Reading Le Clézio: Simulating Empathy for the Marginalized Inhabitants of the Unwelcoming Global Village

Keith Moser November 6-10, 2010

A World Without Walls 2010: An International Conference on Peacebuilding, Reconciliation, and Globalization in an Interdependent World

Institute for Cultural Diplomacy (ICD) Berlin, Germany

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Reading Le Clézio: Simulating Empathy for the Marginalized Inhabitants of the Unwelcoming Global Village

In their incessant quest for world domination and the eradication of communist

ideology during the Cold War, both American politicians and other educational

policymakers seem to have forgotten how all of the distinct disciplines complement each

other. For this reason, math and science have dominated the landscape of education in

the United States for the past several decades. Moreover, the value of education itself has

been reduced by our consumer society to its mere utilitarian purpose. For many

Americans, the only reason to pursue higher education is to obtain a lucrative position

that will ensure that one possesses all of the material comforts that our society valorizes.

The result of this rigid pedagogical model is the creation of a misinformed, ignorant

citizenry that is incapable of engaging in basic critical thinking exercises. Recent events,

such as the debate concerning the creation of an Islamic cultural center near hallowed

Ground Zero and the unfathomable, erroneous perception that President Obama is

Muslim, concretize the unmitigated failure of the American educational system that is not

adequately preparing its diverse population for the unique challenges that the many

nations and cultures which comprise the global village must confront together.

Indeed, the only solution is a radical paradigm shift with an interdisciplinary focus

that is cognizant of the invaluable contributions of all disciplines in the creation of a more

inquisitive, egalitarian, and harmonious society in which different cultures cannot only

coexist, but also thrive in an atmosphere of dialogue and mutual respect. Although the

scientific method is important because it urges the subject to demand proof and it helps

us understand the universe and the physical laws that govern it, this useful model also has

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its limitations. Scientific logic can help the subject to ascertain a certain type of

‘definitive’ knowledge related to the cosmos, but it fails, at least in isolation from other

fields, to compel individuals to ask difficult questions about the pervasive ideology that

dominates their society. Given the current state of the modern world and a global

economy which is sustained by quotidian transnational interactions, this shortcoming

must be addressed. The purpose of this specific study is to demonstrate how the

humanities, and specifically literary narratives, can help the American educational system

to overcome this alarming, pedagogical deficiency.

Using both an educational and philosophical approach, this investigation will

underscore how a veritable, balanced liberal arts education can stimulate critical thinking,

mold minds, foster a meaningful dialogue that will allow individuals to communicate

across cultural boundaries, and simulate empathy for the Other. Literature may not

provide absolute truths, but it forces people to reflect about the critical issues of their time

by posing disconcerting questions about divisive ideologies and the extreme inequalities

that are emblematic of the modern world. Given the gravity of complex problems, such

as the depletion of the earth’s natural resources, pollution, global warming, acute poverty,

and clandestine immigration, the human family must learn how to live and work together

in peace and harmony. In fact, the important decisions that our society will make in the

coming years might determine the fate of the entire human race. As it attempts to offer

possible solutions to the modern educational crisis in the United States, this study will be

divided into the following six areas: I. Shortcomings of the global village II. New

paradigm shift in Foreign Language teaching methodology III. Role of intercultural

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education in society IV. Empathy and the literary narrative V. Who is J.M.G. Le

Clézio? VI. Applying the intercultural model to Le Clézio’s narratives.

I. Shortcomings of the global village

The term ‘global village’ was coined by the researcher Marshall McLuhan in the

1960’s. However, as Rico Lie affirms, “It is unclear what the origins are of this concept.

It is also unclear what McLuhan actually meant by it” (57). In spite of this original

ambivalence, the notion of a global village soon became an important concept that would

be indicative of larger humanistic aspirations. In academic circles as well as in the

general public, McLuhan’s term would be associated with the idealistic dream that

modern technology would place divergent cultures in intimate contact like never before,

thereby facilitating a greater understanding and acceptance of other ways of life.

Explaining what the concept of a global village now encompasses, Tracy Novinger

asserts, “In our world of expanding technology and shrinking geography, people of

different cultures have increasing frequency of contact…” (ix). Inventions, such as the

Internet, have indeed fundamentally altered the world in terms of eliminating traditional

communicative barriers. If an individual has access to the appropriate device, the effects

of geographical distance can be minimized.

Yet, this dream of creating a more cohesive world citizenry would soon be met with

increasing skepticism. McLuhan was correct in his assertion that the many cultures of

the world would now encounter each other on a daily basis as interdependent parts of a

global economy. However, would the United States and the rest of the world be prepared

for the challenges that this geographical compression would present? Summarizing both

the hopes and fears of the global village, Dean Barnlund reflects,

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What is in doubt is whether the erosion of cultural boundaries through technology will bring the realization of a dream or a nightmare. Will a global village be a mere collection or a true community of men? Will its residents be neighbors capable of respecting and utilizing their differences, or clusters of strangers living in ghettos and united only in the antipathies for others? (27).

After much reflection, Barnlund reticently concludes that the realization of the global

village has unfortunately widened the economic disparity between those who have access

to this dream, and induced far greater suffering for those on the periphery of modern

society. Moreover, Barnlund reiterates that this close intercultural contact has perhaps

created even more racism, bigotry, intolerance, and divisiveness. As the author

summarizes, “Even events of recent decades provide little basis for optimism. Increasing

physical proximity has brought no millennium in human relations. If anything, it has

appeared to intensify the divisions among people rather than to create a broader

intimacy” (27).

Other intercultural theorists seem to agree with the current nightmare scenario

outlined by Barnlund in his essay. In her monograph entitled Intercultural

Communication: A Practical Guide, Tracy Novinger explains, “Our global village is

turning out to be an unstable and often unfriendly place, with ethnic nationalisms taking

center stage […] Individuals and organizations struggle to cope with problems in living

and working with people of other cultures on a daily basis” (8). Similar to Barnlund,

Novinger asserts that instead of uniting divergent cultures, the many different ethnic and

religious groups that comprise the global village have yet to learn how to valorize

difference and diversity. In the absence of a meaningful intercultural dialogue, the

dominant majority seeks to expand its control of planetary resources and impose its

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monolithic culture upon other minority civilizations within its sphere of influence.

According to Barnlund, the only solution to this dire, global crisis is improved

intercultural communication, grounded in mutual respect.

