reading students/reading teachers: confronting the...

InsidePreparing everyteacher to be anESL teacher

For the Love of Language � 2001 Conference Proceedings Issue

Vo lume 28 , No . 3Summer 2002

Reading Students/Reading Teachers: Confrontingthe challenges of teaching in a diverse setting

Carl E. James

The Benefits ofWhole SchoolHoliday Activities

EducationalCognitiveStyles

Pub l i ca t i on number 40038620

For six months last year, (2001), six new teachers andI have been meeting and talking about our impressions,observations, experiences and anticipations related toworking in schools in and around Toronto. All six teach-ers had been in classes I taught in the Faculty of Educationat York University. So, to an extent we had some sharedunderstandings of schooling, teaching and learning asinformed by our class discussions and educational litera-ture.

What brought us together were the questions andstruggles that seem to be common among many new andexperienced teachers who work in school settings thatare ethnically, racially and linguistically diverse and whowish to approach teaching in ways that are inclusive of

and equitable to all students. Some of these questions, asposed by members of the group, are:

� �How do I minimize, or can I even bridge, the powerrelations in my classroom knowing full well that mywhiteness marks me as an authority figure, as anoutsider to the racial, gendered and classed experi-ences of the male students?�

� �As a teacher, do I fail students, not because theycannot do the work, but because they do not havetime to do it?�

� �What do I do when I know I�m not reaching a studentand I don�t know why? � All I know is that they are notlearning?�

(cont'd on p. 4)

Oral Journals

2 Contact, Vol. 28, No. 3, Summer 2002○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

EditorBrigid Kelso

Editorial SupportCommitteeBob CourchêneUniversity of Ottawa

Jill Doherty

Jacqueline Jeffers

Contact, the officialnewsletter of theTeachers of English as aSecond Language ofOntario, is publishedthree times a year. It isavailable through mem-bership only. To join seethe membership form atthe back of this issue.

Contact welcomes copyof general interest toassociation members,including announcements,reports, articles, calls forpapers and news items.Contributors shouldinclude their full name,title and affiliation. Copyshould be preferably e-mailed to the editor [email protected] Windows '97 RichText format, or mailedon diskette to the Editorc/o The TESL Associa-tion of Ontario, 27Carlton Street, Ste. 405,Toronto, Ontario, M5B1L2, (416) 593-4243,Fax (416) 593-0164.Deadlines are January30, April 30 and June 30.

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The statements madeand opinions expressedin articles are those ofthe authors and do notnecessarily reflect thepolicies of TESL Ontario.Acceptance of theadvertising does notconstitute endorsementby TESL Ontario norguarantee accuracy ofinformation therein.

Check out our websitewww.teslontario.org

From the Editor

Now that the nice weather is finally here, andyou�re sipping a cool drink at the beach, a patio or onyour deck, take a few minutes and enjoy some of thesessions you may have missed last November.

In addition to Carl James� inspiring plenary fea-tured on the front page, here are some of the submis-sions in this Conference Proceedings Issue. VickyKhatib outlines various Educational Cognitive Stylesand shows how she teaches a poem appealing tolearners of all styles: to teach grammar and introducecultural themes (p. 13).

John and Chirawibha Sivell and Fiona Allan ap-proach teacher-initiated evaluation criteria from fourperspectives: individual reflection on practice, par-ticipation in a professional community, informationsharing and portfolio development (p. 16).

Karen Thomson shows how she uses oral jour-nals to with her learners (p. 19), and Arush D�Silvaexplains the benefits of having entire schools partici-

pate in activities to celebrate a variety of holidays �a reflection of her presentation �A Blend of Culturesand Talents (p. 20).

Linda Steinman write about the learner�s per-spective in second language acquisition, and KathrynBrillinger offers so many questions in her EnglishIntonation Practice Workbook that you will never beat a loss for subjects to get your class chatting (p. 28).

Finally, Antoinette Gagne tells us how UT/OISE ispreparing to make sure all of its teacher candidatesare trained to deal with ESL learners (p. 35).

Have a safe and enjoyable summer!

Brigid KelsoContact Editor

TESL Ontario president, Shailja Verma addresses A.G.M. attendees.

Contact, Vol. 28, No. 3, Summer 2002 3 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Particular behaviourpatterns, beliefs,

values, food,costume (i.e. dress),art, dance, religioussymbols and other

signifiers which arenot part of the

societal norms areconsidered to beculture which is

brought into Canadaby immigrants who

are believed to havebeen able to main-

tain their culture.

Such conception ofculture negates itsdynamic, complex,

relational andcontextual characteras well as the extent

to which it isinformed by power,and not just based

on race, ethnicity ornon-Christian

religious affiliation.

Evidently, these are important questions thatmust be asked and addressed if we are to meet thediverse needs, interests and aspirations of students inour classes. But in doing so, it is necessary to acknowl-edge the political nature of education, and to engagein actions which will bring about changes in theeducational system (Freire 1994). In this regard, andknowing that as teachers we are implicated in theexperiences of students as well as the meanings andunderstandings they construct of their schooling(Graveline 1998), then it is necessary for us to criti-cally reflect, not only on the experiences of ourstudents, but on our own experiences with them.

Part of this critical reflection is recognizing howwe conceptualize diverse and diversity. Over theyears, both terms tend to be used as a code for peopleof colour. So, for example, we will sometimes hearstudents referred to as �diverse student/s� or�multicultural student/s� � meaning that they areracial minorities. I understand diversity to mean acollectivity of individuals of diverse or different back-grounds in terms of, among other things, race, ethnic-ity, language, religion, class, immigrant or citizenshipstatus, who could be of a dominant (or majority)and/or minority group background. Correspond-ingly, students are also diverse in areas of ability,skills, interests and aspirations.

The identification of people of colour as �diverse�is reflective of the multicultural discourse premisedon the federal Multicultural Policy (1971). While thepolicy�s reference to �cultural groups� does not di-rectly translate to mean �people of colour,� thepopular way in which multiculturalism gets taken uphas resulted in categorizing members of our societyas Canadians and Others. These Others are con-structed as foreigners, as people who have culture,and are often identified by their skin colour, ethnicorigin, language, accents, and �exotic� practices. Andgiven the desire to use positive or neutral words,instead of negative ones such as non-white, visibleminority, racial minority, ethnic minority, the word�diverse� is substituted. The irony here is that thereis a pretense that people are not being defined by theirrace or ethnicity (something that we would not wantto do, given that in Canada, we don�t see colour; onlythe people to the south of us see colour and identifypeople by race), when in fact these very demographiccharacteristics are used in defining these Other Ca-nadians.

Obviously, we do see race and colour; we interactwith people on the basis of colour because we are not

a colour-blind society. And when with �good inten-tions� teachers suggest that they �don�t see colour;�or that �race is not a factor� in the experiences ofstudents; or that students �are all unique individuals,�they negate the identities and life experiences ofstudents, hence rendering them invisible. Similarly,the use of language and accent to identify individualsas Canadians and �Other� Canadians, and using theircompetence in English (as noted in accents) to assessacademic abilities, also operate to deny studentstheir sense of identity and belonging, and, in turnundermine their efforts to learn. The point is, inCanada, race, ethnicity, language and accent do matter,and they mediate students� educational experiences.Hence, we must acknowledge the role that race,ethnicity and language play in our society and in thelives of our students if we are to teach them and notjust subjects.

The multiculturalism discourse in which we en-gage also informs the ways in which the notion ofculture is understood and employed. The popularunderstanding of culture is that it pertains to identi-fiable or observable items and practices of a groupthat are different from the norm of the society and canbe communicated (James 2001). In this regard, par-ticular behaviour patterns, beliefs, values, food, cos-tume (i.e. dress), art, dance, religious symbols andother signifiers which are not part of the societalnorms are considered to be culture which is broughtinto Canada by immigrants who are believed to havebeen able to maintain their culture. Such conceptionof culture negates its dynamic, complex, relationaland contextual character as well as the extent towhich it is informed by power, and not just based onrace, ethnicity or non-Christian religious affiliation.Culture is part of everyone�s life. So recognizing thecultural diversity in today�s classrooms is to recog-nize the dynamic and complicated ways in whichstudents� identities, needs, interests and aspirationsare informed by their cultures as informed by char-acteristics such as ethnicity, race, language, immi-grant/citizenship status, gender, and social class.

In what follows, I discuss some of the issuesrelated to cultural diversity with which teachers areconfronted in working with today�s diverse studentpopulation, and I go on to take up the question of whatwe should be doing to bring about equity andinclusivity. In concluding, I discuss the need for anintegrative approach to education that takes intoaccount the needs and expectations of families, com-munity and educators.


This lecture, teacher-centered style, asopposed to astudent-centeredpedagogical ap-proach to theteaching-learningprocess, not onlysometimes elicitspassivity fromstudents, but alsoinstills fear, angerand/or resentment.

What are some of the issues with whichwe are confronted working in a diversesetting?

One of the issues that was identified was fear �fear of students that are to be found in many of today�surban classrooms. In my experience, many of theteachers and teacher candidates who express fearsare not necessarily from rural areas, but from To-ronto where ethnic and racial diversity is a part ofeveryday life. Hence one would expect that they havecome to terms with interacting with people who donot look, or behave as they do. For the most part,these fears result from media images and reportswhich portray schools in particular areas of the cityas having students with behaviour and learning prob-lems, and who are disinterested in learning, disre-spectful of teachers, and sometimes engage in illegalactivities. This sentiment was expressed, some yearsago, in a student�s essay entitled: �Biased, Brain-washed or simply Ignorance.� In the essay, she refer-enced two newspaper articles, of September 1990and October 1997 respectively, which reported onsexual assault and robbery which occurred in thecommunity in which she was to do her practiceteaching. She talked of �an edge of fear� entering herbody when she was told of the school in which shewas going to be doing her practice-teaching. Refer-ring to the area of the school, she rhetorically asked:�Was it because I thought that something was goingto happen to me as I walk from the bus stop to theschool? Or was it because I am unfamiliar with theparticular area and never wished to venture within?�Whatever the reason or reasons may be, she said, allshe knew was that she was going to teaching in a�bad� area and she �was petrified.� She suggestedthat because of her ignorance, the fears that themedia had etched in her mind would probably havedeterred her from accepting a teaching job in thearea.

Inside the racially and ethnically diverse workingclass school settings, teachers� fears are also relatedto their perceptions or reading of students� activitiesand behaviours. Specifically, the fear emerges fromthe fact that some students tend to congregate inparticular areas or spaces of the school engaging incultural activities like speaking in their native lan-guages, listening to music or, what some teachersconsider to be �loitering.� (For discussion of this ideasee Tatum�s (1997): Why are all the Black studentssitting together in the cafeteria?). What seems to facili-tate this fear is the lack of familiarity with the students,

and teachers� uncomformableness and inability todeal with students� differences. Cognizant of theteachers� fears, to an extent borne out of stereotyp-ing, radicalization, essentials and racism, and recog-nizing that their teachers are intimidated by theiractions, some students purposefully maintain theirpractices, demonstrating to teachers and administra-tors that it is not their problem but rather that ofeducators. Also, it is the students� way of challengingand resisting the racism that they experience withinthe school system.

The lack of familiarity with radicalized studentsand teachers� inability to deal with their differences,is also evident in classroom practices, specifically inthe pedagogical and disciplinary techniques thatteachers employ � like, I talk, you listen. This lecture,teacher-centered style, as opposed to a student-centered pedagogical approach to the teaching-learning process, not only sometimes elicits passivityfrom students, but also instills fear, anger and/orresentment. With reference to this situation, one ofthe new teachers in our group wondered: �Whywould any teacher think that students could learnbetter if they�re sitting there seething inwardly withrage, embarrassment or fear?�

How then are we to effectively engage withstudents in diverse school environments and notdespair because of the perceived challenges, difficul-ties and problems we might have in working withthem? How do we work with students, who becauseof their differences, have been identified asunmotivated, slow learners, at risk, culturally defi-cient and having low verbal ability, and who, becauseof their resistance to their radicalizing experiences,have been labeled as disruptive, behaviour prob-lems, and defiant? Working with pre-service teach-ers, I often hear them wonder aloud: �What are wegetting into?� They worry about becoming part of aneducation system that is inequitable, unjust andexclusionary. There is a genuine interest, not just�good intentions,� among many of these prospectiveteachers to put into practice the theories of criticalpedagogy, feminism, anti-racism and others whichthey have explored in teacher education programs.But based on their experiences, they also wonder:�What can I do?� These worries are not only becausethey understand that it is very difficult to engage intransforming the educational system, or from theirexperiences with students who seem disinterested inlearning. These worries are also a result of the nega-tivity of some colleagues who talk disparagingly ofstudents and the teaching situation.

How do we workwith students, whobecause of theirdifferences havebeen identified asunmotivated, slowlearners, at risk,culturally deficientand having lowverbal ability, andwho because of theirresistance to theirradicalizing experi-ences have beenlabeled as disrup-tive, behaviourproblems, anddefiant?


So what should we be doing in our workwith the diverse student population?

In responding to this question, I will discuss threepoints: (a) acknowledge our self-identifications andthe ways in which we are invested in the schoolingprocesses of today�s students; (b) get to know thestudents and help them to become empowered; and(c) employ an interactive or dialogical pedagogicalapproach in teaching.

(a) Self-identification and Investments

In discussing the question: �What does it take tobe a successful teacher in a diverse classroom?�Gloria Ladson-Billings (2001) talks about teachersbecoming culturally competent and suggests that thiscompetence, particularly for white teachers who arethe majority of the teaching population, can be at-tained through an awareness of their own identitiesand privileges. This awareness involves recognizinghow �the pervasiveness of whiteness� makes theirexperiences the accepted norm (p. 16), and how�their cultural background influences and shapes theway they understand and act in the world� (p. 17).Hence, as Ladson-Billings writes, �teachers them-selves [must] be aware of their own culture and itsrole in their lives (p. 17).

Failure to recognize the raced cultural selves(notwithstanding the interlocking relationship withclass and gender) and corresponding power, privi-leges and oppression is often reflected in how teach-ers deal with the structural or systemic barriers tostudents� education. For instance, in her study of�how white teachers construct race,� Sleeter (1993,p. 168) observes that by refusing �to �see� colour� orby making �positive association� between race andthe ethnic immigrant experiences of students, thewhite teachers she studied would explain �away thesubordination of people of colour [while] adhering tosocial structures that benefit themselves and theirown children.� In refusing to see colour or by denyingthe salience of the race then, teachers avoid havingto acknowledge their own racial identities and cor-responding privileges, and the extent to which racismaffects the educational outcomes of their students.This sentiment was evident in a recent conversationwith a young, white, Toronto teacher about thedisproportionate number of students of colour inspecial education classes. She suggested that suchobservations and comments are unfair to teachers. Itrepresents people looking for someone to blameand ignores the hard work of teachers who are

helping students with special needs. �Teachers,� shesaid, �simply can�t take on dealing with all of the otherissues.�

Teachers of marginalized backgrounds must alsobe aware of the raced, classed and gendered selvesthat we take into our diverse classrooms. We mustgive attention to how our ethnicity, race, class, lan-guage, accent, and/or immigrant backgrounds medi-ate our understanding, expectations of, and interac-tions with our students, and of course, the under-standing and expectations that administrators andcolleagues often have of us and we have of ourselves.One of the expectations that is often held of us is thatwe are best able to respond to the needs ofmarginalized students because they look like us, talklike us, or are presumed to have the same experiencesas us. The implication of this expectation and prac-tice, if and when we take on such task, is that we takeresponsibility away from other teachers who mustdevelop ways of working with marginalized students.In so doing, we could become locked into a situationin which our possibilities and opportunities withinthe education system (such as holding administrativepositions) are limited because we are perceived to be�needed� in the classrooms, or to be �role models.�The resulting paradoxical position leaves us in a bind.For if as marginalized teachers, we are not present towork with and advocate on behalf of marginalizedstudents, then their needs, issues and interests mightnever be addressed. And in our work with them, wemight find ourselves overworked, and complicit inmaintaining the inequitable educational system thatmaintains their marginalization and radicalization.The fact is, we must ensure that our colleagues do notabsolve themselves of the responsibility to knowabout and address educational needs of marginalizedstudents.

