships builtin Britain or the colonies. The crews had to be British too.

The colonists first agreed to trade laws. They wereexcited because they could sell their raw materials nomatter what. Later, they did not like the laws. Theywanted to make their own goods. They wanted to selltheir products at higher prices to other places. Manycolonists began smuggling. They shipped goods withoutletting the government know or paying taxes.Why Did the British Tax the Colonies? Between 1756 and 1763, theFrench and British fought for control of North America.The British won. They got almost all of France’s NorthAmerican empire. Britain owed a lot of money becausethe war cost so much. They made plans to tax thecolonists and make more money from trade.

386

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


387

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

In 1765, Parliament passed the Stamp Act. This taxednewspapers and other printed materials. All of theseitems had to have a stamp on them. The stamp showedthat the tax was paid. The colonists were very mad. Theysaid they would not buy British goods.

Finally, representatives from nine colonies met in NewYork. They talked about the Stamp Act. They sent a letterto the British government stating that the colonies couldnot be taxed by Britain. They could only be taxed by theirown assemblies. The British backed down for a while, butthey still needed money. In 1767, they taxed glass, paper,paint, and tea.Tax Protests Lead to Revolt The American colonists did not likethe new taxes. They bullied the tax collectors. They drewugly cartoons of King George III. The British sent moretroops to Boston, Massachusetts. This is where the largestprotests had taken place.

In March 1770, a crowd of colonists threw snowballs atBritish soldiers. The soldiers fired into the crowd. Fivepeople were killed. This was called the Boston Massacre.Shortly after, most taxes were ended. But, there was still atax on tea.

In 1773, the Tea Act was passed. This let a British trad-ing company send tea to the colonies without paying thetaxes that the colonists had to pay. The company couldsell tea at a very low price. The colonial tea merchantswere afraid they would go out of business.

In Massachusetts colonists were mad. A group of mendressed up as Native Americans. They got onto manyBritish ships in Boston Harbor. They threw the tea into thewater. This was known as the Boston Tea Party.

To punish them, Parliament passed new laws. Theselaws closed Boston Harbor in 1774, and put the army incharge of Massachusetts. Also, British troops were to behoused in colonists’ homes. These laws were called theIntolerable Acts, or laws the colonists could not bear.


The Intolerable Acts made the colonists want to fightfor their freedom. In September 1774, delegates from 12colonies met in Philadelphia. They called themselves theFirst Continental Congress. The Congress spoke outagainst the Intolerable Acts. They wanted them stopped.

Colonial leaders did not agree on what to do. Some,like George Washington from Virginia, wanted to settlethe problems with Great Britain. Others, like SamuelAdams of Massachusetts and Patrick Henry of Virginia,wanted the colonies to be free.

8. What was the Stamp Act?

The War of Independence (pages 698–700)

The American colonies formed a new nation, the United States ofAmerica.

Before the colonists could decide what to do, fightingbroke out in Massachusetts. The British wanted to destroyweapons stored at Concord. On the way there, they raninto colonial troops at Lexington. They fought the firstbattle of the American Revolution there.

In May 1775, the Second Continental Congress met inPhiladelphia. George Washington was named head of anew army. The Congress tried to settle the problems withGreat Britain. King George III would not listen to them.

More Americans began to think that independence wasthe only answer. In January 1776, a writer named TomPaine wrote a short work called Common Sense. He usedstrong words to attack the king. He told colonists theyneeded to break with Great Britain.The Declaration of Independence On July 4, 1776, the Congressissued the Declaration of Independence. Thomas Jeffersonof Virginia wrote it. It stated that the colonies were break-ing from Great Britain. They were forming their owncountry, the United States of America.

388

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


389

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

In the Declaration, Jefferson gave the reason for start-ing a new country. To do this, Jefferson used ideas fromJohn Locke. In Section 3, you learned that Locke said peo-ple have the right to end governments that go againsttheir rights. The Declaration stated that “all men are cre-ated equal” and have certain rights given to them by God.It said that King George III had gone against colonists’rights, so they had the right to rebel.

The Declaration also took ideas from earlier Englishwritings. Both the Magna Carta and English Bill of Rightssaid that governments are not all-powerful and that rulershad to obey the laws and treat citizens fairly.How Did the Americans Win the War? After the Declaration wasmade, the war between the British and Americansdragged on. The first important American win came in1777. This was at the Battle of Saratoga in New York.Great Britain’s old enemy, France, saw that the UnitedStates might win the war. In 1778, France agreed to helpthe Americans.

The French were very important to winning the war.The last battle took place in 1781 on the coast of Virginia.This was the Battle of Yorktown. The French navy blockedthe British from escaping by sea. The American andFrench armies trapped the British inside Yorktown. TheBritish laid down their weapons. Peace talks began. Twoyears later, the Treaty of Paris ended the war.The United States Constitution Great Britain recognized Americanindependence in 1783. At first the United States was aconfederation. States were joined loosely, but kept theirown power. This plan of government was called the Arti-cles of Confederation. It gave the country a weak nationalgovernment. The Articles were not strong enough to dealwith the new country’s problems.

In 1787, 55 delegates met in Philadelphia. They wantedto change the Articles. They wrote a constitution for abrand new government. The new U.S. Constitution set up


a federal system. Powers were divided between thenational government and the states. They followed theideas of Montesquieu. He thought power should bedivided between executive, legislative, and judicialbranches. A system called checks and balances made sure each branch did not have more power than any ofthe other branches.

Under the Constitution, the United States was a repub-lic. They chose a president, not a king. Elections in 1789made George Washington the first president of the UnitedStates. The same year, a Bill of Rights was added to theU.S. Constitution. The Bill of Rights listed certain rightsthe government could not take away. These rightsincluded freedom of religion, speech, and press. Also,people had the right to trial by jury.

The U.S. Constitution was also shaped by Enlighten-ment ideas. One of these is popular sovereignty. This isthe idea that government gets its powers from the people.Another is limited government. This is the idea that agovernment may use only those powers given to it by thepeople.

9. What ideas did the Constitution take from the MagnaCarta and English Bill of Rights?

390

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


391

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The French Revolution and Napoleon For use with pages 714–723

Drawing from ExperienceDo you think that it’s ever all right to use fear or force

to reach a goal? In other words, if you think your goal isgood, is it acceptable to break the law or hurt someone toget what you want? Why or why not? Think about anexample from your life or from current events to supportyour answer.

In this section, you will learn about how ideas from theAmerican Revolution led to a revolution in France. You’llalso learn about how French radicals used terror to sup-port their changes, and the rise and fall of Napoleon’sempire. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on the eventsthat led to the rise and fall of Napoleon’s empire.

Key Termsestates: classes or groups of people (page 715)

bourgeoisie: the French middle class (page 715)

coup d’etat: a sudden takeover of the government (page 720)

Reign of Terror

1.

2.

3.

4.

End of Napoleon’s Empire

The French Revolution Begins (pages 715–716)

The French Revolution began because the people were treated unfairlyand because their country had serious economic problems.

The example of the American Revolution caused manypeople in France to want change. They also wanted free-dom and equality. The French Revolution began in 1789.It changed France and all of Europe. What Caused the French Revolution? In the 1700s, France was oneof the most powerful countries in Europe. French kingshad total power. Nobles had many benefits and greatwealth. But most people were poor and had little educa-tion. It was hard for them to make a living.

The French people were grouped in one of threeestates, or classes. The First Estate was the Catholicchurch officials. They did not pay taxes, and they receivedmoney from church lands. The Second Estate was thenobles. They won the highest jobs in government and themilitary. The nobles were also free from taxes. They livedin great wealth at the king’s court or in their countryhouses and owned large areas of land.

All other people in France were part of the ThirdEstate. At the top of this group was the bourgeoisie, ormiddle classes. These people were merchants, bankers,doctors, lawyers, and teachers. Next were the city work-ers. They were artisans, day laborers, and servants. At thebottom were the peasants, or the poor. More than 80 per-cent of the French people were peasants.

People in the Third Estate had no say in government.But they did have to pay taxes. As the middle class heardEnlightenment ideas about freedom and equality, theybecame more and more upset about the benefits of thenobles and clergy.The French King Is Overthrown In 1788 food was hard to get andprices increased. People in the country were very upset. At the same time, the government was almost bankrupt.Costly wars and the king’s court cost the country a lot of money. French banks decided they could not loan the

392

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


393

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

government any more money. So King Louis XVI askedthe nobles and clergy to pay taxes. They said no. Louiscalled the country’s legislative body, the Estates General,to meet at his palace at Versailles. It was the only way hecould impose new taxes. People from all three estateswere part of the Estates General.

In the Estates General, the nobles and clergy said theywould not give up their benefits. So the people of theThird Estate decided to meet apart from the larger group.They declared that they were the National Assembly.They began to work on a new constitution for France.

The people were happy, but also worried. The kingwas gathering troops at Versailles. The people of Paris gotready to fight. On July 14, 1789, a large crowd stormed ahated royal prison called the Bastille.

People in the country heard about the fall of theBastille. To calm the people, the National Assemblypassed new laws that ended the benefits of the clergy andnobles. It also issued the Declaration of the Rights of Manand the Citizen. It said that the powers of governmentcome from the people, not the king.

In 1791 the National Assembly declared that Francewas to be ruled by an elected assembly. They limited theking’s power. But Louis would not accept these changes.In June 1791, he and his wife Marie Antoinette tried toflee to Austria. They did not get far. Soldiers arrested theking and queen and brought them to Paris.

In 1792 the National Assembly declared war on Aus-tria. They were afraid that Austria’s ruler would try tohelp Louis. Prussia joined Austria in fighting France. Thewar did not go well for France. Radicals, or people whowanted even greater changes, were angry about France’slosses. They took over Paris and set up a new governmentcalled the National Convention.

5. What laws did the National Assembly pass?


The Reign of Terror (pages 717–719)

French radicals used terror to enforce their reforms.

Many of the radicals who formed the National Con-vention were part of the Jacobin club. Many politicalgroups in France were part of this club that met at theJacobin monastery in Paris. Once in power, the Jacobinssplit into two groups. The Struggle for Power People in the Convention argued aboutthe future of the revolution. One group, the Girondists,thought that the revolution had gone far enough. Theywanted to protect the middle class. The other group ofJacobins, called the Mountain, wanted more change.Leaders of this group saw themselves as the voice of thepeople and defenders of the revolution.

The Mountain took control of the Convention. Theywanted to eliminate the king. In late 1792, Louis was puton trial. He was found guilty of helping France’s enemiesand was beheaded. Louis’s death scared other rulers inEurope. In early 1793, Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, andSardinia joined Austria and Prussia in the war againstFrance.Who Was Robespierre? After the king’s death, the NationalConvention set up the Committee of Public Safety to runthe country. A lawyer named Maximilien Robespierretook control of the Committee.

The Committee took strong steps to end the unrest inFrance. People who were not loyal to the revolution werebeheaded. This included Girondists, clergy, nobles, evenwomen and children. About 40,000 people died, includingMarie Antoinette. This period is called the Reign of Terror.

At this time, Robespierre tried to create a “Republic ofVirtue.” He thought the revolution should make peoplewant to be good citizens. The Committee opened newschools, helped peasants learn new farming skills, andtried to keep prices low. Robespierre even created a newreligion to replace the Catholic faith, but it did not last.

394

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


395

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Committee raised a new army to protect Francefrom other countries. All single men between the ages of18 and 25 had to join. With almost a million soldiers,France was able to throw back the invaders. These victo-ries gave the generals confidence. They soon becameimportant in French politics.

People in France grew tired of the killing and wantedto end the Reign of Terror. Robespierre would not stop, so government leaders had him executed. After his death,middle-class leaders made a new government led by afive-man council. The council, or Directory, tried to handlethe lack of food, rising prices, government bankruptcy,and attacks by other countries. By 1799, the Directory hadlost support. The French people began to look for a strongleader who could bring back order.

6. What was Robespierre’s Republic of Virtue?

The Rise of Napoleon (pages 719–720)

Napoleon Bonaparte used his military success to take control of the French government.

As the Directory lost support in France, the Frencharmy won great victories. One young general namedNapoleon Bonaparte fought Austrian armies in Italy. He got the attention of the French people.

Napoleon was born on the island of Corsica in 1769.He went to military school and became an officer. By thetime he was 24 years old, he was a general. He supportedthe revolution.

After his success in Italy, Napoleon fought the Britishin Egypt in 1799. When he heard about the political prob-lems at home, Napoleon went back to France. He tookpart in a coup d’etat, or a sudden takeover of the govern-ment. Napoleon became the most powerful man in the


country. His title was First Consul. France had the strongleader many had wanted.

Napoleon moved quickly to increase his power. Hechanged the government, opened new schools, and set uplocal officials. He changed the country’s finances and taxsystem. He also set up a new legal system called theNapoleonic Code. The Code was based on Enlightenmentideas. He also made peace with the Catholic Church,which had been against the revolution.

Napoleon did not stay true to all of the ideas of therevolution. People were equal under the law, but freedomof speech and the press was limited. A new group ofnobles was created based on ability instead of wealth or family ties. Then, in 1804, Napoleon made himselfemperor. France became an empire.

7. What was the Napoleonic Code?

Napoleon’s Empire (pages 720–723)

Through military conquests, Napoleon built a huge, but short-lived,empire in Europe.

Napoleon wanted to build a great empire. Beginning in1803, he won many victories that helped him reach hisgoal. By 1807, Napoleon’s empire stretched across Europeto Russia.

Napoleon’s empire was made up of many lands. Heruled France and parts of Germany and Italy. His relativesruled Spain, the Netherlands, and other lands. Countriesoutside the empire, such as Prussia, Austria, and Sweden,were forced to become France’s allies. Napoleon Fights Britain Napoleon’s empire came to an end fortwo reasons. One was nationalism—the people’s desirefor self-rule. Other countries did not want to be ruled byNapoleon. They did not want the French customs he

396

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


397

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

forced on them. The other reason was the power ofBritain and Russia.

Only Britain and Russia had not been defeated byFrance. Napoleon hoped to invade Britain. But, in 1805,the British admiral Lord Horatio Nelson destroyed theFrench navy. After that, Napoleon tried to win anotherway. He told countries in his empire that they could nottrade with Britain. This plan, called the Continental System, was not successful. Napoleon Invades Russia Napoleon decided to take on Russia.He put together his Grand Army with 600,000 soldiers. In the summer of 1812, the Grand Army invaded Russia.The Russians fought only one battle. But they drewNapoleon’s army deeper into Russia. When Russia’s hard winter arrived, Napoleon’s army was not prepared.They suffered greatly and eventually retreated. Fewerthan 100,000 men came back alive.

France’s enemies captured Napoleon and sent him tothe island of Elba. He escaped in the spring of 1815. InFrance, his troops flocked back to him. Napoleonreturned to Paris in victory; but, at Waterloo in Belgium, a force of many nations defeated Napoleon. He was sent to the island of St. Helena, where he died in 1821. The Congress of Vienna In September 1814, leaders in Europemet in Vienna, Austria. They wanted to return Europe tothe way it was before the French Revolution. This confer-ence was known as the Congress of Vienna. Its leader,Klemens von Metternich, was Austria’s foreign minister.He was a conservative. Conservatives believed in tradi-tional values, order, and a strong role for religion. Theydid not support ideas about rights and self-rule. Today inAmerica, conservatives believe in traditional values, aswell as rights and self-rule.

At the Congress, the leaders wanted to make sure thatall the countries of Europe had equal strength or power.They hoped that a balance of power would stop anynation, like France, from controlling Europe.


These leaders were against individual rights andnationalism. They gave power to the royal families whohad ruled before Napoleon. They also said they wouldmeet from time to time at conferences. These meetingswere called the Concert of Europe.

8. What two forces brought Napoleon’s empire to anend?

398

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


399

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The Industrial Revolution For use with pages 724–730

Drawing From ExperienceThink about all the ways you use technology in a

day. How would your life be different without electricity,phones, computers, or cars? New technology can changethe way we live our lives.

The last section described the French Revolution and the rise and fall of Napoleon’s empire. This sectiondiscusses the beginning of the Industrial Revolution inBritain. You’ll also learn about how industry spread toother countries and how new inventions changed the way people lived. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on the causesof the Industrial Revolution.

Key Termsindustrialism: a system based on industry that depends on machines rather

than animal or human power (page 725)

textile: a woven cloth (page 726)

capital: money invested in business (page 726)

partnership: a relationship in which two or more people own a business (page 728)

corporation: a business organization that raises money by selling shares in the company to investors (page 728)

Causesof the

IndustrialRevolution

1.

2.

3.

4.

Industrialism Begins (pages 725–728)

The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain because of the enclosure movement, Britain’s natural resources, and new British inventions.

During a time of great political change, industrialismbegan in Europe. People began to use machines, ratherthan animal or human power. Over the next 200 years,industrialism would cause major changes in other parts of the world. Industry changed life so much that histo-rians call these changes the Industrial Revolution.

Before industrialism, most people lived in small farm-ing villages. They grew their own food and made theirown goods. In Britain during the early 1700s, cloth wasmostly made in individuals’ homes. Families workedtogether. This was known as the cottage industry.

Merchants brought raw wool and cotton to the cottages. Workers would spin and weave the wool byhand. Merchants picked up the finished cloth to sell. TheIndustrial Revolution began in the woven cloth or textileindustry. Merchants wanted a way to make cloth betterand faster. By the 1700s, changes in Britain made this possible. What Caused the Industrial Revolution? One important cause of theIndustrial Revolution was the enclosure movement. In the 1700s, Parliament made new laws that let landownersfence off their land. Before this, local villagers had rentedthe land from landowners and split it into small strips.Each family worked a strip. Now villagers could not use the land the way they wanted.

Enclosure allowed landowners to make more moneyfrom bigger harvests. They could grow the same crop inbig areas. Often the land was used for sheep. Their woolwas used by the textile industry.

Many farmers could invest their extra money in newbusinesses. Money invested in business is called capital.A growing middle class could invest in new businesseswith wealthy landowners and merchants.

400

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


401

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Another cause was the large number of people whocould work in industry. The enclosure movement forcedmany people to move off the land. They went to cities and worked in new industries.

In the 1700s, Britain’s population grew rapidly. Peoplehad more and better food. They lived longer and hadlarger families. More people were available to work in the new factories.

Natural resources and geography also helped the riseof industry. Britain had large supplies of coal and iron.Coal was used to run machines. Iron was used to makemachines. Harbors and rivers were used to move goods.Rivers helped power the cotton mills. New Inventions Britain’s talented inventors made the Industrial Revolution possible. In the late 1700s, JamesHargreaves invented a spinning jenny that could spin cotton into thread quickly. Richard Arkwright made a way to power a spinning machine with water. AndEdmund Cartwright made a new powered loom. Theloom could weave the thread into cloth as fast as themachines could make it.

In 1769 James Watt made a steam engine that couldpower the new machines. Steam became the major source of power.

The need for machines led to the need for machineparts made of iron. In 1753 Henry Cort found a way to use coal to turn iron ore into pure iron. Iron becamecheaper and production grew. Coal mining became a bigindustry. In 1856 Henry Bessemer invented an inexpen-sive way to turn large amounts of iron into steel. The steelwas harder and stronger than iron. Mining towns andsteel centers grew in areas that had iron ore and coal. The Rise of Factories and Railroads Factories were the centers ofthe Industrial Revolution. Machines were too big andcostly to be used in homes. Workers and machines werebrought together in factories.

As industry grew, business owners changed their com-panies. They needed to raise money to buy machines and


build factories. One way to do this was to form a partner-ship. In a partnership, two or more owners put theirmoney into the business. Another way was to create a corporation. A corporation sells shares in the company to investors to raise money. Business leaders could buildlarge factories with room for hundreds of workers.

New forms of transportation also led to the growth of industry. An American inventor, Robert Fulton, made a boat powered by a steam engine in 1807. The railroadcaused the biggest change in land transportation. By themid-1800s, railroads were the fastest and cheapest way to carry goods and people.

5. What was the enclosure movement?

The Spread of Industry (pages 729–730)

The Industrial Revolution spread beyond Great Britain’s shores toEurope and the United States.

New industrial technology in Britain gave it an advan-tage over other countries. Britain’s government passedlaws to protect this advantage. These laws kept ideas,inventions, and skilled workers from leaving the country.But the Industrial Revolution soon spread to other areas.Industry in Europe and America The Industrial Revolution spreadto France, Belgium, Germany, and the United States. Governments in Europe encouraged industry. Theyhelped build factories, railroads, canals, and roads. By the1820s, British business people had made a lot of money.They began to invest in factories and railroads in Europe.This helped industry get started in other countries.

The Industrial Revolution also took hold in the UnitedStates. British investors and Americans built factories tomake textiles and shoes. Workers, including women andchildren, left the countryside to work in cities.

402

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


403

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The United States had many natural resources. Americans built canals and roads to move goods and people. Fulton’s steamboat improved river travel. Railroads soon crossed the country. New Scientific Discoveries In the 1800s, many discoveries in science helped the Industrial Revolution. Steel took theplace of iron. In the 1870s, steel became the leading metalfor industry. Other inventions sent electricity throughwires or changed electricity into heat, light, or motion.

The telegraph was invented by Samuel Morse in the1830s. The telegraph made it possible to communicateacross a great distance. People could send coded mes-sages through wires. Two other inventions helped com-munications. The telephone was invented by AlexanderGraham Bell in 1876. The radio was developed byGuglielmo Marconi in 1895.