In their discussion of how technology, specifically the internet, has transformed the

entire world, Calloway-Thomas, Cooper, and Blake express similar concerns to those of

Barnlund and Novinger. Underscoring the eradication of traditional geographical

boundaries through technological advances, the authors affirm, “the global economy links

people in desert and rural isolation in Mongolia via Worldwide Internet with those in

urban areas of Minnesota” (174). Given that the number of internet subscribers has

drastically increased since the inception of this powerful virtual tool all around the world,

it is indeed possible to converse with people from all corners of the globe. However, it

should also be noted that not everyone has access to this technology. While the

wealthiest individuals in the modern world have expanded their economic control,

poverty and illiteracy are still omnipresent in both industrialized and developing

societies. For this reason, it could be argued that the internet is aggravating the problem

of economic disparity. For those who are unable to afford internet service fees, a

computer, or even electricity, they will have fewer opportunities to take advantage of all

that technology has to offer. Since many lucrative positions require at least a basic

understanding of computer software, it appears that this inequality of access is further

compounding the inability of the global village to welcome marginalized and

disenfranchised individuals that have been silenced by the ruling majority.

Calloway-Thomas, Cooper, and Blake also note that new technological inventions can

often facilitate conflict. Although many people embrace tools which are designed to

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place a plethora of information at their fingertips in an instant, some individuals remain

proud of their traditions and customs. As the authors affirm, “Change is inevitable, and

yet it often brings anguish, disruption, and a rearranging of our lives […] Clashes

between traditional and new ways of doing things can influence interpersonal

relationships” (179). Some people are unwilling or simply too apprehensive to accept

other possibilities with which they are not familiar. When traditional methods are

considered to be antiquated and no longer useful because of new technologies, what

happens to individuals in the modern world who refuse or are unable to make this

transition?

Furthermore, how does the global village impact traditional civilizations, such as the

nomadic Sahrawi, who continue to live in harmony with nature as their people have done

for many generations? Although such communities might not seem to participate in any

sort of global dialogue, they are not immune to the ramifications of modernity. Pollution,

global warming, and the exploitation of the earth’s non-renewable resources affect all

members of humanity. For this reason, all civilizations, large and small, deserve an equal

voice in discussions related to the common problems that the entire human family now

faces. The gross inequalities that are emblematic of the global village have ensured that

primordial societies are more excluded and ignored than ever before.

II. New paradigm shift in Foreign Language teaching methodology

Given the inability of the American educational system to prepare students for the

demands, pitfalls, and potential benefits of the global village, Foreign Language teaching

methodology is currently undergoing yet another paradigm shift. Although

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has indeed addressed many of the inherent

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flaws of previous methods of FL instruction, such as the Audio-lingual method and the

grammar-translation approach, recent studies unequivocally underscore the failure of

CLT to prepare today’s learners to be responsible, compassionate, and informed citizens

of the modern world. A troubling report published by the Modern Language Association

entitled “Foreign Languages and Higher Education: New Structures for a Changed

World” in May 2007 perhaps best summarizes the current pedagogical crisis. As the ad-

hoc group in charge of this investigation affirms, “In fulfilling its charge, the committee

found itself immersed in a dynamic, rapidly changing environment marked by a sense of

crisis around what came to be called the nation’s language deficit. The United States

inability to communicate with or comprehend other parts of the world became a

prominent subject for journalists […]” (MLA n. pag.). It is important to note that the

MLA report not only explores the linguistic deficiencies of the American educational

system, but it also cites the necessity of improved transcultural competence.

The only way to combat the pervasive insularity in American society is to increase our

knowledge and appreciation of the rest of the world. We cannot merely transport our

culture elsewhere and expect everyone else to conform to our monolithic model. As this

study has already clearly established, America’s current students and future policymakers

must learn how to valorize the unique contributions of the cultures with which they live

in close daily proximity if they are to succeed. As Gilberte Furstenberg declares,

Yet, a profound change has taken place in the last 10 years: It is the growing realization, brought on by the globalization of our world, that our students will work and interact with people of diverse cultures and will therefore need to be able to communicate effectively across boundaries that are not just linguistic. This means that our mission as language teachers is more important than ever and that our goal should no longer be limited to helping students develop and achieve linguistic and communicative competence (330).

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In a hostile, anti-intellectual climate1

In their essay entitled “Creating Intercultural Competence: A Proposal for

Anglophone Studies in Restructuring University Curricula in English as a Foreign

Language,” Zoreda and Flores Revilla echo the sentiments of Furstenberg and the MLA

ad-hoc committee. In reference to the Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC)

model for foreign language instruction, Zoreda and Flores Revilla explain, “The current

drive toward not only linguistic but also cultural competence in foreign language study

has also been expressed by national, regional, and international educational policy

statements” (3). Specifically, Zoreda and Flores Revilla refer to the renewed cultural

focus of “the U.S. Standards for Foreign Language Learning (1996), the European

Community’s Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common

European Framework of Reference (1996), and the UNESCO’s Education in a

Multilingual World: UNESCO Guidelines on Language and Education” (3).

that often questions the validity of the humanities in

general and disciplines like foreign languages, Furstenberg convincingly argues that

speaking both another language and another culture are more important skills than ever

before in human history. A meaningful transcultural dialogue that will allow divergent

peoples of the world to confront modern global challenges together necessitates both

profound linguistic and cultural knowledge that can only be acquired in the Foreign

Language classroom.

Ardently defending the ICC paradigm, UNESCO’s guidelines clearly state,

The cultural component of language teaching and learning should be strengthened in order to gain a deeper understanding of other cultures; languages should not be simple linguistic exercises, but opportunities to

1 For a more comprehensive discussion of the anti-intellectual climate in the United States, see J. Parke Renshaw, p. 297, and Susan Feagin, p. 248. All of the pertinent bibliographic information is provided on the works cited page.

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reflect on other ways of life, other literatures, other customs (qtd. in Zoreda and Flores Revilla 3).

This contention rejects the strictly utilitarian view of education in general, as well as in

Foreign Language teaching. It also represents a realization that not all knowledge can be

reduced to measurable quantities that can easily be assessed on high-stakes examinations.

Moreover, a profound knowledge of other cultures might not necessarily help students

earn more money, but it will allow them to participate in global discussions that could

very well determine the future of this planet.

In our materialistic society, sometimes the intrinsic value of education itself becomes

lost in our unending zeal to accumulate more wealth. Authentic learning related to other

cultures renders students cognizant of other possibilities and ways of knowing. By

studying a FL culture, American learners are able to shed their ethnocentric cloak and

realize that their society does not possess definitive answers to life’s greatest enigmas and

world issues. As the Standards for Foreign Language Learning affirm, “American

students need to develop an awareness of other people’s world views, of their unique way

of life […] as well as learn about contributions of other cultures to the world at large and

the solutions they offer to the common problems of humankind” (qtd. in Zoreda and

Flores Revilla 3-4). In terms of both the complexity and urgency of the problems that the

human family and its future generations now face, foreign language teachers are in a

unique position to create a new and improved global village by utilizing intercultural

communicative competence techniques.