(b) Get to know the students, addresstheir needs, and facilitate their empow-erment

In a recent conversation with the vice-principal ofa school located in an ethnically and linguisticallydiverse working-class area in Toronto, he expressedconcern about the high rate of failure among thegrade nine students. Most important to him was howhe might address the problem to ensure that thestudents attain their credits. What became clear inthe conversation was how much the vice-principalknew about the students and their respective lifesituation. This concern for the whole student is criti-

One of the expecta-tions that is often

held of us is that weare best able to

respond to the needsof marginalized

students becausethey look like us, talk

like us, or arepresumed to have

the same experiencesas us.

Teachers ofmarginalized back-grounds must also

be aware of theraced, classed and

gendered selves thatwe take into our

diverse classrooms.


That languageissues are seen asmainly to be ad-dressed by ESLteachers means thatstudents are likely tofeel alienated andbecome disengagedfrom their lessons.

The resulting poorperformance inschool cannot beattributed merely tostudents’ disinterestor lack of ability, butlikely to systemicfactors whereassisting students todevelop competencein English is seen tobe the exclusiveresponsibility of the“ESL teacher.”

cal if we are to effectively address their educationalneeds and issues. A relevant point, here is how thelanguage needs of students are addressed. I recall asituation in which a group of grade eight students whowere yet to develop fluency in English � we often referto them as �ESL students� � would have to leave theirhome class during English instruction to attend theirESL class. Yet the same students would take theirgeography and history subjects with their regularclass. With the class and these students in particular,the teacher worked with the assumption that he didnot have to address the needs of these studentsbecause they were �taken care of by the ESL teacher.�I will not speak to the pedagogical merits of with-drawing students, but I wonder about the implica-tions that such practices have on student outcomes,and on their sense of self and their academic abilitiesand skills.

That language issues are seen as mainly to beaddressed by ESL teachers means that students arelikely to feel alienated and become disengaged fromtheir lessons. The resulting poor performance inschool cannot be attributed merely to students� dis-interest or lack of ability, but likely to systemic factorswhere assisting students to develop competence inEnglish is seen to be the exclusive responsibility of the�ESL teacher.� Therefore, what would happen if aschool does not have an ESL teacher or program? Itis incumbent on all teachers to address the languageneeds of their students, and it should not be left topeers to help their non-English-speaking peers withtheir language needs.

Further, working with students who have yet todevelop competence in English requires that we payattention to how and what we communicate to themabout their academic abilities and skills. Take forexample, the situation in which a student was beingassisted by a replacement teacher, who, unaware ofthe student�s level of English had an expectation thathe would produce work like the rest of the class. Inquestioning the student about his incomplete work,the student responded: �I�m an ESL student�; as if tosuggest that the work that he had produced waswhat was expected of him, surely an example of theself-fulfilling prophecy. This might have been an ex-cuse on the part of the student, but another readingof his response might be that he was being resistantto the way that he was understood and treated byteachers and the school generally. While resistancecan be seen as students� refusal to do their work, it canalso represent students� attempts to escape theirboring and alienating classes, their powerlessness,

their voicelessness, and the ways in which they arestereotyped and negatively defined. Field & Olafson(1999) found that �resistant students respond posi-tively to conversations about how best to structuretheir learning, about their interests and strengths, andabout alternative ways to represent their work� (p.75).

We should know about them, about all ourstudents�lives, communities, particular experiences,needs and interests, noting how these are mediatedby language skills, culture, race, ethnicity, immigrantstatus, etc. And we should get to know how togetherthese things influence students� behaviours, theirresponses to us as teachers, their orientation tolearning, schooling and education, and their percep-tions of their possibilities. Over the years, I have beenpart of programs in the teacher education faculty atYork University which are geared to helping teachercandidates get to know students beyond just meetingthem in the classroom. To this end, one of theassignments that teacher candidates undertake in oneof my classes requires them to become familiar withthe school community where they practice teach.The assignment requires that they visit the commu-nity before or shortly after they begin their practice-teaching. They are expected to make observations ofthe houses, shops, malls, social services and recrea-tional centres ,etc., surrounding the school, and speakto the residents, store owners and employees, andyoung people playing or �hanging out� in the area.Through these visits and conversations, I am hopingthat the teacher-candidates get a sense of the com-munities in which the students live, work and play. Iknow of other programs with similar objectiveswhere teacher-candidates are placed in workingclass, racially diversity communities in and aroundToronto. The hope is, that through �exposure� to lifein what we euphemistically refer to as �urban com-munities,� teacher candidates, many of whom arefrom middle class suburban areas, get an idea ofstudents beyond the classroom and school. Under-standably, many teacher-candidates sometimes cometo believe that their brief forays into these communi-ties provide them �real� insights into the lives ofstudents from these areas. But coming from thesocial, economic and cultural contexts as most of usdo, I often wonder if the supposed insight we have�gained� about our students and their parents makeus aware of their social situation and our implicationsin it, or if these forays merely serve to re-enforcethe fact that the students and their parents are indeedneedy, lazy and creators of their disadvantaged situ-ation.


Throughout theirschooling, studentsmight have learnedthat there are right

and wrong answers,and in a “language-conscious society”

they might haveobserved that thereis a “correct way oftalking,” and that it

takes having the“right accent” and

pronunciation to getby in society.

I have heard ofcases in which

students remainedsilent risking failure

before they wouldtalk in class. Some

might even dropEnglish languageskills classes that

would enable themto obtain the kindsof jobs commensu-

rate with theirintellectual abilities.

In getting to know our students, we must be self-reflective. We must critically reflect on oursocialization, our biography, our world view, and onhow these impact our views and interpretation of thecommunities in which the students reside, our teach-ing, the classroom materials we use, our pedagogicalapproach to teaching, our vision of what we wish forall of our students, and how we might best meet theirneeds. We must reflect on how we decide what toteach, what materials we use, and the roles of stu-dents and parents in helping to design curricula thatwould respond to their needs and interests. Also, asteachers, we must acknowledge our own interestsand needs. We need to think about what we arelearning from our students, what we think the stu-dents are learning and how we know what we know.Ultimately, in the process of knowing our students,we should be acknowledging their capacity andagency to empower themselves and affirm theirvoices. The emphasis here is on recognizing thestudents� role in empowering themselves, and under-standing that their empowerment is a self-motivatedpoliticized process by which they assert themselves,and seek to fulfill their needs, interests and aspira-tions. Empowerment, as Taliaferro (1991, p. 1) re-minds us, �cannot be �given� to students.� As educa-tors, then, we have the responsibility to create anenvironment that enables students to empower them-selves through building trust and mutual respectwhich, in part, are learnt through interactions withthe racially, ethnically and linguistically diverse teach-ing staff, administrators and other educational work-ers that should be present in all Canadian schools.

(c) Employ an interactive or dialogicalpedagogical approach in teaching

The classroom is the main arena where the act oflearning and teaching is played out. It is the spaceteachers and students learn about each other, andexperience an educational process which producesthe kind of results with which students, parents andteachers will be satisfied. It is in the classroom thatwe learn the most about our students as they teachus, we learn, and we teach them and they learn. Wecan only get to know our students if we encouragedialogue or talk. We have to hear from them. For allthis to happen we must have an interactive classroomin which dialogue is encouraged, ideas are exchanged,and differences are addressed. So the passive teach-ing style should be a thing of the past. With theknowledge of ourselves, our biases and expectations,we should find an interactive classroom not intimidat-

ing, but a stimulating learning and teaching environ-ment for us and our students.

An interactive or dialogical approach to teachingprovides space for active class participation and forstudents to contribute to their own learning based ontheir experiences, interests and expectations. It re-quires that students understand and see the teaching-learning process as one in which their participationis valued and respected. It enables students and us, aseducators, to share with, and learn about each otherso that we might build on our experiences, and �cometo voice� knowing that whatever is said and howeverit is said � however limited the English skills, orwhatever the accent � participating in class is theobjective. Dialogues provide us with a reading andunderstanding of the context into which new informa-tion is being incorporated, and how that contextmight be used to understand the new information thatstudents are receiving. It is also a way of invitingstudents to question, and for us to hear about theirstruggles with new or divergent information so thatit can be addressed.

Getting students, especially those with limitedlanguage skills, to talk in class is a challenging and oftendifficult task. It can also be an intimidating experiencefor students because of their fear of being challengedor appearing limited or unintelligent. Throughouttheir schooling, students might have learned thatthere are right and wrong answers, and in a �lan-guage-conscious society� they might have observedthat there is a �correct way of talking,� and that ittakes having the �right accent� and pronunciation toget by in society. In such a context, then, it is likely thatsome students would be reluctant to talk in class. Ihave heard of cases in which students remainedsilent, risking failure, before they would talk in class.Some might even drop English language skills classesthat would have enabled them to obtain the kinds ofjobs commensurate with their intellectual abilities. Arecent (Friday, November 16, 2001), CBC (99.1FM)�This Morning� program, told about some ESL stu-dents in Calgary for whom this was the case. Mentionwas made of one Vietnamese young man, who hadbeen in the school system since about age 10, whodropped out of school even though he had been doingvery well in his other courses. He said one of thereasons for not attaining the necessary English skillswhile in school is because he went though his Englishclasses without speaking, pretending that he wasunderstanding what was being taught. His teacheronly learnt about his limited language skills whensomeone told her.


There are occasions during class dialogues whenin our bid to be inclusive, or to encourage participa-tion from marginalized students, and on the basis oftheir race, language and/or ethnicity, we turn to themfor their insights on things about which we think theyare �the experts� (e.g. things such as xenophobia,racism, about their countries of origin or about theirexperiences with oppression). These �token� ges-tures can be met with resistance, expressed at timesthrough silence. In fact, the reluctance to engage insome topics is likely reflective of students� reading ofsuch token gestures as occasions when they are�othered� or identified as different � something withwhich they have objection. Ostensibly, not encour-aging all students to engage in discussion of all topicscan have the unintentional effect of re-inscribing dif-ference, and correspondingly re-enforcing barrierssuch as xenophobia, racism, sexism and/or classism.What we should do is recognize that all students bringtheir respective insights to the issues we discuss, andthey have the prerogative to decide what and whenthey wish to share them. We must avoid makingstudents, or even ourselves, if we are perceived as�having the experience,� the only voices that areheard on particular issues. In doing so we take theburden of accountability away from those who con-sider themselves exempt, while placing it on thosewho are perceived as having experience with theissues.

One of the concerns that teachers tend to haveabout encouraging dialogue and democracy in theirclasses is discipline or �behaviour management prob-lems.� But a critical reading of what we regard asdisruptive behaviours or problems might in fact becoded or explicit messages to us to take note that weare not reaching all students. For if we are indeedmeeting the needs of the students, and the content ofour lessons appeal to their interests, then it is likelythat we will experience very little disruptive behav-iours in classes. However, there is no one best ap-proach to teaching through which we are able toreach all our students. The best we can do is to createconditions in which students want to learn, and whichprovide all students opportunities to have a voice,share their knowledge, take risks, and engage withconfusion, conflicts, tension, doubts and ambiguitieswhich are inherent in any learning process.

Conclusion: Facing the challenges,paradoxes and tension

In reflecting on the challenges, paradoxes andtension with which today�s teachers are confronted,

one teacher-candidate who was nearing the end ofher pre-service education program, stated:

I am left breathless by all the problems we, asteachers, encounter in the classroom that arestructural and far-reaching. By the time thesestudents get to my classroom so much damagehas been done. If the school system exists tomaintain the status quo, teach middle class val-ues, and prepare a generation of workers for theglobal economy, how can individual teachers doanything to stop this?

Individual teachers can indeed do something toaddress the situation of marginalized students ifthrough our work we maximize the opportunities forall students to insert themselves into the teaching-learning process, recognize their potential, and ulti-mately empower themselves. All of this is possible,because as reflective practitioners, we will constantlyengage in asking critical, informed questions of ourpractices and the school, and through our pedagogi-cal practices, we will demonstrate our appreciationfor the differences in the experiences, identities, learn-ing styles, interests and aspirations of our students.We will recognize that difference is not the problem,but it is our negative identification, articulation, inter-pretation and/or enactment of the difference that isthe problem. We will move beyond the culturalapproach to diversity, and adapt a critical educa-tional approach which addresses issues of inequityand exclusion.

Taking into account the varied lives and experi-ences of our students, it is essential that we ensure thatthe compensatory programs, such as English as aSecond Language, which are expected to meet thelanguage needs of immigrant, refugee and marginalizedstudents and integrate them into schools, do notoperate to frustrate their efforts as they attempt toeducate themselves so that they might realize theireducational aspirations. To achieve the goal of equi-table and inclusive education for students in ESLprograms means we must work differently within theschool community, and in our work with parents andsocial service agencies. One way of working differ-ently is for teachers, and language teachers in particu-lar, to be acquainted with community services, workwith community service agencies to help addresssome of the students� issues and needs which mightaffect their language learning. For this to take place,the need for smaller classes cannot be over-empha-sized, and it is likely essential for some teachers to doless classroom teaching so that they have time to

One of the concernsthat teachers tend tohave about encour-aging dialogue anddemocracy in theirclasses is disciplineor “behaviourmanagement prob-lems.” But a criticalreading of what weregard as disruptivebehaviours orproblems might infact be coded orexplicit messages tous to take note thatwe are not bereaching all stu-dents.

One way of workingdifferently is forteachers, andlanguage teachers inparticular, to beacquainted withcommunity services,work with commu-nity service agenciesto help address someof the students’issues and needswhich might affecttheir languagelearning.


devote to these other tasks. This would be helpful andsignificant to minority language parents, particularlyimmigrant parents, for whom their children�s schoolis the primary or only institution with which theyhave ongoing contact as they adjust to life in their newsociety. It goes without saying that investing in edu-cational programs, and language programs in par-ticular, benefits our society generally, for, ultimately,without language facility, non-English or non-French-speaking Canadians will not be able to maximizetheir potential and fully contribute to society. Hence,the social and economic consequences should beincentive enough to invest in language programs.

