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WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NO. 376 w c

Roads and the Environment A Handbook

Edited by Koji Tszmokawa Christopher Hoban Tke World Bank Wadington, D.C.

Copyright 0 1997 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.

All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing November 1997

Technical Papers are published to communicate the results of the Banks work to the development community with the least possible delay. The typescript of this paper therefore has not been prepared in accordance with the’ procedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. Some sources cited in this paper may be informal documents that are not readily available.

The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for any consequence of their use. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this volume do not imply on the part of the World Bank Group any judgment on the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.

The material in this publication is copyrighted. Requests for permission to reproduce portions of it should be sent to the Office of the Publisher at the address shown in the copyright notice above. The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally give permission promptly and, when the reproduction is for noncommercial purposes, without asking a fee. Permission to copy portions for classroom use is granted through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., Suite 910,222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, Massachusetts 01923, U.S.A.

The complete backlist of publications from the World Bank is shown in the annual Index @Publications, which con- tains an alphabetical title list with full ordering information. The latest edition is available free of charge from the Dis- tribution Unit, Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A., or from Publications, The World Bank, 66, avenue d’Iena, 75116 Paris, France.

ISSN: 0253-7494

Koji Tsunokawa is senior transport specialist in the Infrastructure Development Group in the World Bank’s Middle East and Nort Africa Regional Office. Christopher Hoban is a senior highway engineer in the World Bank’s South Asia Infrastructure Sector Unit.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Roads and the environment : a handbook /edited by Christopher Hoban and Koji Tsunokawa.

Pm cm. - (World Bank technical paper ; no. 376) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8213-4031-X 1. Roads-Environmental aspects. 2. Environmental impact

analysis. I. Hoban, Christopher J., 1952- . II. Tsunokawa, Koji, 1947- . III. Series. TD195.R63R63 1997 333.77-DC21 97-28971

CIP

Table of Contents

List of Boxes, Figures and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... x

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................. XlU

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............................. xiv

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ * ......................... xv

Executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...*.... . . . . . . . . . . . . *.a . . . . . . . . . . . *. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. xv1

PART I - THE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT PROCESS

Chapter 1 Assessing the environmental impact of road projects 1.1 1.2 1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7 1.8

The environment and its ecosystems ......................................................................................... 4

Roads, the environment, and the need for environmental assessment.. ............................... .4 New, existing, rural, and urban project settings ....................................................................... .5 1.3.1 New versus existing project types ............................................................................... 5 1.3.2 Rural versus urban project typer;. ................................................................................. 5 X.3.3 The “mixed” rural-urban project.. ................................................................................ 6

The environmental assessment (EA) ......................................................................................... 6 1.4.1 EA and road project development.. ............................................................................ .7 1.4.2 Types of EA ..................................................................................................................... 8

Environmental assessment at the project level ........................................................................ .8 1.5.1 The project-specific EA .................................................................................................. 8 1.5.2 The programmatic or class EA ...................................................................................... 8 1.5.3 Summary or initial environmental evaluation (SEE/IRE) ........................................ 9 1.5.4 The regional EA (REA) .................................................................................................. 9 Environmental assessment at the strategic level .................................................................... 10 1.6.1 The sectoral EA (SEA). ................................................................................................ .10

EA duration and budget .............................................................................................................. 11

References and bibliography ..................................................................................................... 12

Chapter 2 Environmental assessment management and institutional issues 2.1 EA and instituttonal development ............................................................................................. 14

2.2 Functions to be performed and the need for environmental skills.. ..................................... .14 2.2.1 Developing the policy and legal directives.. ............................................................ .14 2.2.2 Conducting the EA studies ........................................................................................ .15 2.2.3 Implementing the environmental management plan (RMP) .................................. 16 2.2.4 Managing the EA process ............................................................................................ 17

2.3 Providing the requisite environmental training.. ..................................................................... .18 2.4 Establishing the institutional structures.. ............ . ................................................................... .19