In her article entitled “Four Good Reasons to Use Literature in the Primary School,”

Irma Ghosn also embraces the ICC model of second language acquisition. Moreover,

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Ghosn reiterates the importance of implementing FL instruction at the elementary school

level. Furthermore, Ghosn also lauds the essential role of literature in terms of creating

intercultural citizens that possess the necessary knowledge to understand the Other,

collaborate with divergent cultures, and to empathize with those who are excluded from

the system. In reference to the larger purpose of education, Ghosn asserts, “In the

increasingly global world, language and critical thinking skills, intercultural awareness

and emotional intelligence would seem to be high priorities, especially in our struggle to

create a more just and peaceful world” (8). According to Ghosn, the only way to combat

the current hostilities that prevent isolated communities from functioning as a cohesive

social whole is to implement mandatory intercultural curriculum at the earliest levels of

education.

In his investigation of the relationship between language, literature, and culture in the

modern Foreign Language classroom, Daniel Shanahan identifies the two dominant

pedagogical ideologies that divide educators. As Shanahan articulates, “Today,

university teachers of foreign language (FL) in the U.S. face a pedagogical environment

in which two camps have developed, one basing its emphasis on communicative

competence, the other on the importance of exposure to culture and, especially,

literature” (164). After exploring the logic of both sides, Shanahan also contends that

students need both communicative language skills and intercultural values in order to

succeed in the modern world.

Similar to Furstenberg, Zoreda, Flores Revilla, and Ghosn, Shanahan also criticizes

the strictly pragmatic view of education that fails to take into account the greater

importance of a true liberal arts curriculum that prepares learners for active and ethically

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responsible citizenship. In reference to this overly simplistic pedagogical vision,

Shanahan notes, “the prevalent attitude in the U.S. [is] that FLF learning is fundamentally

an exercise with utilitarian (i.e. career) goals and that those goals should be the

predominating factor in the development of the language curriculum” (165). At the end

of his essay, Shanahan encourages FL teachers at all levels to continue to incorporate

rudimentary humanistic principles into their daily teaching activities regardless of

whether American society valorizes, respects, or understands their efforts. Attempting to

empower FL colleagues, Shanahan unwaveringly declares, “Our fundamental goal as

language professors is to expand and enrich the lives of our students and the society in

which they live. Our dedication to this goal […] has sustained our commitment to

humanistic study even when it exists […] on a bleakly unreceptive landscape” (170-171).

Preparing Foreign Language students to be able to communicate effectively in the target

language in addition to fostering intercultural awareness is a daunting task given both

time constraints and the other inherent limitations of the classroom. However, it is

becoming increasingly apparent that today’s students are in drastic need of both profound

linguistic and cultural training that allows them to not only function but to also thrive in

the global village, regardless of whether everyone in American society realizes the

limitations of the utilitarian model of education or not.

III. Role of intercultural education in society

The aforementioned paradigm shift in foreign language pedagogy reflects a global,

interdisciplinary trend. Many educators from around the world have now abandoned the

multicultural model in favor of interculturality. Although these terms are often used

synonymously, these two divergent concepts are quite different in fundamental ways. In

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his acclaimed essay L’Interculturel ou la guerre ‘Interculturality or War,’ Issa Asgarally

clearly delineates the distinction between multiculturalism and interculturality. Implying

that multicultural values can even be detrimental to social cohesion, Asgarally declares,

“Le risque du multiculturalisme est de mettre des gens dans des boîtes et d’ethniciser

notre vision de la société. On réduit la personne à une catégorie et l’individu à un

collectif” ‘The risk of multiculturalism is that it places people into boxes or ethicizes our

worldview. One reduces the human being to a category and the individual to a collective

identity” (21; my trans.). Insisting upon the originality of interculturality, Asgarally

criticizes the multicultural paradigm because it creates artificial cultural distinctions that

do not truly unite humanity but which separate individuals into distinct ethnic groups.

Whereas multiculturalism celebrates and highlights difference, interculturality

emphasizes the universal characteristics shared by the entire human family. In fact, the

entire intercultural model is predicated upon the scientific premise that only one human

race exists. This contention is hardly surprising given that the majority of the

anthropologic community now considers the very notion of a race to be nothing more

than a social construct.2

Moreover, Asgarally and other intercultural practitioners contend that interculturality

is more appealing than multiculturalism because it allows educators to transcend the

For this reason, intercultural educators attempt to deconstruct

ethnic labels that represent sources of profound hostility and animosity in the modern

world. Instead of first valorizing difference, interculturality initially identifies the

commonalities that are emblematic of the human condition that afflicts all members of

every society.

2 (c.f.) P.R. Spickard, "The illogic of American racial categories," in M.P.P. Root, ed., Racially mixed people in America (Newbury Park CA: Sage, 1992), 12–23.

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frustrations associated with the latter paradigm. As Suciu Marta-Christina asserts in the

context of globalization and European education,

We need to foster respectful exchanges of views between individuals and groups of different cultural backgrounds on an equal basis. We want to go beyond multicultural societies, where cultures and cultural groups simply coexist side by side, where they live ‘parallel lives.’ We need to become intercultural societies where plurality of cultures cooperates in dialogue and in shared responsibility (649).

Marta-Christina’s contention is quite revealing because it exposes the problematic nature

of multicultural civilizations. In the modern global village, contact between divergent

social groups is often limited to pragmatic concerns. Since no authentic communication

is taking place, every social or ethnic minority is isolated into a specific enclave. In order

for a meaningful dialogue and fruitful collaboration to transpire, every element of society,

especially the moral majority, must become more open-minded in terms of appreciating

the unique contributions of other cultures.

Although facilitating greater communicative intimacy amongst distinct social entities

represents a tremendous challenge both in society as a whole and in the classroom,

Marta-Christina reminds us that “While globalization poses challenges, it also offers

powerful opportunities for the higher education community to play a key role in shaping

and reshaping the future” (649). The present realities of the global village might be

disquieting, but perhaps it is not too late to (re) appropriate /reconstruct the modern

world. Other educators have also embraced this humanistic dream that confronts the

unpleasant realities underscored by theorists such as Barnold and Novinger and attempts

to offer a possible solution that will create a more egalitarian and peaceful society

through mutual dialogue and respect.

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However, in order to take advantage of this potential opportunity, intercultural

education would need to be adopted as an essential component of the curriculum. In spite

of divergent opinions from the general public regarding the validity of teaching

intercultural values, several European countries have already implemented nationwide

policy changes that reflect these fundamental humanistic values.3

In her study dedicated to intercultural education in Germany at the elementary level,

Pamela Oberhuemer echoes the sentiments of Leeman and Ledoux concerning the

necessity of molding young people into informed and active world citizens. In an

adamant affirmation, Oberhuemer declares, “What is important, is that intercultural

activities become a matter-of-fact and integral part of the curriculum and are not seen

[…] as something exotic and out-of-the-ordinary” (10). Similar to Leeman and Ledoux,

Oberhuemer also addresses how immigration has profoundly altered German society,

In reference to the

origins of intercultural education in the Netherlands, Yvonne Leeman and Guuske

Ledoux affirm, “Educational policy measures to deal with the consequences of

immigration were first initiated at the end of the 1960s. An important goal was to

stimulate, through ‘intercultural education,’ the socialization of young people for

citizenship in a multicultural society” (576). Moreover, Leeman and Ledoux reiterate,

“Intercultural education has been a compulsory part of the curriculum in all sectors of

education since the mid 1980s” (577). Yet, Leeman and Ledoux also importantly note

that many educators do not have the proper training to transmit intercultural principles

effectively to their students. Although political leaders embraced interculturality, teacher

training programs did not evolve to reflect the incorporation of these new concepts.