References

CBC (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation) (2001).This Morning. Friday, November 16.

Field, James & Olsafson, Lori (1999). UnderstandingResistance and At-Risk Students. Canadian Jour-nal of Education. 24 (1), 70-75.

Friere, Paulo (1994). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. NewYork: Continuum.

Graveline, Fyre Jean (1998). Circle Works: Transform-ing Eurocentric Consciousness. Halifax: FernwoodPublishing.

James, Carl E. (2001). Multiculturalism, Diversity,and Education in the Canadian Context: TheSearch for an Inclusive Education. In C.A. Grant& J.L. Lei (eds.), Global Constructions of MulticulturalEducation: Theories and Realities, pp. 175-204.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.

Ladson-Billings, Gloria (2001). Teaching and Cul-tural Competence: What does it take to be asuccessful teacher? Rethinking Schools, pp. 16-17. Summer.

Sleeter, Christine (1993). How White Teacher Con-struct Race. In C. McCarthy & W. Crichlow(eds.), Race, Identity and Representation in Educa-tion, pp. 157-171. Routledge.

Taliaferro, Martena B. (1991). The Myth of Empow-erment. Journal of Negro Education. 60 (1), 1-2.

Tatum, Beverly D. (1997). �Why are all the Black KidsSitting Together in the Cafeteria?� And Other Con-versations about Race. New York: Basic Books.

Carl James teaches at York University�s Faculty ofEducation.

Carl James addresses a plenary audience.


Learning Strategies and their Application forTeaching

Successful learning requires awareness of learn-ing strategies. Their application in the process oflearning helps the learner move from remember-ing to transferring the newly acquired knowledge.

This paper will focus on the learning process inits broadest sense, understood as the process ofremembering and transferring the rememberedinformation. First, it will discuss the complex proc-ess of studying and knowledge retention. Second,it will delineate some major problems speakersmust overcome to aid the speaker in successfullyusing the newly acquired vocabulary in a variety ofcontexts.

The most important factor in becoming a pro-ficient L2 user is awareness and control of socialand affective strategies, and attitude toward thetarget culture. This paper will emphasize that theL2 learner�s attitude toward a target culture is thekey factor in becoming a proficient speaker. If alearner�s attitude is negative, the speaker willencounter numerous affective problems that mightprevent otherwise successful communication.However, with a positive outlook, the L2 learnerwill have incentives, motivation and the desire tolearn more about the culture by communicatingwith members of the target language.

Although the emphasis in this paper is on howto study material related to vocabulary, its reten-tion and use, it will be of interest to any studentsor teachers involved in the process of acquiring andtransferring information. L2 learners tend to proc-ess as many words and as much information aspossible in the shortest possible time and immedi-ately attempt to apply the acquired knowledge todifferent social or professional environments. Thistime limit is often imposed because of a financial orsocial gratification such as higher position or salary.In the case of immigrants who learn the newlanguage it is frequently a matter of simple survival.

Basic strategies (which may work differentlyfor every learner) can be applied to learning in anydiscipline, be it medical terminology or legal for-mulas. For each task we might choose a differentstrategy that might be helpful in the specific learn-ing situation.

A variety of learning strategies are used todevelop vocabulary. Direct strategies emphasizememory, cognition and compensation. However,indirect strategies are very important in order tosuccessfully communicate and socialize. They in-volve metacognitive, affective and social strategiesthat allow planning and monitoring learning, con-trolling emotions and dealing with native speakers.

The goal of L2 learners is to develop fluencythrough extensive practice speaking, listening, read-ing and writing . This allows Short Term Memoryto process the information into Long Term Memory.For authentic communicative exchanges, wordsmust come to mind. Metacognitive strategies allowL2 learners to take control of their learning, e.g.,paying attention to specific language contexts suchas going to a store and self-monitoring a conversa-tion with a cashier by asking questions and control-ling the learning environment. During such a con-versation, the L2 learner may consciously use thisopportunity to practise specific, newly acquiredidiomatic expressions or check whether his or herpronunciation can be understood by native speak-ers.

There are no conclusive studies on languageacquisition. It is generally believed that we learn inan incremental way by adding bits and pieces ofinformation (Nagy and Herman, 1987). Our vo-cabulary increases because of the need for specificwords. We need to note the gaps in our mentalregister and then fill in those gaps with words.

While the L2 learner acquires basic vocabularyand language skills, she must focus on memorystrategies. Knowing how to group words bysemantical, morphological or grammatical similari-ties, using imagination to see new words or apply-ing sensorial techniques to remember sounds, areall important to commit them to memory.

Beginning L2 learners tend to translate and relyheavily on L1 syntax and structure, called subordi-nate bilingualism (Weinreich,1953). If a new lan-guage is morphologically and phonetically unre-lated to any already known language, learners mayexperience problems remembering even one word.However, a few months later, they may find it easy

The most importantfactor in becoming aproficient L2 user isawareness andcontrol of social andaffective strategies,and attitude towardthe target culture.

Indirect strategies arevery important inorder to successfullycommunicate andsocialize. Theyinvolvemetacognitive,affective and socialstrategies that willallow planning andmonitoring learning,controlling emotionsand dealing withnative speakers.


to remember new words and sounds because theyhave gotten used to the new system of syllables,phonemes, morphemes and meanings.

To acquire vocabulary, words have to be re-peated in a written or spoken form. To remembermeans to code and store the new words. Accord-ing to Baddeley�s Working Memory Model (1997),a strategy of constant drilling will help the passageof new words to long term memory. Especiallycrucial is repeating new words after 10 minutes, 1hour, one week and one month after the initiallearning. One of the common techniques used bymany successful learners is having handy a list of10-20 new words together with definitions, exam-ples, translations and collocations that they can useanywhere and anytime. The teacher�s role will beto make students aware of the importance andbenefits of frequent review and the variety ofdifferent techniques to help them remember vo-cabulary.

This rehearsal might be conscious or it mighthappen unconsciously also in the reading or thespeaking process. Both reading and writing pro-vide the opportunity for repetition, for learningspelling and for expanding vocabulary and usage.Seeing and hearing the word in different contextswill allow learners to better understand the multi-plicity of meanings, concepts, synonyms, patternsand collocations. Listening also makes a studentbetter acquainted with phonetics, with L2 soundsand with pronunciation. Repeated usage will makelearners aware of where, when and how often theymay expect to meet the word. At first, listening andspeaking seem to cause major problems for newlanguage users. The speed of native speech seemsto be too fast for a new speaker because it pro-ceeds at a speed of two or three words per second(Levelt,1989,22). We tend to concentrate on alimited amount of information while listening and,as a result, we might not pay adequate attention tosome important meanings.

According to Rayner and Pollatsek (1989:440)we can read 200-350 words per minute. This,however, does not mean that learners necessarilyknow the meaning of the words they are reading.L2 learners should always be given a goal and knowwhy they are reading a text. L2 learners admittedthat daily reading that is focussed on a specific goalhas tremendously improved their overall compre-hension and speed, and helped develop strategiesto guess the meaning of new words without usinga dictionary.

It is difficult to know the exact number ofwords necessary for speaking proficiency, but ac-cording to the European Waystage Level (VanEk&Trim 1991) some 1,000 base words will suf-fice. Basic vocabulary is probably limited to 100-300. This allows basic survival communication simi-lar to the vocabulary offered in language guidestravellers buy. Proficient readers should know atleast 95 per cent of the words in a text of at least10,000 words. University students might have upto 25,000 words in their final year.

It is interesting to compare the differences inthe kind of vocabulary included in glossaries forEnglish speaking tourists and beginning ESL LINClearners. LINC curriculum teaches subjects re-lated to employment, services as well as familyissues. In a Spanish textbook Dos Mundos, touristslearn vocabulary that relates to family relations,locations, daily life, holidays, careers, and restau-rants.

In English there are about 2,000 words thatoccur in 87 per cent of written texts, 800 more thatappear in academic texts, and 1,000-2,000 in tech-nical texts. Then, there are about 123,000 wordsthat are not common and appear in only two percent of written texts. However, theoretical knowl-edge of the number of words will not help learnersuse the new language proficiently; even knowledgeof new words does not guarantee successful com-municative exchange with the L2 speaker.

The new language user has to know the mean-ing of a new word and how to pronounce it to beunderstood by a native speaker. Learners mustrecognize the word in written form and under-stand its basic meaning. They must also recognizethe word while somebody else pronounces it, andabove all, know different contexts and collocationsof the word. Even if we know the oral and writtenforms of a new word, we need to remember it andits meanings every time we come across it inreading, speaking or writing. Knowing a word alsomeans being able to relate it to its appropriateconcept and use it in the correct grammaticalcontext.

Naiman has come up with a list of six strategiesfor a good language learner. They are: selecting andlooking for language situations, monitoring thelearning process and being actively involved in it. Inaddition, having good social skills, motivation anda positive attitude toward the target culture facili-tates communication and contact with its native

While the L2 learneracquires basic

vocabulary andlanguage skills, she

must focus onmemory strategies.

Knowing how togroup words by

semantical, morpho-logical or grammati-

cal similarities, usingimagination to see

new words orapplying sensorial

techniques to remem-ber sounds, are all

important to committhem to memory.

Seeing and hearingthe word in different

contexts will allowlearners to better

understand themultiplicity of

meanings, concepts,synonyms, patterns

and collocations.


speakers. For example, elementary French immer-sion programs help students read, listen, write andeven speak the language. Without immersion FrenchL2 learners see the target language only in theclassroom context.

This most important aspect of becoming afluent L2 speaker is the opportunity and inclinationto learn about and be immersed in the culture ofthe target language. L2 learners should demon-strate initiative and motivation in looking for op-portunities for practical language use and for cul-tural immersion. On the other hand, a stimulatinglearning environment may benefit L2 learners whocan practise language concepts in a safe environ-ment in which they are not afraid to make mistakes,take risks and spend time monitoring their speech.Classroom contact is also useful for patterns, rep-etition and preparing for the affective demands oflanguage use. It reduces anxiety from personalcontact with native speakers in which the learneris exposed to making mistakes, misunderstandingand being misunderstood.

Deductive reasoning or contrastive analysis areof use in a classroom environment when practisingsyntactic or semantic structures such as prefix-building or comparing and contrasting grammaticalrules to a native language. However, to fully benefitfrom these cognitive strategies, it is crucial to haveat least a basic knowledge of grammar in the nativelanguage. Native English speakers learning a for-eign language have difficulty if they lack instructionin English grammar or linguistics.

We speak to ask, demand, complain or answer.By practising, cooperating, sharing and becomingculturally more aware of the patterns in a givensociety, L2 learners might not be ready to over-come linguistic limitations. Sometimes they willnot understand the sentence, phrase or utteranceor they might not understand a given word orexpression. Therefore, to compensate for theselimitations, they need to practise guessing andinferring. For semantic problems, it is useful toreplace the problem words with synonyms, de-scribe the word in a different way, or use the sameword from their native language.

This paper has emphasized the importance ofthe relationship between affective and social strat-egies to move from being an intermediate/ad-vanced language learner to a proficient speaker ofa language. If L2 learners are willing and accurateguessers with a strong drive to communicate, are

not afraid of making mistakes and know how tosynthesize and analyse, then it will be easier forthem to learn the target language. As a result ofthese strategies, they will be able to adapt, contrib-ute and become active members of the societywhose language they have mastered.

References

Baddeley, A. (1997). Human memory: Theory andpractice (revised edition). Hove: Psychology Press.

de Bot, K., Paribakhtr, T.S., & Wesche, M.B.(1977). Toward a lexical processing model forthe study of second language vocabulary ac-quisition: Evidence from ESL reading. Studiesin Second Language Acquisition, 19, 309-329.

Levelt, W. (1989). Speaking: From intention to ar-ticulation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Levelt, W. (1991). Accessing words in speechproduction: Stages, processes, and represen-tations. In W.Levelt (ed.), Lexical access inspeech production (pp.1-22). Cambridge, MA:Blackwell.

Nagy, W.E., & Herman, P.A. (1987) Breadth anddepth of vocabulary knowledge: Implicationsfor acquisition and instruction. InM.G.McKeown & M.Curtis (Eds.), The natureof vocabulary acquisition (pp. 19-35). Hillsdale,NJ:Erlbaum.

Oxford, R. (1990) Language Learning Strategies.What every teacher should know.New York:Newbury House.

Oxford, R., & Crookall, D. (1989). Research onlanguage learning strategies: Methods, find-ings, and instructional issues. The Modern Lan-guage Journal, 73, 404-419.

Rayner , K., & Pollatsek,A. (1989). The psychologyof reading. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Weinreich, U. (1953). Languages in contact. NewYork: Linguistic Circle of New York.

Van Ek, J.A.., & Trim, J.L.M. (1991). Waystage1990. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.

May Walkowiak has taught ESL for the last fiveyears at COSTI and the TCDSB.

Six strategies for agood language learnerare: selecting andlooking for languagesituations, monitoringthe learning processand being activelyinvolved in it.

In addition, havinggood social skills,motivation andpositive attitudetoward the targetculture facilitatescommunication andcontact with nativespeakers.


Educational Cognitive Styles

The concept of Educational Cognitive Stylescan give us valuable insight into individual learnercharacteristics and resulting instructional needs.Understanding how students gain new informa-tion, assess it, and program it in their own brainsmust become one of the major dimensions offoreign language instruction. These human proc-esses form the basic structure of Educational Cog-nitive Styles, which determines how a personlearns or formulates concepts (the technique usedto determine an individual�s style is known as�Cognitive Style Mapping�). I believe that to bebetter able to teach to the brain we should knowmore about it!

Cognitive styles are conceptualized as �stableattitudes, preferences or habitual strategies, de-termining a person�s typical modes of perceiv-ing, thinking and problem solving� (H. Gardner,Frames of Mind 1989).

Teachers in intensive English language coursescan now learn how to recognize individual learningpreferences quickly and reliably, (there are manyavailable surveys or inventories) then provide aflexible, multimethod program to accommodatethem.

Teachers will be able to understand that �aperson�s learning style is a source of strength to beutilized and enhanced. In this preferential model,an appropriate matching prescription is derivedthrough a rationale of playing to strength� (J. M.Reid, Learning Styles 1999). For example, if a per-son is primarily kinesthetic in receiving informationand representing thoughts, then the recommendedapproach is through that modality. It must also bepointed out that we can and must also help stu-dents improve areas of weakness, which constitutea �minor� orientation for them. Based on thistheory we can always have at least five differentstations in a classroom, where students can inter-nalize knowledge through their major intelligence,and then share their work with the rest of the class.

Also important to consider is that learning isdefinitely not just mental. All our learning experi-ences are run by feelings. Bad ones negativelyinfluence all attempts at learning while good onescreate excitement and the love of learning. Emo-tions determine why we learn and what we learnand we only believe something and give it meaning

when we feel strongly about it. All emotionally-charged information receives priority and that iswhy I have been using songs, stories, and my ownpoems to teach language.