In 1831 Michael Faraday discovered that a magnetmoving through copper wire made an electric current.Within 40 years, this discovery led to the invention ofelectric generators. Thomas Edison made the lightbulb. He used electricity to make light.

New ideas also changed transportation. In the 1880sGermany’s Rudolf Diesel and Gottlieb Daimler inventedthe internal combustion engine. It produced a lot ofpower by burning oil-based fuels. Within a few decades,these engines powered boats. They also led to the devel-opment of the car and the airplane.

6. What inventions resulted from the use of electricity?


Drawing From ExperienceWhat kinds of music do you like to listen to? What

kinds of books and art do you like? Today’s art, music,and literature are often shaped by today’s society. Whatdoes your favorite music reveal about your society? What does it reveal about you?

The last section described the causes of the IndustrialRevolution. In this section, you will learn how industrychanged the way people lived. You will also learn aboutnew ideas in art, literature, science, and medicine. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes. Compare andcontrast liberalism and utilitarianism. How are they thesame? How are they different?

404

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsurbanization: movement of people from the country to cities (page 732)

liberalism: philosophy based on Enlightenment ideas that says that govern-ment should stay out of business and society (page 735)

socialism: philosophy that says that government should help make societybetter (page 735)

labor union: a group of workers who unite to get better pay and working conditions (page 736)


Society and Industry For use with pages 731–741

1.

2.

3.

5.

6.

7.

4.

Liberalism Utilitarianism

405

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Industry Changes Society (pages 732–734)

The Industrial Revolution caused cities to grow bigger and changed howpeople lived and worked.

By the 1860s, the Industrial Revolution had causedmany changes. Life was very different in Europe, North America, and other places. Growth of industry still changes the way we live today. Cities Grow in Size One change was that cities got much bigger. Urbanization happens when people move fromthe country to the cities. In an urbanized country, mostpeople live in towns and cities. Britain was urbanizedfirst. Cities also grew in other parts of Europe and theUnited States.

Why did cities grow so much? As farms used moremachines, fewer workers were needed. Many workersmoved from the country to cities to find factory jobs. What Was Industrial Life Like? Before the rise of industry, a person’s place in society was set by birth. Few couldmove to a higher position. But industry brought newopportunities.

In Europe, rich factory owners lived like nobles. Theyhad several homes and many servants. People with lessmoney formed the middle class. This included managers,lawyers, doctors, and engineers. Some of them also hadservants and nice homes.

The growth of industries and cities also created a largeworking class. It was made up of people who worked infactories and mines. Their lives were very hard.

The whole working-class family, including children,had to work. Some of the places they worked were awful. They worked up to 16 hours a day, 6 days a week.Factories and mines were hot, dirty, and not healthy.Many children lost fingers or limbs. People were oftenhurt. Some died.

Living conditions in the cities were often very bad. But many workers still came to the cities to find work.They could not find work on the farms. Cities did offer


new opportunities for fun. These included parks, educa-tion for adults and children, concerts, libraries, sports,and museums. Women also had a new independence.

Over time, working conditions did get better. Somepeople worked to make the lives of workers better.Women and children were able to work fewer hours. Living conditions were still not healthy. But they did get better in some ways. Life Changes for Women The Industrial Revolution changedwomen’s lives. People had thought that a women’s placewas in the home. Women took care of children and didhouse work. Men had more rights than women. But during the 1800s, women worked to find new roles.

The workplace gave women the chance to change theirposition. They found jobs in industry and government.They had more opportunities for education. Familiesbecame smaller in the 1800s. This also changed the livesof women.

During the 1800s, women demanded the same rightsas men. In the United States, Britain, and other places,women worked to change old ideas. They demanded theright to vote.

8. What effect did urbanization have on women?

New Political Ideas (pages 734–736)

The Industrial Revolution led to new ideas about politics, society, and the economy.

The Industrial Revolution brought both good and badchanges. In the early 1800s, people looked for ways tosolve the problems caused by industry. What Is Liberalism? One new idea was liberalism. It wasbased on Enlightenment ideas. The word liberal meanssomething different today in the United States than it

406

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


407

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

did then. Liberals today agree with liberals in the 1800son some ideas. They disagree on others.

In the 1800s liberals believed that all people have basicrights. They said all people were equal before the law.They wanted freedom of speech and the press. Many liberals also wanted freedom of religion. Liberals thoughtthat government should have limited power, and peopleshould be elected to make laws. Liberals did not thinkthat everyone should vote. Most thought only men withland should vote.

The new middle class liked liberalism. Middle-classbusinesspeople did not want government to be involvedin business or society. British economist Adam Smithliked this idea. He said that government should stay outof the economy and let businesses compete. This wouldlead to more wealth and a better society. The idea becameknow as “laissez-faire.” These French words mean “to let be.”

Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill of Britain had a different idea. They wanted government to help makesociety better. They were utilitarians. They thought soci-ety should provide the greatest happiness for the mostpeople. Utilitarianism supported full rights for women,better education, and better health services. Marxism Another new idea in the 1800s was socialism.Socialists think that government should own and controlbusinesses. This includes factories, land, capital, and rawmaterials. Many people developed the ideas of socialism.The most important person was a German writer namedKarl Marx.

Marx lived during the 1800s. He thought that compe-tition among social classes was bad for society. He calledthe working class the proletariat. He said that, over time,this class would rise up and create a communist society.Social classes would end. People would live in a classlesssociety.

Marx’s ideas came to be called Marxism. They were the basic ideas of socialist parties in Germany, Britain,


Scandinavia, and other countries. These parties wantedgovernment to control industry.

Bad conditions in factories also led to labor unions. Alabor union is a group of workers who unite to get betterpay and working conditions. Workers would go on strike,or stop working, to make owners bargain with unionleaders. In much of Europe, unions supported socialistparties.

9. What is Marxism?

New Art and Literature (pages 736–737)

Artists, writers, and composers reflected the changes that industrialismbrought to society.

Industry led to changes in art, literature, and music.Some artists turned away from the ugly face of industry.Others chose to show it. Romanticism and Realism Some writers and artists in the late1700s did not like Enlightenment ideas. They were knownas romantics. They valued feelings and the imaginationover reason. They thought this was the best way to findtruth. Their movement was called romanticism.

Romantic poets included Britain’s WilliamWordsworth and Germany’s Johann von Goethe. Theywrote about nature, the past, and the unusual. These writ-ers tried to share their inner feelings about life. Romanticpainters included Eugene Délacroix of France. He alsochose strange subjects. The first great romantic musicianwas Ludwig van Beethoven of Germany. His musicshowed strong emotion and drama.

Another movement took hold in the mid-1800s. Someartists turned away from the emphasis on feelings. Thesewriters and painters were known as realists. They tried toshow life as it really was. These writers included Charles

408

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


409

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Dickens of Great Britain, Honore de Balzac of France, andLeo Tolstoy of Russia. They wrote about regular peopleand places. Painters like France’s Gustave Courbet alsoshowed scenes from everyday life. Romantics tried to getaway from industrialized society. Realists chose to look at it closely. Modernism and Impressionism Two other movements appearedlater in the 1800s. One was modernism. Modernism studied social problems. Emile Zola of France, TheodoreDreiser of the United States, and Henrik Ibsen of Norwaywrote about social issues. Subjects included crime, alco-holism, and women’s rights. Other modernists took a dif-ferent approach. Symbolist poets thought that the outerworld was a reflection of inner reality. They studieddreams and symbols for meaning. They also used them in their works.

Impressionism was a modernist movement in painting.These painters studied the effect of light on differentobjects. The most famous impressionists were French.They included Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, andEdgar Degas. Mary Cassatt of the United States was also a famous impressionist painter. Composers like ClaudeDebussy of France also used impressionist ideas. Theycreated dreamy, shimmering music.

10. How did romantics respond to ideas of the Enlightenment?

Science and Medicine (pages 738–741)

Important scientific discoveries during the Industrial Revolutionchanged the way people lived and how they understood the world.

During the 1800s, scientists learned many new things.New ideas in medicine and health made society better. Why Was Pasteur Important? One important medical discoverywas vaccines. Vaccines keep people free from disease.


In 1796 English doctor Edward Jenner had a new ideaabout smallpox. He noticed that dairy workers who gotcowpox did not get smallpox. Jenner thought that vacci-nating or giving shots with cowpox could keep peoplehealthy. His idea was correct.

In 1868, French chemist Louis Pasteur discovered bacteria, or germs. He proved that they cause disease.Pasteur showed that killing germs could stop many diseases.

Anesthesia are drugs that lessen pain. The discovery of these drugs made surgery much less painful. Many people used to die from surgery because of infection. Englishman Joseph Lister developed new ways to keepmedical equipment clean or sterilized. He made surgerymuch safer.

Gregor Mendel was a monk from Austria. He had animportant new idea. In the 1860s he studied pea plants.He developed a new system of rules based on his plants.These rules could be used to predict which traits wouldget passed from parents to children. Mendel is known as the father of genetics. Einstein and Physics By the end of the 1800s, people had newideas about the physical sciences, or physics. Atomic theory is the idea that everything is made up of tiny par-ticles called atoms. Scientists learned that atoms are madeup of even smaller bits.

Marie Sklodowska Curie was a Polish scientist. Shewas married to Pierre Curie from France. They discoveredradium in 1898. Radium is radioactive, which means itgives off energy.

Albert Einstein was a German scientist. He had newideas that changed the way people thought about the universe. People had seen the universe as a well-runmachine. They thought it always stayed the same. ButEinstein had new ideas about time, space, mass, andmotion. His theory of relativity states that space and time are relative and changing.

410

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


411

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Einstein also developed a famous equation—E=Mc2. E is energy, M is mass, and c is the speed of light. Einsteinshowed that all physical things have a lot of energy. Scientists used his ideas to make the atomic bomb. Who Was Charles Darwin? Charles Darwin studied the manykinds of life in the world. He came up with an idea: plantsand animals change very slowly over time. Stronger onessurvive. They adapt to their world and have offspring.

Darwin also believed that humans evolved from ani-mals. Many questioned these ideas. They believed in thestory of creation as written in the Bible. Other peoplethought his ideas would lead to a world without morals.But many people accepted Darwin’s theory.

Some people related Darwin’s ideas about evolution to society. This is called Social Darwinism. Those whosupported laissez-faire economics liked this idea. Theybelieved that weaker people, companies, and countrieswould fail. The stronger ones would succeed.

11. Who was Gregor Mendel?


Drawing From ExperienceDo you feel a sense of pride in your school? In your

family? In a team? In your country? How do you expressyour pride? A sense of belonging to something special isimportant. Your school, your family, or your country canhelp give you a sense of your identity—your special placein the world.

The last section described how the Industrial Revolu-tion changed society. In this section, you will learn howthe French Revolution and Industrial Revolution led tonationalism and self-rule. You will also learn about newideas and revolutions in many parts of the world. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on the causesand effects of the American Civil War.

412

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termskaiser: German emperor (page 748)

caudillo: a wealthy Latin American leader who often ruled as a dictator (page 751)

abolitionism: a movement to end slavery (page 753)


Nationalism and Nation-States For use with pages 744–754

CAUSE EFFECT

1. 2.

3. 4.

5. 6.

7. 8.

413

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Nationalism and Reform (pages 745–746)

Two powerful ideas, nationalism and reform, helped reshape Europepolitically during the mid-1800s.

Nationalism is the desire of people from the samecountry or culture for self-rule. During the 1800s, nationalism led to big changes in Europe and the Americas. Many people wanted political change. Democracy in Great Britain Change was peaceful in Britain. In the early 1800s, nobles ran the government. The middle and working classes could not vote. In 1832 the British government gave voting rights to most middle class men. New industrial cities got more seats in Parliament. But workers still could not vote. In the1840s, some people demanded the vote for all men. They also wanted to vote in secret. These people, knownas Chartists, did not succeed.

William Gladstone became the British prime ministerin 1868. His Liberal Party was backed by many middleclass voters. They made many new reforms. People couldvote in secret. Districts were reorganized to give moreequal representation. Gladstone served four terms asBritain’s political leader.

Benjamin Disraeli was Gladstone’s rival. He led theConservative Party. Disraeli served two terms as primeminister. In 1867 his government gave the vote to manyworkers. In 1900 the Labour Party was created. This newparty represented the working class. It became the mainrival of the Conservatives.

In the early 1900s, British women pushed for the rightto vote. These women were called suffragettes. They usedmarches and hunger strikes. In 1918 Parliament gave allwomen over 30 the right to vote. The Revolutions of 1848 In 1848 revolutions swept acrossEurope. They started in France. People in Paris pro-tested for political reforms. King Louis-Philippe wasdriven from the throne. France became a republic.


These events led to revolts in other parts of Europe.People from Hungary, Italy, and Germany wanted self-rule. They rebelled against their monarchs. Their revoltsfailed. But the ideas of nationalism and reform stayedstrong among the middle and working classes.

Louis Napoleon III was Napoleon’s nephew. He waselected president and then emperor of France. France’seconomy grew stronger under Napoleon III. But the government was not democratic.

In 1870, Napoleon III declared war on Prussia. Prussiawon easily. Napoleon III’s government fell. Workers tookcontrol of Paris. They set up a socialist government calledthe Commune. A bloody civil war broke out. The upper-class government used troops to crush the workers. In1875 France became a republic again. But the upper andworking classes did not trust one another. Reform in Austria and Prussia During the late 1800s, rulers in Austria and Prussia tried to stop reforms. They did notwant self-rule. But defeats in war made both countriesmake some changes.

The Austrian government made a deal with the Hungarians. In 1867 Hungary became a separate king-dom linked to Austria. Together they ruled the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This satisfied the Hungarians. Butother groups were still not happy. They continueddemands for self-rule through the rest of the 1800s.

A military defeat made the Russians see they werebehind other industrialized countries. Czar Alexander IImade new industries. He also improved farming. In 1861he freed the serf-peasants. These workers had to farmland for others. But the freed peasants were not givenenough land. They were very unhappy. Many peoplebegan to call for revolution.

9. What reforms were made by William Gladstone andhis Liberal Party?

414

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


415

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Rise of Italy and Germany (pages 747–748)

In the mid-1800s, two new countries, Italy and Germany, were created.

In the early 1800s, the countries of Italy and Germanydid not yet exist. These areas were divided into manysmall, independent states. But, by the 1850s, the rise of nationalism in Europe led to the desire to create united countries. How Did Italy Become a Country? In 1848 Austria controlled most of Italy’s states. Piedmont in northern Italy wasindependent. It was ruled by King Victor Emmanuel and prime minister Camillo de Cavour.

Both of these men wanted to unite Italy. Piedmonthelped Britain and France in a war with Russia. ThenFrance agreed to help Piedmont drive Austria out of Italy. In 1859, France helped Piedmont win a war againstAustria. This was the first step toward uniting Italy. Soonpeople in other Italian states rose up against their rulers.They united with Piedmont.

At the same time, nationalists led revolts in southernItaly. Their leader was Giuseppe Garibaldi. He took con-trol of the island of Sicily in 1860. Garibaldi was a masterof guerrilla warfare. In this type of war, soldiers makesurprise attacks and go back into hiding. Garibaldi’s armygained control over much of Italy’s mainland. People inthe south then voted to join a united Italy.

In 1861 the Kingdom of Italy was set up as a constitu-tional monarchy under Victor Emmanuel. Two areas were not included. One was Rome, which was under thePope’s control. The other was part of northeast Italy. Thisremained Austrian. By 1870, wars had brought both areasinto the new Italian kingdom. The unity of the countrywas complete. Bismarck Unites Germany Nationalism was also strong in theGerman states. But many rulers did not want to give up their power. Nationalists had strong support from Prussia. Prussia was ruled by William I. He dreamed of uniting all German states. In 1862 he appointed Otto von Bismarck as his prime minister.


Bismarck was a very conservative, wealthy landowner.He said he would govern Prussia by “blood and iron”rather than by votes and speeches. He raised money andmade the army strong. He easily won short wars withDenmark and Austria.

These successes helped Bismarck to unite northernGermany in Prussia’s new empire. Southern Germanstates were mostly Catholic. They feared Protestant Prus-sia. But they feared France more. In 1870 Bismarck foughta war with France. This was the Franco-Prussian War.

The war was bad for France. Prussia won land onFrance’s borders. And the southern German states agreedto unite with Prussia. On January 18, 1871, William wasmade kaiser. He was emperor of a united Germany.

10. How did Bismarck unite Germany?

Nationalism in Latin America (pages 749–751)

In the early 1800s, the people of Latin America rebelled and gainedtheir independence.

The American and French Revolutions led to greatchange in Latin America. Colonies ruled by Europemoved toward independence. New Nations in Latin America Haiti was the first territory to win a revolt against European rule. Enslaved Africans on thisCaribbean island were ruled by Francois-Dominique Toussaint-Louverture. They threw off French rule in 1804.

The fight for freedom increased in the next ten years inSpanish and Portuguese Latin America. Miguel Hidalgoand Jose Maria Morelos were Catholic priests in Mexico.They urged poorer Mexicans to fight for freedom fromSpain. Both men were defeated and killed.

Mexicans fought many battles. But they did not winindependence until 1821. Mexico became a republic in

416

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


417

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

1823. That same year, the countries of Central Americawon independence from Spain.

Simón Bolívar was a rich military leader. He led thefight for freedom in northern South America. In 1819, hewon freedom for Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, Ecuador,and Bolivia.

While Bolívar fought in the north, a soldier named Joséde San Martín fought for freedom in the south. In 1817 heled his army from Argentina into Chile. He took the Span-ish forces by surprise. A few years later, San Martin andBolívar together defeated the Spanish in Peru.What Problems Did Latin America Face? All of Spain’s Latin Ameri-can colonies were free by the end of 1824. In the 1820s,Brazil broke away from Portugal without fighting. Brazilwas a monarchy and then became a republic in 1889.

The United States said it would protect independentLatin America. James Monroe was president of the UnitedStates in 1823. He told the powers in Europe to leave theLatin American countries alone. This statement was calledthe Monroe Doctrine. It guided U.S. actions toward LatinAmerica in the years ahead.

Most Latin Americans hoped their countries wouldbecome democratic and wealthy. These goals were difficult to reach.

Latin Americans fought a lot over political issues. Theyfought over the role of religion in their society. Countriesfought over boundary lines. The rich and the poor oftendisagreed.

At the same time, strong leaders came into power.They made it hard for democracy and wealth to develop.These leaders were known as caudillos. They were usu-ally rich men, supported by the upper class. They oftenwere dictators. Some built roads, schools, and new cities.But many favored the wealthy over the poor. The richowned most of the land. The caudillos did not help workers in the countryside. The gap between rich andpoor is still a big problem in parts of Latin America.


11. What leader won freedom from Spain for Venezuela,Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, and Bolivia?

Nationalism in the U.S. (pages 751–754)

Nationalism in the United States led the country to expand its borders,but differences between the North and South led to a bloody civil war.

Nationalism affected the United States in the 1800s.The country grew in size. Many believed expansionwould make the country richer and more powerful. Butnationalism also led to different ideas about the future. The United States Expands West During the 1800s, the UnitedStates expanded to the west. In the early 1800s the coun-try bought the Louisiana Territory from France. This doubled the size of the country. In the first half of the1800s, the United States gained two other big areas. The country received Florida from Spain. It also won theOregon Territory from Britain. Many Americans believedin “Manifest Destiny.” This was the idea that the UnitedStates should reach from the Atlantic Ocean to the PacificOcean.

In 1845, the country added Texas. Texas had declaredindependence from Mexico. This angered Mexico. A dis-pute over the Texas-Mexico border caused more trouble.By 1846, the United States and Mexico were at war. TheUnited States won the war in 1848. The peace treaty gavethe United States the area that includes California andother western states.

Growth in the west brought new opportunities for set-tlers. They built new communities and states. But NativeAmericans suffered. They lost land, culture, and oftentheir lives. The American Civil War Different ways of life developed inNorthern and Southern states. By the mid-1800s these differences were great. They threatened national unity.

418

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


419

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The economy of the South was based on farming. It depended on cotton. Growing cotton depended onenslaved African Americans. The economy of the Northdepended on industry. Some Northerners believed inabolitionism. This was a movement to end slavery.

Opinions about slavery were strong. By 1860, theUnited States had free and slave states. That year, Abraham Lincoln was elected president. He was againstslavery. By early 1861, 11 states had left the union. Theyformed a new nation: the Confederate States of America.The American Civil War began.

The North had more people and more factories andrailroads. This gave the North a big advantage. But theSouth won most of the early battles. Over time, the Northgained the upper hand. The war ended after four bloodyyears of fighting. More than 600,000 Americans died.

The North’s victory united the country. African Americans were freed from slavery. The government was stronger. New factories, railroads, and cities were built. New Society Between 1870 and 1900, the number of Ameri-cans doubled and industry also grew.

Immigrants were a big part of the population growth.Before the Civil War, more immigrants came from north-ern Europe. They were mainly from the British Isles, Germany, and Scandinavia. But immigration from south-ern and eastern Europe increased during the late 1800s.Immigrants landed at Ellis Island in New York. Mostheaded to the cities to find work.