3 It should also be noted that the European Union officially designated 2008 as the “Year of Intercultural Dialogue.” See Suciu Marta-Christina, p. 649.

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thereby creating a situation in which many different ethnic groups must interact with each

other on a daily basis. Additionally, Oberhuemer notes that German society was not

prepared for the influx of Turkish immigrants that would seek a better life in Western

Europe.

Since the cultural background of many of these Turkish citizens differs drastically

from that of the majority of the German population, social tension, misunderstanding, and

intolerance are inevitable consequences of this cultural clash. As Oberhuemer explains,

“Numerous incidents of overt violence towards asylum seekers and in particular a series

of horrifying cases of arson against members of the Turkish population have shocked the

majority of Germans. Unfortunately, it has taken this extreme situation to heighten

public concern about effective ways of combating racism and violence and educating

children for democracy in a multicultural society” (2). After these deplorable

manifestations of xenophobia and violence, German politicians were forced to confront

the problem. In the wake of events, such as Brewer’s controversial clandestine

immigration policy in Arizona, what will it take to awaken the consciousness of the

American public? When will American legislators finally reject the ‘melting pot’

paradigm, and realize that only authentic dialogue can perhaps save the global village

from its own self-inflicted wounds?

Likewise, Miguel Puwainchir, a mayor of a municipality in Ecuador and member of

the indigenous Shuar community, also expresses his sincere hope that the assimilation

model for creating social cohesion will be abandoned by the leaders of his country. In a

passionate essay entitled “The Globalization of Interculturality,” Puwainchir asserts, “I

am a Shuar. I am proud to be one that nature made me so. This is why I walk and work

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as a Shuar does. I come from a family of warriors that shrank human heads. Today we

want to shrink human egos so they will accept a globalization of cultures that does not

merge the many into one” (n. pag.). As Puwainchir correctly notes, promoting

intercultural values is also an exercise in humility. In order for a veritable exchange to

occur, the dominant social group must overcome its ethnocentric attitudes to be able to

valorize the Other.

Perhaps this challenge is even greater in the United States given the country’s

undeniable global economic and cultural influence. Unfortunately, the uneven balance of

power in the modern world, dominated by the U.S., has convinced many Americans that

they control the rest of humanity because their culture is superior to other ways of life.

As Genelle Morain elucidates, “Perhaps the most valuable benefit from studying another

culture is humility. While all countries tend toward ethnocentrism, the geographic

isolation of America and the growing importance of the English language have given us a

disproportionate sense of power” (3). Furthermore, Morain also warns, “Americans are

unprepared to operate with sensitivity in cross-cultural situations” (1). Whether

Americans like it or not, they reside in the same global village that now unites most

human beings. A superiority complex has resulted in the creation of a society that is

willfully blind to the contributions of other cultures. Without learning to be more modest

and to listen to other viewpoints, future Americans will not only fail their own country,

but also the entire world. The gravity of the issues that the global village now faces

together is much too dire to allow this destructive myopia to linger.

IV. Empathy and the literary narrative

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When individuals learn to be humble, they also begin to empathize with those who

have traditionally been excluded from mainstream society. As Calloway-Thomas,

Cooper, and Blake assert, “empathy is the bedrock of intercultural communication”

(106). If the capacity to empathize with those that are different or which are suffering

from discrimination is the cornerstone of ICC, then it behooves educators to cultivate this

complex emotion in the classroom. However, in order to take advantage of the veritable

force of empathy and its unique ability to enact social change, teachers must understand

what it means to empathize and how to foster the development of these profound

sentiments. In his essay entitled “What is it like to be someone else? Simulation and

Empathy,” Ian Ravenscroft offers the following definition: “I will use the term ‘empathy’

to refer to the capacity to bring about in ourselves another’s affective states without

actually placing ourselves in their situation” (171). Since no individual shares the same

exact experiences in life as someone else, our ability to conceptualize anguish from

which we have not personally suffered is what allows human beings to relate to others on

a meaningful level.

Before exploring how empathy can be honed and nurtured in the classroom, this study

will investigate different schools of philosophical thought related to this phenomenon.

Explaining why human beings empathize has long been a subject of debate in the

philosophical community. In recent years, much of the discussion has been in the context

of two divergent paradigms. Whereas some philosophers support the Theory-theory (TT)

model, other researchers insist that Simulation Theory (ST) is a more accurate

explanation for human empathy. Moreover, a few hybrid representations combine

elements of both of these dominant theories (Maibom, 2007).

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The TT paradigm posits that “our capacity to understand others is primarily a capacity

to theorise [sic] about human behavior” (Ravenscroft, 171). Proponents of TT offer a

rational explanation for a subject’s deep feelings of empathy toward others who are in a

dangerous, painful, or disadvantageous situation. As Ted Rockwell explains, “The pure

theory-theory says that recognizing that someone is in pain is not that different from

recognizing that something is made of sulphur, or is on fire […] Epistemically, our

knowledge of other people’s pains is not significantly different from our knowledge

about anything else” (59). According to theory-theory, the origins of human empathy are

quite cerebral in nature. Human beings are able to conceptualize analytically how it

might feel to be in a given circumstance because of their capacity to create theories using

what is called folk psychology. In reference to this phenomenon and utilizing the

example of a distressed climber, Ravenscroft elucidates,

As it is standardly conceived, the theory-theory is an account of our ability to attribute propositional attitudes to others, and to predict and explain their behaviour in terms of those attitudes […] Seeing the climber’s situation and noting his behaviour, we reason (via folk psychology) to claims about his mental states: he is afraid; he wishes he had not embarked upon such a dangerous climb; he believes that if he can just gain the next good hand he will be saved; and so on (172).

Simulation theory, however, proposes a less rational explanation for empathic

responses. Instead of logically deducing typical reactions using folk psychology, ST

contends that a subject actively imagines the challenges of someone else’s predicament,

and places himself or herself in this unenviable position. As Ravenscroft underscores,

“According to simulation theory, we attribute mental states to others by simulating their

mental economy […] Simulationists therefore speak of imaginatively identifying with

the target, or of adopting pretend versions of the target’s perceptual and cognitive states”

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(177). The basic tenets of simulation theory correspond to the wisdom of the Amerindian

proverb which warns “Do not judge your neighbor until you walk two moons in his

moccasins.” Proponents of the ST paradigm seem to suggest that human beings are

indeed capable of affectively imagining what it would be like to walk a mile in someone

else’s shoes.