Poems and songs can be utilized as presenta-tion contexts, as reinforcement materials for dif-ferent grammar structures, as tools through whichto teach all language skills and as a medium throughwhich to present cultural themes. A main factor inteaching poetry is enthusiasm on the part of theteacher (if we mimic our enthusiasm studentsrespond to it because enthusiasm is contagious).

Poems and songs add variety as well as enjoy-ment to language learning. A poem has the capacityto relax and comfort us. Poetry is also an effectivevehicle for practising a particular grammar struc-ture because its very nature demands that wespeak it, repeat it, wrestle with it and consider itagain and again (with each repetition and consid-eration the structure becomes more deeply inter-nalized). A song goes home with us and it keepscoming back when we wash dishes or handle anyother monotonous task.

This is because poems and songs engage theear, the eye, the tongue (all our senses) whilestimulating and moving us, and this polymorphiceffect makes poetry easier to memorize and re-member. How many other teaching aids can claimto engage students so deeply?

Blue Forest

With curiosity my guideand instinct my compass,step by stepI fumble throughthis uncharted, ever-blue forest.My hands are emptyand my eyes are piercedby too many broken dreams.Ocean blue leavessuspended on ocean blue trees,blending with the new sky above me.I seem to walk in a circleengulfed by a deafening silence,the silence of a new language.I can only recognize the soundsof crackling twigs beneath my bare feet;

Cognitive styles areconceptualized as“stable attitudes,

preferences orhabitual strategies,

determining aperson’s typical

modes of perceiving,thinking and problem

solving.”

Poems and songs canbe utilized as presen-

tation contexts, asreinforcement

materials for differentgrammar structures,

as tools throughwhich to teach all

language skills and asa medium through

which to presentcultural themes.


memories of the forest I left behind.I stop for a second to look around me,but all I hear is the hammering soundof mixed emotions.My eyes flood with new tearsBlue raindrops begin to fall!Will I ever learn how to livein a blue world?

A Multimethod Teaching Approach toPoetry

1. Read the poem silently (get a feel for it)

2. Listen to the poem and circle any vocabularyyou may not understand. (Vocabulary in con-text)

3. Read the poem to your partner and underlinethe nouns (one line) and the adjectives (twolines) ðclass discussion: nouns � adjectives.

4. If you were to use a graphic organizer (mindmaps or charts) how would you structure thepoem?

Major orientation: Logical � mathematical (italso helps verbal-linguistic and visual learners).(First station)

Graphic Organizer: �Blue Forest�- con-structed with the help of my students.

Behind You = Main Idea = In front ofeverything traveling to a you = theyou know different land unknown

(country)

e.g. green forest New sky + Blue = thesilence = colour ofnew language the unknownFuture = (like the skyLearn to live and oceansin a new land are still

mysteriesto us).

Making a graphic organizer is an analytical skill,but at the same time, the kinesthetic sensorymotor activity of creating a map or a chart is anextension of movement, bringing to light meta-phors of the unknown. The brain constructsvisual metaphors prior to analyzing, and visualmetaphors suggest cause and effect relation-ships.

5. Events Chain ðVerbal-linguistic learners (Sec-ond station)

A. Initiating Event ð The author left his/her(what happened first?) country to make a

living in a new land.

B. Event 2 ð Traveling on a road of( what happened next?) questions.

�my hands are empty�= I don�t have theknowledge.(instinct and curiositywill help in learningnew things).

C. Event 3 ð �walking in circles� =(what happened after new beginning,that?) uncertainty.

Everything is blue ðbecause everything isdifferent except forthe language ofnature: � I can onlyrecognize the soundof crackling twigsbeneath my feet�.

D. Final Outcome ð Mixed emotions =(what happened at blue tears (hope for athe end?) better future).

6. Drawing the Poem � Spatial-visual Learners(Third station)

Discuss the poem in your group and try tovisualize it by drawing it. Explain your drawingto the class using captions with your drawings.

The use of mental imagery through graphicsummaries (drawings, symbols and words) helpstudents to better understand the text. Thepopular visual technique called �Mind Map-ping� fuses cartoon-like drawings, symbols andwords to visualize thoughts (Margulis, 1991).Visual responses offer possibilities of new per-spectives on a text, and the students sharetheir ideas and negotiate meaning. Visual andIntrapersonal learners benefit a great deal fromspeaking with a visual since it is less threateningthan speaking without one.

7. Create a Skit that explains the poem- KinestheticLearners (Fourth station)

Make flash-cards with key-words or picturesof the most important ideas in the poem. Usethe flash-cards to create a skit and role-play itfor the class.

Making a graphicorganizer is ananalytical skill, but atthe same time, thekinesthetic sensorymotor activity ofcreating a map or achart is an extensionof movement, bring-ing to light metaphorsof the unknown.

The use of mentalimagery throughgraphic summaries(drawings, symbolsand words) helpstudents to betterunderstand the text.


Example:

My desk is like my native country. (I knoweverything about it)

I have to leave my country and settle some-where else. (The student moves aroundother desks and she shows flash-cards withquestion marks on them)

The teacher�s desk is the �Blue Forest� orthe new country. (I don�t know the teach-er�s language or her books on the desk?!)The student wrote on the card: �blue trees�= books in an unknown language and �si-lence� = new language. The student walksaround the desk in a circle looking, touchingand trying to read.

The student asks for the teacher�s help (onthe card she wrote: �Can you help meplease?�

What we call �natural memory� is a �wholebody� experience that happens while we movethrough each day of our lives; movement acti-vates the whole nervous system and is indeedthe most effective way to form �unforgettablememories.�

8. Singing the poem: Musical Intelligence.(Fifth station)

A Blue Song

Blue, Blue, BlueEverything is blueWhen you don�t know the land;Everything is blueWhen you don�t know the peopleYour heart and mind are blueWhen you don�t know the language.Blue, Blue, BlueI have to learn the meaning

Blue, Blue, BlueOne day it will be green again.

Rhythm opens the door to sensory impres-sions and it sharpens sensitivity (affective fac-tors are vitally important in creating strongerand longer-lasting synapses). Students may singthe original poem or create their own songinspired by the poem.

9. Review (Feedback):

Either true-false or multiple choice factual re-trieval and inferencing or open-ended com-prehension of main and support ideas.

10. Homework: Short Essay- How did you feelwhen you first came to Canada?

Vicky Khatib teaches for the Toronto CatholicDistrict School Board.

What we call “naturalmemory” is a “wholebody” experience that

happens while wemove through each

day of our lives;movement activates

the whole nervoussystem and is indeed

the most effectiveway to form “unfor-gettable memories.”

Rhythm opensthe door to sensoryimpressions and it

sharpens sensitivity(affective factors arevitally important in

creating stronger andlonger-lasting

synapses).


Teacher-Originated Evaluation Criteria

This session introduced and then moderated adiscussion of teacher-initiated evaluation criteria ina broad sense, approached from four perspectives:(1) individual reflection on practice (2) participa-tion in a professional community (3) informationsharing and (4) portfolio development.

Twenty-nine participants wrote individual orgroup commentaries and left them with us afterthe session; of those 29 people, 28 also left emailaddresses for feed-back, possible follow-up and/orfurther discussion/exploration. This number rep-resents more than half the participants present atthe session, and, as such, it seems to reflect thehigh level of interest Ontario ESL practitioners �both teachers and supervisors � have in the issueof teacher-originated evaluation criteria and pro-cedures.

The commentaries submitted to us may besummarized as follows, perspective by perspec-tive.

1) Individual reflection on practice,individually-arranged peer observa-tions and consultations

ESL teachers are often isolated and thus maylack the time to interact with peers; however, iftime and opportunities for peer observation couldbe arranged, this might offer not only a form ofinformal evaluation but also a chance for profes-sional development and mentoring. Both theobservee and the peer observer would benefit.Possibly a scheme might be devised whereby newteachers could be paired with a more senior men-tor, thus letting the more experienced partneradvise the newcomer while at the same timepotentially benefiting from the newer teacher�sfresh ideas and skills.

The introduction of a peer observation schemewould need to be tactful: a suggestion rather thanan order, with the clear aim of establishing infor-mal, not formal procedures. Also, it is important toforesee that not only the teacher being observed,but also the peer observer, may well feel uncom-fortable at first: observees need to trust thatfeedback will not merely target weaknesses, and

observers need to feel that they are carrying outthe responsibility properly.

The key point would be to propose this prac-tice as something beneficial to individuals, with ahelpful and positive impact on professional devel-opment. One critical obstacle might be more ex-perienced teachers� objection that doing peer ob-servations would amount to extra work withoutpay.

Additionally, there was the suggestion thatemail might be an effective tool to facilitatementoring, for instance by pairing a novice non-native, English-speaking teacher with a more expe-rienced native speaker, so that the newer teachercould benefit from regular � even daily � practicalhelp, encouragement, and discussion.

2) Participation in a community ofprofessionals working on such projectsas curriculum development, materialsdesign, or test creation

Mixed experience with this approach was re-ported. In one instance, continuing education ESLteachers re-vamped a curriculum and developedmaterials as a team; this project was definitelysuccessful, although it required very dedicatedpeople who were willing to give extra time withoutextra pay, and some teachers resisted the wholeidea because of the extra-time-for-free precedentthat it might set. In another team, however, in-structors set out idealistically to create and thenrevise a LINC class by working in a leaderlessgroup; this started well but finally ended with suchtension that the project could barely be com-pleted.

As a way to manage the extra-time issue, andalso in order to promote contacts among teachersnot necessarily working at the same sites, oneparticipant noted that �communities of inquiry�(per Gordon Wells) might be set up by email, sothat groups of four or five teachers with similarpedagogical interests might collaborate on com-mon concerns or problems. This person also notedthat the same medium could be used for mentoring(as reported above).

Possibly a schememight be devisedwhereby new teacherscould be paired witha more senior mentor,thus letting the moreexperienced partneradvise the newcomerwhile at the sametime potentiallybenefiting from thenewer teacher’s freshideas and skills.

As a way to managethe extra-time issue,and also in order topromote contactsamong teachers notnecessarily workingat the same sites, oneparticipant noted that“communities ofinquiry” (per GordonWells) might be setup by email, so thatgroups of four or fiveteachers with similarpedagogical interestsmight collaborate oncommon concerns orproblems.


3) Information sharing, (two-way)communication between supervisorsand teachers regarding evaluation,timing, criteria, and feed-back

There were few responses here, but one par-ticipant did rather vividly underline the practicalreality that teachers are, after all, on salary in aninstitution directed by a manager who would wantto know �I�m doing what I�m paid to do.� In thesecircumstances, and given that the manager may ormay not be specifically trained in ESL, good com-munication becomes especially important if theprocess is to remain effective for both parties.

Another participant cautiously noted that su-pervisor/teacher communication, while highly de-sirable, can become difficult whenever union/man-agement relations are strained, a potential prob-lem which may be particularly salient where boardsare still feeling the disruptive effects of recentamalgamation or restructuring. And if evaluation issuspected of being arbitrary or erratic and com-munication is poor, the process may actually inhibitreflection and personal growth.

4) Portfolio development for bothevaluation and professional-develop-ment purposes

The reflective aspect of portfolio developmentcaught the attention of a number of participants,who stressed that a portfolio was a way not only tocapture �the best of you,� but also to define one�sown criteria on which to be evaluated (although itwas also noted that portfolios relate as much toindividual growth as to evaluation). Moreover, theconcrete, realistic content of portfolios � e.g.,one�s actual lessons, materials and curriculum ini-tiatives, or one�s various professional plans andaspirations as followed through to completion �can make them especially valuable in terms ofanalysing one�s own progress as a teacher. Thismeans, as well, that portfolio development canprovide excellent preparation for job interviewsand can also help teachers think about such keyissues as the evolution of their job description orpersonal narrative of their career path.

Finally, participants noted that, in many re-spects, portfolios can incorporate all three of thepreceding sections.

Another participantcautiously noted that

supervisor/teachercommunication,

while highly desir-able, can become

difficult wheneverunion/management

relations are strained,a potential problem

which may beparticularly salient

where boards are stillfeeling the disruptive

effects of recentamalgamation or

restructuring.

The concrete, realisticcontent of portfolios –

e.g. one’s actuallessons, materials andcurriculum initiatives,

or one’s variousprofessional plansand aspirations as

followed through tocompletion – can

make them especiallyvaluable in terms ofanalysing one’s own

progress as a teacher.

Chirawibha and John Sivell have taught ESL and EFLin Canada and abroad. They have a special interestin culturally appropriate materials.

Fiona Allan teaches at Niagara College.

18 Contact, Vol. 28, No. 1, Winter 2002○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Oral Journals

Karen Thomson

My original intention was to present a one-hourinteractive workshop on how to use students� owntape recordings (oral journals) to help them im-prove their listening, pronunciation, and speaking.Well, I guess when I made that proposal, I hadn�trealized that I had so many ideas that would flowfrom my mind and from the minds of my colleaguesat U of T! As I started preparing, my handouts keptmultiplying and multiplying. I felt like Mickey Mousein the Sorcerer�s Apprentice! The end result was aconference room full of teachers made dizzy by metalking non-stop for 50 minutes and crippled by thestack of handouts I gave. I�ll know better next time!

What are oral journals?

Oral journals are tape recordings that studentsmake for the purpose of improving their English.The teacher can analyze these recordings orally orin writing. The students can listen to themselvesand analyze their own speaking or pronunciation.Peer feedback is also possible if the students listento answer questions about another student�s re-cording.

I believe that the advantages of using oraljournals outweigh the disadvantages but you shouldbe the judge for your own class.

Advantages

� Oral journals allow students to focus onspecific aspects of accuracy and fluency.

� Oral journals encourage self-assessment (in-cluding self-monitoring and self-correction).

� Students can listen to themselves and getself-feedback immediately.

� Students feel the recordings are very usefuland helpful.

� Oral journals enable the teacher to provideone-on-one feedback.

� Oral journals provide an opportunity forpeer feedback.

� Oral journals are an excellent jumping offpoint for goal-setting because errors areeasily identified and monitored.

� Oral journals provide students with a recordof their speech at the beginning of the ses-sion so that they can hear progress over thecourse of the session.

Disadvantages

� Oral journals can be time-consuming to cor-rect.

� Ideally each student should have a tape re-corder and headphones. Minimally, you needone tape recorder per class.

� Oral journals may require moving a lot oftape recorders to and from class.

� In the beginning, the students feel embar-rassed about hearing their voices on tape.

� Activities must be varied to keep the stu-dents stimulated.

� Oral journals require the teacher to be veryfamiliar with the subject being practiced.

� Significant progress or improvement may bedifficult to hear over a short course.

Oral journals are taperecordings thatstudents make for thepurpose of improvingtheir English.

The students canlisten to themselvesand analyze their ownspeaking or pronun-ciation.

Contact, Vol. 28, No. 1, Winter 2002 19 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Skills that can be improved throughthe use of oral journals:

Pronunciation: All skills of pronunciation fromsegmentals to suprasegmentals can be improvedthrough the use of oral journals. A few of theideas mentioned at the conference were:

� The students practise a particular sound, link-ing, intonation point, thought groups, etc., byrecording a dialogue, a paragraph, or a sen-tence that the teacher provides or that theywrite themselves or with a partner. The speakercan then analyze his or her mistakes and thiscan be followed by oral or written teacherfeedback.