Communities of Asian immigrants grew along thewest coast by the late 1800s. Chinese immigrants came toCalifornia in the late 1840s to find gold. They stayed towork in the mines and build railroads. By 1900, immi-grants from Japan also came to America. Political Rights During the 1800s, the United States becamemore democratic. Andrew Jackson was elected presidentin 1828. This was seen as a victory for the “common people.”


Women also began to demand equal rights. Womenfought hard for the right to vote. In 1920, the NineteenthAmendment to the Constitution was approved. It gavewomen in all states the right to vote.

12. What was Manifest Destiny?

420

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


421

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The New Imperialism For use with pages 762–770

Drawing from ExperienceHow do the businesses in your community affect your

life? Has a new business ever moved into your neighbor-hood? Did it make things better or worse? A new businessmay help the local economy and help you get things youwant. But it may also make it harder for local businessesto succeed. It can even change the way people in yourneighborhood live.

In this section, you will learn about how industrychanged Europe’s relationship with the world. You willlearn how European nations and the United States builtempires to help their economies and to spread their ideas. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes. Fill in the supporting details as you read.

Key Termsimperialism: a type of relationship between countries in which one nation

controls the government or the economy of another nation (page 763)

colony: a region controlled by another country (page 763)

protectorate: a small country ruled by and/or protected by a larger one (page 763)

sphere of influence: a region in which an imperial nation holds the rights to trade and invest (page 763)

sepoy: Indian soldiers in the East Indian Company’s army (page 765)

Main Idea

European nations and the United States built empires to help their economies and spreadtheir ideas.

Supporting Details:

1. 3. 5. 7.

2. 4. 6. 8.

The Rise of Imperialism (page 763)

European nations built empires to help their economy and to spreadtheir ideas.

422

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


In the 1800s, industrial countries in Europe took over lands in Asia and Africa. They were looking for raw materials and new markets. This began the Age of Imperialism. Imperialism is a type of relationshipbetween countries. It happens when one nation controlsthe government or the economy of another nation.Building Empires People in Europe wanted new lands fortrade and profit. They also wanted to add to their powerand spread their ideas and practices. They thought peoplein foreign countries would have better lives if they followed European ways.

Imperial nations ruled in many different ways. Some-times they ruled a colony directly. Sometimes they set upa protectorate, in which the people had their own govern-ment, but the imperial government controlled the militaryand the local rulers. Other times, they set up a sphere ofinfluence. In this region, only one imperial power couldinvest or trade. The First Empires: Southeast Asia Beginning in the 1500s, Europeans wanted the spices of Southeast Asia. They took over many island groups, including the Philippinesand the East Indies. In the 1800s, Europeans started totake over the mainland. They wanted crops such as coffeeand tea. They also wanted raw materials. These includedpetroleum, rubber, and tin.

Thomas Stamford Raffles was a British official. Hefounded a colony on a small island at the tip of the MalayPeninsula in 1819. This colony was known as Singapore,or “the city of the lion.” It became an important port forships going to and from China.

The British took the rest of the Malay Peninsula andBurma. The French also wanted land in Southeast Asia.French Catholic missionaries went into Vietnam. Theyused troops to protect Vietnam from the British. In 1884,

423

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Vietnam became a French protectorate. In all of SoutheastAsia, only Siam kept its freedom. Today Siam is known as Thailand.

9. How did imperial nations rule?

Britain’s Empire in India (pages 764–765)

Control of India passed from the East India Company to the British.

Over time, Mogul rule in India became weak. Rulersspent too much money on wars and palaces. This madethe Indian people angry. The Moguls also tried to makethe Hindus become Muslims. Rising unrest made it easyfor Europeans to take over India. What Was the East India Company? In 1600 British traders from theEast India Company came to India. For the next 50 years,they built trading forts along India’s coasts and set up anarmy. They helped Indian rulers who agreed to work withthem. The army also fought the French, because Francealso wanted land in India.

Robert Clive was an official of the East India Company.He led British and Indian soldiers in attacks on Frenchforts. By 1757, the French had only one fort and a littleland.

The East India Company took over much of India inthe next 100 years. The company grew rich. It broughtmany European ideas and practices to the Indian people.But many Indians felt that the British were trying tochange their culture.

In 1857 sepoys rebelled against the British officers.Sepoys were Indian soldiers in the company’s army. Therevolt spread quickly. Britain sent more soldiers to endthe fighting. Bitter feelings remained between the Britishand Indians.


British Rule in India After the uprising, Britain took control ofIndia from the company. British India’s government wascalled the Raj. The government helped and hurt theIndian people.

The British brought order to India. They ran the gov-ernment well. They started schools. And they broughtrailroads, the telegraph, and a postal service to India.

But British rule also made life hard. Cheap British textiles ruined the local textile industry. The British alsomade farmers grow cotton instead of food. Soon India did not have enough food to feed its people. In the 1800s,millions died of starvation.

10. Why did the Indian people rebel against British rule?

Europe Divides Africa (pages 766–768)

European nations ruled almost all of Africa by 1914.

Africa was the last continent to be colonized by Euro-peans. In the 1500s, Europeans built trading stationsalong Africa’s west coast. In the 1800s, missionaries andexplorers opened up inland areas to European control. The Struggle for North Africa In the early 1800s, Europeans tookcontrol of North Africa. The French took control of landsknown today as Algeria and Tunisia. Morocco was thelast land claimed by France in North Africa. It dividedMorocco with Spain in 1904.

European businesses started to operate in Egypt. In1869, they opened the Suez Canal. The French paid for thecanal, which was built by Egyptian workers. The canallinked the Mediterranean and Red Seas. This meant peo-ple could travel more quickly by water to India and eastAsia. The British took control of the canal in 1875. Egyp-tians rebelled, and the British made Egypt a protectorate.

424

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


425

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

By 1900, only Tripoli was free of European control.Tripoli is known today as Libya. But in 1911, Italy won awar with the Ottoman empire and won control of Tripoli.West and Central Africa During the 1800s, most of West andCentral Africa also came under European rule. Europeanshad traded enslaved West Africans for hundreds of years.But by the early 1800s, many felt that slavery was wrong.Britain made the slave trade illegal. Other Europeancountries followed their lead.

Europeans wanted West Africa’s gold, wood, hides,and palm oil. To control this trade, Britain, France, andGermany took over land on Africa’s Atlantic coast. Thenthey moved inland. The only place in West Africa notruled by Europeans was Liberia. Liberia was founded by freed African Americans in 1847.

King Leopold II of Belgium wanted to take over Central Africa. He said he wanted to make the lives of the people there better. But he really wanted to makemoney by selling rubber from the Congo.

Leopold used soldiers to make Africans get rubber forhim. Anyone who would not work was shot. Missionariesand other Europeans protested this. So the king turnedthe Congo over to Belgium’s government. They endedforced labor.

Over the next few years, other European countriesdivided the rest of Africa. By 1914, Liberia and Ethiopiawere the only free countries in Africa. What Was the Boer War? The British and the Boers fought over land in South Africa. Their conflict is known as the Boer War.

In the 1600s, Dutch settlers came to Africa’s southwest-ern coast. They founded the port of Cape Town. Thesesettlers became known as Afrikaners or Boers. The Britishtook control of the Dutch territory in the early 1800s. Theyrenamed it Cape Colony. The Boers moved inland toavoid British rule. They settled in areas that they named the Orange Free State and the Transvaal.


The Boers fought African groups already living inthese areas. The Zulu had a large empire in the 1800s.They often fought the Boers. By the late 1800s, the Zuluwere also fighting the British. The British destroyed theZulu Empire.

Tensions grew when British settlers found gold anddiamonds in the Transvaal. Cecil Rhodes was CapeColony’s prime minister. He also owned some gold anddiamond companies. He decided to take the Transvaalfrom the Boers. War began in 1899. The Boers weredefeated three years later.

In 1910 Britain united the Boer lands, the Cape Colony,and one other colony into the Union of South Africa. TheBoers and British ran the government. They kept out thelarger nonwhite population.

11. What caused the Boer War?

The War of 1898 (pages 769–770)

The United States became an imperial nation after defeating Spain and taking control of the Philippines and Puerto Rico.

In the late 1800s, the United States joined the race forcolonies. The United States had become an industrialnation. Many Americans thought their country neededraw materials and new markets. This would help growthe economy. America Defeats Spain The United States looked to Latin America and Pacific islands for markets and materials. In the late 1800s, Spain still ruled Cuba and Puerto Rico.But in 1895, Cuba rebelled against Spain.

American newspapers told stories of killing and cruelty in Cuba. William McKinley was the U.S. president.He sent the battleship Maine to protect Americans there.

426

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


427

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

In the harbor of Cuba’s capital, Havana, the shipexploded.

Americans blamed Spain. They wanted the presidentto take action. In April 1898, McKinley asked Congress to declare war. The United States won the war in fourmonths. Spain lost much of its empire. Cuba became arepublic with American protection. Puerto Rico, Guam,and the Philippines became American territories.

The Philippines did not want American rule. EmilioAguinaldo led forces against the Americans. By 1903, the Americans had ended the fighting.

Americans in Hawaii took control from Hawaiianqueen Liliuokalani in 1893. Congress approved Americancontrol of Hawaii after the War of 1898. Imperialism in Latin America One thing the United States learnedfrom the war was that they must be able to move theirnavy quickly from coast to coast. The trip around SouthAmerica took a long time. This slowed down trade. President Theodore Roosevelt decided to build a canalacross Panama. The canal would connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

Panama was a part of Colombia, and Colombia did notwant to give up its land. So in 1903, Americans helped thepeople of Panama rebel. Panama won independence fromColombia. Then Panama signed a treaty so the UnitedStates could build the canal. The Panama Canal opened in 1914.

12. Why did the United States help Panama rebel againstColombia?


Drawing From ExperienceThink of a person you admire. What do you like about

him or her? Have you changed something about yourselfbecause of that person? Sometimes we become more likethe people we admire. Our heroes can cause us to change.The last section described how imperialism changed theshape of the world in the 1800s. This section discussesChinese nationalism and Japanese imperialism. You willalso learn how China and Japan changed to become morelike the United States and Europe. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on the reformsof the Meiji government.

428

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsextraterritoriality: the legal right to follow the laws of the home country

when a person lives in a foreign country (page 772)

daimyo: heads of Japanese noble families who ruled their own lands (page 777)


Nationalism in China and Japan For use with pages 771–779

Reforms ofthe Meiji

Government

1.

6.

5.

2.

3.

4.

429

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

China and the West (pages 772–774)

The arrival of Europeans greatly changed Chinese society.

During the Age of Imperialism, the Qing dynasty ruled China from 1644 to 1911. Qing rulers were part of the Manchu family line. The Manchus were fighterswho lived northeast of China.

The Industrial Revolution in Europe changed life inChina. European businesses wanted to trade more withChina. What Was the Opium War? By 1800, the Chinese traded withmany Europeans. China did not want many Britishgoods, but the British wanted many Chinese goods, especially tea. As a result, the British had to trade higher priced goods, such as silver, for Chinese goods.

The British tried to get the Chinese to buy more cottonfrom India. This failed. So the British started to sell opiumto the Chinese. Opium is an addictive drug. Demand forthe drug was high in southern China. Silver now flowedinto British pockets.

The Chinese emperor told the British to stop tradingopium. The British refused. War broke out in 1839. Chi-nese troops surrounded the port at Guangzhou. They toldthe traders to give up their opium. British ships destroyedforts on China’s coasts and rivers. China gave up. TheOpium War ended in 1842.

After the war, China agreed to several things. Theyopened five ports to British ships. They limited taxes onBritish goods. They paid for the costs of the war. Theyalso gave the British the island of Hong Kong. This cameto be known as the busiest port in the world. Europeanswho lived in China followed their own laws, not Chineselaws. This legal practice is called extraterritoriality.China Tries to Reform During the 1850s, Chinese peasants hadto pay high taxes. They also had very bad weather. Cropsdied. Many Chinese starved to death. As a result, thepeasants were very unhappy.


Hong Xiuquan was a religious leader in China. He leda rebellion. He told the peasants that it was time to get ridof the emperor. He wanted to build a “Heavenly King-dom” where life would be better. Tai Ping means “Heav-enly Kingdom.” This rebellion became known as the TaiPing Rebellion. It lasted for 13 years. The rebels tookmany cities. They controlled much of southern China.Europeans helped the Chinese government destroy therebel army. About 20 million people died in this rebellion.

Some Chinese officials wanted reform. They told the emperor that Western technology could help stop uprisings. It could also help keep the country safe fromtakeovers. So the Chinese built railroads, weapons, facto-ries, and shipyards. Even with these changes, Europeanscontinued to take power away from the emperor. European Spheres of Influence After the rebellion, powerful lead-ers arose in China. They sold the rights to trade, build,and mine in their areas. Different parts of China wereunder the control of Russia, Britain, France, and Germany.Japan also took the island of Taiwan from China.

The United States called for an Open Door Policy. The United States wanted China to trade openly with allcountries. In 1899 the other nations agreed to this policy.

Many Chinese did not want foreigners in their country.They joined secret groups to drive them out. Some peoplein China’s government supported these groups. EmpressTzu Hsi was one of them. The name of these groupsmeant “righteous and harmonious fists.” Europeans and Americans called them Boxers.

In 1900 the Boxers attacked foreigners and ChineseChristians in Beijing. Britain, France, Germany, Russia,Japan, and the United States sent in troops. They crushedthe Boxer Rebellion.

7. How did the Chinese government try to make thecountry stronger?

430

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


431

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Revolution of 1911 (pages 774–775)

Sun Yat-sen introduced ideas that helped cause the collapse of the Qing dynasty.

Chinese leaders made more changes to try to keeptheir power. They got rid of their civil service test.Instead, they used a European system for education. They also set up regional and national assemblies.

Middle-class Chinese thought the changes were notenough. They learned that the assemblies could not passlaws. They could only advise the emperor. People also didnot like the high taxes they had to pay. The governmentused the taxes to pay debts to other nations. The Chinesepeople were angry.

Sun Yat-sen was a young Chinese medical doctor. In 1905 he led a revolutionary movement that becameknown as the Nationalist Party. Members did not wantthe Qing dynasty to stay in power. China needed a stronggovernment to keep it safe from other countries. Sun hada plan to change China. He wanted to (1) take over thegovernment, (2) prepare the people for self-rule, and (3) set up a constitution and democracy.

Sun’s followers led an uprising in 1911. The Qingdynasty fell. The Nationalists did not have enough powerto set up a government. They turned to the head of theChinese army. They asked General Yuan Shigai to lead thegovernment.

General Yuan served as president of the new Chineserepublic. He did not understand much about democracyor freedom. He ruled in the old ways. He would not listento people who wanted democracy. Yuan put an end to theparliament. The Nationalist Party revolted in response.The rebellion failed. Sun Yat-sen fled to Japan.

Yuan died in 1916. One of his officers took control next,but the government started to fall apart. Local militaryleaders took power and fought one another. Their soldierscaused a lot of damage.


Sun returned to China in 1917 to rebuild the Nation-alist Party. He created the Nationalist Army with a youngofficer named Chiang Kai-shek. Sun died in 1925, but Chiang led the army to victory and reunited China under a Nationalist Government.

8. What was Sun Yat-sen’s plan to change China?

The Rise of Imperial Japan (pages 777–779)

After Americans visited Japan, the Japanese reorganized their societyand economy and began building an empire.

Japan was in chaos at the end of the 1400s. The shogunwas the military ruler, but he no longer controlled thecountry. Daimyo were heads of noble families. They ruledtheir own lands and fought with their neighbors.

Three strong leaders brought back a strong govern-ment in the 1500s. Oda Nobunaga took Kyoto, the capital.He put the shogun under his control. Then he spread hisrule over Japan’s central plains. Toyotomi Hideyoshi was another strong military leader. He ruled Japan afterNobunaga. Then Tokugawa Ieyasu became shogun in1603. His family stayed in power until 1868. This longrule was known as the “Great Peace.” Europeans in Japan Europeans were starting to trade withJapan. In fact, Hideyoshi and Ieyasu used weapons fromEurope. Jesuit missionaries came after the traders. Theyconverted thousands of Japanese to Christianity by thelate 1500s.

The Jesuits destroyed Japanese shrines. This angeredHideyoshi. He put an end to Christian activities. He mademissionaries leave the country. He made life very hard for Japanese Christians. He also made European mer-chants leave. Ieyasu only let the Dutch stay at the port of Nagasaki.

432

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


433

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Tokugawa rulers made many changes in Japan. Thesamurai were no longer a warrior class. Many were man-agers of the daimyo’s lands. Trade and industry spread.The class system was very fixed. It left out eta, or outcasts.These people worked in jobs thought to be impure, suchas killing animals and tanning hides. Laws told the etahow to live, dress, and even wear their hair. The lives ofwomen were also limited. Perry Arrives in Japan In 1853 Commodore Matthew Perry andfour American warships came to Edo Bay (now TokyoBay). Perry had a letter from the U.S. president MillardFillmore. He gave the letter to the shogun. The letterasked Japan to trade and have diplomatic relations withthe United States.

Within six months, Perry came back to Japan withmore ships. He wanted an answer to the president’s letter. The Japanese were afraid of an attack, so theyagreed to open ports to U.S. trade. They also agreed to trade ambassadors. Japan soon made agreements like this with European nations.

Many Japanese did not like the treaties. They thoughtthey would keep Japan weak. In 1868 a group of samuraiattacked the shogun’s palace. They took power in theemperor’s name.The Meiji Restoration At this time, Emperor Mutsuhito wasknown as the Meiji emperor. Meiji means “Enlightened.”The late 1800s and early 1900s are known as the Meiji era.Japan’s new ruling samurai now controlled Mutsuhito.

The Meiji leaders wanted to make Japan powerful.They wanted to stand up to the Europeans and Ameri-cans. First, they did away with the old social system. The daimyo lost land, power, and benefits. Then, in 1889,leaders wrote a new constitution. They set up a constitu-tional monarchy. The people elected lawmakers to thegovernment. But the Meiji leaders held the power. Theyacted for the emperor. They chose the prime minister and his advisers.


The new government set up a modern army and navy.All Japanese men had to serve for a set amount of time inthe military. Meiji leaders also changed Japan’s society.They made the roads better. They opened public schools.Everyone, including women, had to go to school.

Above all, the Meiji pushed for industry in Japan. Theyhelped build new factories. They gave benefits to the richfamilies who ran them. This new society had a dark side.Mill workers often worked 20-hour days. Miners wereshot if they would not work in extreme heat. Japan Builds an Empire Japanese leaders watched the UnitedStates and European nations grow stronger and richer.They came to believe that a nation needed an empire to be strong. Colonies would give Japan raw materials,cheap labor, and markets for goods.

Japan took the first step in building an empire in 1876.The navy forced Korea to open its ports to Japanese trade.The Chinese had controlled Korea for a long time. Theydid not want Japan to be there.

In 1894 China and Japan went to war. The Japanesedestroyed China’s ships. They also took the city of PortArthur. In the peace treaty, China gave Taiwan to Japan.They also made Korea independent.

Russia also wanted to trade with Korea. Japan andRussia tried to build markets there. In 1904 Japan attackeda Russian naval base at Port Arthur. The Russians hadtaken the base from China in 1898. Then the Japanesearmy marched into Manchuria. Russian troops tried to stop them, but they were driven back.

Russia sent ships all the way around the world toattack Japan. Japan’s new navy quickly sank the Russianships. In 1905 Russia gave up Port Arthur and part ofSakhalin. Sakhalin is an island north of Japan. The wholeworld now saw Japan as a major power.

9. What family ruled during the “Great Peace”?

434

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


435

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


World War I Begins For use with pages 780–788

Drawing From ExperienceDo you cheer for your school team or for the U.S.

teams in the Olympics? Pride in your school or countrycan be a good thing. But taking sides can sometimes leadto conflict.

The last section described the rise of nationalism andimperialism in China and Japan. In this section, you willlearn how imperialism led to tensions in Europe. You willalso learn how national pride and feelings of independ-ence led to war in Europe. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes. Complete the time line to show the important events leading up to World War I.

Key Termsmilitarism: a strong interest in war and the military (page 782)

conscription: the practice of making citizens serve in the military for a certainperiod of time (page 782)

entente: an understanding among nations (page 782)

mobilization: the process of assembling and moving troops for battle (page 784)

rationing: the practice of limiting the amount of food and materials in use(page 786)

propaganda: biased information used by governments to shape what peoplethink (page 786)

blockade: the practice of using ships to block an enemy’s port (page 787)

1910 1912 1914 1915 1916 1917 1920

2.

3.

4.

1.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

The Causes of World War I (pages 781–783)

Alliances, militarism, and nationalism led to a crisis in Europe.

Nearly 100 years after Napoleon’s defeat, the stage was set in Europe for another major war. In the early1900s, tension was growing among European powers. Nationalism Nationalism is a feeling of strong loyalty toone’s country. This loyalty led to a lot of tension in Europe.New countries like Germany soon challenged oldernations such as Britain and France. The spread of nation-alism also threatened to break apart other countries inEurope. Some groups, like those in the Austro-HungarianEmpire, wanted their own independent nations. The Race for Empires Tensions also grew because nationswanted to expand their empires. Colonies created newmarkets, supplied raw materials, and added to a coun-try’s sense of greatness. European nations competed forcolonies. But few areas were left to colonize. The desirefor more land led to conflict. Military Build Up Nations made their armies and naviesstronger to protect their interests. If one nation built up its military, other nations felt less safe and started to buildup their own military. This led to a spirit of militarism.Militarism is a strong interest in war and the military.