It should be noted that much of the philosophical community is starting to embrace the

ST model. Many researchers contend that simulation theory addresses many of the

shortcomings of theory-theory. In her book review of a recent monograph by the

renowned theorist Karsten Stuber, Giuseppina d’Oro outlines contemporary criticisms of

TT. As d’Oro asserts, “Stueber describes the perspective of the theory theorist as

‘detached,’ external, third-person perspective that ignores the internal monologue that

moved the agent to act” (130). Moreover, d’Oro also notes that Stueber warns against

“over-rationalizing the human agent” (132). Current scientific research also seems to

support the ST paradigm. Specifically, studies with infants and young children which

investigate their empathic responses to certain stimuli appear to validate simulation

theory while exposing the inherent flaws of the TT model (Ravenscroft, 181).

The implications of recent philosophical and scientific findings related to simulation

theory for both the teaching of Foreign Languages and Literature in general cannot be

overstated. If imagination and empathy are intertwined, as ST unequivocally affirms,

then perhaps literary narratives offer educators an invaluable tool for fostering and

developing empathic responses that could help create a more humane and egalitarian

global village. In reference to simulation theory and the role of literature, Susan Feagin

declares, “It is possible to put oneself into […] a psychological condition such that one

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simulates or models the mental processes or activities engaged in by a particular person

during a given period of time […] Empathizing is also an ability, and like other abilities it

can be exercised or neglected, honed by practice or left to rot” (94-95). In her

monograph Reading with Feeling: The Aesthetics of Appreciation, Feagin asserts that

educators must harness the power of literature to create intercultural citizens that are

capable of breaking their own ontological shell of being and wearing other moccasins.

Moreover, in a section of her book entitled “Punching Bags for the Mind,” Feagin

fervently affirms, “Appreciating fiction stretches and flexes the human mind; it provides

us with exercise that both sustains and enhances a capacity of our imagination called

affective flexibility” (242). Although American society seems to have almost completely

forgotten the value of humanistic education in our desire to lead the global village, the

destructive limitations of the only disciplines that our culture valorizes are becoming

painfully evident. ‘Cold’ fields, such as Math and Science, do not appeal to students’

emotional sensibilities, thereby affecting profound inner transformations and preparing

learners for active and ethically responsible citizenship in the modern world. Only a truly

interdisciplinary re-visioning, which includes a renewed focus on Foreign Languages and

the human sciences, of the current educational system can remedy this crisis. As John

Sinnigen notes, when students acquire another language, they also encounter another

culture and learn about other possibilities. In particular, Sinnigen asserts that FL students

“not only learn a second language but also come to see the world through other eyes”

(24).

Similar to Feagin, Bachrudin Musthafa and Wachyu Sundayana laud the unique

ability of the humanities to help students hone their “emotional muscles, which are

22

essential for emotional resilience needed by intercultural persons” (61). Although it

might not always directly translate into dollar signs, Musthafa and Sundayana emphasize

the role of the human sciences in expanding students’ horizons. Given the veritable

diversity of the global village and the undeniable contact between civilizations, the

intrinsic value of disciplines such as, language arts, literature, philosophy, and history,

has never been higher.

Yet, in spite of the undeniable urgency of a balanced liberal arts education for the

creation of a more peaceful and democratic world, never has the utility of the humanities

been debated to such a great extent by both policymakers and the general public. In her

discussion of how literature can transform a subject by fostering deep empathic

sentiments for the Other, Susan Feagin states, “The benefits of physical capacities, like

the benefits of intellectual or cognitive capacities, are these days not often questioned

[…] We need to rethink the value of fictional literature as equipment for exercising our

minds” (248). As Feagin notes, a country that cannot think is especially vulnerable to the

dissemination of misinformation and illogical propaganda. If the United States continues

to only properly fund fields that are directly related to materialistic success in our

consumer society, then our often mislead and naïve citizenry will still believe unfounded

theories, such as the aforementioned notion that Obama is a Muslim. By

reconceptualizing both the extrinsic and intrinsic value of education and by returning to a

true commitment to a liberal arts curriculum, perhaps educators will finally be able to

prepare the leaders of tomorrow for the unique challenges and opportunities of the global

village.

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In her study entitled “Literary Texts: A Passage to Intercultural Reading in Foreign

Language Education,” Ana Matos discusses how the literary narrative helps students to

exercise their affective and intellectual muscles. Matos reiterates that quality literature

“transports” readers to an exotic elsewhere (58). In support of the ICC model and its

focus on both communicative language skills and intercultural competence, Daniel

Shanahan claims that this paradigm can propel “students into voyagers across

intercultural space” (170). A level-appropriate, poignant work of fiction from another

cultural background serves as a catalyst for symbolic journeys in which FL learners

discover other possibilities and learn to empathize with marginalized individuals who

benefit the least from the system put into place by the ruling majority. Moreover, during

these simulated voyages, students realize that other civilizations are attempting to answer

many of the same problems that plague our contemporary society. Furthermore, other

cultures might propose a different solution to a given situation. When a confrontation

takes place, in which fundamental differences between divergent cultures are exposed,

the literary narrative reminds the reader that no civilization possesses infallible answers

to the greatest issues that the modern world faces. After an exercise in humility, the

student traveler is now able to empathize and to understand others.

Not only does a powerful story allow students to view the world through another lens

during literary excursions, but it also represents a source of knowledge that is not always

valorized in the United States. As Scott Stroud muses, “What exactly is the value of

literature? […] the cognitive value of literature can be labeled the ‘Subjective Knowledge

Theory.’ Such an account of literature places its value in the subjective perspectives or

experiences the narrative opens up to the reader” (19). Moreover, Stroud underscores

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that the affective experience of reading a text might even possibly result in improved

ethical decision making. Stroud emphasizes that although each individual’s base of

experiences is limited given a variety of factors, literature can help to fill this void. In

reference to this possibility, Stroud declares,

What the literary narrative gives one is a simulated experience of what it would be like to occupy a different subjective position […] As individuals acting in life, we have only a finite amount of choices that we can make; each choice precludes (in practice) other choices […] One can become a lawyer, but such a career choice (and all its subchoices of school, place of work, etc.) limits one’s ability to do something else […] Literary narratives that involve the simulation of subjective experience can be a valuable way to make up for this inherent deficiency because that allow one to experience what such a perspective or life would be like (28-29).

Through the process of simulation, the reader is able to imagine what it would be like to

find oneself in a certain position. The powerful empathetic responses generated by this

experience can destabilize and move the subject, thereby compelling him or her to action.

Even if the reader does not respond to the ethical summons extended by a certain

protagonist with concrete action, he or she will perhaps decide to live otherwise. If

nothing else, fictional narratives allow students to catch a glimpse of the Other and his or

her daily struggles in the global village.