2.5 References and bibliography ..................................................................................................... 22

Chapter 3 An overview of environmental assessment planning and EA reporting 3.1 Early planning of EA ................................................................................................................... 24

3.2 Screening and scoping ............................................................................................................... 24 3.2.1 Description of the need for a project .......................................................................... 25 3.2.2 Description of the proposed project and alternatives .............................................. 25

. . . 111

Chapter 4 Key steps involved in undertaking an environmental assessment

3.2.3 Identification of valued ecosystem components (VECs) ......................................... 25 3.2.4 Evaluation of potential impacts for alternative solutions ...................................... .26 3.2.5 Early consultation ......................................................................................................... 26 3.2.6 Selection of preferred project (solution) and

identification of EA type to be applied.. ................................................................ .26

3.3 Preparation of the project terms of reference .......................................................................... 27

3.4 Space, time and consultation.. ................................................................................................... 27 3.4.1 Space.. ............................................................................................................................. 27 3.4.2 Time requirements for the environmental study ..................................................... 27 3.4.3 Consultation.. ............................................................................................................... .29

3.5 The environmental impact statement (EIS). .............................................................................. 29 3.5.1 Executive summary.. .................................................................................................... 30 3.5.2 The environmental assessment team.. ....................................................................... 30 3.5.3 Introduction and background.. .................................................................................. .30 3.5.4 Approach and methodology.. ..................................................................................... 30 3.5.5 Existing conditions.. .................................................................................................... .30 3.5.6 Analysis of alternatives ............................................................................................... 30 3.5.7 The preferred design .................................................................................................... 31 3.5.8 The environmental management plan ....................................................................... 31 3.5.9 Consultation .................................................................................................................. 31 3.5.10 References.. .................................................................................................................... 31 3.5.11 Appendices.. .................................................................................................................. 31

3.6 Presenting information with maps in the EA report ............................................................... .31 3.7 References and bibliography ..................................................................................................... 32

4.1 4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.0

4.7 4.8 4.9

Seven key steps .......................................................................................................................... 34

Description of baseline conditions ............................................................................................ 34 4.2.1 Collecting and analyzing existing basic documents.. ............................................. .35 4.2.2 Assembling information from different sources ..................................................... .35 4.2.3 Consultation with local residents and professionals ............................................... 35 4.2.4 The sampling design.. ................................................................................................. .35 4.2.5 The field investigations ................................................................................................ 35 4.2.6 Tracking project-induced versus natural environment changes ............................ 36

Analysis of potential environmental impacts ........................................................................... 36 4.3.1 Determining significance.. .......................................................................................... .36 4.3.2 Impact characteristics.. ................................................................................................ .36 4.3.3 Impact types ................................................................................................................. 37

Consideration of alternatives ..................................................................................................... 37 4.4.1 Alternative designs .......................... ..!. ........................................................................ 37 4.4.2 Analysis of alternatives ............................................................................................... 37

Planning remedial measures ...................................................................................................... 38 4.5.1 Avoidance ...................................................................................................................... 38 4.5.2 Mitigation ...................................................................................................................... 38 4.5.3 Including consultation in mitigation planning ......................................................... 40 4.5.4 Compensation ............................................................................................................... 41

Monitoring and evaluation.. ........................................................................................................ 41 4.6.1 Compliance monitoring ............................................................................................... 41 4.6.2 Effects monitoring (Evaluation) .................................................................................. 41

The environmental management plan (EMP) ............................................................................ 41

Documentation ............................................................................................................................ 42

Using maps in EA ........................................................................................................................ 42 4.9.1 Dealing with poor availability of maps ..................................................................... 42

iv

/!,I

4.9.2 General maps ............................................................................................................... .43 4.9.3 Thematic maps.. ............................................................................................................ 44 4.9.4 Presentation maps ....................................................................................................... .44 4.9.5 Synthesis maps.. ........................................................................................................... .44