In this spirit of militarism, Germany, France, and Russia built huge armies. They made their citizens servein the military for a certain period of time. This practice iscalled conscription. In the United States, this is known as“the draft.”

Britain had the world’s largest and strongest navy. Inthe early 1900s, Germany built up its navy. The Britishsaw this as a threat. They built even more ships. A bitterrivalry grew between the two countries.Forming Alliances As militarism grew, nations began to makealliances. They agreed to help each other if war broke out. By 1914, two major alliances had formed. Germany,Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed the Triple Alliance.

436

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


437

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Britain, France, and Russia joined in the Triple Entente.An entente is an agreement among nations.

The alliances helped to keep the peace. They kept anyone nation from becoming too strong. But these agree-ments also created a great danger. An attack on onenation would lead to a war among many countries. The Balkan Crisis The Balkan Peninsula is in southeasternEurope. For hundreds of years, the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires had ruled there. In the early 1900s,many nationalist groups in the Balkans wanted to be free.

One of these groups was the South Slavs. They includedthe Serbs, Bosnians, Croats, and Slovenes. The Serbs wontheir freedom first. They formed a state called Serbia. The Serbs wanted to unite the South Slavs.

The Russians were Slavs as well. They backed Serbia.Austria-Hungary was afraid the South Slavs in theirempire would try to break away. They tried to limit Serbia’s growth. In 1908 Austria-Hungary took overBosnia from the Ottomans. The Serbs were angry. Theywanted Bosnia to be part of their country.

With Russian help, the Serbs prepared for war. ThenEmperor William II of Germany made a threat. He toldRussia to accept Austria-Hungary’s control of Bosnia orface war with Germany. Russia backed down. But it didnot want to be beaten by Germany again.

The Balkan League included Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia. In 1912, this group declared waron the Ottoman empire. The Turks lost nearly all theirEuropean territory. But the Balkan League soon fell apart.

Greeks and Serbs wanted land that Bulgaria had wonin the war. So Bulgaria attacked the Greeks and Serbs. TheTurks saw their chance to win back land. So they attackedBulgaria. The Treaty of Bucharest ended the fighting. ButEuropeans thought there would be more fighting soon.

10. What two major alliances had formed by 1914?


The War Begins (pages 784–786)

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand sparked World War I.

The spark that started a major war was lit in Sarajevo.Sarajevo is a small town in Bosnia. In June 1914, GavriloPrincip shot and killed Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Ferdi-nand was to be the next ruler of Austria. Princip was partof a secret nationalist group called the Black Hand. Thisgroup wanted to end Austria-Hungary rule of BosnianSerbs. They wanted Bosnian Serbs to be ruled by Serbia.

Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for the Archduke’sdeath. It declared war on Serbia. Serbia’s ally, Russia,started to organize and move its troops. This is calledmobilization. Russia showed it was ready to go to war to protect Serbia. To support Austria-Hungary, Germanydeclared war on Russia. Then France came into the waron the side of Russia. To attack France, Germany plannedto move through Belgium. Britain has promised to helpBelgium. So when Germany moved into Belgium, Britaindeclared war on Germany.

When war broke out in 1914, France, Russia, and GreatBritain became known as the Allies. Later, in 1915, Italyjoined them. Austria-Hungary, Germany, the Ottomanempire, and Bulgaria were known as the Central Powers.No Quick Victory Much of the fighting in World War I tookplace between France and Germany. This was called theWestern Front. There, the French and British stopped theGermans in September 1914. The battle line barely movedfor three years.

Troops dug trenches into the ground. They foughtfrom there, protected by barbed wire. This is called trench warfare. Soldiers had to climb out of the trenchesand cross open land to fight. And they did this while guns were firing at them. In major battles, several hundred thousand soldiers were killed or hurt. A New Kind of War World War I was also called the Great War.It was a different kind of war. Both sides had new, more

438

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


439

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

powerful weapons. Machine guns fired at rapid speed.Huge artillery guns fired shells for more than 75 miles.Poison gases, tanks, and flamethrowers were used for thefirst time. New submarines attacked ships at seas. Andearly airplanes fought in the sky.

People outside the military were also important inwinning the war. World War I was a total war. This meansgovernments had to use all their resources and people.Total war affected the lives of all people, not just soldiers.

To provide the supplies soldiers needed, governmentshad to use rationing. To do this, governments decidedwhat people could buy and sell. This allowed them tolimit the amount of foods and materials in use. They con-trolled trade. They also took over industries and railroads.

The government also controlled public opinion.Wartime governments used propaganda. This is government-controlled information used to form publicopinion. It was used to shape what people thought aboutthe war. The government also controlled what wasprinted in newspapers.

11. Why did so many soldiers die in World War I?

America Enters the War (pages 786–788)

Americans supported the Allies because of pro-British feelings and business links.

Woodrow Wilson was the U.S. president when WorldWar I began. He said the country would not supporteither side in the war. But many Americans took sidesanyway. Submarine Warfare Many people who gave advice to Wilsonsupported Britain. They thought that an Allied victorywas the only way to balance power in the world. Americamade some small loans to Germany. But the countryloaned more than $2 billion to the Allies by 1917.


The United States also sent the Allies food, equipment,and other supplies. The British imposed a blockade onGermany. This means they used ships to stop goods going in or out of German ports. To fight back, Germansused the first submarines in the world. They were calledU-boats. In February 1915, the Germans said that U-boatswould sink any ship near Britain.

The British passenger ship Lusitania entered the warzone. A German submarine fired on the ship. Nearly 1,200 people were killed, including 128 Americans. Many Americans were angry. The U-boats kept sinkingships. By 1916, German leaders were worried that theUnited States might enter the war. They said they wouldwarn ships before sinking them. This would allow peopleto get off safely. United States Declares War In January 1917, a German officialnamed Arthur Zimmermann sent a message to the Ger-man ambassador in Mexico. He asked Mexico to becomean ally if war broke out between Germany and the UnitedStates. After the war, Mexico would regain “lost territoryin Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.” The British pickedup the message and gave it to American newspapers.Angry Americans now wanted to go to war with Germany.

In February, German submarines began sinking shipswith no warning. German leaders knew this could lead to war with the United States. But they did not think thatAmericans could move fast enough to save the Allies. U-boats sank six American ships with no warningbetween February 3 and March 21. On April 6, 1917,President Wilson asked Congress to declare war on Germany.

12. What was President Wilson’s policy when World War I began?

440

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


441

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


World War I Changes the World For use with pages 789–796

Drawing From ExperienceHave you ever seen or read about a protest march?

Would you ever take part in one? Do you think protestscan change things? Throughout the world, protests havechanged history.

The last section described the events leading to WorldWar I. In this section, you will learn how World War Ichanged the world. You will also learn about protests in Russia and the Russian Revolution. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on the newnations formed in Europe following World War I.

Key Termsarmistice: a cease-fire (page 790)

reparation: payment for the damages of war (page 791)

mandate: a region run by a nation that is a member of the League of Nations(page 792)

duma: a Russian national assembly (page 793)

soviet: a committee that represented the people in the Russian government(page 794)

New EuropeanNations

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

The War Ends (pages 790–792)

With American help, the Allies stopped the German advance.

In late 1917, ships carried many American troops toEurope. Allied hopes were high. They would get the helpthey needed to win the war.

In November 1917, Russia pulled out of the war. German troops that had been fighting Russia joined therest of the German army as it moved toward Paris in 1918.On June 1, American and French troops blocked them.Four months later, Americans started a huge attack. Thiswas the Battle of the Argonne Forest. The Americans suffered major losses. But they broke German defenses.

At the time, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was inchaos. The Ottoman Turks gave up. The German emperorfaced a revolt by the navy and the people, so he steppeddown. On November 11, 1918, Germany signed anarmistice. This cease-fire ended the war. The Treaty of Versailles In January 1919, peace talks began atVersailles, outside Paris. Four important leaders took part.They were U.S. president Woodrow Wilson, British primeminister David Lloyd George, French premier GeorgesClemenceau, and Italian prime minister Vittorio Orlando.

Wilson had a plan called the Fourteen Points. It saidthat national groups in Europe should form their owncountries. It also called for a League of Nations. Nationsin this group would help to keep the peace.

The Treaty of Versailles took away most of Germany’smilitary. It also said that Germany had to pay reparations,or war damages. They had to pay the Allies $33 billion forthe damages caused by war. The treaty also called for theLeague of Nations to be organized.

The U.S. Congress had to approve the treaty. Some senators did not want the League. They thought it wouldmean the United States had to fight in more wars. TheSenate rejected the treaty. The League of Nations wasformed without the United States.

442

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


443

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

New Nations in Europe The war changed the map of Europe.The German and Russian empires lost land in south-eastern Europe. The Austro-Hungarian Empire ended.

New nation-states were formed where these empireshad lost land. These new nation-states were Finland,Latvia, Estonia, Poland, Lithuania, Czechoslovakia, Austria, and Hungary. Serbia was part of a new statecalled Yugoslavia. This state included Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.

The idea of self-rule shaped the treaties. But thetreaties still created new countries that mixed togetherdifferent groups in Eastern Europe. The new borders did not put all people in one ethnic group in one country.Almost every new country had one large group and manysmaller groups. Over time, the different groups had con-flicts. The countries were not stable. What Happened to the Ottoman Empire? The Ottoman empire in theMiddle East had also been defeated. The Allies decided to break up this empire. The Ottomans were left with the area of present-day Turkey. In 1919 Greece invadedTurkey. Turkish General Mustafa Kemal drove out theGreeks. This victory led to the end of the Ottoman sultan’s rule. In 1923 Turkey became a republic.

Kemal became president of Turkey. The people calledhim Atatürk. Atatürk made social and political changes.He made the country more modern. Turkey began tothink of itself as European and Asian. All Arabic featureswere removed from the Turkish language. Atatürk alsoreduced the influence of Islamic religious leaders on thegovernment. New Countries in the Middle East The Allies divided the otherregions of the Ottoman empire. France took Lebanon and Syria. Britain took Iraq, Jordan, and Palestine.

These new territories were called mandates. In thissystem, a member nation of the League of Nations raneach territory. Most people in the Middle East did not feelloyal to these mandates. They had been created by out-siders. But Arabs did feel a strong sense of nationalism.


In the 1920s, Ibn Saud united Arabs on the ArabianPeninsula. In 1932 he created Saudi Arabia. The newcountry was very poor. Then American businesses struckoil on the Persian Gulf. The new kingdom became rich.

In Palestine, nationalism caused new problems. In thelate 1800s, nationalism affected Jews in Europe. Jewishnationalists were called Zionists. They wanted to make aJewish homeland in Palestine. This is where the Jewishcity of Jerusalem is located. Zionists began moving to theMiddle East in the 1890s. Palestine was run by the British.During World War I, Britain had promised Jews a nationin Palestine. But 80% of Palestine was Muslim. AngryArabs did not think this could be a home for Jews. But by 1939, more than 400,000 Jews lived in Palestine. Tomake the Arabs happy, Britain tried to limit the number of Jewish settlers.

10. Why were many of the new countries formed afterWorld War I not stable?

The Russian Revolution (pages 793–796)

The Bolsheviks rose to power as a result of the Czar’s poor leadership.

Russia fought in the war with Britain and France. Butthe war made Russia’s problems worse. Czar Nicholas IIruled Russia. He was a strict ruler who could not solvethe country’s problems. The people turned against him. Problems in Russia Most Russians were unhappy in the early1900s. Peasants paid high taxes. People who were notRussian were treated badly. The middle-class wanted avoice in government. City workers were most unhappy.They worked long hours in dirty factories for low pay.

Russia and Japan fought a war in 1904. The war costRussia land and money. Food prices went up. Pay wentdown. People blamed the czar for the problems.

444

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


445

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Thousands of workers took part in an uprising in 1905. They gathered at the czar’s palace in St. Petersburg.They wanted a national assembly, freedom of speech andreligion, and better conditions for workers and peasants. Soldiers fired on the crowd. They killed hundreds of people. In response, workers went on strike. CzarNicholas II said he would meet some of their demands. A duma was created. This is a national assembly. It hadlimited powers. The czar closed the duma when it tried to act independently. The Czar Is Overthrown World War I made life even harder for people in Russia. The country did not have enoughfactories to make weapons, and it did not have enoughrailroads to take supplies to the front. Nearly 9 millionRussian soldiers were killed or hurt in battle. This wasmore than in any other country. Also, the people did not have enough food or fuel.

The Russian people reached the limit of what theycould endure. In March 1917, they revolted. Women textile workers led a strike. They demanded bread andpeace. Soldiers soon joined the workers. Finally, the czargave up his throne. The 300-year-old Romanov dynastyended.

Members of the duma formed a temporary govern-ment. Alexander Kerensky served as leader. The new government kept the troops in the war. In fact, it focusedso much on the war that it did not carry out reforms athome. The government lost the support of the people. Who Is Lenin? Many workers, soldiers, and peasants thoughtthe new government was too middle class. They formedsoviets to represent them. Soviets are committees. Soonthe soviets were in a fight with the government for control of Russia.

Soviet members were workers and peasants fromsocialist groups. Socialists wanted to build a society inwhich all could share equally in the wealth. The mostradical of these groups was the Bolsheviks. They believedthey could use force to bring about this ideal society.Vladimir Lenin was their leader.


The Bolsheviks promised to take Russia out of the war.They said they would give all of the land to the peasants.They would give the factories to the workers and the government to the soviets. The Bolsheviks Seize Power In October 1917, the Bolsheviks were ready to take over the government. They controlledthe soviets in St. Petersburg and Moscow. These were Russia’s two largest cities.

In November 1917, the Bolsheviks took the WinterPalace in St. Petersburg. This was the meeting place of the government. Little blood was shed. Lenin becamehead of a new government. The Russian Civil War Lenin signed a peace treaty with Germany, but he paid a price for peace. The Bolshevikshad to give up large areas of land. The treaty ended Russia’s part in World War I, but it did not solve the problems at home.

Some groups did not like Lenin’s government. Thesegroups fought the Bolsheviks. A war began. The Bolshe-viks are now known as Communists. The Communistswere called Reds because they carried a red flag. LeonTrotsky led the Red Army. He used force and education to make his soldiers loyal to the cause.

Enemies of the Communists were known as Whites.They wanted to defeat the Reds quickly and get Russiaback into World War I. As a result, the Allies and theUnited States helped them.

The Reds and Whites fought for three years. Both sidesburned villages. Both killed civilians. Workers and peas-ants were starving. The Whites were not well organized.They had fewer soldiers and less equipment. In 1921 theyfinally gave up. Lenin and the Communists controlled thecountry.

11. What did the Bolsheviks promise the Russian people?

446

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


447

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The Rise of Dictators For use with pages 804–812

Drawing from ExperienceHave you ever taken part in a school election? How did

you decide for whom to vote? People vote for a leader formany reasons. They may vote for that person’s personality.Or they may vote based on her or his experience. Or theymay vote for the person who makes the most promises. If you had no money or didn’t have a home, would youvote for someone who promised to make your life better?

In this section, you will learn about how the end of thewar led to economic problems around the world. You’llalso learn about the rise of dictators in Italy, Germany,Russia, and Japan. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes. Fill in thepyramid to show details or facts leading up to the rise of dictators in Italy, Germany, Russia, and Japan.

Key Termsinflation: a loss in the value of money that leads to a rise in prices (page 806)

depression: a period of low economic activity when many people lose theirjobs (page 806)

totalitarian state: rule by a government that totally controls citizens’ thoughtsand actions (page 808)

collectivization: organizing an economy so that the government owns andruns all means of production and distribution (page 810)

1.

2.

3.

4.

Postwar Economic Problems (pages 805–807)

New economic problems led to the Great Depression.

Many nations were not happy at the end of World War I. People who had lost, such as the Germans, felt bad. They were upset that they lost land and had to payfor the war. Even people in winning nations, such as Italyand Japan, felt they did not get enough land. Economicproblems added to people’s anger. A Troubled Germany The Germans had to pay the Allies a lot of money for the war. Germany’s new government wasdemocratic. It made the first payment in 1921. But thenext year, it said it did not have enough money to pay.

France wanted its share of the money to rebuild itseconomy after the war. When Germany could not pay,France sent troops into the Ruhr Valley. This was a richindustrial area in western Germany. The French wantedto take money from mines and factories there. Theythought this would make up for the money that was not paid to them.

German workers were angry. They went on strike totake a stand against the French. The German governmenthad to print more and more paper money to pay the strik-ers. When too much money is printed, it loses value. Asmoney loses value, businesses raise prices. This is calledinflation. Germany’s money became almost worthless.People had to take piles of money to the store to buy aloaf of bread.

The United States and nations in Western Europe created the Dawes Plan in 1924 to help Germany. CharlesDawes was an American banker. His plan let Germanypay less money in smaller amounts. This helped the German government handle their debt. U.S. bankerswould loan $200 million to Germany. Good times fol-lowed, but they did not last long. What Caused the Great Depression? Industrialized nations aroundthe world were hit by an economic depression in the1930s. A depression is a period when economic activity

448

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


449

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

is low. Many people lose their jobs. The 1930s depressionwas very bad. It is known as the Great Depression. Facto-ries closed and millions of people lost their jobs.

A major cause of the Great Depression was the crash of the U.S. stock market. U.S. companies had been makingmuch of the world’s goods. People thought they couldmake a lot of money by investing in these companies. The U.S. stock market boomed.

Many people bought stock on margin. In other words,they paid only a small part of the stock price and borrowedthe rest of the money. Buying on margin was safe as longas stock prices went up. Investors sold the stock at a higherprice. Then they could repay their loan and keep a profit.

But factories began to have trouble selling everythingthey made. People did not make enough money to buy allthe goods. This overproduction forced factory owners toslow their work. They cut back on the number of workers.

In October 1929, fears about the economy grew. Peoplewere asked to pay back their loans. When they did notpay, panic struck. Stock prices fell. Many people lost for-tunes. Banks closed, and many people lost their savings. The Depression Spreads American investors were afraid. Theywithdrew their money from German and other Europeanmarkets. This caused European banks to close. By 1931trade was slow in North America and Europe. Jobs werehard to find.

The worst year of the depression was 1932. One out offour Americans and British were out of work. Two out offive Germans were out of work. Many people had losttheir homes. They lived in cardboard or tin shacks. FDR and the New Deal Franklin D. Roosevelt was president ofthe United States at this time. He set up the New Deal.This program created new government agencies. Theseagencies gave people money for food and put them backto work. For example, the Civilian Conservation Corps(CCC) gave jobs mostly to young people. They plantedtrees and built parks. The Works Progress Administration(WPA) paid workers to build dams, roads, bridges, and hospitals.


It also gave work to artists and writers. Other new agenciestried to help farmers, business leaders, and home owners.

The government made other reforms. In 1935 Congresspassed the Social Security Act. This program made pay-ments to people after they turned 65 and retired. It alsoprovided unemployment insurance. The governmentpaid money to people who lost their jobs until they couldfind new ones. The New Deal did not restore the econ-omy completely. But it did give Americans hope about the future.

5. What was the New Deal?

The Rise of Fascism and Nazism (pages 808–809)

The Great Depression encouraged the rise of European dictators.

The Great Depression brought fear to many people.People faced hard times. But the United States, Britain,and France held on to democracy. In other countries, suchas Italy and Germany, people looked to strong leaders forhelp. These leaders became dictators. These rulers usedforce to control their countries.

A new form of government called totalitarianismdeveloped under these leaders. In a totalitarian state,leaders try to totally control the way people think andlive. During the 1930s, totalitarian leaders used books, the news, the arts, and schools to influence people. Theyalso used new technology, such as films and radio, tospread their points of view. People who had other ideaswere punished. Mussolini Takes Power Italy was the first country to become atotalitarian state. After the war, Italy had a huge debt topay. Many people did not have jobs. Workers went onstrike for more pay. Some wanted a communist revolutionlike the one in Russia.

450

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


451

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The country was in chaos. Benito Mussolini promisedto restore order. He said he would fix the economy andmake Italy a great nation. He created the Fascist Party. Hisfollowers wore black shirts. They beat up people who didnot agree with them. In 1922, Mussolini’s followers stageda huge march on Rome. To prevent more violence, Italy’sking made Mussolini head of the government.

Mussolini was called Il Duce. This means “TheLeader.” He ended democracy in Italy and controlled the press. People lost their freedoms. Only the FascistParty was allowed. Boys and girls had to join groups thattaught them to be loyal to the Fascist government. Mus-solini built up the military. He promised to regain theglory of the Roman Empire. The Rise of Adolf Hitler The Great Depression led to a totali-tarian state in Germany. During the 1930s, millions of Germans lost their jobs. Many businesses failed. Manyvoters wanted a new leader. They supported Adolf Hitler.He spoke to people’s fear about the economy and theiranger about the Treaty of Versailles.

Hitler led the Nazi Party. This was also called theNational Socialist German Workers’ Party. The Nazisthought that German people were better than others.They said Germany had a right to more land. The Nazishated the Jews. They blamed the Jews for Germany’sproblems. Hitler wrote about his ideas in a book calledMein Kampf. This means “My Struggle.”