� If you have a few tape recorders at yourdisposal and you would like to encourage peerfeedback, give a series of minimal pair words orsentences [for example a) It is a sheep. b) It isa ship.] and ask the students to record either a)or b). Then as a listening activity in class,groups try to figure out whether the speakersaid a) or b).

� Students work together to create a dialogueusing both falling intonation and rising intona-tion. The pair then record the dialogue andanalyze their performance.

Speaking fluency:

� Students explain on tape how to draw a pictureor how to get somewhere. As a listening activ-ity, other students could listen and then com-pare their map or picture with the original.

� Students record a conversation, an interviewor an impromptu speech. This recording couldbe analyzed by the teacher, by the student/sdoing the recording or both.

� Students record a short speech on a particularsubject and prepare comprehension questionsabout it for the class. During class, the otherstudents listen and answer these questions.

Speaking accuracy: Transcriptions are essentialwhen focusing on accuracy.

� Students prepare a short speech or conversa-tion focusing on a particular subject, (descrip-tion of a graph, directions), situation (interviewquestions) or grammar point and then tran-scribe it and identify errors.

Karen Thomson teaches international students at Uof T�s School of Continuing Studies.

Students explain ontape how to draw a

picture or how to getsomewhere. As alistening activity,

other students couldlisten and then

compare their map orpicture with the

original.

Students record ashort speech on a

particular subject andprepare comprehen-sion questions about

it for the class.During class, the

other students listenand answer these

questions.

Karen Thomson answers a question followingher presentation.


The Benefits of Whole School Holiday ActivitiesA reflection of the workshop �A Blend of Cul-tures and Talents�

There are critics who say that there is no placein an ESL curriculum for conducting holiday activi-ties. The purpose of this paper is to show thatthere is not only a place for these activities, but anecessity in order to build a socially, academicallyand culturally balanced learner.

Currently, we have five classes at our centrewith students from various countries, primarily SriLanka, India, China, Afghanistan, Columbia, theMiddle East and various parts of Africa. Whenthere is a major holiday for one or more of thecountries or cultures represented at the school,we plan something to commemorate and educateone another.

Our definition of �Whole school activities�refers to the organization of events as a wholeschool, rather than in individual classes. Learningcentres are a good way to cater to such a largegroup of students. Often there are correspondingholidays among the various cultures and Canadianculture. An appropriate day to commemorate theholiday is chosen by the staff or students. Com-memorations and celebrations take place within aflexible time frame. Events may last from 45 min-utes to two and a half hours, depending upon whatis planned. Events may include a variety of items,depending upon the talents of the staff and stu-dents. There have been group and individual pres-entations, theatrics, songs, demonstrations,potlucks, crafts, cultural competitions or academia.Staff members as well as students have led theactivities. Thus, we see �Whole school holidayactivities� as opportunities to educate and celebrateone or more special days valued in certain societies,while involving learners from more than one class.

Some staff members and even some studentsmay believe that they should not or cannot partici-pate in other cultural events because they havedifferent beliefs or values. However, there aremany purposes for including �Whole school holi-day activities� in the curriculum. These activitieshelp to build not only language skills, but also socialskills, employment related skills such as working inteams and an understanding of various cultures.

Therefore, we believe that these experiences arevaluable to each student regardless of their culturalor religious background.

We also try to pay attention to students withvarious kinds of intelligence. Our approach toholidays springs from Howard Gardner�s theory ofmultiple intelligences. Basically, it is the idea thatpeople learn in many different ways. This theorygives instructors the responsibility to cater to allstudents, not only the academic ones. Instructorsare responsible for teaching students using music,movement, group work, and individual work, in-cluding linguistic, mathematic and spatial abilities.This makes room for many opportunities andpossibilities in each event every year.

Coming to Canada is a major transition fornewcomers. When they participate in an activitywhich involves their community they experience asense of belonging and inclusion. They get theopportunity to build connections with people fromtheir community and they discover that they pos-sess talents, skills or knowledge, which can beappreciated by others. When their experiences arevalidated in this way, it helps to increase their self-worth and pride. Our students have been knownto go out to nursing homes and community organi-sations with presentations prepared in the school.Not only do these activities help a newcomer alongin the stages of acculturation, but they really boostschool spirit and student commitment. Further-more, the students are glad to be able to contrib-ute to the community in some way.

Our ultimate goal is to equip the students withlanguage skills that enable them to adapt to andfunction effectively in Canadian society. Each activ-ity focuses on a language skill, whether it bereading, writing, listening or speaking. Teachersusually explain to the students which activity isconnected to which skill or guide the students toappropriate learning centres. Students recognisethat these activities provide them with the toolsneeded to reach their future goals. For instance,presentations help to develop pubic speaking skillsand correct pronunciation, while demonstrations

“Whole schoolholiday activities”educate and celebrateone or more specialdays valued in certainsocieties, whileinvolving learnersfrom more than oneclass.

hese activities help tobuild not onlylanguage skills, butalso social skills,employment relatedskills such asworking in teams andan understanding ofvarious cultures.


(skills like baking or making crafts) can be noted ona resume. Planning a theatrical production exhibitstheir creative talent. As students get involved, theydemonstrate varied skills in leadership, organisa-tion and teamwork. Whatever the case may be,this approach always provides instructors withwhat they really want to achieve � purpose-drivenEnglish.

Some teachers might question the effective-ness of having multilevel groups within each cen-tre. Jill Bell, in her book on teaching multilevelclasses in ESL, states �Cross-ability groups canserve to strengthen fluency skills if they are prop-erly planned.� 1 When students participate in anactivity in which they must interact with others,they learn how to respond in common, informalsocial situations. These activities often foster friend-ships among students from different levels, whichmight not have otherwise occurred.

When studentsparticipate in an

activity in which theymust interact with

others, they learn howto respond in com-

mon, informal socialsituations. These

activities often fosterfriendships among

students fromdifferent levels,

which might not haveotherwise occurred.

By regarding thevarious special days

celebrated wedemonstrate Cana-

da’s attitude andappreciation for the

diverse cultures thatmake up the mosaic

of Canada.

Canada is known for ethnic and cultural toler-ance. By regarding the various special days cel-ebrated we demonstrate our attitude and appre-ciation for the diverse cultures that make up themosaic of Canada. This is why we take time out ofour regular curriculum to emphasise and celebratenot only culture and ethnicity, but also individualsfor who they are.

1 Bell, Jill. (1991) Teaching Multilevel Classes inESL, Dominie Press, Pippin Publishing. 6: 112.

Arush D�Silva is a LINC instructor with the TorontoCatholic District School Board.

West African drummer and vocalist, KebaJobateh, entertains during the conferencedinner.


In face-to-face communication:� Voice quality accounts for 38%� Visual factors account for 55%� Words account for 7% of impact

The above is why we teach our children man-ners and why we use drama activities in ESLclassrooms.

We want our children to be likeable. We allwant to prepare students for dealing with realpeople in a real world. They need not only say theright words, but also say them in the right tone ofvoice and, ideally, their body language shouldemphasize, not contradict or diminish, their mean-ing. When people communicate in a foreign lan-guage they often concentrate on catching the words,but they ignore the manner in which the words aresaid.

Drama activities bring this to their attention.On occasion, I heard non-native speakers who,quite unintentionally, sounded angry or aggressivein English when they were not.

The people that our students are meeting andwill meet are not faceless.

The real people that our students meet can bebusy, tired or rude. They have bad colds, they havebad days, their breath smells, they stutter. Theymay speak too slowly or too fast; they may repeatthemselves.

In order to deal with them, non-native speak-ers need to understand this. Misunderstandingshappen even between people of the same culture.Interpreting a person from a different culture isquite a science.

Drama activities are also good warm-up ac-tivities to get the class in the mood for later work.Drama warm-ups, unlike a sit-down-and-writetype of exercise, engage the body and the mind.

- they involve the class in shared learning

- they help to keep all 30 people in the classactive at the same time with the same intensity

- you can stay on the edge and just watch andhelp when asked, so you need not be in 30places at the same time

- there is no place for stereotyped responseswhere everybody speaks and nobody listens

- people only enjoy using a foreign languagewhen they actually create something in it ratherthan reproduce the memorized patterns. Theymust know how to be angry and how to showinterest and how to joke. They need to playwith the language to get the feel of it.

- anybody gets numb if all day they sit en-trenched behind their desks and write or reador talk. Drama activities are good for thehealth.

Activities:

In pairs: talk to each other, using only numbers,1-30.

You are an angry teenager arguing with his/her teacher (Rationale: Speaking in numbershelps the students to concentrate on �acting�rather than worrying about the right words,tenses, etc.)

Write on the blackboard a short, emphatic butambiguous exchange, such as:

- Come in! It�s too cold outside!- No thanks! I�m fine.

You and your partner have 5 minutes to decide1)who the people are � their age, sex, relation-ship; 2)where they are; 3) what the mood is.

Then you will act it out, and the class will try toguess who you are.

Teaching Simple Past Verbs

Put a list of verbs of your choice on a poster ora screen that everybody in the class can see.

1. Read them and act them out

2. Repeat them and the students mime

3. When you think they recognize them onhearing, you put up a poster with the verbs

They need not onlysay the right words,but also say them inthe right tone of voiceand, ideally, theirbody language shouldemphasize, notcontradict or dimin-ish, their meaning.

People only enjoyusing a foreignlanguage when theyactually createsomething in it ratherthan reproduce thememorized patterns.They must know howto be angry and howto show interest andhow to joke. Theyneed to play with thelanguage to get thefeel of it.


Now, if you want to drill Simple Past forms, yousay : When I say �You WALK� � freeze.

When I say � You SNEEZED � do it.� And weproceed. First I do it, then the students do it, oneby one � during as many sessions as they need.

You can drill the Past Continuous or PastPerfect using lists of verbs or verb phrases

Hand out the lists and ask the students tochoose a couple and act them out. The others mustguess the verbs and say the sentence.

A list of phrasal verbs can become a sketch thatone group performs and the other has to guess.

got in � took off � sat down � leaned back �dozed off � woke up � picked up � bit off �brushed off � stood up � washed up �switched off � turned in

How can you make me answer the door with-out saying it? Yes!

How will you make me come to you withoutopening your mouth?

This is what I did this year with my beginnerclass. It is a Bingo game with phrases like

Quiet! Calm down! Sit down! Standup! Go away! Take it out! I don�t know!Come here ! Wait a moment! Me?

I hand out the bingo sheet and mime. They callout what they recognize.

One person sits in the centre. Everyone elsegets a card with a phrase. As they read it out, theperson in the centre must say where you can hearthis phrase and answer appropriately.

Examples:

A student reads from his/her card: �Fill�er up!�- The one on the hot seat answers: � You are at thegas station. I say: � Do you want your oil checked,sir?� (or some other appropriate phrase)

� Another student reads: � What�s the specialtoday?� � the answer should be:� At a restaurant.�We have vegetable soup and pan-fried lake troutwith rice.�

Before tackling a text with much action wherethe sequence and the manner of doing is impor-tant, I copy out the paragraphs with lots of actionand give them to groups of students to act it out.The following one would involve two studentsacting, and, if you wish so, a third one as assistant.

Peters tiptoed to the door. Then he stopped toknock. There was a sound of a chair moving and astartled voice said, � Who�s that?� He pushed openthe door. A young man was sitting at a table witha book open in front of him, a pen in his hand. Hejumped up, saying nothing, and stared at Peters.

I wholly share A. Maley�s opinion about whata drama activity is not and I am repeating his wordsof advice:

- it is not a performance in front of a passiveaudience

- it is not a rehearsal for some great final per-formance

- the value is not in what it leads to, but in whatit is and brings out

- the only audience is the people who are takingpart. They are not actors and the teacher is nota producer nor a stage director

- drama activities are not psychoanalyst�s ses-sions of self-liberation for curing complexesand hang-ups.

Do not pay attention to the one or two stu-dents who will not cooperate. The group will takecare of them better than you.

Do not force students into roles they are notcomfortable in. Rather than push your ideas, let thestudents sort them out.

Do not invent extreme or risqué sketches, noteven for the probable linguistic wealth they mayoffer.

Do not intervene when there is a pause. Silenceis necessary. If you intervene the students have nochance to think.

Do not let the activity go on longer than planned.Too much time leads to a loss of interest. What islost in performance will be gained in talking aboutwhat was not done.

Marina Soroka teaches LINC at �Grand ErieLearning Alternatives,� Brantford.

Do not pay attentionto the one or two

students who will notcooperate. The group

will take care of thembetter than you.

Do not intervenewhen there is a pause.

Silence is necessary.If you intervene the

students have nochance to think.


The Status of Motivation in the Teachers� Deci-sion-Making Process: A Foreign LanguageTeaching Context

It is a generally accepted belief in the domain ofsecond language research that motivation is one ofthe most important factors, almost as important asaptitude, in determining success in learning anadditional language (Gardner, 1985; Dornyei, 1994,2001; Oxford, 1996). Thus, it has been suggestedthat ��teacher skills in motivating learners shouldbe seen as central to teaching effectiveness�(Dornyei, 2001, p.16), and �that most students�motivation can be �worked on� andincreased�(p.118). Assuming this responsibility ofmotivating students, for teachers, has promptedsome research on identifying strategies for moti-vating students (Dornyei, 2001, pp. 116-140).

It is safe to suggest that motivational strategiessuggested by researchers are often plausible andcompelling and might be useful for some teachersin their attempt to motivate their students. How-ever, it is equally safe to suggest that it is not clearhow different teachers could implement the samestrategies. This seems to be a sound concern whenwe know that teachers have different views on theimportance of motivation in language learning(Woods, 1996). Given this, it could be a realchallenge to find out whether a teacher motivatesor not, not only for others but also him or herself.

One of the ways of tracing motivational strat-egies used by teachers might be by identifying theteachers� beliefs, assumptions and knowledge (BAK)and the place of motivation in BAK since teachers�decision-making and what they do is partially influ-enced by their BAK (Woods, 1996). Teachers�decision-making process, according to Woods(1996), consists of three components, planning/expectations, implementation /action, and inter-pretation / evaluation. In this model, planning isseen as a �productive structuring� of events. Theseevents are also conceptualized at a range of levels.In other words, local or communicative events aremeans by which more global events are to takeplace and be accomplished. As Woods (1997)suggests there is an inherent relationship betweenthe events at the higher level and the events at thelower level.

According to Woods (1997, 1996), teachersmeasure the success of smaller events by whetheror not they have contributed to larger, more globalevents. What has happened in the classroom some-times is perceived as corresponding to the plannedstructure, and sometimes it is perceived as adifferent structure from what was planned orhoped for. These retrospective interpretationscan be seen as �receptive structuring� of events.One of the key elements influencing this receptivestructuring process is what Woods calls the teach-er�s background knowledge structure, which consistsof the teacher�s belief system toward languagelearning, shaped by his background knowledge andexperience. As Woods (1996) asserts

Within...[this decision-making model] the teach-er�s beliefs, assumptions and knowledge [BAK]play an important role in how the teacherinterprets events related to teaching (both inpreparation for the teaching and in the class-room), and thus affect the teaching decisionsthat are ultimately made. (p. 184)

BAK, Woods argues, consists of the teachers� viewof motivation among other components.