In an overtly political essay, Paul Gorski urges both multicultural and intercultural

theorists to pose difficult questions about contemporary American society, regardless of

whether these issues stir controversy within the walls of the classroom or with the general

public. Gorski contends that educators are often too ‘complicit’ with the values of the

majority even when they attempt to celebrate diversity and difference. Moreover, the

author notes that many of these cultural activities, such as international food fairs, that are

designed to promote acceptance and respect are so artificial that they lack the necessary

substance to address real problems or to create an authentic dialogue amongst social

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groups. Blaming himself and other colleagues with positive intentions that are too

apprehensive in terms of offending conservative citizens to tackle the true issues, Gorski

affirms, “we offer workshops that never address the underlying issues of inequity such as

racism and sexism, or that never provide a larger context for these inequities through an

examination of corporate capitalism and US imperialism […] Students are rarely

provided sufficient opportunity to learn about the complex nature of poverty […] or the

ways in which their class privilege relates to others’ repression” (172). Gorski offers a

compelling argument that it is only by not being afraid to confront unpleasant realities,

such as capitalistic avarice and exploitation, which will allow educators to create future

citizens that are ethically and socially conscious members of the modern world that will

strive to create a better system that no longer solely benefits those at the very top of the

social ladder.

Eva Lezzi echoes the sentiments of Gorski in her exploration of children’s picture

books related to the Shoah. Although Lezzi’s essay does not have a political tone, she

discusses the reticence of certain educators to implement narratives that investigate

somber issues. Moreover, in reference to parental concerns related to representations of

the Holocaust in juvenile fiction, Jens Thiele elucidates, “They look at picture books with

the projections and wishes for their children in mind, and they thus become afraid when

these books take on serious and difficult topics” (qtd. in Lezzi 31). Although it might

make parents and others uncomfortable, if intercultural education does not address

important sensitive issues, then it will ultimately fail the young students that it wishes to

mold into responsible adults. Sheltering children from the realities of the modern world,

or from previous pitfalls that have induced much trauma and destruction, will not prepare

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them for a global village that is currently unwelcoming, dogmatic, unreceptive, and

riddled with inequality. If the future leaders of this planet are to build a better society for

all, then understanding the Other and fostering empathy must begin at an early age.

V. Who is J.M.G. Le Clézio?

Perhaps more than any other contemporary author, J.M.G. Le Clézio possesses an

astute awareness of the ramifications of globalization. Moreover, the 2008 Nobel

Laureate in Literature gives a voice to those who have been silenced by the majority,

including immigrants, migrants, traditional civilizations, and both ethnic and moral

minorities through his fiction, public discourses, and occasional newspaper articles that

take a stand on current social issues.4

VI. Applying the intercultural model to Le Clézio’s narratives

Although the humble Franco-Mauritian writer does

not claim to have any definitive answers for the complex problems that plague the

modern world, he realistically depicts the anguish of those that are caught on the

periphery of society. Moreover, Le Clézio refuses to ignore the horrors that transpire on

a daily basis in the evaporated dream turned nightmare called the global village.

Although the writer is sometimes considered to be merely a naïve, pantheistic, or even

mystical thinker by misinformed critics, the vivid, austere realism of works, such as La

Ronde et Autres Faits Divers and Coeur Brûle casts little doubt that these unflattering

literary assessments are oversimplified and entirely inaccurate.

Given the humanistic nature of much of Le Clézio’s literary endeavor, his narratives

fit well into the intercultural communicative competence paradigm. His eloquent and

often poetic prose is emotionally rending, as it compels the reader to reflect upon the

4 It should also be noted that the Nobel Laureate recently co-launched a philanthropic initiative with Issa Asgarally called La fondation pour l’interculturel et la paix. For more information, visit the official website of the FIP: http://www.fipinterculturel.com/

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grave realities of our consumer society and the plethora of issues that the modern world

must confront. By exploring the unequal distribution of power and privilege that is

emblematic of the global village, Le Clézio’s works foster both humility and empathy.

By means of the process of simulation, the reader is struck by the epiphany that many

individuals suffer greatly as an ever dwindling economic elite, which the writer terms the

‘Happy Few’ in his Nobel acceptance speech, reaps the benefits of the current situation

(77). Moreover, several influential American journalists and theorists have recently

expressed concerns that the U.S. is on the verge of becoming a ‘banana republic’ or a

corrupt political infrastructure with a progressively disappearing middle class and minute

portion of the population that possesses nearly all of the monetary capital.5

Many of Le Clézio’s narratives explore the gross inequalities that abound in all of

western society. In his acclaimed novel Désert, the author also juxtaposes the traditional

values of marginalized civilizations, such as the Tuaregs, with the capitalistic profit

motive that drives the modern world. Although the desert nomads of the Sahara lead a

very precarious existence in one of the harshest climates on this planet, their society is

not governed by a wealthy elite that exploits the rest of the population. However, Le

Clézio does not idealize the social paradigm of these nomadic peoples, as many poignant

This

alarming suggestion is reflected by the unpleasant reality that in the wealthiest nation in

the world, millions of Americans do not have any access whatsoever to basic medical

care or the opportunity to pursue higher education without severely indebting themselves

to the major conglomerates that control governmental policy. Similar to the original

vision of the global village, the so-called ‘American dream’ has been reduced to an ironic

caricature.

5 (c.f.) http://www.christianpost.com/article/20100612/banana-republic/

28

passages underscore the bleak nature of their daily struggle to survive. Although Tuareg

society is undoubtedly more egalitarian than the western model, the shadow of mortality

is omnipresent for all of its citizens. Every element of Tuareg civilization is vulnerable to

serious issues, such as famine, infant mortality, and infectious diseases.

When the protagonist of Désert Lalla is forced to leave her homeland, she hopes for a

better life as an immigrant in France. However, she soon discovers that only a privileged

few will ever fully experience the glamour and glitz so often advertised by the media.

Moreover, not only is this materialistic ideal impossible to reach for the vast majority of

people, but it is even more improbable for those who are never integrated into the system

at all. As an uneducated, clandestine citizen of Marseilles, Lalla is forced to live in abject

poverty with other ostracized and disenfranchised members of society in a dangerous

ghetto known as ‘le Panier.’6

This sinister area removed from the rest of the city literally reeks of desperation,

destitution, and violence. In reference to how she survives in this environment, Lalla

explains, “Il faut simplement fermer la bouche et respirer lentement, à petits coups, pour

ne pas laisser entrer à l’intérieur de son corps l’odeur de la pauvreté, de la maladie et de

la mort qui règne ici, dans ces escaliers, dans ces corridors, dans ces recoins où vivent les

araignées et les blattes” ‘You must close your mouth and breath slowly, with short

breaths, in order to not allow the odor of poverty, of sickness, of death that reigns here

enter inside of your body, in these stairways, in these corridors, in these hiding spots

where spiders and cockroaches live’ (290; my trans.). Few opportunities exist for the

inhabitants of ‘le Panier’ to climb the social ladder. Moreover, Lalla is the victim of

6 It should be noted that although Lalla embarks upon an improbable journey which leads to fortune and fame, she will return to the desert where her baby will be born and raised. Moreover, the rest of ‘le panier’ does not appear to have this unlikely choice.