By 1932, the Nazi Party was the largest party in thegovernment. A year later, Hitler was named Germany’schancellor. This is the position of prime minister. Then the government gave Hitler all power to deal with thecountry’s problems. Hitler was dictator of Germany.

Hitler ended all other political parties. He had booksabout democracy burned. He took over the courts. Andhe set up a secret police. He took over radio and news-papers. And he broke up unions. The Nazis also set uplarge prisons called concentration camps. They sent people who did not agree with them to the camps.


The Nazis acted on their hatred of the Jews. They tookaway the Jews’ businesses and jobs. Jews could not go toschool or get health care.

Nazis also took away all women’s rights. They thoughtwomen should be wives and mothers. The governmentdid not want women to be lawyers, doctors, or professors.Posters said women should “Get a hold of pots and pans. . . .”

6. What factors led to the rise of totalitarian leaders inItaly and Germany?

Stalin and the Soviet Union (pages 810–811)

After Lenin’s death, Stalin established a brutal regime in the USSR.

By 1922, Lenin’s government was in power in Russia.Communist leaders formed the Union of Soviet SocialistRepublics (USSR). This was also called the Soviet Union.Their huge lands covered Russia and most of the oldRussian Empire. Stalin Takes Power Lenin died in 1924. A struggle for powerfollowed. By the late 1920s, Joseph Stalin had becomeruler of the Soviet Union. Stalin’s job under Lenin hadbeen to appoint party officials. He gave jobs to thousandsof party officials. When the power struggle began, theseofficials helped Stalin seize power. Government Plans the Economy Stalin wanted the Soviet Union to become an industrial power. Starting in 1928, he madea series of Five-Year Plans. These plans set economic goalsfor a five-year period. Steel mills, power plants, and oilplants were built. Government controlled them all. Fac-tory managers had to produce a certain amount of goods.

The government also took control of farming. Stalin’splans called for collectivization. This meant that small

452

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


453

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

farms would be combined into large farms. The farmswould be run like factories by the government.

Many peasants wanted to work their own farms. Theydid not want collectivization. So they destroyed theirhouses, cows, and pigs. The peasants who did not goalong with the government were shot or sent to prison.

In the Ukraine, a region south of Russia, Stalin causeda famine. He did this to control the people. The govern-ment took control of grain supplies. Millions of peasantsstarved to death.

By 1939, the Soviet Union was a major industrialpower. But the people had paid a high price for rapidindustrial growth. People worked long hours and werenot paid well. Clothes and other goods were poorly madeand hard to find. Housing was also hard to find.

Millions of people suffered under Stalin. People whoopposed Stalin were killed or sent to prison camps in icy Siberia.

7. What were the results of Stalin’s Five-Year Plans?

The Military Rules Japan (pages 811–812)

Economic problems led to militarism in Japan.

As Stalin took control of the Soviet Union, Japan’s military took control of Japan. By the 1900s, Japan hadbecome an industrial power. The number of people grewrapidly with the economy. Between 1872 and 1925,Japan’s population grew from 35 million to 60 million. What Problems Did Japan Face? Japan’s government wanted tomake jobs for this large number of people. They hopedthat manufacturing and trade would do this. Japan’sindustry grew quickly. Japan’s goods were sold all overthe world.


The government helped develop large private compa-nies. They were called zaibatsu. By the late 1930s thesecompanies controlled much of the economy. Factory managers and rural landowners grew wealthy. But factory workers and farmers got little pay. Housing was poor. Often there was not enough food to feed all the people. Food prices went up. This often led to foodriots. When the Great Depression hit Japan, workers and farmers suffered. Japan Invades Manchuria The Great Depression caused prices to fall all over the world. This was very bad for Japan’sfactories. Millions of workers lost their jobs. Some beganto starve.

Workers and farmers blamed their political leaders for their problems. Military leaders said that Europeanand American ideas had caused the problems. They saidJapan should go back to its old ideas and traditions. Theirideas affected all areas of Japanese life.

Military leaders said that Japan needed more land and natural resources to help the economy. Army leadersinvaded Manchuria in 1931. Manchuria is in the northeastregion of China. These leaders acted without the govern-ment. Japan’s prime minister tried to stop the war. But the military killed him. Now the military controlled thegovernment. Over the next few years, several militaryofficers served as prime minister. They made plans tobuild an empire.

8. How did the Great Depression affect Japan?

454

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


455

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


World War II Begins For use with pages 813–819

Drawing From ExperienceDo you know any bullies? How do you react when

someone bullies you? Is it better to stand up to them? Or is it better to give them what they want?

The last section described how economic hard timesled to the rise of dictators in Europe. This section dis-cusses how Europe’s leaders dealt with these dictators.You will also learn how the goals of these dictators led to a second world war. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on the majorproblems faced by Britain and the United States in theperiod leading up to World War II. What solutions didthey choose? Do you think any of the solutions couldhave been better?

Key Termsappeasement: policy of giving in to the demands of another government to

avoid war (page 814)

PROBLEM SOLUTION

1. 2.

3. 4.

5. 6.

7. 8.

9. 10.

Appeasement Fails (pages 814–815)

Other European nations stood by as Germany expanded its territory.

Hitler said he would no longer obey the Treaty of Versailles. This made him popular in Germany. ManyGermans believed the treaty was not fair.

The treaty kept Germany’s military small. Hitlerthought this was not right. In March 1935, he said thatGermany would build a new air force. He would alsomake the army bigger. The treaty also said that no German troops could be in the Rhineland. This Germanterritory was west of the Rhine River along the Frenchborder. In 1936 Hitler sent troops into the Rhineland.

France wanted to get the Germans out of theRhineland. But the French government would not act without British help. Britain did not want to use force with Germany. British leaders chose a policy ofappeasement. Appeasement is the idea that you canavoid war by giving into another government’s demands.

Hitler found a close ally in Italy’s Mussolini. In 1935Mussolini sent Italian forces to invade Ethiopia in Africa.Britain and France were against the invasion. But they didnot move to stop it. Hitler gave his support to Mussolini.

Next, the two dictators played a role in Spain’s civilwar. Spain had been at war from 1936 to 1939. GeneralFrancisco was a Spanish military leader. Germany andItaly helped Francisco take over Spain’s new republic.Then Italy and Germany became allies.

Hitler turned to Austria. Austria was a German-speaking country. Hitler wanted it to be part of Germany.In March 1938, he sent troops to take it over.

Hitler then turned to Czechoslovakia. He wanted the Czechs to give Germany the Sudetenland. This was an area in western Czechoslovakia where many Germans lived. The Czechs were ready to fight to keepthe land. But Britain and France wanted to make a deal.In September 1938, European leaders met in the Germancity of Munich.

456

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


457

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

At the Munich Conference, Britain and France gave the Sudetenland to Germany. And Hitler promised not totake over any more land. Neville Chamberlain, the Britishprime minister, declared that there would be “peace inour time.”

Hopes for peace ended the next year. In March 1939,Germany took over western Czechoslovakia. Germany set up a Nazi-friendly state in the eastern part. Hitler then demanded control of Danzig. This was a Germancity inside Polish territory. Britain promised to supportPoland if the Germans invaded.

11. Why did France and Britain make a deal with Hitlerat the Munich Conference?

The War Begins (pages 815–819)

World War II began when the French and British declared war on Germany in September 1939.

In the summer of 1939, Hitler got ready to invadePoland. Poland was next to the Soviet Union. Hitlerthought the attack might make Stalin angry. Hitler andStalin were enemies. But they signed a treaty in 1939promising not to attack each other. They also agreed to divide Poland. With this agreement, Hitler could attack Poland. Poland and France Fall Hitler sent his armies into Poland on September 1, 1939. Two days later, Britain and Francedeclared war on Germany. In less than a month, Germanyhad won the country. Hitler and Stalin split Poland in half.

In April 1940, Germany attacked Denmark and Norway.In May, German forces invaded the Netherlands and Bel-gium. Then German troops moved into northern France.A few weeks later, on June 22, 1940, France surrendered to Germany. Italy joined the war on Germany’s side.


What Was the Battle of Britain? Hitler thought the British wouldask for peace. Britain had a new prime minister, WinstonChurchill. He said, “We shall never surrender.”

In August, the German air force began an all-out airbattle with Britain. They wanted to destroy Britain’sRoyal Air Force. This would clear the way for a Germaninvasion. This air battle became known as the Battle of Britain.

The Royal Air Force had a new technology calledradar. Radar stations along the coast could spot Germanairplanes. British fighter planes flew to stop them. OnOctober 12, 1940, Hitler abandoned his plans to invadeBritain. A few hundred British pilots had stopped theinvasion. Churchill said, “Never . . . was so much owedby so many to so few.” America Stays Neutral The United States stayed neutral, mean-ing it did not take sides during the early part of the war.In the 1930s, Congress had passed laws that said theUnited States could not help other countries in a war if it was neutral. But President Roosevelt thought Germanywas a threat to the United States. He got Congress toapprove a cash-and-carry policy. This law let Britain buygoods from U.S. businesses. The British had to pay cashand carry the goods in their own ships. A year later, heasked Congress to pass the Lend-Lease Act. This law letthe United States lend weapons to Britain. Roosevelt alsoordered the navy to help by protecting British ships closeto the United States from German submarines.Hitler Invades the Soviet Union Hitler could not defeat the British.So he decided he needed the resources of the SovietUnion. He also wanted the Soviet’s vast land as “livingspace” for Germans. In June 1941, Germany attacked theSoviet Union. The Germans destroyed most of the Sovietwarplanes. They disabled thousands of tanks. And theycaptured half a million Soviet soldiers as prisoners.

Stalin ordered a scorched-earth policy. The Sovietsburned cities, destroyed crops, and blew up dams. These dams made electric power.

458

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


459

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

These actions made it harder for Germans to supplytheir troops. Then the rainy season began. The roadsturned to mud. German wagons and trucks could notmove. The hard Russian winter set in. The German army was not prepared.

Even with the loss of soldiers and equipment, Germantroops reached Moscow on December 2, 1941. They gotonly as far as the outskirts of the city. The Soviets wouldnot surrender. The Germans were not able to break intothe city.Japan Attacks Pearl Harbor As Hitler and Mussolini waged warin Europe, the Japanese moved forward in East Asia. During the 1930s, the Japanese moved south into China.In December 1937, they took Nanjing. This was the Chinese capital. Chiang Kai-shek was China’s leader. He would not surrender. The government moved deeperinside China.

Next, Japan moved into Southeast Asia. When Francefell in 1940, the Japanese took Indochina. This was aFrench colony. Japan also planned to take the Dutch East Indies, British Malaya, and the U.S. territory of the Philippines. The Japanese wanted rubber, oil, andfood supplies.

President Roosevelt wanted Britain to defeat Germany.If Japan attacked the British Empire in Asia, Britain mighthave to fight Japan. So Roosevelt used economic pressureto try to stop Japan. When Japan invaded Indochina, Roosevelt stopped the Japanese from taking their moneyout of U.S. banks. He also stopped the sale of oil, gasoline,and other natural resources to Japan.

On December 7, 1941, Japanese planes attacked theUnited States. Their action brought the United States intoWorld War II. On the morning of December 7, Japanesewar planes flew over the military base at Pearl Harbor,Hawaii. They dropped bombs on the Americans below.The surprise attack destroyed many ships. Over 2,000 soldiers, sailors, and civilians were killed.


The next day, Roosevelt asked the Congress to declarewar on Japan. He called December 7 “a date which willlive in infamy” [disgrace]. Congress declared war. Threedays later, Germany and Italy declared war on the UnitedStates.

12. What event brought the United States into World War II?

460

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


461

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The Allies Win the War For use with pages 824–830

Drawing From ExperienceHave you ever had to make a really hard decision that

you knew could affect another person? How did youmake the decision? Did you ask friends or family whatthey thought?

The last section described how dictators’ desire forpower and land led to World War II. In this section, youwill learn how the Allies defeated Germany, Japan, andItaly to win the war. You will also learn about difficultdecisions made to end the war. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes. What do youalready know about the events of World War II? What doyou want to learn? Fill in the chart with your questions.Then, as you read, fill in what you learn and how you canlearn more.

Key Termsgenocide: planned killing of an entire group of people (page 827)

D-Day: the day the Allies invaded Normandy, France; June 6, 1944 (page 828)

What I Want to How Can I What I Know Find Out What I Learned Learn More

1. 3. 5. 9.

2. 4. 6. 10.

7.

8.

The Great Struggle (pages 825–826)

The Allies fought for four long years in Europe and in the Pacific.

World War II was a huge war. The United States, GreatBritain, the Soviet Union, and China fought as the Allies.Germany, Italy, and Japan fought as the Axis powers. Thewar was fought on two fronts—in Europe and the Pacific.Winning would take strong leaders. Hundreds of thou-sands of troops would fight. And civilians worked hard at home. They supplied resources and goods for the war. Stopping Japan’s Advance By mid-1942, Japan had forced theUnited States out of the Philippines. The Japanese hadalso taken many islands in the Pacific. The United Statesset out to stop them. In June 1942, U.S. troops won a big battle at Midway Island. This stopped Japan. And it turned the Pacific war in favor of the Allies.

General Douglas MacArthur and Admiral ChesterNimitz were U.S. commanders in the Pacific. During the next three years, they carried out a plan called island-hopping. They attacked key islands and then used theseislands to jump to others and move closer to Japan.

By 1945, U.S. soldiers had taken back the Philippines.They had also destroyed much of Japan’s air force andnavy. But the Japanese fought hard as the Americansclosed in on Japan. Driving Back the Germans The war raged on in Africa, the SovietUnion, and Europe. Germany had early wins in Africa.But in 1942, the British defeated the Germans in Egypt.Then British and U.S. forces landed in Morocco and Algeria. They drove the Germans out of North Africa in May 1943.

Allied troops then moved into southern Europe. They took the island of Sicily in the summer of 1943. Then they landed on Italy’s mainland in September.Dwight D. Eisenhower, a U.S. general, directed the invasion. George Patton was another U.S. general.Bernard Montgomery was a British general. Patton and Montgomery led the troops.

462

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


463

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

As the Allies moved closer, the people of Italy over-threw Mussolini. The country surrendered. Germanforces in Italy still fought against the Allies but they couldnot stop them. In June 1944 the Allies captured Rome, thecapital of Italy.

Allied leaders began making plans for the world afterthe war was over. In late 1943, Roosevelt, Churchill, andStalin met at the Tehran Conference. Tehran is in Iran.Here, the leaders agreed to divide Germany after the war.Stalin said he would help the United States defeat Japan.He also agreed to join an international group for keepingpeace after the war.

11. How did the United States stop Japan’s advance?

The Holocaust (page 827)

The Nazis murdered millions of people in an attempt to destroy Jewsand other European ethnic groups.

During the war, the Nazis began a program to kill anentire group of people. This is called genocide. Hitlerwanted to kill all of Europe’s Jews. As many as 6 millionJews were killed. This is called the Holocaust. Millions of people were killed, including Slavs and Gypsies.

The Nazis passed laws against the Jews during the1930s. Jews were no longer German citizens. In the nextyears, Nazi actions became more violent.

On the night of November 9, 1938, Nazis burned synagogues. They destroyed Jewish shops. And theykilled many Jews. This event became known as Kristallnacht. This means “the night of shattered glass.”Many Jewish shop windows were broken by the Nazis.About 30,000 Jewish men were sent to concentrationcamps. These prison camps held people for political reasons.


As the Nazis took over land in the war, they treatedJews there badly. They made Jews wear a yellow, six-pointed star.

The German army invaded the Soviet Union in 1941.Then they began the mass killing of Jews. Special armyforces went with the army. They shot any Jews theyfound. Their bodies were dumped in mass graves.

In January 1942, German leaders agreed on “the finalsolution.” Nazis rounded up millions of Jews and hun-dreds of thousands of other innocent people. They weretaken to death camps. One camp in Poland was calledAuschwitz. Many people died in poison gas chambers atthe camps. Others starved to death. Still others were usedin cruel experiments by Nazi doctors. When Allied forcesmoved into Nazi-held areas, they saw the horrors of thecamps. People around the world were shocked.

12. What was Germany’s “final solution”?

The Allies Win (pages 828–830)

The successful invasion on D-Day was the beginning of the end of World War II.

By 1944, the Germans and Japanese were falling backeverywhere. The Allies were ready to invade Germanyand Japan.

What Was D-Day? For months, the Allies had been plan-ning the invasion of France. General Eisenhower led theAllied forces. June 6, 1944 was the day of the invasion. Itwas called D-Day. Ships carried troops and equipment toNormandy in France. Battleship guns pounded the Ger-mans. Allied soldiers moved onto the beaches.

From Normandy, the Allies attacked the Germans. Byearly August, General Patton and his tanks were racingacross northern France. General Montgomery and hisBritish troops moved into Belgium. At the same time,

464

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


465

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

the people of Paris rose up against the Germans. The Germans retreated on August 25. The Allied troopsentered Paris.

The Germans attacked again on December 16, 1944.Their troops pushed back the Allied lines. This made abulge in the lines. The attack became known as the Battleof the Bulge. Fighting went on for weeks. Americantroops won the battle. Then they headed to Germany.

By late 1944, the Soviets had driven the Germans fromRussia and back across Poland. By February 1945, Soviettroops were outside Berlin. On April 30, 1945, Hitler com-mitted suicide. On May 7, 1945, Germany surrendered. Dropping the Atomic Bomb In October 1944, the United Statesinvaded the Philippines. General MacArthur led morethan 160,000 troops and 700 ships. The Americans tookthe island five months later. Other American troops werestill island-hopping toward Japan.

On March 9, 1945, U.S. troops began to drop firebombson Japan’s cities. These bombs used jellied gasoline tostart fires. During the firebombing of Tokyo, strong windsfanned the flames. This created a firestorm. More than80,000 Japanese were killed, and 250,000 buildings weredestroyed. Still, the Japanese would not give up.

Franklin Roosevelt died in April 1945. Harry S Truman became the next president. He had to make ahard decision. Should he risk more lives and prolong thewar by invading Japan? Or should he use the new atomicbomb to end the war?

The United States had been building an atomic bombsince 1941. Engineers and scientists worked at a secret labin Los Alamos, New Mexico. Their program was calledthe Manhattan Project. On July 16, 1945, the first atomicbomb was tested near Alamogordo, New Mexico.

Truman’s advisers did not agree about using the bomb.Admiral William Leahy did not want to use it. He said it would kill thousands of civilians. He thought that a blockade and regular bombing would end the war. Secretary of War Henry Stimson wanted to warn the


Japanese about the bomb and offer to let them keep theiremperor if they would surrender.

Truman chose another course. He told Japan they must surrender or face “prompt and utter destruction.”The Japanese did not reply.

On August 6, 1945, a plane named the Enola Gaydropped an atomic bomb on the Japanese city ofHiroshima. Between 80,000 and 120,000 were killedinstantly. Thousands more died slowly from burns andradiation sickness.

Three days later, another bomb was dropped on thecity of Nagasaki. It killed between 35,000 and 74,000 people. On August 15, 1945, the Japanese surrendered.Rebuilding the World About 55 million people died in WorldWar II. These included 22 million Soviets, 8 million Ger-mans, 2 million Japanese, and 30,000 Americans. Alsoincluded were millions killed in mass murders.

Before the war ended, the Allies started a group tokeep the peace. In April 1945, people from 50 countriesdrew up the plan for the United Nations. The UN GeneralAssembly would vote on issues. They would also choosemembers of the Security Council. The Security Councilwould look into international problems and offer solu-tions. It had five permanent members and a number ofelected members. The United States, the USSR, Britain,France, and China were permanent members.

After the war, the Allies put Nazi leaders on trial.These trials took place at Nuremberg, Germany. Leaderswere charged with “pursuing aggressive war” and“crimes against humanity.” Other trials took place inJapan. These trials punished many who had a part inWorld War II and the Holocaust. They also let peopleknow that this could not happen again.

13. What cities were chosen as targets for the atomicbomb?

466

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


467

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


The Cold War For use with pages 831–841

Drawing From ExperienceHave you ever wanted to stop someone from doing

something? How did you do it? Did you fight them? Ordid you find another, more peaceful way to stop them?

The last section described how World War II changedlife in Europe and Asia. In this section, you will learn howa new international conflict shaped the next 40 years. Youwill also learn about how the United States tried to stopthe spread of communism. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on actionstaken by the United States to stop the spread of communism.

Key Termscontainment: U.S. policy to “contain” or hold back the spread of communism

(page 834)

Truman Doctrine: President Truman’s plan to help foreign countries fight thespread of communism (page 834)

Marshall Plan: George C. Marshall’s plan to invest $13 billion to rebuildWestern Europe (page 834)

racial segregation: separation of the races (page 840)

Actions Taken by the United States to Stop the Spread of Communism

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The Cold War Begins (pages 832–836)

Soviet efforts to spread communism led to conflict with the UnitedStates, which wanted to contain communism.

During World War II, the United States and the SovietUnion worked together. But these two nations had differ-ent ideas about what the world should be like after the war.

For Americans, economic growth was the key to worldpeace. They wanted world trade. They also wanted tospread democracy. And they wanted businesses to be able to compete free from government control.

Soviet leaders wanted to spread communism. Sovietarmies had pushed back the Germans in Eastern Europe.They had set up communist governments in the region.The Soviets thought these governments would keep them safe from future German attacks.