To investigate the place of motivation in theBAK of one teacher, (referred to as T from thispoint on), and the ways in which his belief onmotivation influenced his teaching plans, decisionsand interpretations, a small-scale study was car-ried out. Although the results here could not begeneralised, it provides some insights that could befruitful in future research on motivation in class-room language learning.

The data for this study was gathered through(a) talking to T, before going to class, about hisplanned lesson and his expectations, (b) observingthe delivery of the lesson (action) by T, and (c)talking to T regarding his evaluation (interpreta-tion) of his own delivery of the lesson. This way ofcollecting data provided a picture of T�s decision-making process: expectations, actions and evalua-tion.

One of the ways oftracing motivationalstrategies used byteachers might be byidentifying theteachers’ beliefs,assumptions andknowledge (BAK)and the place ofmotivation in BAKsince teachers’decision-making andwhat they do ispartially influencedby their BAK.

Teachers’ decision-making process,according to Woods(1996), consists ofthree components,planning/expecta-tions, implementation/action, and interpre-tation / evaluation.


· Expectations

Before the class, T states that the lesson inquestion �is about education � something thatthese students are involved in. Therefore, theymight be interested in knowing these words. Let ussee what happens.� Woods (1996) points out thatthe term �expectations� expresses an importantfacet of the teacher�s decision-making process. Thad specific expectations about how the activitieswould unfold, what the reaction of the studentswould be, and what the ideal outcome would be.T believed that the topic of the lesson, education,would be relevant to the students and that wouldmake the lesson motivating.

· Actions

In class, T gives out a sheet, and I get one aswell. The sheet is a list of words in the targetlanguage such as �knowledge,� �teaching,� �study,�and �university,� with English translations. He putsthe words on the board as well. He is very activeand dynamic, and encourages the students topersonalize the vocabulary by asking him whattheir major is called in the target language. He talksabout a word in the target language meaning�kindergarten� which comes from a word meaning�to embrace,� and which happens to be the firstword in a song of which T sings the first line. Heasks them several times to ask T about their fieldof study or any word that they would like to knowrelated to education. The students, however, areparticipating less than they were in the first warmup mini-unit, and the second survival unit. He stopsafter about 20 minutes.

· Interpretations

In evaluating his own lesson, T states, �It didnot work ... It was not very motivating. I know thisbecause of their low participation. When there is noparticipation or it is lower than I expect then I amafraid of losing them, I stop the activity.� Here,two important points need to be mentioned. Thefirst one relates to the interrelationship betweenevents, expectations, actions and interpretations,a teacher goes through at all levels. The secondpoint relates to the place of motivation in T�sdecision-making process and how he measures itagainst participation.

As Woods (1996) points out, the teacher�sinterpretation of the events and reasoning for theirsuccess or perceived lack of it influences not only

other local units and activities, but also planningand decisions for the future activities. This inter-pretation of the teacher influences the way heviews his subsequent unit: �It is time for a break.After the break I will give them the next unit in TPRwith which I hope to change the mood totally.�This instant decision is made to boost the students�participation and engagement and ultimately theirmotivation. At the same time, the teacher does notwant to give up the previous lesson that did notwork. Rather he looks for ways to improve it andpresent it in other ways next time: �I think I willmake it more visual next time, and have them dosomething with it [a task].�

As can be seen, participation/engagement is amajor factor in T�s language classroom. Participa-tion is the criterion by which he judges at least twothings: how successful his lesson has been in gen-eral; and how motivating the lesson or his deliveryof it has been. The importance of participation inT�s BAK and his decision-making is not only evidentat the micro level, but also the macro level. In hiscourse outline it is stated that participation countsfor 50% of the total mark for this credit course.This illustrates two things. First, as suggested byWoods (1996, 1997), there is an inherent interre-lationship between the micro-level and the macro-level of a course. Second, this relationship is evi-dent in the way the importance of motivation in theteacher�s BAK influences his decisions at any givenlevel of a course.

The findings in this study suggest that a teach-er�s view on motivation influences his decisions,expectations, actions, and evaluations. This mayfurther suggest that the presence of motivation ina teacher�s BAK, and ultimately his decision-mak-ing process, indicates that he assumes responsibil-ity for the absence or presence of positive motiva-tional orientations among his students. Furtherresearch with a wider scope could have greatimplications for teacher training programs in whichteachers could be made aware of the importantstatus of motivation in the language learning proc-ess. It is hoped that such awareness might enrichthe teachers� belief, assumption, and knowledgesystem, and gear their decision-making process toattending to learners� motivational orientations.

References

Dornyei, Zoltan (1994). Motivation and motivatingin the foreign language classroom. The ModernLanguage Journal, 78(3), 273-284.

The teacher’sinterpretation of the

events and reasoningfor their success orperceived lack of itinfluences not only

other local units andactivities, but alsoplanning and deci-sions for the future

activities.

He looks for ways toimprove it and

present it in otherways next time: “I

think I will make itmore visual next

time, and have themdo something with it

[a task].”


Dornyei, Zoltan (2001). Teaching and ResearchingMotivation. Harlow: Longman.

Gardner, R.C. (1985). Social Psychology and SecondLanguage Learning: The Role of Attitudes andMotivation. London: Edward Arnold.

Oxford, R. (1996) Language Learning Motivation:Pathways to the New Centuries. Honolulu, Ha-waii: University of Hawaii.

Woods, D. (1996). Teacher Cognition in LanguageTeaching: Beliefs, Decision Making, and Class-room Practice. Cambridge, U.K.: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Woods, Devon (1997). Decision making in lan-guage learning: a lens for examining learnerstrategies. The Language Teacher, 21(10), 67-76.

Jaffer Sheyholislami teaches EAP at CarletonUniversity and ESL at Malkam Cross-CulturalTraining.

Indonesian dancers, Johnny and Methya Aristanto, perform during conference dinner.


Second Language Acquisition from theLearner�s Perspective

What is second language acquisition (SLA) likefrom the learner�s perspective? It is not easy toknow. Learners are absent from much of thedialogue on SLA due to language barriers, lack oftime and forum, and issues of power and conse-quence between learners and teachers, as well asbetween learners and researchers.

As part of my doctoral thesis in second lan-guage education (in progress), I examine a corpusof language narratives � published accounts writ-ten by individuals who have learned and lived in anew language. The stories of acculturation form agenre known as language memoirs ( Kaplan,1993);auto-ethnographies ( Belcher and Connor, 2001);life narratives ( McAdams, 1988); testimonios(Beverly, 2000); and translation therapy (Pavlenko,1998). While not limited to language learning events,these published accounts offer many useful insightsinto what SLA is like from the learner�s perspec-tive, and it is these language events that I attend.Working from a corpus of ten narratives andseveral essays from anthologies, I identify issuesand themes that are significant within narrativesand then across narratives. Eisner (1995) suggeststhat �effective research in education should makethe experience vivid and generate a sense of empa-thy � help us to know what it feels like� (p.5).These narratives make the experience vivid forme.

It was these language learning-related themesand issues that I presented at the 2001 TESLOntario conference in a session called �LanguageNarratives as TESL PD.�

The most prominent themes are: first languageloss; bi-dentity; the cultural load of ESL/EFL mate-rials; the significance of names and name changes;the mind/body connection; the power of the learn-er�s will; classroom/teacher incidents; and writingin an L2 about events that happened in the L1 ( an�alphabet without memory� as Ann Michaels saysin her 1996 novel Fugitive Pieces).

Quotes and short passages that illustrated thesignificance of each theme were drawn from thenarratives and presented at the session. Responsesby participants at the session were extremely

interesting. Many related very personally to theincidents/issues described by the narrativists; theirown experiences or experiences of family mem-bers closely paralleled those of the narrativists.

The next stage of the study is to determine ifand how these themes/issues are represented inSLA theory. The final stage involves bringing to-gether a focus group of experienced (8+ years)ESL teachers who will consider the pedagogicalimplications of the information gathered from thesenarratives.

Those attending the session were encouragedto read one or more of the language narratives inorder to gain insights into SLA from the learner�sperspective. Providing an excerpt or quote fromthe narrativists might prompt students in ourclassrooms to share some of their own feelingsabout learning and living in a second language.

I hope to present the links to theory as well asthe pedagogical implications at a future TESL On-tario conference.

�If you have eight or more years of experienceteaching ESL/EFL and would like to participate inthe focus group when teachers consider pedagogi-cal implications, please contact me. This will prob-ably happen in the Fall of 2002)

[email protected]@seneca.on.ca

Linda Steinman coordinates and teaches in theTESL program offered by the English LanguageInstitute at Seneca College. She is also a Ph.D.candidate in Second Language Education at OISE/University of Toronto.

The next stage of thestudy is to determine

if and how thesethemes/issues are

represented in SLAtheory.

The most prominentthemes are: first

language loss; bi-dentity; the cultural

load of ESL/EFLmaterials; the

significance of namesand name changes;

the mind/bodyconnection; the power

of the learner’s will;classroom/teacher

incidents; and writingin an L2 about eventsthat happened in the

L1.


English Intonation Practice Workbook

1. Highlight the stressed syllable of eachcontent word. Use two different coloursto separate words that commonly havea positive connotation (and thereforetone) from negative ones.

2. Work through mini-dialogues such asthe following.

Example:1. Ask me a question about my country of

origin.

2. What is the capital of your country?

1. It�s Tehran.

2. Is it nice?

1. I don�t know. I�ve never been there. I amfrom a village.

1. translate: �The tongue is mightier than thesword� into your language and give an exam-ple of when it could be used

2. translate: �People who live in glass housesshouldn�t throw stones.� into your languageand give an example of when it could be used

3. translate: �A soft answer turns away anger.�into your language and give an example ofwhen it could be used

4. translate: � Where there is smoke there�susually fire.� into your language and give anexample of when it could be used

5. translate: � What goes around comesaround.� into your language and give anexample of when it could be used

6. translate: � There is no use crying over spiltmilk.� into your language and give an exam-ple of when it could be used

7. translate: � The squeaky wheel gets the oil.�into your language and give an example ofwhen it could be used

8. translate: � The bigger you are, the harderyou fall.� into your language and give anexample of when it could be used

9. translate: � Little drops make an ocean.� intoyour language and give an example of whenit could be used

10. translate: � It�s like looking for a needle in ahaystack.� into your language and give anexample of when it could be used

11. translate: � He who hesitates is lost.� intoyour language and give an example of whenit could be used

12. translate: � As you sow, you shall reap.� intoyour language and give an example of whenit could be used

13. translate: � All that glitters isn�t gold.� intoyour language and give an example of whenit could be used

14. tell me why we have to use a spoon when westir coffee

15. tell me why we have to use a filter when wemake coffee

16. tell me why people should/shouldn�t weardeodorant every day

17. tell me why people should/shouldn�t washtheir hair every day

18. tell me why people should/shouldn�t eat icecream

19. tell me why people should/shouldn�t eatchocolate

20. tell me why I shouldn�t crack my knuckles.

21. tell me why children can�t ride 2-wheel bikeswhen they are 3.

22. tell me who in the class is wearing thefanciest clothes and who is wearing the plain-est

23. tell me who in the class is wearing nail polish

24. tell me which side of the sink the hot watertap is on

25. tell me which side of the plate the knife goeson

26. tell me which side of the keyboard the Enterbutton is on

27. tell me which side of the hall you should walkdown

28. tell me which side of Europe, France is on

29. tell me which side of Asia, Japan is on

Translate: “ Whatgoes around comesaround.” into yourlanguage and give anexample of when itcould be used.

Tell me why childrencan’t ride 2-wheelbikes when they are3.


30. tell me what you would do if you won$20,000

31. tell me what to do if my child swallows abottle of pills

32. tell me what Remembrance Day is for

33. tell me what kind of woman makes a goodwife

34. tell me what kind of mood you�re in

35. tell me what kind of material your shoes aremade of

36. tell me what kind of man makes a goodhusband

37. tell me what kind of fasteners you have onyour clothes

38. tell me what kind of fabric your shirt is madeof

39. tell me what kids become capable of by age7

40. tell me what kids become capable of by age2

41. tell me what creatures have fangs

42. tell me what creatures have claws

43. tell me what Christmas Day celebrates

44. tell me what birds provide us with eggs

45. tell me what animal makes the most faithfulpet and why

46. tell me what a newborn baby can do

47. tell me what a Gas Station Attendant does

48. tell me what a Doctor does

49. tell me what 6 electronic products mostCanadian households have

50. tell me the opposites of satisfied, regular,popular, and import

51. tell me the name of one of your uncles orcousins and what he does for fun

52. tell me the name of one of your uncles andwhat he does for a living

53. tell me the name of one of your neighborsand what he/she does for a living

54. tell me the name of one of your grandparentsand what he/she did for a living

55. tell me the name of one of your favoritebooks and what it is about

56. tell me the name of one of your best friendsand what he/she does for a living

57. tell me the major mathematical processes

58. tell me the 5 major food groups and give 3examples of each

59. tell me if you�ve ever ridden a motorcycle

60. tell me if you�ve ever fainted

61. tell me how you make tea

62. tell me how to get from here to the wash-room

63. tell me how to get from here to Square One

64. tell me how to get from here to Niagara Falls

65. tell me how to get from here to Lake Ontario

66. tell me how to get from here to a library

67. tell me how to get from here to a grocerystore

68. tell me how much longer you expect to betaking LINC classes

69. tell me how long it took you to learn thismuch English

70. tell me how long it took you to fly to Canada

71. tell me about the people you live with

72. tell me about the day that you arrived inCanada

73. tell me a good cure for a sore back

74. tell me a country where the women dressvery fashionably

75. tell me a country where the women coverthemselves from head to toe

76. tell me a country that the equator passesthrough

77. tell me a country that has the most sunnydays a year

78. tell me a country that has a lot of elephants

79. tell me a country that has a lot of earthquakes

80. tell me a country that has a lot of deserts

81. tell me a country that has a King

82. tell me 3 things that people get possessiveabout

83. tell me 3 things that people get fanatic about

84. tell me 3 things that make people sweat

85. tell me 3 things that make people sneeze

Tell me what kind offasteners you have on

your clothes.

Tell me the 5 majorfood groups and give3 examples of each.