4.10 References and bibliography.. ................................................................................................... 46

Chapter 5 Public involvement in EA 5.1 Guiding principles.. ..................................................................................................................... 48

5.1.1 Information dissemination.. ....................................................................................... .48 5.1.2 Information solicitation .............................................................................................. .48 5.1.3 Consultation.. ............................................................................................................... .48 5.1.4 Application.. .................................................................................................................. 48

5.2 When is public involvement necessary? ................................................................................. .49 5.3 Determining who should participate ......................................................................................... 49

5.3.1 Enabling the poor to participate.. .............................................................................. .50 5.3.2 Local and community participation ......................................................................... .50 5.3.3 Government agencies and research institutions ..................................................... .51 5.3.4 Non-government organizations (NGOs) ................................................................... 51

5.4 A framework for public involvement.. ...................................................................................... .52 5.5 Public involvement format ......................................................................................................... 52

5.5.1 The “open house” (Information displays and reports) .......................................... .53 5.5.2 Interview survey ........................................................................................................... 53 5.5.3 Public meetings ............................................................................................................. 53 5.5.4 Individual or group discussions.. .............................................................................. .53 5.5.5 On-site consultation.. .................................................................................................. .54 5.5.6 Rapid social appraisal .................................................................................................. 54 5.5.7 Rapid rural appraisal ................................................................................................... 54

5.6 Guide to information presentation ............................................................................................ 56 5.6.1 Written reports, newsletters, and leaflets.. ............................................................... .56 5.6.2 Graphic material ........................................................................................................... 56 5.6.3 Audio-visual aids ......................................................................................................... 57

5.7 References and bibliography .................................................................................................... .57

Chapter 6 Types of environmental impact 6.1 Impact types ................................................................................................................................ 60

6.1.1 Direct impacts ............................................................................................................... 60 6.1.2 Indirect impacts ............................................................................................................ 60 6.1.3 Cumulative impacts ..................................................................................................... 62 6.1.4 Ecosystem funcion impacts .................... . .................................................................... 62 6.1.5 Positive and negative impacts .................................................................................... 64 6.1.6 Random and predictable impacts ............................................................................... 64 6.1.7 Local and widespread impacts ................................................................................... 64 6.1.8 Temporary and permanent impacts .......................................................................... 65 6.1.9 Short- and long-term impacts ..................................................................................... 65

6.2 Impact severity ............................................................................................................................ 65


PART ii - ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, THEIR MITIGATION AND THEIR ECONOMIC VALUATION

Chapter 7 impacts on soils 7.1 Impacts and setting ..................................................................................................................... 70

7.1.1 Loss of productive soil ................................................................................................. 70 7.1.2 Erosion ........................................................................................................................... 70

V

7.1.3 Contamination of soil ................................................................................................... 72 7.1.4 Cumulative impacts ..................................................................................................... 72

7.2 Determining the nature and scale of impacts.. ........................................................................ .72

7.3 Remedial measures.. .................................................................................................................. .73 7.3.1 Prevention .................................................................................................................... .73 7.3.2 Mitigation ..................................................................................................................... .73 7.3.3 Compensation.. ............................................................................................................ .76

7.4 Reducing impacts on soils: An action checklist.. ................................................................... .77

7.5 References and bibliography.. ................................................................................................... 78

Chapter 8 Impacts on water resources 8.1

8.2

8.3

8.4

8.5

Impacts and setting.. .................................................................................................................. .82 8.1.1 Surface water flow modification ................................................................................ 82 8.1.2 Groundwater flow modification ............................................................................... .82 8.1.3 Water quality degradation (surface and groundwater) ......................................... .82

Determining the nature and scale of impacts.. ......................................................................... 82 8.2.1 Drainage modifications .............................................................................................. .82 8.2.2 Water table modification.. ........................................................................................... 83 8.2.3 Water quality degradation.. ....................................................................................... .83 8.2.4 Sensitive habitat intrusion.. ......................................................................................... 85