Americans and Soviets had very different ideas. Theydid not trust one another. And they began to compete forworld leadership. This rivalry lasted from 1945 to 1990. It became known as the Cold War. Yalta and Postdam In February 1945, the “Big Three” Alliedleaders met at Yalta. Yalta is a Soviet port on the BlackSea. Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin talked about thefuture of Europe. Their different ideas led to the Cold War.

The leaders could not agree about what to do withGermany. They finally agreed to divide Germany intofour parts. Then elections would be held to decide thefuture. The Soviets would control the eastern part of Germany. The United States, Britain, and France woulddivide the western part. The German capital of Berlinwould be split among the four nations. The leaders alsoagreed that other countries no longer under Nazi ruleshould have free elections.

In April 1945, Roosevelt died. Vice President Harry STruman became president. The next month, U.S., Soviet,and British leaders met at Potsdam, Germany. Stalinwanted the Germans to pay for damaging the Soviet

468

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


469

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Union. Truman was against this idea. He told the Sovietsto keep their promises.

The Soviets soon broke the promises made at Yalta.Stalin did not hold free elections in Eastern Europe. TheSoviets set up communist governments. Soviet forcesstayed in the area.What Was Containment? Winston Churchill was worried aboutSoviet control in Eastern Europe. In 1946 he gave a speechwarning that the Soviets would try to expand their control.

Like Churchill, Truman and other U.S. leaders worriedabout the Soviets. How would they stop them?

George F. Kennan was a U.S. expert on the Soviets. He said that the United States and the Soviet Union couldnot get along. But he thought that they could avoid war.He said the Soviets had a lot of economic problems. Hebelieved the country would collapse if the United Statescould stop the spread of communism. Kennan’s ideas ledto a new policy called containment. The United Stateswould try to “contain” or hold back the spread of communism.

The new policy went into effect. Greece was in a civilwar. Communists were trying to take over the govern-ment. The Soviets were also trying to get Turkey to givethem naval bases leading to the Mediterranean Sea.

On March 12, 1947, Truman asked Congress for moneyto help Greece and Turkey. He set out a plan that waslater named the Truman Doctrine. It gave aid to theGreeks and Turks. And it said the United States wouldfight the spread of communism over the world.

George C. Marshall was Secretary of State. In June,1947, he suggested the United States send aid to helpWestern European countries. Their economies were inbad shape. People were starving. The Marshall Plan sent$13 billion in supplies, machinery, and food to WesternEurope. Their economies grew stronger. People were lesslikely to want communism. Germany The western Allies and Soviet Union could notagree on what to do with Germany. Truman wanted a


united, strong Germany. He thought this was very impor-tant for Europe. But Stalin was afraid that a united Ger-many would attack the Soviet Union.

In June 1948 the United States, Britain, and France puttheir German zones together to make a new West Germanrepublic. Berlin was still within Soviet-held eastern Ger-many. But the Allies said that their parts of Berlin wouldbe included in the new republic.

In response, Soviet troops moved in around WestBerlin. They set up a blockade. They closed roads, rail-roads, and water routes through eastern Germany to WestBerlin. The city was cut off. The Soviets tried to make theAmericans, British, and French change their plans.

Truman would not give in to the Soviets. He orderedan airlift to save West Berlin. For almost a year, planesflew food, medicine, fuel, and other supplies in to the city. In May 1949, Stalin ended the blockade.

The airlift was a success. But Berlin and Germany werestill divided. By the end of 1949, there were two Germanstates. West Germany was a democracy tied to the UnitedStates. East Germany was a communist state tied to theSoviet Union.

To stop communism, the United States, Canada, and 10 West European countries came together. They formedthe North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949.Members said they would help any member who wasattacked. Six years later, West Germany was allowed toform an army and join NATO. In response, in 1955, theSoviets set up the Warsaw Pact. This was an alliance ofCommunist governments in Eastern Europe.

Stalin died in 1953. Nikita Khrushchev became the newSoviet leader. In 1961 he told the Western powers to moveout of Berlin. U.S. president John F. Kennedy said no.Many East Germans fled to West Germany. So the Sovietsbuilt a wall to divide East Berlin from the rest of the city.Guards shot anyone who tried to escape East Berlin. TheBerlin Wall was a symbol of the Cold War. Nuclear Arms During the 1950s and 1960s, nuclear weaponshad a big role in the Cold War. By the early 1950s, the

470

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


471

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Soviets had their own nuclear weapons. The United Statesand the Soviets built up their missiles and bombers. Ten-sions rose. By the 1960s, they were also sending peopleinto space. The Russians put the first men in space. Butthe United States put the first men on the moon.

The Cold War spread outside of Europe. Cuba is a small island only 90 miles south of Florida. In 1959, a new government came to power there. It was led byFidel Castro.

In October 1962, President Kennedy learned that theSoviets had missiles in Cuba. He had the navy blockadeCuba until the Soviets removed the missiles. Kennedysaid the United States would launch a nuclear attack if the Soviets fired any of their missiles at the country.

People all over the world waited on the edge ofnuclear war. After five days, Soviet ships turned awayfrom the blockade. The Soviets also agreed to removetheir missiles from Cuba. The United States said theywould not invade Cuba. Nuclear war had been avoided.

6. What basic disagreements led to the Cold War?

The Cold War Spreads to Asia (pages 837–838)

The Cold War spread to Asia after China’s communist revolution and the outbreak of the Korean War.

The Cold War spread to Asia. In the late 1940s, communism came to power in China and in part ofKorea. These communist governments tested the U.S.containment policy.Communist Revolution in China In the mid-1920s, Chiang Kai-shekbecame leader of China. He tried to unite China. Hewanted to wipe out the communists. But in 1927, the Chinese Communists tried to gain control. Their leader was Mao Zedong.


During the 1930s, Chiang’s Nationalist forces andMao’s troops fought the Japanese together. The Japanesehad invaded China. But after World War II, the Nation-alists and Communists continued to fight. The UnitedStates helped Chiang Kai-shek. But he lost the people’ssupport.

In 1949 the Communists made the Nationalists go toTaiwan. Chiang set up a Nationalist government there.He said it ruled all of China. The Communists set up theirown government in China. Mao Zedong led their govern-ment. They called it the People’s Republic of China.

Mao wanted to make China strong and modern. In the1950s, his government took over industry and business. Italso turned small farms into large, government-run farms.Weather was bad. And some people were against Mao’sideas. Food production went down. Almost 15 millionpeople died of starvation. The government had to backdown from its extreme policies. War in Korea After World War II, the Americans and Sovietsdivided Korea at the 38th parallel. The Communists ranthe north. The United States backed the government inthe south. On June 25, 1950, North Korea invaded SouthKorea.

Truman saw this act as a test of the containment policy.He asked the United Nations to send troops. Most of theUN troops were American. General Douglas MacArthurled them.

UN forces pushed the North Koreans back across the38th parallel. Then they moved toward the Chinese bor-der. The Chinese Communists saw the troops as a threat.The Chinese crossed the border and drove the UN forcesback to South Korea.

MacArthur wanted to drop atomic bombs on key Chinese targets. He thought this would win a quick vic-tory. Truman would not do it. He did not want to startanother world war. So he fired MacArthur. By mid-1951,each army was dug in along the 38th parallel. Both sidesknew they could not win. In 1953 North Korea and South

472

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


473

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Korea signed a truce. The two Koreas would stay dividednear the 38th parallel. Japan Recovers From 1945 to 1952, Japan was an occupiedcountry. The country was controlled by Allied forces.These forces were led by General MacArthur. The U.S.-led government kept Japan’s military weak so that Japan would not be a threat to its neighbors. It also made reforms. Japan developed a democratic constitu-tion. Japanese women and workers gained more rights.Small farmers received more land.

In 1952 Japan regained independence. But Japan keptclose ties to the United States because of the Korean War.U.S. troops needed war supplies nearby. So the UnitedStates poured $3.5 billion into Japan’s factories. Thismade Japanese industry stronger.

Help from the United States led to an economic boomin Japan. The Japanese government worked with busi-nesses to plan industrial growth. For example, in the late 1950s, government and industry worked together to develop home electronics products. By the early 1970s,Japanese radios, TVs, stereos, and other items were com-peting in the world market.

7. Why did the United States invest in Japanese industry?

The Cold War Era (pages 839–841)

People in the postwar world experienced prosperity, change, and conflict.

After World War II, the Soviet Union became strongagain. It rebuilt industry and military strength. Govern-ments in Eastern Europe copied the Soviet system. Facto-ries made more machinery and fewer consumer goods.


Life Behind the Iron Curtain The push for heavy industry madelife hard for most East Europeans. Food, clothing, andhousing were hard to get. Most families lived in oneroom. People who disagreed with the government feared they would be punished.

East Europeans did not like Soviet control of theircountries. In October 1956, students and workers ledprotests in Budapest, the capital of Hungary. Theywanted changes in the government. Strikes and riotsspread. A new government came into power. It wanted to end Soviet control. In early November, the Sovietscrushed the revolt.

Alexander Dubcek was the leader of Czechoslovakia.In January 1968, he also tried to make changes. He gavemore freedom to the press. He also let people travel morefreely. His ideas were called “socialism with a humanface.” In August 1968, Soviet troops took control fromDubcek.Western Europe Rebuilds The Marshall Plan helped Europerebuild after World War II. West Germany’s recovery was called an “economic miracle.” By the 1960s, West Germany had Europe’s strongest economy.

General Charles de Gaulle was a war hero in France.He was president for part of the 1950s and most of the1960s. During this time, the French economy grew. In fact, it grew more quickly than the U.S. economy. Francebecame a major producer of aircraft, weapons, and cars.

In Britain, the Labour Party came into power. The newgovernment tried to make people’s lives better. It gaveinsurance to the aged, sick, and jobless. It also gave medical care to all people.

In 1957, France, West Germany, Belgium, the Nether-lands, Luxembourg, and Italy set up the European Eco-nomic Community (EEC). EEC members could trade freelywith each other. Businesses could sell their goods in othermember nations without paying taxes to cross the border.The EEC was the first step toward a united Europe.

474

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


475

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Life in the United States During the 1950s, Americans earnedmore money and purchased more products than everbefore. Factory production soared. The birthrate went up, creating a “baby boom.” The economy grew.

A new civil rights movement began in the 1950s. In1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ended racial segregationin public schools. Segregation is separation of the races.President Dwight D. Eisenhower acted to make surestates stopped segregation in schools. African Americanshad been working hard to gain civil rights in the 1940sand 1950s.

Martin Luther King, Jr., was a Baptist minister. He ledthe civil rights movement. African Americans were nottreated fairly in housing, voting, or public places. King’sspeeches and marches caused many Americans to believethat this discrimination was wrong.

President John F. Kennedy supported African Americans. He was assassinated in 1963. The next presi-dent, Lyndon Johnson, pushed for a new Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act. Johnson also introduced newprograms to help the poor, improve education, and givemedical care to the poor and elderly. His programs werecalled the Great Society.

Women wanted to be equal with men at work. AfterWorld War II, more women became lawyers, doctors, andgovernment leaders. But women received less pay thanmen for the same work.

In the early 1900s, the women’s rights movement hadbeen strong. When the Nineteenth Amendment gavewomen the right to vote, the movement declined. Butwomen united in the 1960s over the issue of equality at work. In 1963, the Equal Pay Act passed. It said thatwomen must be paid the same as men for the same job.

8. What was the Great Society?


Drawing From ExperienceHave you ever felt that you were not being treated

fairly? What did you do? Did you speak out? Did youband together with others to try to change things?

The last section described the spread of communismand the Cold War. In this section, you will learn about theevents that led to the end of European control in India,Asia, and Africa. You will also learn about how peopletried to get better treatment from European rulers. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on the eventsthat led to freedom for India.

476

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termscivil disobedience: refusal to obey unjust laws (page 843)

Pan-Africanism: belief in the unity of all black Africans (page 852)

apartheid: policy or practice of separating racial or ethnic groups (page 852)


The End of Empire For use with pages 842–852

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

477

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

India Becomes Independent (pages 843–846)

Led by Gandhi, India gained independence from Britain.

India came under British rule in the 1700s. The Britishbuilt railroads, bridges, and ports in India. But they didnot do much for the people. Life was hard, and there wasvery little food. By the late 1800s, people wanted freedom.

Upper-class Indians called for freedom first. Manylived in cities. Some were trained in British law. Theyworked in the government.

India’s nationalists wanted reform, not revolution. Butthe British were slow to make changes. In 1885 a group ofIndian leaders met in Mumbai. They formed the IndianNational Congress (INC). The INC wanted to have a partin ruling India. Who Was Gandhi? In 1919, 10,000 Indians had a political meeting. They met in the city of Amristar. British troopsblocked the exit and opened fire. They killed hundreds of people. Over a thousand were wounded. The Indianswanted to end British rule more than ever.

Mohandas K. Gandhi was the most popular Indianleader. He was against all violence. He used civil dis-obedience to protest the British. This means he refused to obey unjust laws.

In 1930 Gandhi led Indians in a protest of the salt tax.The British taxed every grain of salt. They also did notallow Indians to collect salt on their own. Gandhi and hisfollowers did not obey the law. Gandhi and 60,000 otherswere arrested.

The British responded to the protests. Parliamentpassed the Government of India Act in 1935. This let Indians run their provinces, or regions. But the Britishkept control of national affairs.

Some Indians thought the act was a step toward inde-pendence. Others did not. People from the INC ran forregional government jobs. In 1937, Hindus won in 7 of 11provinces. India’s Muslims were worried. How would thelarger Hindu population treat them in a free India?


British India Is Divided After World War II, India’s Hindus andMuslims were divided. The British thought the countryshould be split in two. Pakistan would be the Muslimcountry. It would be made up of two regions. India would be the Hindu country. India would separate the two Muslim regions.

India and Pakistan became independent on August 15,1947. Many Hindus in Pakistan fled to India. Many Muslims in India fled to Pakistan. Fighting started, and more than 1 million people were killed. Tensions with Pakistan When British India ended, princes hadto decide the future of their states. Most became part ofIndia. Others went with Pakistan.

The state of Kashmir did not join either. Most people inKashmir were Muslim. But the ruler was Hindu. Pakistaninvaded Kashmir, and its ruler asked India for help. Pak-istan and India fought for control. In 1949 the war ended.Most of Kashmir was controlled by India.

Pakistan also had internal problems. Military leaderstook over the government. They ruled from 1958 to 1971.In 1971, East Pakistan declared independence. After acivil war, a new nation formed. It was called Bangladesh.

India and Pakistan fought more wars over Kashmir.Both nations built nuclear weapons. In December 2001,Kashmir terrorists killed nine people at India’s govern-ment building. The Indians blamed Pakistan. Pakistansaid it was not responsible. Five months later, terroristsattacked an Indian army base in Kashmir. India and Pakistan almost went to war. Both sides pulled back after talks. India Tries to Modernize The INC was renamed the CongressParty. After independence, it ruled India. JawaharlalNehru was the party’s leader and India’s first prime minister. He had helped lead India’s freedom movement.In 1948 Gandhi was killed. Nehru lost a close ally.

Nehru used Five-Year Plans to improve life in India.He put industry under government control. He increasedfarmland. This led to India’s Green Revolution, a rapid

478

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


479

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

increase in crops. By 1979, India had enough crops to feedall the people.

Nehru died in 1964. His daughter, Indira Gandhi,became prime minister two years later. She followed herfather’s policies. But she was killed in 1984. Rajiv Gandhi,Indira Gandhi’s son, served as prime minister from 1984to 1989. He was also killed.

Reforms in the 1990s helped move India toward a freeenterprise economy. The government now wants foreigninvestments. One of the fastest growing industries inIndia today is computers.

7. Why did the British divide India?

Empire Ends in Southeast Asia (pages 846–849)

Nationalist movements led to independence for many Southeast Asian nations.

Nationalism was strong in Southeast Asia. After WorldWar II, many Southeast Asian nations gained their free-dom. The United States gave independence to the Philip-pines in 1946. But the Netherlands was less willing to giveup the Dutch East Indies.The Dutch Leave Indonesia Achmed Sukarno led the nationalistsin the East Indies. After World War II, the nationalistsdeclared their freedom. They renamed the countryIndonesia. At first, the Dutch were against this. ThenIndonesia’s Communists revolted. The Dutch feared aCommunist takeover. So in 1949 they accepted Sukarno’sgovernment.

In 1965 the Communists tried to take power again.Indonesia’s army killed about 300,000 people believed to be Communist supporters. The army’s commander,General Suharto, took over the government.


In 1975 Suharto’s troops took control of East Timor.East Timor was a nearby Portuguese colony. Suharto wasa harsh leader. The people of East Timor fought againsthim. In August 1999, Indonesia’s government let EastTimor vote on independence. After the election, Indone-sia’s soldiers staged attacks in East Timor. The UN senttroops to help. East Timor became free in 2002. The British Leave Myanmar and Malaysia Burma had been underBritish rule for many years. (Burma is now called Myanmar.) It became independent in 1948. But Commu-nists and ethnic groups in the country rose up against the government. To restore order, military leaders took control in 1962.

Military leaders ran the economy. They also crackeddown on people who did not agree with them. Peopleprotested. Finally, military leaders agreed to hold elec-tions in 1990. Aung San Suu Kyi was the key democraticleader. Before voting took place, the military arrested her.She won the election, but Burma’s leaders threw out theresults. Aung San Suu Kyi was released in 1995. She con-tinued to work for democracy.

The British also freed colonies on the Malay Peninsulaand the island of Borneo. These territories united to formthe Federation of Malaysia. The French Fight in Vietnam During World War II, Japan tookcontrol of Indochina from the French. A communistnamed Ho Chi Minh formed a group called the Vietminh.They wanted to drive out the Japanese. The United Statessent military aid to the Vietminh.

Japan gave up control of Indochina, and Ho Chi Minhdeclared Vietnam to be free. But France wanted Vietnamand Indochina. French troops returned to Vietnam in1946. They drove the Vietminh into hiding.

The Vietminh fought the French and won control of thecountryside. U.S. leaders were worried that Ho Chi Minhwas a Communist. They decided to give military aid tothe French.

480

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


481

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Even with U.S. help, the French could not win. In 1954the French decided to make peace. They moved out ofIndochina.

An agreement split Vietnam at the 17th parallel. Thisagreement was called the Geneva Accords. Ho Chi Minhcontrolled North Vietnam. A government helped by theUnited States ran South Vietnam. Two other countries in Indochina were also freed—Cambodia and Laos. Americans Fight in Vietnam The Geneva Accords called for elec-tions to unite Vietnam. But South Vietnam’s leader wouldnot hold them. He feared elections in the Communistnorth would not be fair. And he worried that people inthe south might vote for Ho Chi Minh. With no elections,Ho Chi Minh decided to use force to unite the country. Heset up a guerrilla army called the Vietcong. U.S. presidentEisenhower sent aid to help South Vietnam fight the Vietcong.

In 1964 North Vietnam attacked U.S. ships in the Gulfof Tonkin. In early August, Congress passed the Gulf ofTonkin Resolution. It said that U.S. president Johnsoncould fight a war in Vietnam. In 1965 Johnson sent thefirst U.S. troops to fight the Vietcong.

By the late 1960s, many Americans were against thewar. In 1973, President Nixon took U.S. forces out of Vietnam. At least 2 million people died in the war, includ-ing about 58,000 Americans. About 10 million South Viet-namese fled the country. Many were called “boat people”because they left in boats. Twenty years later, some peo-ple were still living in camps far from home.

In 1975 North Vietnam’s army reunited Vietnam. Theyset up a Communist government. The economy did notdo well. Vietnam’s leaders began to allow privatelyowned businesses in the late 1980s. In 1995, Vietnamimproved trade and relations with the United States.

8. What were the Geneva Accords?


Africa Becomes Independent (pages 850–852)

Most African colonies gained independence in the 1950s and 1960s.

In World War I, black Africans fought with the Britishand French. Many hoped their countries would begranted independence in return. But Britain and France only made their empires larger.

After the war, Africans protested. European govern-ments used force in response. But they also began tomake reforms. Africans were not happy with these steps. They wanted to be free.

Nationalism was strong among European-educatedAfricans. Most worked in government and business. Theysaw that Europeans supported democracy at home. Butthey would not give it to their colonies. People from thisgroup led Africans to demand freedom. But most Africancountries would not be free until the 1960s. New Arab States in North Africa Africans gained freedom first inNorth Africa. After World War II, Egyptian nationalistsset out to end British power in Egypt. In 1952, the Egypt-ian king was overthrown. The British had supported theking. British troops left Egypt, but the British kept controlof the Suez Canal until 1956.

Libya was Egypt’s neighbor. It won its freedom in1951. Leaders in that country became rich when theyfound oil in 1959. But the people remained poor. In 1969Muammar al-Qaddhafi took power from Libya’s king. He set up a socialist government. His goal was to spread wealth from the oil among the people.

France began to let go of its North African empire in 1956. The French gave independence to Morocco andTunisia. France kept control of Algeria because manyFrench people lived there. But Algerian Arabs fought to be free. Algeria won independence in 1962. Africa South of the Sahara Colonies south of the Sahara also wonfreedom. Kwame Nkrumah led a nationalist movement inBritain’s colony of the Gold Coast in West Africa. In 1950

482

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


483

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

he led workers on strike in the Gold Coast. The strike putpressure on British leaders. The British put Nkrumah injail. But the protests went on, and they let him go. In 1957the Gold Coast became free under Nkrumah. Today theGold Coast is named Ghana.