86. tell me 3 things that make people laugh

87. tell me 3 things that make people jealous

88. tell me 3 things that make people cry

89. tell me 3 problems with organized sports forchildren

90. tell me 3 problems with most gas stationwashrooms

91. tell me 3 problems with most fitting rooms

92. tell me 3 problems with most downtowns ofbig cities

93. tell me 3 problems with entertaining

94. tell me 3 problems with buying Christmaspresents

95. tell me 3 major causes of obesity

96. tell me 3 major causes of miscarriages

97. tell me 3 major causes of divorce

98. tell me 3 major causes of car accidents

99. tell me 3 facts about Ontario

100. tell me 3 facts about Mississauga

101. tell me 2 things which cause constipation

102. tell me 2 things which cause colours to fade

103. tell me 2 things that would make life easierfor new immigrants

104. tell me 2 things that make life hard for newimmigrants

105. stretch as if you�d just woken up in themorning

106. show me the gestures for money, good luck,it�s a no go, and he�s dead (figuratively)

107. show me the gestures for he�s stupid, he�ssleeping, he�s crazy and stop that

108. show me the gestures for �be quiet,� �vic-tory,� �come here� and �just a sec�

109. show me the different salutes of fascists,soldiers and Boy Scouts

110. show me a scar and tell me how you got it

111. rub your temples as if you had a bad head-ache

112. recite � To be or not to be � that is thequestion. Whether it is nobler in the mind tobear the slings and arrows of outrageousfortune or by opposing, end them.�

113. name three people who come from tropical/hot climates and three who come from con-tinental/cold climates

114. name three people who come from culturesthat are very different than Canada�s andthree who come from somewhat similarcultures

115. name three people (in the class) who havebeen here less than 1 year and three whohave been here more than 2

116. name Canada�s three smallest provinces

117. name Canada�s three richest provinces

118. name Canada�s three oldest provinces

119. name Canada�s three flattest provinces

120. name Canada�s three biggest provinces

121. name Canada�s three biggest cities

122. name 7 common pets

123. name 5 recyclable materials

124. name 5 medical instruments

125. name 5 kinds of fruit that grow in Ontario

126. name 5 kinds of footwear

127. name 5 famous writers (past or present)

128. name 5 famous politicians

129. name 5 famous movies (past or present)

130. name 5 deadly diseases

131. name 5 common makes of car

132. name 5 common insects

133. name 5 common birds

134. name 4 materials that window coverings aremade out of

135. name 4 materials that pants are made out of

136. name 4 materials that houses are made outof

137. name 4 materials that fences are made out of

138. name 4 materials that cutlery is made out of

139. name 4 materials that blouses are made outof

140. name 3 natural fabrics

141. name 2 famous spies

142. name 10 famous world leaders (past orpresent)

Tell me 3 problemswith most fittingrooms.

Show me the gesturesfor ‘be quiet,’’victory,’ ‘come here’and ‘just a sec.’


143. list three things that make kids late for school

144. list three things that make being pregnantmiserable

145. list three things that make being an immi-grant miserable

146. list three things that make being a teenagermiserable

147. list three things that children fight over

148. list three things that children fear

149. list the top 5 problems that new immigrantsface.

150. list the pros and cons of marriage.

151. list the parts of an apple

152. list the parts of a house

153. list the parts of a fish

154. list the parts of a computer

155. list the parts of a body

156. list 5 things that are often made of leather

157. list 5 things that are often fake

158. list 5 common causes of stress

159. list 5 common causes of sore feet

160. list 5 common causes of death for men intheir 40s

161. list 5 causes of weight gain

162. list 5 causes of fatigue

163. list 3 common causes of diarrhea

164. insult me

165. imitate the sounds of a bee, rooster, goat,snake and mosquito.

166. give three examples of why the refereewould call foul in soccer

167. give three examples of why the police wouldpull a driver over

168. give three examples of why good hygiene isimportant

169. give three examples of why brushing yourteeth is important

170. give three examples of why a teacher wouldgive an A

171. give three examples of why a teacher wouldgive a detention

172. give me the names of the 3 tallest and thethree shortest people in the class

173. give me the names of the 3 most vocal andthe three least vocal people in the class

174. give me some good advice

175. give me a simple recipe for making rice

176. give me a simple recipe for making homemadeFrench Fries

177. give me a simple recipe for making cake

178. give me a simple recipe for making an omelet

179. give me a simple recipe for making a milkshake

180. give me a good cure for pimples

181. give me a good cure for nervousness

182. give me a good cure for insomnia

183. give me a good cure for diarrhea

184. give me a good cure for constipation

185. give me a good cure for a sore throat

186. give 5 common causes of accidental death

187. frown as if you are thinking very seriouslyabout something.

188. flatter me

189. explain why you were late/early or on timefor class today.

190. explain why you shouldn�t move a personwho has been injured in a fall from a highplace.

191. explain why you came to Canada

192. explain how to give a newborn baby a bath

193. explain how to get a Driver�s License

194. estimate the cost of taking 24 photos

195. estimate the cost of immigrating to Canada

196. estimate the cost of having a baby for oneyear

197. estimate the cost of getting your driver�slicense

198. estimate the cost of buying winter clothes

199. Estimate how much it costs to live inMississauga for a year for a family of four.

200. draw your native country and label 5 thingson it

201. draw the place where you live and label 5things on it

List three things thatmake being a

teenager miserable.

Explain how to give anewborn baby a bath.


I. Loudness

A. North Americans equate volume with confi-dence.

B. This volume is considered loud in Asia andcan be seen as aggressive, uncultured ortactless.

C. A lower volume is seen by North Americansas submissive, secretive or possibly seduc-tive.

II. Speed

A. A variation in speed to match the intensity ofthe information is expected in English.

B. This variation can be seen as a lack of controlby Asians.

C. North Americans will see steady, even pac-ing as plodding or unenthusiastic.

III. Acceptance of Silence

A. North Americans do not accept even mo-mentary silence in response to a questionand most pauses are filled with �fillers�.

B. A Japanese proverb says �Those who knowdo not speak � those who speak do notknow� and Asians generally respect silenceand equate it with giving due respect to atopic and the participant�s thought proc-esses.

C. North Americans will see silence as a lack ofquickness of thought or even a desire tofinish the conversation.

Kinesics or Symbolic Body Language:

I. Gestures

A. Vary significantly from culture to culture inusage (i.e. a-ok, �me?�, victory vs. old friends).

B. Often acceptable substitutes for speech inEnglish (i.e. shrug, sneer, beckon).

C. Vary significantly in amount of use fromculture to culture. Minimal in Korean andJapanese culture/maximum in Southern Eu-rope. Cultures also vary in terms of allowed

space � with North Americans maintaining atriangle from ribs to head.

D. North Americans find a lack of gesturesvisually and conversationally boring and anexcess distracting.

E. Toastmasters International has measuredthe ideal level as 3 per utterance.

F. The use of gestures varies according to gen-der and male ESL students should be cau-tious about imitating female teachers.

II. Oculesics or the Use of the Eyes:

A. For North Americans, the use of direct eyecontact symbolizes listening and attention.

B. The length of the eye contact is also a vari-able within NA culture, as it can be per-ceived as aggressive when used for too long,or as disinterest, when too short.

C. Asian cultures must have guidance adjustingto the English style. Asians see direct eyecontact as aggressive, uncultured or inso-lent.

D. NA�s use eye contact to control conversa-tions and groups, therefore, ESL studentsmust master it.

III. Haptics or Touching Behaviour:

A. Heslin (1974), distinguished between thefollowing degrees of haptic intimacy:

1. functional/professional2. social/polite3. friendship/warmth4. love/intimacy5. sexual arousal

B. The most widespread heptic symbol is thehand shake. This however differs in degrees,length and strength between the variouslevels of intimacy (or gets completely re-placed by more intimate heptic behaviour).Consider the fact that what is for a Latino alevel 2 greeting can be seen by the NA asbordering on 4 or 5! A level 1 NA handshakeis 2.5 firm movements with the joints meet-ing.

C. Northern Europe is at the �Non-Contact�end of the scale while Spain is a �contact�culture. South Asians are very contact-ori-ented but only with each gender.

North Americans willsee silence as a lackof quickness ofthought or even adesire to finish theconversation.

Asian cultures musthave guidanceadjusting to theEnglish style. Asianssee direct eye contactas aggressive,uncultured or inso-lent.


Proxemics or Spacing:

A. North Americans generally maintain the clas-sic handshake distance in conversation.

B. Asians maintain the bow distance.

C. Speakers of romance and Slavic languagesmaintain the �about to kiss� distance.

D. North Americans will interpret larger dis-tances as unfriendly and smaller distances asthreatening or invasive.

Symbolism:

A. Colours are open to different interpreta-tions and acceptance.

B. Numbers vary in significance. 13 in Christi-anity vs. Judaism.

C. Political and religious symbolism can meetwith varying acceptance.

Conceptual Fluency

� Metaphorically-based knowledge is one ofthe major ways in which knowledge of the

world is encoded and decoded. �She�s notworth the time.� = people & time are seenas commodities in this culture

� ESL students lacking conceptual fluency useEnglish as a �carrier� of their native concep-tual system. Where concepts diverge, com-munication fails.

See Ksvecses, Z. 1988 �The Semantics ofPassion in Conversational English.�

Mental schemas

A. Most of classical Western thinking is basedon the Aristotelian view of logic: analytical,linear and rational.

B. Other cultures emphasize a more complexset of logic (i.e. Confusian), which can bedescribed as holistic, associative and affec-tive.

Monochronic Polychronic

preset schedule is subordinate tointerpersonal relations

Interpersonal relations co-ordinateactivity; appointment time is flexible

Many tasks are handled simulta-neously

Breaks and personal time aresubordinate to personal ties.

Time is flexible; time is fluid

Work time is not clearly separa-ble from personal time

Activities are integrated intoorganisation as a whole; tasks aremeasured as part of overallorganisational goal

Interpersonal relations

Activity coordination

Task handling

Breaks and personal time

Temporal structure

Work/personal time separability

Organizational perception

are subordinate to preset sched-ule

Schedule co-ordinates activity;appointment time is rigid.

One task at a time

Breaks and personal time aresacrosanct regardless of per-sonal ties.

Time is inflexible; time is tangi-ble

Work time is clearly separablefrom personal time

Activities are isolated from or-ganisation as a whole; tasks aremeasured by output in time (ac-tivity per hour or minute)

Kathryn Brillinger teaches pronunciation at Sheridan College.

Speakers of romanceand Slavic languages

maintain the “aboutto kiss” distance.

ESL students lackingconceptual fluency

use English as a“carrier” of their

native conceptualsystem. Where

concepts diverge,communication fails.


Preparing Every Teacher to Be an ESL TeacherThe OISE/UT Experience

Abstract

For the past two years we have been researching the effectiveness of a course entitled ESL Across theCurriculum as a potential course for all future K-12 teachers. It is now an optional course within the pre-service teacher education program at the University of Toronto. The course is designed to prepare K-12 teachers to meet the needs of ESL learners in mainstream classes. Now that it has become clear thatall teachers in Ontario must be prepared to work with ESL learners, we are exploring various strategiesto infuse ESL issues across the B.Ed. Program. In our workshop, we described the various initiatives atOISE/UT and invited participants to take part in a number of activities focussing on their ESL teachingexperiences in K to 12 classrooms and their views on how we should prepare teachers to support all ESLlearners.

Background

In addition, recent education policy in Ontariohas led to a significant decrease in the amount ofESL support provided to students by ESL specialistteachers. Cutbacks have also affected other im-portant services for ESL students and their par-ents. The new policy is that every teachershould be an ESL teacher. This type of policy isbecoming widespread in North America becauseboards of education and national governmentshave been legislated to balance their budgets.

One of the new dilemmas regarding the prepa-ration of teachers for work in urban, multilingual/multicultural schools involves whether there shouldbe yet one more course focussed on ESL issues inan already overcrowded teacher education cur-riculum or whether ESL issues and teaching strat-egies should be integrated across courses for pre-service teachers. An equally important questionhas to do with the most appropriate format andcontent for such a course as well as the nature ofan ESL integration initiative.

In an attempt to answer these difficult ques-tions, we have been researching the effectivenessof a �stand alone� course entitled ESL Across theCurriculum in our context in the first phase of a two-phase project. The second phase will focus oneffective strategies for the infusion of ESL issuesand teaching strategies across the teacher prepara-tion curriculum.

The pre-service teacher educationcontext in Ontario

In Canada, education and teacher educationcome under provincial jurisdiction and as a result

there are different systems in every province andterritory. In addition, there are regional differ-ences within these provinces and territories thatreflect local needs. In Ontario, there are ninefaculties of education offering a range of programsto respond to the needs of schools and boards ofeducation in their area.

Some Ontario universities offer 5-year pro-grams leading to both a B.A. or B.Sc. and a B.Ed.while other faculties of education including OISE/UT offer 9 month to 2-year post-graduate pro-grams leading either to a B.Ed., M.A. or M.T.Graduates of these various programs receive ateaching certificate for Ontario as long as they fulfillthe various requirements of the Ontario College ofTeachers including passing the new Ontario Teach-ers Qualifying Test, providing proof of being tu-berculosis-free and not having a criminal record.Across the province teacher candidates in theseprograms may be placed in a cohort or not and mayreceive some instruction on how to work with ESLstudents or not.

English as a Second Language is not a teachingsubject that pre-service teachers can opt to focuson in Ontario because of provincial educationregulations that stipulate that specialization in teach-ing ESL can be obtained only through in-servicecourses once teachers are certified. As a resultmost Ontario universities spend very little timeexploring issues related to teaching ESL students intheir pre-service programs.

The Ontario College of Teachers evaluatespre-service programs on a rotating basis everythree to five years and posts a report card indicat-ing areas of strength and program aspects needing

The new policy is thatevery teacher shouldbe an ESL teacher.

One of the newdilemmas regardingthe preparation ofteachers for work inurban, multilingual/multicultural schoolsinvolves whetherthere should be yetone more coursefocussed on ESLissues in an alreadyovercrowded teachereducation curriculumor whether ESLissues and teachingstrategies should beintegrated acrosscourses for pre-service teachers.


attention. Although OISE/UT was congratulatedfor its efforts to offer workshops on ESL issues tothe teacher candidates, there was also a concernthat greater attention needed to be paid to consist-ent program delivery across programs. One of theconcerns of all faculties of education is the ever-overcrowded pre-service curriculum. In fact, thereare many questions on how to integrate manyareas of emerging importance into the teachereducation curriculum. These areas include globaleducation, special education, teaching ESL acrossthe curriculum, conflict resolution and more.

A range of approaches to learningabout ESL issues and teaching strate-gies at OISE/UT

The Ontario Institute of Education of the Uni-versity of Toronto, is located in the heart ofToronto now known as the most multicultural cityin the world. As a result, OISE/UT has attemptedto respond to the need for future teachers to knowhow to work with L2 learners in their classrooms.The strategies adopted range from offering anoptional course on the topic to providing low-costworkshops of different lengths to pre-serviceteacher candidates.

Here is a brief description of the different waysESL issues are now addressed across pre-serviceeducation programs at OISE/UT:

� In some cases ESL issues are integrated into allcourses as appropriate including social founda-tions, psychological foundations and curricu-lum and instruction courses. This, however, israre and occurs in only a few of the cohortoptions for pre-service teachers.

� ESL issues are considered within the frame-work of related studies courses. Every B.Ed.student chooses one Related Studies Coursefrom a list of 30+ courses. This year and lastyear only 2 sections the ESL Across the Curricu-lum course accommodating approximately 60of the 1200 pre-service teacher candidateswere offered.