29

racial prejudice and xenophobia because of her Northern African origins. Not only has

this ethnic group been historically persecuted in France, but they have also been

misunderstood and ignored by the majority. The author’s realistic descriptions of the

anguish of this alienated community deeply resonate with the reader. Furthermore, Le

Clézio reminds us that many immigrants do not receive a warm welcome in their host

country, and they consequently struggle to cope with a difficult situation and to find a

place in a society where no one wants to share a small portion of their proverbial pie with

anyone else. Although the writer does not propose a solution for this complex worldwide

problem, he forces readers to ask themselves disconcerting questions about the

marginalized citizens of their country. This exercise in compassion perhaps represents

the first step in the creation of a more just and empathetic global village.

Le Clézio is also a literary visionary who was extremely cognizant of the realities of

globalization before the term was in common use. Moreover, his early works, such as La

Guerre and Les Géants, denounce the sinister, unnamed capitalistic forces that control

our consumeristic society by means of effective propaganda designed to manipulate the

masses. In reference to these hidden and powerful entities, the author of Les Géants

affirms, “On voudrait bien voir le visage des maîtres, entendre leur voix, sentir leur

haleine. Mais les Maîtres ne sont pas là. Ils n’existent pas […] Ils n’ont pas de visage.

Ils n’ont pas de corps, ni de voix. Leur pouvoir est invisible, dans le genre d’un gaz, et

tout le monde respire” ‘We would really like to see the masters’ faces, hear their voice,

feel their breath. But the masters are not there. They do not exist […] They do not have

a face. They have no body, no voice. Their power is invisible, like a sort of gas that

everyone is breathing’ (180; my trans.). This short passage, taken from a novel that was

30

published in 1973, closely resembles an explanation of the covert nature of global power

proposed by two researchers twenty-five years later. As Thomas Popkewitz asserts,

“globalization becomes […] a perceived source of anonymous ‘forces’ that have no

historical ‘home’ or author” (264). In the early 1970’s, a very astute young author

identified a developing problem that was receiving little attention, and Le Clézio

encouraged his readers to revolt against the system as he foresaw even bleaker times

ahead. As Gorski unequivocally underscores, narratives that force the subject to reflect

upon the larger foundations of his or her society foster invaluable critical thinking skills.

After over forty years of incessant writing, Le Clézio continues to pose disquieting

questions about the nature of Western society, and its impact upon the rest of the world.

Reading Le Clézio’s extremely diverse fiction is not only an exercise in compassion

and profound introspection, but his texts also implore individuals to be more humble.

Instead of conceptualizing the human race as the center of the universe and one’s

particular culture as the model par excellence to be emulated, the Nobel laureate exposes

the inherent flaws of any type of ideology that creates a superiority complex. In L’Extase

Matérielle, the author reminds the reader that we are merely particles of matter that are

part of a larger cosmic force. As minute elements of this interconnected, interdependent

universe, human beings have the same intrinsic right to exist as anything else. For this

reason, Le Clézio underscores the ‘petitesse’ of humanity in an intertwined cosmos in this

early seminal essay. The author’s deconstruction of the catastrophic and scientifically

erroneous separation between us and the rest of the material universe also has important

ramifications for the entire global village. The egocentric mentality that the remainder of

the cosmos, including other living creatures, only exists to help us live more abundantly

31

threatens to destroy the ecological equilibrium that sustains life itself. By mindlessly

exploiting planetary resources, including other organisms, are human beings engaging in

an ignorant form of self-destruction that will undermine the future vitality of the universe

for other generations?

Ironically, Le Clézio notes that the current ecological crisis could have easily been

averted if a true intercultural dialogue would have existed between Amerindian societies

and the world powers that would displace them and destroy their entire way of life. If

European colonizers would have less motivated by greed and more open-minded to other

forms of knowledge, they could have at least listened to the wisdom of Amerindian

civilizations. Native Americans understood the delicate chain of existence that links all

things together, and therefore attempted to protect the sacredness of the earth. As Le

Clézio elucidates in a collection of essays entitled La Fête Chantée inspired by what he

learned from the Emberas and Waunanas during his stay with these indigenous societies

in the Darien region of Panama from 1970-1974, many Amerindian voices, which were

silenced or simply never heard, predicted the modern ecological situation based on their

vast knowledge of the universe.

As stated by Chief Seattle in Le Clézio’s translation of the leader’s apocalyptic plea

urging Europeans to defend the integrity of the cosmos,

Nous le savons: la terre n’appartient pas à l’homme, c’est l’homme qui appartient à la terre […] toutes choses sont liées comme le sang qui unit une même famille. Toutes choses sont liées. Tout ce qui arrive à la terre arrive aux fils de la terre. L’homme n’a pas tissé la toile de la vie, il n’est qu’un fil de tissu. Tout ce qu’il fait à la toile, il le fait à lui-même. We know this: the earth does not belong to man, it’s man that belongs to the earth […] Everything is connected like the blood that unites a single family. Everything is connected. Everything that happens to the earth happens to the threads of the earth. Man did not weave the web of life, he

32

is only a thread of fabric. Everything that he does to the web, he does this to himself (234; my trans.).

Convinced of their moral, intellectual, and cultural superiority, the European settlers

ignored Seattle’s rending warning. Originally blinded by ethnocentrism, xenophobia, and

avarice, Western society can no longer afford to dismiss the ghosts of lore who possessed

a type of knowledge, although mocked during Seattle’s time, which should have been

valorized. Although the planet might be forever tainted because of this willful refusal to

engage in a meaningful dialogue with a rich culture that had much to offer the modern

world, it is not too late to prevent future tragedies from occurring. Chief Seattle’s words

also concretize a bittersweet hope that behooves different cultures to collaborate in a true

spirit of cooperation. Interculturality represents much more than a pedagogical trend, the

success of this humanistic endeavor is intertwined with the fate of the entire human race.

Humanity has already seen the repercussions of failure; the toll of myopic, dogmatic

sectarianism is not an abstraction.