Nigeria was Britain’s biggest African colony. It won itsfreedom in 1960. Other British colonies followed. Kenyahad a violent revolt in the 1950s. Jomo Kenyatta led thecountry to freedom in 1963. In the mid-1960s, new nationsformed in central Africa. These nations were Zambia andMalawi. Another colony in the region, Rhodesia, brokeaway from Britain. But a small, powerful group of Euro-peans stayed in control. This group would not let thelarger black population rule. They had a long fight.Finally, the African population won control. In 1980Rhodesia became the free nation of Zimbabwe.

France did not want to fight with colonies south of the Sahara. In 1958 they gave their colonies a choice. They could have limited self-rule with French aid. Or they could be free with no help from France.

Ahmed Sekou was Guinea’s nationalist leader. Hechose freedom. France’s leaders left Guinea. They saidthey would not help the new nation. Then Guinea tookaid from the Soviet Union. France did not want otherAfrican colonies to do this. The French decided to givetheir colonies independence as well as aid.

Nationalist leaders demanded freedom in the BelgianCongo in the 1950s. Belgium arrested the leaders. Riotsstarted. The Belgians gave the Congo its freedom in 1960.Ten years later, the country was renamed Zaire. Today itis called the Democratic Republic of Congo.

Portugal ruled its colonies of Angola and Mozambiquefirmly. In the 1960s rebels fought the Portuguese. Portu-guese troops kept the rebels in check until the 1970s. ThenPortugal’s dictator lost power in a revolution. The newgovernment freed Angola and Mozambique in 1975.

Some African leaders believed in Pan-Africanism. This is the unity of all black Africans. In 1963 thirty-twoAfrican states founded the Organization of African Unity


(OAU). This was the first step toward joining the newcountries in a larger community. Today, the African Union(AU) has taken the place of the OAU. Apartheid in South Africa In 1910, British and Boer territoriesunited to form South Africa. Most of South Africa’s people were black Africans. But Europeans ran the government. Black South Africans founded the AfricanNational Congress (ANC) in 1912. They hoped to gainpower.

In the 1940s, white South Africans wanted more power.They set up a system of apartheid, or “apartness.”Apartheid was carried out through laws. These lawsseparated racial and ethnic groups. They also limited therights of blacks. For example, blacks had to live in sepa-rate areas called “homelands.” Non-Europeans could notvote. Blacks protested the laws. But the white governmentcracked down on protestors.

In 1960 police fired on a peaceful march in the town ofSharpeville. They killed 69 people. Most were shot in theback while running away. In 1962 the police arrested Nelson Mandela. He was leader of the ANC. The arrestdid not end the protests. It was nearly 30 years beforeSouth Africa ended apartheid.

9. Why did France decide to give their colonies freedomand aid?

484

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


485

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class


Challenges in Latin America For use with pages 860–868

Drawing From ExperienceIs it more important to be free? Or is it more important

to live well? Have you ever given up a personal freedomto get something you wanted? Were you happy with theresults of your decision?

In this section, you will learn about how free LatinAmerican countries struggled to become successful anddemocratic. You will also learn about how the desire forfreedom and for a better life affected the history of SouthAmerica.Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on the chal-lenges to economic growth in Latin America.

Key Termsexport: to sell in another country (page 861)

embargo: a ban on trade (page 863)

nationalize: to change from private to government ownership (page 865)

Challenges to EconomicGrowth in

Latin America

5.

1.

2.

3.4.

Latin America’s Economy (pages 861–862)

Latin America’s economy has depended on exports and foreigninvestment.

Countries in Latin America became free in the 1800s.But the people soon found it was hard to make republicswork. The rich controlled social and political life. Thepoor had little power. Exporting Raw Materials Latin America’s economy was based on farming and mining. During the late 1800s, industrialcountries wanted more food and minerals from LatinAmerica. Business people from these countries set upcompanies in Latin America. These companies exportedLatin American products. They sold items such asbananas, sugar, coffee, copper, and oil to other countries.

Some Latin American countries grew only one or twokey products. Honduras grew bananas. Colombia grewcoffee. Prices and profits went up because of these prod-ucts. But declining demand led to lower prices. Countrieslost income and jobs.

But countries also enjoyed gains from their exports.Investors built ports, roads, and railroads. Cities grew, as did a middle class of lawyers, teachers, and business-people. But much of life had not changed. The rich stillhad the power. Most people had a hard time makingenough to live. The United States and Latin America During the 1900s, the UnitedStates increased its power in Latin America. The UnitedStates won the Spanish-American War of 1898. As a result,the United States gained control of Puerto Rico. PuertoRico is an island in the Caribbean.

Five years later, the United States helped Panamabreak away from Colombia. In return, Panama gave theUnited States control of the Panama Canal. Over the next25 years, the United States sent troops to protect its inter-ests in Haiti, Nicaragua, and the Dominican Republic.

U.S. businessmen also owned more and more busi-nesses in Latin America. The United Fruit Company

486

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


487

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

owned land, railroads, and fruit-packing plants in manyCentral American countries. This U.S. firm was very powerful. Other U.S. businessmen owned copper minesin Chile and Peru. They also held oil wells in Mexico,Peru, and Bolivia.

Many Latin Americans did not trust the Americansbecause of their wealth and power. U.S. president Roosevelt wanted to help relations. In 1933 he said thatthe United States would not take military action in LatinAmerica. He promised greater respect for the rights ofthese countries. His pledge was called the Good NeighborPolicy.Debt and Trade The Great Depression of the 1930s made lifehard in Latin America. Exports went down. The peoplehad less money to buy goods from abroad. Some indus-tries were started by people in Latin America. Some wereowned by other countries. Others were run by LatinAmerican governments.

Farming was still important after World War II. Butindustry grew as well in Latin America. Some of themoney for new industry came from companies that dobusiness in more than one country.

Latin American leaders borrowed a lot of money tomake the economy grow. As a result, Latin America oweda lot of money to the United States and other countries.Debt made Latin American economies weak. Prices wentup. Pay went down. People lost jobs.

Hard reforms of the 1980s helped make the economiesstrong again. But these changes turned the people againsttheir dictators. Democracies started in several countries inthe 1990s.

Today, Latin American democracies face many chal-lenges. Populations are growing quickly, but resources arefew. Life is still very different for the rich and poor. Andthe drug trade is growing. This has led to more crime inparts of Latin America.


6. What was the Good Neighbor Policy?

Problems in Central America (pages 863–864)

In Central America, repressive governments, social conflicts, and civilwars made progress difficult.

Life was very hard in Central America and theCaribbean in the 1900s. A few people controlled most of the money and power. Rebels fought for changes that would help poor Latin Americans. The Cuban Revolution Cuba won its freedom from Spain in1898. Military dictators ruled Cuba for most of the 1900s.U.S. companies controlled most of the wealth. This wealthcame from sugar. In 1959 Fidel Castro led a revolution.This young lawyer took control of the government.

Castro promised democracy, but he set up a commu-nist state and accepted aid from the Soviet Union. Hetook property in Cuba that was owned by U.S. citizens.This made relations with the United States even worse.The U.S. government trained and armed a small force ofCubans. In 1961 the government sent this force to invadeCuba. They landed at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba. They weredefeated by Castro’s forces.

In 1962 the U.S. government said they would not tradewith Cuba. This is called an embargo. Cuba lost trade.Harvests were poor. The government did not plan well.All this ruined Cuba’s economy. People were very poor.Many fled to the United States, most of them settling in Florida. Dictators and Rebels Castro wanted to spread communism inLatin America. The United States wanted to stop it. TheCold War led to fighting in much of Central America inthe 1970s and 1980s. In El Salvador, Castro helped forcesfight government troops. These troops were armed by the

488

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


489

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

United States. Thousands of people died before a settle-ment ended fighting in 1992.

Anastasio Somoza was a cruel dictator in Nicaragua. In 1979 rebels called Sandinistas overthrew him. Thecountry’s new government turned to Cuba and the Soviet Union for aid. In response, the United Stateshelped groups of contras fight the Sandinistas. Contracomes from the Spanish word for “against.” Fightingended in the early 1990s. Free elections were held. TheSandinistas lost power.

Guatemala also had a war. The United States helpedgovernment forces fight rebels from 1960 to 1996. About150,000 people died. The war hurt the economy.

The Panama Canal helped make life better in Panama.In 1983 the United States helped Manuel Noriega takepower. But he was a harsh ruler who dealt in drugs. In1989 the United States invaded Panama and overthrewhim.

The Duvaliers ruled Haiti from 1957 to 1986. Theywere a family of cruel dictators. In 1990, Jean BertrandAristide was elected president. He was a reformer. Butmilitary officers forced him out a year later. The UnitedStates helped him return to power in 1994. Haiti’s econ-omy is still weak today. For most of the people, life is very hard.

7. What happened at the Bay of Pigs?

Mexico Pushes to Modernize (pages 864–865)

During the twentieth century, Mexico struggled to overcome economic,social, and political challenges.

Mexico is just south of the United States. Since WorldWar II, Mexico has developed many new industries. It hasworked to improve the lives of its people.


The Revolution of 1911 In the early 1900s, Porfirio Díaz ruledMexico as a dictator. He persuaded people from othercountries to invest in businesses in Mexico. Rich Mexicansdid well, but life was hard for peasants and workers.

In 1911, reformers overthrew Díaz. But another dicta-tor took power two years later. U.S. president Wilson senttroops to capture the Mexican port of Vera Cruz. U.S.troops withdrew when the general’s rule ended.

Revolution swept Mexico. Regional leaders fought forpower. Armies of farmers, workers, and ranchers fought.Many Mexicans fled from the violence. They came to theUnited States.

By the early 1920s, Mexico had a stable government.For the rest of the 1900s, only one party ruled. It wascalled the Institutional Revolutionary Party.

The 1930s were a time of reform. Lázaro Cárdenas was president. He gave land to peasants and tried to freeindustries from foreign control. In 1938 he nationalizedforeign-owned oil wells. This means he had the govern-ment take them over. The Americans and Europeans whoowned the wells were angry, but most Mexicans werehappy with the change. Later, Mexico paid the oil com-panies for the wells. Mexico set up a company calledPEMEX to run them. Slow but Steady Growth The oil industry led to economicgrowth after World War II. The government still had toborrow money to start new industries. Mexico sufferedwhen world oil prices fell in the 1980s.

To save money, the government cut services and jobs.It also sold government-owned businesses to privateowners. These economic problems made people turnaway from the Institutional Revolutionary Party. Vicente Fox was elected president in 2000. For the firsttime in 70 years, the president came from a party otherthan the PRI.

Mexico tried to improve trade with other countries. In 1994, Mexico, the United States, and Canada signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

490

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


491

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Mexico’s leaders hoped that free trade would lead tomore factories and jobs.

As a result, Mexico has built new industries. The stan-dard of living is better. Companies from other countrieshave built maquiladoras along Mexico’s border. Thesefactories put together parts made in other countries. Thefactories have given jobs to thousands of Mexicans.

8. How did NAFTA improve life in Mexico?

Reform in South America (pages 866–868)

Most South American countries have struggled to create fragile democracies and improve their economies.

During most of the 1900s, cities in South America grewquickly. Both the poor and rich lived there. New indus-tries grew, but people still farmed the old way. Dictatorsran governments. A small group of rich landowners andbusinesspeople supported them. Countries made someprogress, but many people were still poor. Argentina In the early 1900s, the economy had trouble. Mili-tary leaders took over. Juan Perón was a military leader.He took power in the 1940s. He and his wife Evita tried to help workers, but he took away basic freedoms. Thepeople revolted in 1955 and drove him from power.Democracy returned.

Military leaders took control again in the 1970s. Theywere cruel and killed many people. In 1982, the Britishdefeated Argentina in a war. They fought over the Falk-land Islands, which are also known as the Malvinas.These islands are in the Atlantic Ocean near Argentina.This loss made the military weak. The country returned to democracy.


Brazil Brazil also had a hard time building a democracy.Getúlio Vargas was a dictator. He set up new government-run industries. Vargas raised pay and cut working hours.He also allowed labor unions. He used the army to stay in power until 1945.

During the mid-1960s, Brazil was a democracy. Butpeople feared a Communist takeover. This led the mili-tary to take power in 1964. The new leaders drew in foreign investments to create industries. Progress wasmade, but workers’ lives were not much better.

In the 1980s, the people wanted change. The militaryreturned the country to democracy. The government has tried to cut spending and improve the economy. Chile During most of the 1900s, Chile was the most stabledemocracy in South America. But in 1970, SalvadorAllende was elected president. He was a Marxist. Henationalized industries, raised pay, and gave land to the poor.

The military and business groups were upset by thesereforms. The military overthrew Allende in 1973. GeneralAugusto Pinochet became Chile’s new ruler.

Pinochet was a cruel dictator. He put anyone whoopposed him in jail and took away people’s rights. Manywere tortured and killed. In 1990 pressure from Chileansand from other countries forced Pinochet out. Chilebecame a democracy. In 2004, Chile signed a free tradeagreement with the United States. This has helped spurChile’s economic growth. Venezuela Venezuela also went back and forth betweendemocracy and military rule. Oil brought money to thecountry. The middle class grew. Many people did well.

In the 1990s, oil prices fell. The country suffered. Thegovernment could not help the poor. The people wereangry. In 1998, they elected Hugo Chavez president. Hewas a former military leader who said he would changethe government and economy. But he also wanted morepower. This divided the people of Venezuela. Chavezheld onto power, but many people were against him.

492

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


493

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Colombia Life in Colombia was also marked by fighting andcivil war. Political parties fought from the late 1940s to themid-1960s. About 300,000 people died. Then rebels startedto fight the government. They wanted more land andrights for poor farmers.

By the 1980s, drug dealers were a major force. Dealerspaid poor farmers to grow coca plants. Leaves of the cocaplant are used to make cocaine. Drug dealers built privatearmies. With help from the United States government, theColombian government has tried to stop the drug dealers,but they have not been very successful.

9. Why did Augusto Pinochet give up power in Chile?


Drawing From ExperienceThink about your group of friends. Are they pretty

much just like you? Or are some of them different? Howdo you feel when you’re around people with differentbackgrounds or values? Some people enjoy this experi-ence. Others may find it hard to get along.

The last section described how Latin American coun-tries struggled to find freedom and success. This sectiondiscusses the struggles and challenges faced in Africa.You will also learn about conflicts between differentgroups in the Middle East. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on the causesand effects of conflicts in the Middle East.

494

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsrefugee: person who flees to another country to find safety (page 870)

apartheid: policy or practice of separating racial or ethnic groups (page 872)

intifada: an uprising (page 878)


Africa and the Middle East For use with pages 869–879

CONFLICT CAUSE EFFECT

1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 12.

495

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

African Challenges (pages 870–871)

The countries of Africa South of the Sahara faced many challenges in the late twentieth century.

Africa south of the Sahara was unstable in the 1900s.Economies were weak. War and lack of food and waterwere problems. The people could not build a modernsociety. Civil Wars Civil war has raged in Africa since the 1960s. In the 1800s, European nations split Africa into colonies.This tore apart areas that had been united. It also threwreligious and ethnic groups together that did not getalong.

Once they were free, many countries kept these colo-nial borders. Ethnic groups began to fight. In recent years,wars have gone on in Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Soma-lia, Sudan, Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Repub-lic of Congo.

Many people have died. Others have become refugees.These are people who flee to other countries to find safety.Unrest in one country often spills over into another coun-try. In some cases, United Nations (UN) troops have beencalled in to keep peace. African Economies African nations have had economic trouble,too. Africa south of the Sahara is rich in minerals and con-tains oil, gold, and diamonds. But not all the countrieshave the same resources. Some are rich and some arepoor.

Industry is a small part of Africa’s economies. Colonialrulers used Africa as a source for raw materials. They didnot develop the continent. These African nations areworking today to build factories and businesses.

Most people in Africa still farm or herd animals. Theygrow enough food for their families. Some farmers workon large, company-run farms. These farms grow crops tosend overseas. Crops include coffee, cacao, cotton, tea,peanuts, and bananas.


Like Latin America, many African economies rely on a single export crop. When prices for these crops drop,people lose jobs and money.

Lack of rain and food are always problems in Africa.Many people have died in Ethiopia, Niger, Sudan, andMali. Many countries must buy food from other coun-tries. This food can cost a lot. African governments arenow teaching people better ways to farm, but there is still much work to do.Ways of Life Freedom has led to change. Most Africans still live in villages. But cities have grown quickly. ManyAfricans have moved to cities in search of jobs andschools. Governments have had a hard time providinghomes, water, and electricity in these growing cities.

Health care is also an issue. Millions of people have theAIDS virus. People who have AIDS often cannot work.Many children have lost their parents. Governments aretrying to help, but providing good health care costs a lot.

13. What is the cause of many civil wars in Africa?

The End to Apartheid (page 872)

Black South Africans won their freedom after years of hardship and struggle.

The white rulers of South Africa used a system called apartheid. They did not give equal rights to non-Europeans. From the 1950s to the 1980s, peopleinside and outside the country protested this system. Struggle for Freedom In South Africa, blacks and other non-Europeans formed groups. They wanted to endapartheid. One of the largest groups was the AfricanNational Congress (ANC). In the 1960s, they called for an uprising. Government forces fought guerrillagroups backed by the ANC.

496

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


497

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

Nelson Mandela was an ANC leader. He and otherblack South Africans were put in jail for resistingapartheid. Desmond Tutu was a church leader. Heworked with others for peaceful change. The UN spokeout against apartheid. Many countries cut off trade withSouth Africa. A New South Africa Pressure finally made the government act.They began to end apartheid in the late 1980s. In 1990,they let Nelson Mandela out of prison. Over the next fewyears, talks led to the end of apartheid laws. All SouthAfricans were equal under the law.

In 1994, people of all races could vote for the first time. South Africans elected Nelson Mandela. He was the nation’s first black president. He worked to unite andrebuild the country. Mandela served as president until1999, when Thabo Mbeki became the next president. Hecarried on Mandela’s policies.

14. What is the African National Congress and why is itimportant?

The Arab-Israeli Conflict (pages 874–876)

The creation of Israel in 1948 sparked a conflict that still exists today.

After World War II, the Middle East changed. Israelwas a new nation. It gave Jews a homeland in Palestine. It also gave a home to many Jews who lived through theHolocaust. But the birth of Israel started a bitter fight withthe Arabs. This fight goes on today. Palestine Is Divided The Holocaust brought the world’s focusto the Jews. In 1947 the UN set up a Jewish state and anArab state in Palestine. Arabs did not want this. In 1948the Jews set up Israel in their part of Palestine. David Ben-Gurion was Israel’s first prime minister.


War broke out between the Jews and Arabs. Israel won. Many Palestinian Arabs fled to other Arab coun-tries. They lived in refugee camps and hoped to returnhome. Many Jews from Europe, Asia, and Africa came to live in Israel. The Suez Crisis Gamal Abdel Nasser was president of Egypt.He wanted to make Egypt strong and modern. ManyArabs united around Nasser. He wanted to make theArab world great.

Nasser also wanted Europe to have less power in the Middle East. In 1956 he took the Suez Canal from its European owners. Britain, France, and Israel invadedEgypt. Britain and France wanted to get rid of Nasser andtake back the canal. Israel wanted to make Egypt’s mili-tary weak.

The United States and Soviet Union stood against the invasion. President Eisenhower worried that Egyptwould become a Soviet ally. He asked Britain, France, and Israel to withdraw. Egypt kept the canal. They alsoaccepted Soviet aid. Nasser was even more popularamong Arabs. The Six-Day War Tensions remained high between Israel andthe Arabs. In 1967 war broke out again. Israel feared thatEgypt would attack. Israel bombed Egyptian air fields onJune 5. Israel wiped out the Arab air forces in six days.Israeli troops moved west in the Gaza Strip and Egypt’sSinai Peninsula. They moved north into Syria’s GolanHeights. And they took the city of Jerusalem and the West Bank of the Jordan River.

When fighting ended, the UN asked Israel to leavethese areas. It asked Arab nations to accept Israel. Bothsides refused.

Israel’s victory changed life in the Middle East. Aboutone million Palestinians came under Israeli rule. Israelisbegan building towns and villages in the West Bank andGaza Strip.

In 1964 Yasir Arafat became leader of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). The PLO’s goal was to

498

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


499

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

destroy Israel and give its land to Palestinians. PLO mem-bers carried out acts of terrorism against Israel’s people.Terrorism is the use of violence to achieve a political goal. What Is OPEC? In 1973, Egyptian president Anwar el Sadatordered the Egyptian military to attack Israel. He wantedto take back the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt’s forces werestrong. But Israel, led by Prime Minister Golda Meir,pushed them back. A cease-fire ended the fighting.

The United States helped Israel in the war. This made the oil-rich Arab countries angry. They placed a ban on oil to the United States and other countries that supported Israel.

OPEC is the Organization of Petroleum ExportingCountries. It was formed in 1960. Arab oil companies andother oil-producing countries are part of OPEC. By con-trolling oil production, they control world oil prices.

In 1974 Arabs wanted to force oil prices much higher.OPEC raised prices. Industrial nations faced gasolineshortages and economic trouble.