� Student Services organized an optional 9-hourweekend workshop on working with ESL stu-dents in the mainstream over two weekendsor 3 evenings, and teacher candidates whoattended were given a certificate of attend-ance. More than 300 students registered forthis workshop this year.

� Within the framework of the Working TowardSafer Schools Conference, an optional one-dayconference, sponsored by Student Services,about 100 students attended a 90-minute work-shop entitled Teaching in Multilingual Schools.

The reality in our institution is that many of the1200 teacher candidates not enrolled in the Re-lated Studies course entitled ESL Across the Curricu-lum have either minimal or no exposure to ESLissues in their courses.

The ESL Across the Curriculum courseat OISE/UT

The ESL Across the Curriculum course is de-signed to prepare K-12 teachers to meet the needsof ESL learners in mainstream classes. It focuses on1) the methods and techniques for adapting con-tent-based teaching for ESL students, 2) integrat-ing the formal aspects of English (grammar, vo-cabulary, pronunciation) into content-based teach-ing, 3) integrating strategy training and languageawareness into mainstream programs and 4) de-veloping sensitivity to cultural and linguistic diver-sity. Throughout the course the pre-service teach-ers are involved in reflective and active learning.

Although the core topics have remained thesame in the three years we have been offering thecourse, the amount of class time and the numberof readings focussing on each of the topics changedas the result of input from the teacher candidateswho completed the course. The specific coursetopics explored include:

� experiences of immigration and acculturation� the historical and socio-political context ofimmigration, linguistic and cultural diversity inCanada,

� relevant information from second languageacquisition theory and research,

� pedagogical orientations to language and cul-tural diversity � traditional/transmission-ori-ented, liberal/transactional, transformational/antiracist,

� getting started in a multicultural school,

� how to create an inclusive school environmentand an inclusive classroom community,

� how to plan for inclusive instruction using themandated curriculum,

� curriculum adaptations � integrating languagelearning and subject-matter learning,

The Ontario Instituteof Education of the

University of Toronto,is located in the heart

of Toronto nowknown as the most

multicultural city inthe world. As a result,

OISE/UT hasattempted to respondto the need for future

teachers to know howto work with L2learners in their

classrooms.

The reality in ourinstitution is thatmany of the 1200

teacher candidates notenrolled in the

Related Studiescourse entitled ESL

Across the Curricu-lum have eitherminimal or no

exposure to ESLissues in their

courses.


� specific strategies for the modification of les-sons and units

� adjusting discourse to enhance learning,

� an anti-racist approach to education,

� assessment in multicultural schools, and

� the Ontario Ministry of Education ElectronicCurriculum Planner (2001) and mini-unit de-velopment.

The pedagogical goals of the course, as definedin relation to our ongoing course developmentinformed by student feedback and early researchfindings, can be organized into three areas:

1) images of ESL students and the factors impact-ing on their learning and experience,

2) pedagogical orientations in relation to linguis-tic as well as other forms of diversity, and

3) pedagogical strategies for inclusive classroomsand school communities.

The ESL Infusion Initiative at OISE/UT

As we are faced with a large number of teachersretiring, it is time to turn our focus to the renewalof the teaching force and in particular to exploringways to improve how we prepare teachers for theever-increasing multilingual and diverse studentpopulation in Canadian schools. Across the coun-try, and in Ontario in particular, ESL issues are notintroduced and TESL strategies have not tradition-ally been taught in pre-service programs.

The results of a two-year study designed todetermine the effectiveness of a �stand alone�course entitled ESL Across the Curriculum in thepre-service context have also led us to exploreways of integrating ESL issues and related teachingstrategies across the pre-service teacher educa-tion program. Although we learned about thefactors that affect the engagement of teacher can-didates in this course and felt we had the knowl-edge to improve and refine this course, theteacher candidates encouraged us to explore alter-natives to this �add on� course as they repeatedlyasked why these issues and strategies had not beeninfused into all their courses to �really� preparethem to work in Canada�s multilingual andmulticultural classrooms.

To address this situation within our institution,a multi-year initiative was launched in the summerof 2001 to support teacher educators in learning

about ESL issues and teaching strategies. Just asteachers drive learning in K-12 classrooms, teachereducators are central in shaping the experiences ofteacher candidates in pre-service programs. Thisinitiative, referred to as the ESL Infusion Initiative,involves workshops specially designed for differ-ent groups of teacher educators from across thefull range of pre-service programs including in-structors from educational psychology, social foun-dations, curriculum and instruction as well as theelementary and secondary divisions. Also underdevelopment are a resource collection and a websiteincluding books, articles, audio-visual materials aswell as possible assignments and classroom activi-ties for teacher educators. The ESL Infusion Initia-tive is based on a social constructivist view of theprofessional development of teacher educatorsand thus recognizes the need to work from thepersonal theories of these teacher educators. It isalso expected that each teacher educator will havedifferent expectations of and responses to theprofessional development opportunities provided.

Input from workshop participants

After describing the OISE/UT experience, weasked workshop participants to consider the ques-tions included on the handout in Appendix 1.Specifically, we asked them to share their views onthe most important content and teaching strate-gies to support pre-service teachers in learning towork effectively with mainstreamed ESL students.A summary of their responses can be found inAppendix 2 and 3 which will be posted on the ESLInfusion Website along with an invitation to re-spond. We hope that the website will be up andrunning in the Fall of 2002.

It is interesting to note what topics practisingteachers felt were most important to incorporateinto pre-service teacher education programs:

� Greater awareness of the importance of incor-porating students� home language and cultureinto mainstream classrooms to avoid linguisticand ethnocentrism

� Strategies for modifying the content and deliv-ery of lessons to better meet the academic andlinguistic needs of ESL students

� Where to find materials designed to addressthe needs of ESL learners

� Information on the linguistic characteristics oflearners at the various ESL stages identified bythe Ministry

The results of a two-year study designedto determine theeffectiveness of a“stand alone” courseentitled ESL Acrossthe Curriculum in thepre-service contexthave also led us toexplore ways ofintegrating ESLissues and relatedteaching strategiesacross the pre-serviceteacher educationprogram.

The ESL InfusionInitiative, involvesworkshops speciallydesigned for differentgroups of teachereducators from acrossthe full range of pre-service programsincluding instructorsfrom educationalpsychology, socialfoundations, curricu-lum and instructionas well as theelementary andsecondary divisions.


� Tips for recognizing when ESL students� diffi-culties are language-based and when they areconcept/content-based

One of the challenges for the ESL Infusion teamat OISE/UT will be to determine how best to infusethese important topics into their teacher prepara-tion programs.

In response to our invitation to write scenariosfor teacher candidates, the workshop participantsgenerated descriptions of a number of complexsituations with some sort of dilemma for pre-service teachers to consider. The scenarios gener-ated included:

� A senior English teacher who wonders whetheror not she should accommodate the needs ofthe ESL student in her class

� A Grade 3 teacher who does not know how torespond to a withdrawn child who is homesickfor his country of origin

� A Grade 10 Math teacher who wonders how tobest deal with the chronic tardiness of anotherwise good student

� A Grade 9 Science teacher who is faced with astudent from a war torn country who speaksanother dialect of English but who has not beenable to attend school in a number of years

� A Grade 8 Phys. Ed. teacher who must decidehow best to deal with two boys who come toblows over the political situation that existtheir home countries

� A Senior Kindergarten teacher wondering howbest to work with a group of children of whichhalf do not speak English at home and havelimited oral communication skills in English

� A teacher supervising at recess who wondershow to deal with a group of boys teasing a newGrade 5 student from another country for hislack of hockey knowledge

� A teacher who is not sure how he shouldrespond to another teacher that he overheardsaying she is not prepared to accommodate astudent in her math class who has a serious gapin his knowledge because of interruptions in hisschooling in his home country

As mentioned earlier, these scenarios will beposted on the ESL Infusion Website and visitors tothe site will be invited to respond and post theirown scenarios for others to read and consider.

Some initial work with scenarios during the 2001/2002 academic year has shown that teacher candi-dates find writing their own scenarios and re-sponding to the scenarios of others very valuable.Feedback from teacher candidates focussed on thefact that writing and responding to scenarios helpedthem make the link between theory and practiceand see that there are many ways to deal withdifficult situations.

Our challenge will be to ensure that teachercandidates have opportunities throughout theirpre-service program to engage in collaborativedialogue with practising teachers and colleaguesaround ways to address difficult issues in the �realworld�.

Appendix 1

Your views on the most important contentand teaching strategies to support pre-service teachers in learning to work effec-tively with mainstreamed ESL students

Tell us what you think�

List the top five most important things that weneed to teach pre-service teachers aboutworking with mainstreamed ESL learners inelementary school.

List the top five most important things that weneed to teach pre-service teachers aboutworking with mainstreamed ESL learners inmiddle school.

List the top five most important things that weneed to teach pre-service teachers aboutworking with mainstreamed ESL learners in highschool.

What would you have liked to learn aboutworking with mainstreamed ESL students whenyou were in a teacher preparation program?

What particular skills does a teacher need tohave to be effective in his/her work withmainstreamed ESL students?

What do you think is the best way to preparepre-service teachers to work with mainstreamedESL learners?

Are there particularly effective or useful re-sources that you think future teachers should beaware of?

What is your most powerful tool or strategy forsupporting mainstreamed ESL students?

The scenariosgenerated included:A Grade 9 Science

teacher who is facedwith a student from awar torn country who

speaks another dialectof English but who

has not been able toattend school in anumber of years.

A Grade 8 Phys. Ed.teacher who must

decide how best todeal with two boyswho come to blows

over the politicalsituation that exist

their home countries


What are some complex classroom situationsyou have experienced that involved one or moreESL students? Please describe these situations indetail and explain how you dealt with the issuesat hand as well as the outcome. With yourpermission, we would like to post these sce-narios on the ESL infusion website to supportteacher candidates and practising teachers inlearning how to deal with difficult situationsinvolving ESL students.

Imagine that you are on the team preparing theteacher licensure test that all pre-service teach-ers will be required to take this spring. What aresome of the questions that you would ask to findout if these teacher candidates have enoughknowledge about ESL issues and teachingstrategies to be granted an Ontario TeachingCertificate?

Appendix 2

What practising teachers think is mostimportant for pre-service teachers to learnabout working with mainstreamed ESLlearners

The following are responses generated byteachers and administrators at the 2001 TESLOntario annual conference in response to thequestion: �list the top five most important thingsthat we need to teach pre-service teachersabout working with mainstreamed ESL learn-ers.� What are other concerns that you feelshould be added to this list? We encourage youto post your recommendations.

1. Greater awareness of the importance of incor-porating students� home language and cultureinto mainstream classrooms to avoid linguisticand ethnocentrism

2. Strategies for modifying the content and deliv-ery of lessons to better meet the academic andlinguistic needs of ESL students

3. Where to find materials designed to addressthe needs of ESL learners

4. Information on the linguistic characteristics oflearners at the various ESL stages identified bythe Ministry

5. Tips for recognizing when ESL students� diffi-culties are language-based and when they areconcept/content-based

Tell us what you think:

Contributions from TESL OntarioMembers

The following scenarios address situationsinvolving ESL students and were created byteachers and administrators attending the 2001TESL Ontario annual conference. We invite youto read these scenarios, post possible ways ofaddressing the situations described, and postfurther scenarios of your own.

Scenario #1: Accommodate or Not?

An ESL student who was in your class a year agotells you that the teacher in her mainstreamsenior English course is unwilling to make anyaccommodations to the course content ordelivery in order to facilitate her learning (e.g.,allowing extended test-taking time). Thisstudent tells you that her English teacher hassaid that she is not ready to be in this level ofEnglish class. She asks you to speak to herEnglish teacher on her behalf.

State two specific actions you can take toadvocate for this student.

Your response:

Scenario #2: Homesick

An ESL student in your mainstream Grade 3class is withdrawn and is often crying. Herefuses to speak except to say that he wants toreturn home to his native country since it wasnot his choice to come here.

State two specific actions you can take toaddress this student�s situation.

Your response:

Scenario #3: Time Management

An ESL student who has recently come toCanada as a refugee has been placed in yourmainstream Grade 10 Math class. Although heperforms very well on tests and is attentiveduring lessons, this student has difficulty manag-ing his time and is often late for your class that isscheduled during first period.

State two specific actions you can take todetermine the problem and address the underly-ing cause.

Your response:

The following areresponses generatedby teachers andadministrators at the2001 TESL Ontarioannual conference inresponse to thequestion: “list the topfive most importantthings that we need toteach pre-serviceteachers aboutworking withmainstreamed ESLlearners.”

The followingscenarios addresssituations involvingESL students andwere created byteachers and adminis-trators attending the2001 TESL Ontarioannual conference.We invite you to readthese scenarios, postpossible ways ofaddressing thesituations described,and post furtherscenarios of your own.


Scenario #4: Skill Gaps

An ELD (English Literacy Development) studentwho has recently come to Canada as a refugee isplaced in your mainstream Grade 9 Scienceclass. Because of the situation in her homecountry, this student has not been to schoolsince she was seven years old. With only rudi-mentary literacy skills in her first language,minimal formal education, and no Englishproficiency, this student is not at all able to keepup with the pace of your class.

State two specific actions you can take toaddress the very real and extensive needs of thisstudent.

Your response:

Scenario #5: International Politics

Two students in your mainstream Grade 8Physical Education class come to blows over theantagonistic political situation between their twohome countries.

State two specific actions you can take toaddress this situation.

Your response:

Scenario #6: Kindergarten ProgramModifications

Your mainstream Senior Kindergarten class of 27students includes 14 children who do not speakEnglish at home and who have varying levels ofEnglish proficiency.

State two specific actions you can take to modifyyour next lesson to meet the linguistic needs ofsuch a diverse group of learners.

Your response:

Scenario #7: Culture Gap

During recess supervision you overhear a groupof Grade 5 students discussing the latest on-iceexploits of several hockey stars. One individualin the group, an ESL student from yourhomeroom, is not only silent during the discus-sion but is taking jibes from his peers for his lackof hockey knowledge.

State two specific actions you can take toaddress this situation.

Scenario #8: Staff Resistance

In the staff room during lunch, one of yourcolleagues tells you that she has an ELD (EnglishLiteracy Development) student in her Grade 7Math class. Because of the interruptions to herschooling in her home country, this student�smath skills are at the grade 4 level. Your col-league complains that she is unwilling to modifyher course content or instruction to meet theneeds of this student and refuses your offer ofhelp.

State two specific actions you can take to ensurethat the needs of this student are met.

Your response:

Antoinette Gagné teaches in UT?OISE�s pre-serviceteacher education program. She presented thispaper with Katherine Rehner and Lisa Taylor.

Two students in yourmainstream Grade 8Physical Education

class come to blowsover the antagonistic

political situationbetween their two

home countries.

Because of theinterruptions to her

schooling in her homecountry, this student’smath skills are at the

grade 4 level. Yourcolleague complainsthat she is unwillingto modify her course

content or instructionto meet the needs of

this student andrefuses your offer of

help.

Lamise dancers, including Muni Subhani (TCDSB), delight the dinner audience.

reading students/reading teachers: confronting the...

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