By eliminating the arbitrary and calamitous division between human beings and the

other organisms that inhabit this planet, reading Le Clézio also simulates empathy for

other living creatures. After the Franco-Mauritian author highlights the interdependency

of all substances comprised of matter in his early works, his profound ecological

consciousness specifically targets the rest of the animal kingdom in later works such as

Pawana. In her study of the philosophical origins of empathy related to simulation

theory and the English literary canon, Barbara Hardy Beierl notes that compelling

narratives, such as Anna Sewell’s Black Beauty, Harriet Beecher Stowe’s A Dog’s

Mission, and Marshall Saunders’ Beautiful Joe, attack the affective sensibilities of the

reader. Moreover, a powerful literary text which elicits profound emotional responses

33

can lead to transformative experiences that drastically alter the subject’s worldview and

behavior. As Beierl concludes, “when readers are exposed to literature that triggers and

deepens our sympathetic imagination […] (this) results in the establishment of a positive

human-animal bond” (220). After initially probing our egocentric desire for self-

preservation in his discussions of cosmic interconnectedness in L’Extase Matérielle and

La Fête Chantée, Le Clézio proceeds to simulate strong feelings of compassion for fellow

animate organisms in Pawana.

The short text Pawana is a re-adaptation of the classic novel Moby Dick. However, a

stark contrast exists concerning the moral of the two narratives. Whereas in Melville’s

work humanity is pitted in an eternal struggle against the raging forces of nature, the

whales in Pawana are the innocent victims of pure capitalistic greed and ignorance.

Blinded by their zeal to accumulate immense wealth, the whalers destroy a hidden,

privileged site that had been spared from human contamination since the beginning of

time. Although the team does become incredibly wealthy because of all of the oil that is

extracted from this previously unspoiled lagoon, the earth is irreparably decimated and its

scars will never heal. As the narrator of Pawana poetically affirms,

Maintenant, ce n’était plus le lieu secret, sans nom, tel qu’il existait depuis le commencement du monde […] La mer devient vide à nouveau, sans un signe, sans un souffle. Comment peut-on oublier, pour que le monde recommence? Now, it was no longer the secret place, nameless, such as it had existed since the beginning of the world […] The sea has become empty again, without a sign, without a breath. How can we forget so that the world can start over again (84-88, my trans.).

Using the poignant metaphor of sterility, Le Clézio denounces the materialistic obsession

that defines our consumer society. By compelling the reader to reflect upon the

34

ramifications of an economic system that exploits natural resources with no concern for

the integrity and sustainability of existence itself, the author offers a concrete example of

how literature can eliminate artificial, ideological barriers and create a more empathetic

global village that can remove its myopic lens and see beyond dollar signs.

Although Le Clézio’s entire prolific literary career concretizes intercultural values,

perhaps the best example of a specific text that could be implemented in the Foreign

Languages classroom at any level is L’Enfant de sous le pont (The Child from under the

bridge). This narrative has been largely ignored by the academic community since it is

quite difficult to procure. However, it is an atypical children’s story that addresses

serious social issues that are omnipresent in the modern world. As Lezzi and other

researchers affirm, it is vital that intercultural education begins at a very early age.

Moreover, the simple syntactical and lexical nature of the work renders it accessible to

students learning French as a second language even at the intermediate level. L2 learners

studying French can understand sentences, such as “Ceci est une histoire vraie” with little

scaffolding (6). Incorporating texts like L’Enfant de sous le pont in the classroom is also

a concrete manner to transition from the CLT to the ICC paradigm, the model that is now

considered crucial to the present and future relevance of the entire discipline of Foreign

Languages.

L’Enfant de sous le pont is a rather short narrative that recounts the fortuitous

encounter of a homeless individual with an abandoned newborn. Upon returning to his

makeshift home, where he guards his most prized possessions such as his shopping cart

and his cardboard box shelter, the protagonist Ali discovers that an infant child has been

left in his spot under the bridge. The enigmatic homeless man will raise and protect the

35

young girl that he names Amina for approximately one year before giving her to an

affluent and caring family. Although it might seem improbable that someone without a

fixed residence could provide for a newborn, Ali is quite resourceful as he obtains

everything that Amina needs to become a healthy child. It is only after he has exhausted

his limited resources, mostly discarded items that he sells or barters, that Ali makes the

selfless decision to find a more stable situation for Amina that will afford her the place in

society that he never had. By means of implicit references, the reader discovers that Ali

is probably homeless through absolutely no fault of his own. Even though our consumer

culture often places blame on those it considers to be ‘unproductive’ elements, Ali is

truly the victim because of his Harki7

Through the process of simulation, the young or adult reader of L’Enfant de sous le

pont begins to conceptualize the complex, global phenomenon of homelessness

differently. Ali does not correspond to any of the pejorative stereotypes of the homeless

community. Although our consumer society often identifies idleness as the root cause of

this complicated issue, Ali is a victim of social injustice. This somber reality forces the

reader to reflect upon not only the struggles of its homeless citizens, but it also fosters

sincere feelings of empathy for all marginalized individuals who suffer because of

governmental policies and dogmatic ideologies. If the global village has any chance of

becoming a more humane and egalitarian place, then the Happy Few must begin to

origins that offer him few opportunities to

contribute to mainstream French society.

7 The Harkis are Algerians who fought for the French during the Franco-Algerian war. After France’s defeat, they were unable to return to Algeria for fear of retaliation, discrimination, and genocide. However, a humiliated France was far from welcoming, as the French government even used former World War II concentration camps to hide the Harkis from public view. In these deplorable conditions, the Harki population was denied basic human rights that accepted members of French society would possess. For more information, read Collective Memory: France and the Algerian War by Jo McCormack.

36

question how their privileges might adversely affect other people. Furthermore,

dominant Western cultures must start to engage in auto-reflection in order to learn from

their past mistakes. For example, unless France fully acknowledges that their treatment

of the Harki population was a crime against humanity, then their society might one day

make a similar mistake with another ethnic group. Likewise, the United States needs to

ensure that catastrophic events, such as the Amerindian genocide, slavery, and Jim Crow

laws are emphasized in its academic curriculum. Instead of perpetuating the cultural

myth that any given country is the greatest civilization on earth, more governments must

implement a veritable interdisciplinary and intercultural educational system that lauds the

contributions of all cultures, both large and small.

In conclusion, it is imperative to revisit the evaporated dream of a more humane,

democratic, and welcoming global village. Although the nightmare scenario feared by

early pioneers researching the effects of globalization has come to fruition, it is never too

late to take advantage of the original promise of this humanistic vision for a better world.

Similar to two sides of the same coin, every challenge also represents an opportunity. In

the United States, many educational organizations and boards have realized that the

current curriculum is failing to prepare our students on multiple levels. Not only are

American pupils underachieving in areas like science and math, but they are also

painfully ignorant of the rest of the world. This insularity must be overcome, if the

United States wishes to become respected leaders of the global village that valorize and

recognize the accomplishments of different peoples. A refocus on a true liberal arts

curriculum, which includes the study of Foreign Languages, cultures, and literatures, can

lead the way. The pedagogical flaws of our current educational system have been

37

exposed and the alarm has been sounded. If the summons to action is ignored and Chief

Seattle’s compelling plea once again falls upon deaf ears, then perhaps the global village

will one day destroy itself from the inside as human beings and all of the other material

creatures who inhabit this common space will forever disappear.

38

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