By the late 1970s, Egypt wanted peace and U.S. finan-cial aid. President Sadat decided to reach out to Israel. In1978 he met with Israeli leader Menachem Begin. Theymet with U.S. president Jimmy Carter at Camp David inMaryland. The talks led to the Camp David Accords. Inthis treaty, Egypt agreed to recognize Israel, and Israelagreed to give up the Sinai Peninsula. This was the startof a peace process that goes on today.

15. How did the Six-Day War change life in the Middle East?


War in the Middle East (pages 876–879)

Political and social conflicts continue to keep the Middle East in turmoil.

The Middle East faces many challenges. Few peopleare rich. Many are poor. Oil makes some countries rich.Other countries have little. The number of people in theMiddle East is growing quickly. Resources are few. Wateris in short supply. The need for water in this dry arealeads to tension. Iran’s Islamic Revolution Groups based on the religion of Islamhave grown. Many of these groups believe that Americanand European culture keeps Muslim nations poor andweak. They want Muslims to return to Islamic culture andvalues. They believe this will make them rich and strong.Some of these groups use terrorism and violence. Theywant to bring down Muslim governments in an Islamicrevolution.

The first Islamic revolution took place in Iran. AfterWorld War II, Iran was the strongest Muslim ally of theUnited States and Europe. Mohammed Reza Pahlavi wasthe shah, or king. The United States and Europe helpedhim begin to turn Iran into a modern industrial country.But many Iranian Muslims did not like the shah’s harshways and the changes he made.Revolution in Iran Many Iranians looked to religious leaders toguide them. Ruhollah Khomeini was the most powerfulIranian ayatollah, or church leader. He lived in exile inFrance. Khomeini organized protests against the govern-ment. In 1979, the shah fled the country. Khomeini cameback to Iran to rule. He made Iran an Islamic republicunder strict Muslim laws.

Many people in Iran hated the United States for helping the shah. In late 1979, a group attacked the U.S. embassy. They held 52 Americans captive for more than a year.

In the 1980s, Iran also fought a bloody war with Iraq.Dictator Saddam Hussein led Iraq. Thousands died.

500

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


501

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Persian Gulf War After the war, Iraq was nearly broke. In1990 Hussein sent his army to take over Kuwait. Kuwaitwas rich in oil.

The United States joined other nations to fight Iraq.They formed a coalition. They pushed the Iraqis out ofKuwait. They also destroyed much of Iraq’s army. Manywanted Hussein out of power, but he stayed in control.

After this war, Hussein put down revolts in Iraq. ShiiteMuslims and Kurdish people wanted their freedom. Toprotect these groups, the coalition set up “no-fly zones.”Iraq’s planes could not fly in parts of Iraq. The coalitionwanted to keep Hussein from making chemical and biological weapons. A UN team kept watch over Iraqimilitary programs.A Fragile Peace During the 1980s, Arabs in the West Bank and Gaza Strip grew increasingly angry. They did notwant to be under Israeli control. In 1987 their anger led toan intifada, or uprising. Workers went on strike. Protestorsthrew stones at Israeli soldiers.

In the early 1990s, the United States set up peace talksbetween Israel and the Palestinians. In 1993, Israel gaveself-rule to Palestinians in certain areas. Palestiniansaccepted Israel’s right to exist. The Palestinian Authoritywas created to rule in Palestinian areas. During the 1990s,Israel also signed a peace treaty with Jordan.

Some Palestinians wanted more change. They begansetting off bombs in Israel. In response, Israel killed orcaptured many Palestinian leaders. In 2002, Israel crushedmilitant groups in the West Bank. They began building awall there for security.

To remove themselves from the problems in the GazaStrip, Israelis planned to withdraw in 2004. Palestiniansbegan to demand better government from the PalestinianAuthority.

16. Why did Iraq invade Kuwait?


Drawing From ExperienceHave you ever had a rival? Maybe it was a friend,

brother, sister, or someone else you competed with to win. Did your desire to win create tension in your rela-tionship? How did you deal with it?

The last section described conflicts in Africa and theMiddle East. In this section, you will learn how the ColdWar came to an end. You will also learn how tensions inYugoslavia and China led to conflict. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on how twoChinese leaders tried to make life better in China. Com-pare and contrast the actions of Mao Zedong and DengXiaoping.

502

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsdétente: a relaxing or easing of tensions between rivals (page 881)

glasnost: Soviet policy of openness that allowed freedom of speech (page 882)

perestroika: Soviet policy for rebuilding the economy (page 882)

ethnic cleansing: the removal by force of an entire ethnic group from an area(page 884)


The Cold War Ends For use with pages 880–886

1.

2.

3.

6.

7.

8.

4.

5.

Mao Zedong Deng Xiaoping

503

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The Fall of the Soviet Union (pages 881–883)

After nearly 50 years of bitter rivalry with the United States, in the 1990s the Soviet Union and its Eastern European empire fell apart.

You already learned about the Cold War. In the early1970s, icy relations between the United States, the SovietUnion, and China began to warm.What Was Détente? In the 1970s, the United States began a new policy of détente. Détente comes from a Frenchword that means a relaxing of tensions.

In 1972 U.S. president Nixon went to China. He had a key meeting with China’s Communist leaders. Theyagreed to open diplomatic relations and to increase trade.The Soviets did not trust China. Their alliance with Chinahad ended in the 1960s. The Soviets feared that these U.S.-Chinese ties would be bad for them, so they began to reach out to the United States.

Leonid Brezhnev was the Soviet leader. In 1972, he andNixon held talks and signed several agreements. One wascalled SALT, or Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty. It putlimits on the nuclear weapons of both countries.

Hopes were high. But détente did not last. In 1979 the Soviets moved into Afghanistan. The Soviets fought to keep a Communist government in power. The UnitedStates opposed them. President Jimmy Carter reducedtrade. Reagan Pressures the Soviets In 1981, Ronald Reagan becamepresident of the United States. He called the Soviet Unionan “evil empire.” Reagan started to build up militarypower. This started an arms race with the Soviets. TheSoviet economy was weak. The arms race made it weaker.New leaders came to power who wanted to reform thesystem and make the economy strong.

Reagan also gave financial aid to groups trying tooverthrow Communist governments. The United Stateshelped forces in Central America and Africa fighting communism. It also backed Islamic groups fighting theSoviets in Afghanistan.


Who Was Gorbachev? In 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev became theSoviet leader. He worked to change the Soviet Union. Hehad a policy of glasnost or “openness.” The Soviet peoplecould speak and write freely without fear of punishment.Another policy was called perestroika or “rebuilding.” Itgave factory managers more freedom. It also called forsmall privately owned businesses. The aim was to boostthe economy. Gorbachev wanted East European Commu-nist leaders to do the same. The Berlin Wall Falls In 1987 President Reagan went to WestBerlin. He stood at the Berlin Wall and said, “if you seekpeace, . . . Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!”

The communist countries of Eastern Europe had weakeconomies. Their people wanted democracy. In Polandthe labor union Solidarity called for reforms. Peoplethought Gorbachev would try to stop the reforms. But he said he would not act.

With no Soviet help, the communist governments in Eastern Europe fell. Revolutions in Poland, Hungary,Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Bulgaria led to changes ingovernment and free elections. The people elected leadersthat were opposed to communism. In Poland Lech Walesawas elected. Vaclav Havel was elected in Czechoslovakia.

On November 9, 1989, East Germany’s Communistleaders opened the main gate in the Berlin Wall. The nextday, people began knocking down the wall. Within theyear, East and West Germany were reunited. The Soviet Union Collapses At the same time, there was unrest in the Soviet Union. Gorbachev spoke against hard-linersand reformers. Hard-liners wanted to stop changes.Reformers felt Gorbachev should move faster. BorisYeltsin led the reformers. He became president of Russia,the largest Soviet republic.

In August 1991, hard-line Communists tried to takeover the government. Yeltsin called on the people toresist. The hard-liners gave up. Within months, Russiaand all Soviet Republics declared independence. By the

504

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


505

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

end of 1991, one of history’s largest empires had come toan end.

Yeltsin worked to make Russia’s economy strong.Vladimir Putin, the next president, did the same. Reformshave had some success, but there is more crime and vio-lence. A bloody war has raged in Chechnya. People therewant to break away from Russia.

9. What caused the end of Communist governments inEastern Europe?

The Breakup of Yugoslavia (page 884)

The fall of communism unleashed deadly ethnic hatreds in the Balkannation of Yugoslavia.

The fall of communism led to nationalism in EasternEurope. National and ethnic groups began to fight. A Balkan Flashpoint Yugoslavia was in Europe’s Balkan Penin-sula. In 1980, the country’s Communist dictator Josip BrozTito died. Since World War II, he had held the country’ssix republics together. When he died, ethnic groupsfought for power.

In the early 1990s, four republics declared independ-ence. They were Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina,and Macedonia. The republic of Serbia wanted to keepthe country united. It also wanted to keep all Serbs withinYugoslavia. The leader of Serbia, Slobodan Milosevic,used force to control other republics under Yugoslavia’scontrol. What Is Ethnic Cleansing? The most fighting took place inBosnia-Herzegovina. Milosevic helped Serbs fight Croatsand Muslims there. The Serbs carried out ethnic cleans-ing. They used force to remove an entire ethnic groupfrom an area. Many people died. Others fled the country.


The United States pushed for peace talks. In 1995, lead-ers from Bosnia, Serbia, and Croatia met. They signed apeace agreement which split Bosnia into Croat-Muslimand Serb regions. NATO troops kept the peace in Bosnia. Kosovo Next, the Serbs tried to remove Albanian Muslimsfrom Kosovo, a province of Yugoslavia. But Albanianswanted independence. Many refugees left Kosovo. In1999 the United States led NATO countries in bombingSerb military targets. Finally, the Serbs let NATO forcesinto Kosovo to keep the peace.

In 2000, Milosevic lost power. A new democratic gov-ernment took control. Milosevic was brought to trial in an international court.

10. What led to the breakup of Yugoslavia?

Revolution and Reform in China (pages 885–886)

China moved toward a free market economy, but its leaders stillopposed democratic reforms.

China became a Communist country in 1949. Leadersset out to modernize China. By the mid-1960s, they stillhad a long way to go. Chinese leaders tried new ways tomove the country forward. The Cultural Revolution Mao Zedong was the Communist leader.He feared China was losing its revolutionary spirit. In1966 he began the Cultural Revolution. “Undesirables”were driven from the Communist Party. People whowanted more freedom were jailed. Students called RedGuards attacked people who were against communism.

The revolution caused problems. People stoppedworking. Factory production went down. Fighting brokeout. The Chinese army was called out to stop the CulturalRevolution.

506

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


507

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

China Reforms Its Economy Mao Zedong died in 1976. DengXiaoping became China’s new leader. He wanted toimprove the economy. He had a plan called the FourModernizations. He wanted to change four areas: industry, culture, science and technology, and defense.

Deng relaxed government control of factories andfarms. Factory managers could decide what to produceand what to charge. Farmers could keep some profits.Deng also set up economic zones in China. In these areaspeople from other countries could run businesses.

These reforms made the economy grow. More goodswere made. Life was better for many Chinese. For the first time, people could buy consumer goods, such as televisions. Demands for Democracy Many Chinese were still not happy.They did not want Communist rule. They wanted freeelections and basic rights.

In the spring of 1989, hundreds of thousands of peoplegathered in Tiananmen Square. The square was in theheart of Beijing. The crowd was mostly students. Theydemanded democracy.

Protests were peaceful, but the government wasscared. Deng sent soldiers and tanks into the square.Between 500 and 1,000 people were killed. Countriesaround the world spoke out against China’s act.

During the 1990s, China took back land lost in the1800s. China gained Hong Kong from Britain in 1997. Itgained the port of Macau from Portugal two years later.Both cities have strong manufacturing, trade, and finance.

11. What was the Cultural Revolution?


Drawing From ExperienceLook around your home, in your closet, around your

school. Where do the products you use and the clothesyou wear come from? You use products every day thatcome from all over the world. Today people on our planetare closely linked.

The last section described how the Cold War came toan end. In this section, you will learn about events in the2000s that have changed the world. You will also learnabout an act of terrorism that changed lives forever. Organizing Your Thoughts

Use the diagram to help you take notes on global chal-lenges. What important issues are facing the world today?

508

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Key Termsglobalism: the idea that the world’s economy and politics are all part of one

system (page 889)

euro: common system of money used by countries in Europe (page 889)

deforestation: clearing of forests (page 890)

nuclear proliferation: the spread of nuclear weapons (page 890)

terrorism: the use of violence against civilians to reach a political goal (page 892)

weapons of mass destruction: nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons thatcan kill very large numbers of people at one time (page 894)


The World Enters a New Century For use with pages 887–894

GlobalChallenges

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

509

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The New Global Economy (pages 888–890)

Advances in technology have brought the world closer together economically, politically, and culturally.

Today we have a global economy. This means thatnations depend on one another for raw materials, goods,and markets for trade. Countries and people around theworld are closely linked. The Technology Revolution Technology has changed our lives.Today we have computers, cell phones, and more. But in 1970, many things we have today did not even exist.

The computer is at the center of this revolution. In the 1960s, scientists developed the integrated circuit. Inthe 1970s, microprocessors appeared. With these morepowerful circuits, smaller, faster computers could storemore data.

In 1976, Steven Wozniak and Steven Jobs built the firstsmall personal computer. In the 1980s, Bill Gates beganmaking software, or computer programs that tell com-puters how to do specific jobs. Soon prices for computerswent down.

People can now use computers to use the Internet. This is a huge web of linked computer networks. With theInternet, people can communicate with each other aroundthe world. What Is Globalism? Technology has tied people and nationsmore closely together. This has led to globalism. This is the idea that the world’s economy and politics are allpart of one big system. People and nations are linked.

Today, most nations must trade to get all they need.Organizations have been set up to help global trade. AfterWorld War II, the United States and other nations set upthe World Bank and the International Monetary Fund(IMF). These groups help businesses invest in other countries. Many nations have also taken part in talks to make trade free and easy. These talks led to GATTtreaties—General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs.


In 1995 GATT treaty nations set up the World TradeOrganization (WTO). More than 140 nations are members.The WTO helps with trade agreements and conflicts.

Nations have also joined to form trading groups. Thenations in Europe have set up the European Union (EU).One of its goals is to unite the politics and economy ofEurope. Some EU nations in 2002 began using a commonsystem of money called the euro.

The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)set up a free trade area for Canada, the United States, andMexico. The Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)agreement has tried to do the same for Asian nations.Global Challenges Globalism has led to trade and more wealthin many parts of the world. It has also made people moreaware of global issues. It often takes more than one nationto solve a problem. Nations must work together.

People are now more aware of dangers to the environ-ment. Many fear that the earth’s resources will not sup-port the increasing population of the world. A rise inpopulation around the world has many effects. One effectis deforestation. This is the clearing of forests. Peoplemay also not be able to get the food and water they need.

Many also worry about air and water pollution. Mostexperts think that nations have to work together to fixthese problems. The ozone layer helps to shield the earthfrom the sun. Scientists think that some chemicals harmthe ozone layer. In 1987, the United States and 22 othernations agreed to ban these chemicals.

Many scientists also think that the earth is gettingwarmer. They think pollution may cause this. Many dis-agree about the idea of global warming. In 1997 thirty-eight nations signed the Kyoto Protocol. They agreed to reduce pollution that leads to global warming. Fewcountries have acted on the treaty.

Nuclear proliferation is the spread of nuclearweapons. This problem threatens all people. Peoplearound the world worry about nuclear weapons in Iraq, North Korea, Libya, Iran, India, and Pakistan.

510

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


511

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

8. What is the goal of the European Union?

A Changing World (pages 890–892)

Political and economic changes continued to affect key regions of the world at the close of the twentieth century.

A global economy has led to political changes. EastAsia’s countries play a growing role in the world. Thenations of Europe are moving toward unity. In the UnitedStates, conservative politics have shaped government. The Rise of East Asia The “Asian Tigers” is a group of nationsand territories in East Asia. The group includes SouthKorea, Taiwan, Singapore, and Hong Kong. These four“Tigers” have built strong, modern economies.

South Korea became a democracy in the 1990s. Itstechnology and manufacturing industries have grown a great deal. The country exports ships, cars, computers,and appliances.

Taiwan is an island off China’s coast. It is part ofChina, but it has a democratic government. Many peoplein Taiwan want to be free. But China’s Communist lead-ers want to rule Taiwan. Taiwan has a strong economy. It makes computers, radios, TVs, and telephones.

Hong Kong is also part of China. It is under Commu-nist rule. But it has kept its strong, free enterprise econ-omy. Singapore is a port at the tip of the Malay Peninsula.It also has a strong economy. The European Union Europe is one of the major centers of busi-ness and culture in the world. Some European countrieshope the European Union will make them a superpower.

Britain has had economic problems. In the 1980s,Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and her ConservativeParty made reforms. Since the 1990s, the economy hasimproved. Tony Blair heads the Labour Party. They havegiven more power to regions such as Scotland and Wales.


François Mitterand was a Socialist. He became presi-dent of France in 1981. His government ran some indus-tries. It also passed laws to help workers. Since then, theFrench have elected Jacques Chirac two times. He is aconservative leader. The French hoped he would makethe economy stronger.

Germany has a strong economy. But it has been hardfor the country to unite its western and eastern parts. The west is more wealthy than the east. This has led to tension.

Europe’s Mediterranean countries have also changed.In Italy, political power has changed hands many times.Relations between the wealthy north and the poorersouth are tense. Spain, Portugal, and Greece are nowdemocracies. They take an active part in European affairs. The United States Support for conservative policies grew in the United States in the 1980s. President Reagan loweredtaxes, cut government rules, and spent less on welfare. He also spent more on the military.

To cover its costs, the government had to borrowmoney. The government owed more money to banks. The economy got weaker. George Bush followed Reaganas president. He was defeated by Bill Clinton in 1992.

Clinton is a Democrat. But he had some conservativebeliefs. Under Clinton, the budget was balanced. The welfare system was also changed. Then in 2000, GeorgeW. Bush became president. He is a conservative Republi-can. He asked Congress to pass tax cuts and educationreform.

9. What are the “Asian Tigers”?

512

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


513

Cop

yrig

ht ©

by

The

McG

raw

-Hill

Com

pani

es, I

nc.

Name Date Class

The War on Terror (pages 892–894)

A devastating attack on September 11, 2001 focused the world’s attention on terrorism.

Today terrorism is a growing concern. Terrorism is theuse of violence against civilians to reach a political goal.Terrorists act on their own. They are usually not part of a government. They want to change governments. Terrorists attack civilians and soldiers.

Since World War II, terrorist groups have been activearound the world. The Irish Republican Army (IRA) is aterrorist group. They tried to make Britain give up controlof Northern Ireland. Italy’s Red Brigades killed politicalleaders. Sometimes governments lead or aid terrorism.Governments in Iraq, Iran, Syria, Cuba, Afghanistan, andNorth Korea have helped terrorist groups.

Today, groups from the Middle East carry out mostattacks on Americans. Many do not like U.S. support forIsrael. Many Muslims also feel that U.S. culture under-mines Islamic values. What Happened on 9/11? On September 11, 2001, the world sawan awful act of terrorism. Terrorists took control of fourAmerican planes. Two planes were crashed into theWorld Trade Center in New York City. One plane wasflown into the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. Passengerson a fourth plane fought back. This plane crashed in afield in Pennsylvania. Nearly 3,000 people died in theseattacks.

The terrorists were part of an organization called al-Qaeda. This terrorist group is led by Osama bin Laden. He is from Saudi Arabia. Who Is Osama bin Laden? Osama bin Laden is a Muslim fighterin Afghanistan. The Muslims were fighting the Soviets.Bin Laden used his family’s wealth to get more fighters.

When the Soviets left Afghanistan, bin Laden turnedal-Qaeda into a terrorist group. He wanted to push allAmericans and Europeans out of the Muslim world.


His group set off bombs at U.S. embassies in Kenya andTanzania in 1998. They also attacked a U.S. Navy ship in Yemen in 2000.

After 9/11, the United States declared war on terror-ism. The first fight was in Afghanistan. Bin Laden and al-Qaeda hid out there. They were helped by the MuslimTaliban government. The Taliban was defeated. TheUnited States helped set up a new Afghan government. Invasion of Iraq In 2002, President George W. Bush turned to countries that supported terrorism. Some of thesecountries were making weapons of mass destruction.These are nuclear, chemical, and biological weaponswhich can kill tens of thousands of people at one time.The president feared certain countries might give theseweapons to terrorists.

Saddam Hussein was in power in Iraq. Bush and otherworld leaders thought that he would continue to makedeadly weapons and help terrorists. In 2003, the UnitedStates led a coalition of countries in an invasion of Iraq.The Iraqi army was quickly defeated. Saddam Husseinwas captured.

Rebuilding Iraq was harder than winning the war.Groups tried to stop U.S. efforts to build the economy and set up a democracy. These groups included Hussein’ssupporters, terrorists, and Islamic militants. In June 2004,the United States gave control of Iraq to a temporary Iraqigovernment. Iraq began to get ready for free elections.

President Bush also wanted to make it harder for terrorist groups to grow. He set out plans to work fordemocracy in the Middle East. He also called for a freePalestinian state.

10. Why did a coalition of forces invade Iraq?

514

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class


reading essentials and study guide - student edition history/world history reader study...

Documents