Remedial measures.. ................................................................................................................... 85 8.3.1 Prevention ..................................................................................................................... 85 8.3.2 Mitigation ..................................................................................................................... .85 8.3.3 Compensation.. ............................................................................................................. 86 8.3.4 Enhancement.. .............................................................................................................. .86

Minimizing impacts on water resources: An action checklist ............................................... 86

References and bibliography ..................................................................................................... 88

Chapter 9 impacts on air quality 9.1 Impacts and setting.. ................................................................................................................... 90

9.1.1 Airmass contaminants ................................................................................................ .90 9.1.2 Movement of pollutants .............................................................................................. 91 9.1.3 Impacts.. ......................................................................................................................... 93

9.2 Determining the nature and scale of impacts.. ........................................................................ .94 9.2.1 Assessment at the project level.. ................................................................................. 94 9.2.2 Measurement of roadside pollutants ........................................................................ .94 9.2.3 Computer modeling of pollutants.. ........................................................................... .94

9.3 Remedial measures ..................................................................................................................... 94 9.3.1 Prevention .................................................................................................................... .94 9.3.2 Mitigation ...................................................................................................................... 95 9.3.3 Compensation.. ............................................................................................................ .95

9.4 Minimizing impacts on air quality: An action checklist.. ....................................................... .96


Chapter 10 Impacts on flora and fauna 10.1 Impacts and setting ................................................................................................................... 100

10.1.1 Direct impacts ............................................................................................................. 100 10.1.2 Indirect impacts .......................................................................................................... 101 10.1.3 Ecosystem types and sensitivity ............................................................................... 102

10.2 Determining the nature and scale of impacts.. ....................................................................... 104 10.2.1 Extent of the project .................................................................................................... 104 10.2.2 Duration of the construction period ........................................................................ 104 10.2.3 Evaluation of the affected systems.. ........................................................................ ,104

Vi

10.2.4 Use of indicator species or groups ........................................................................... 105 10.2.5 Rapid appraisal ........................................................................................................... 106 10.2.6 Modeling ...................................................................................................................... 106 10.2.7 Useful sources of information ................................................................................... 106

10.3 Remedial measures ................................................................................................................... 106 10.3.1 Prevention ................................................................................................................... 106 10.3.2 Mitigation .................................................................................................................... 107 10.3.3 Compensation ............................................................................................................. 109

10.4 Minimizing impacts on flora and fauna: An action checklist ............................................... 109

10.5 References and bibliography ................................................................................................... 110

Chapter 11 Impacts on communities and their economic activity 11 .I impacts and setting ................................................................................................................... 114

11.1.1 The split community .................................................................................................. 114 11.1.2 The loss of roadside community business and social activity ........ . ..................... 115 11.1.3 The by-passed community ........................................................................................ 115 11.1.4 The reduced convenience of traditional modes of transport.. ............................. .116 11.1.5 The dilemma for tourism ........................................................................................... 116 11.1.6 The “culture shock” effect ............................................ ..?. ......................................... 116 11.1.7 The gentrification effect ............................................................................................. 116

11.2 Determining the nature and scale of impacts ......................................................................... 116 11.2.1 The preliminary assessment.. .................................................................................... 116 11.2.2 The social assessment ................................................................................................. 117

11.3 Remedial measures ................................................................................................................... 118 11.3.1 Prevention ................................................................................................................... 118 11.3.2 Mitigation .................................................................................................................... 118 11.3.3 Compensation.. ........................................................................................................... 119

11.4 Minimizing impacts on' communities and their economic activity: , An action checklist ................................................................................................................ 120

11.5 References and bibliography.. ................................................................................................. 120

Chapter 12

Chapter 13

Impacts arising from land acquisition and resettlement 12.1 impacts and setting ................................................................................................................... 122

12.2 Determining the nature and scale of impacts ......................................................................... 123 12.2.1 Stresses in the “host” community ............................................................................ 125

12.3 Remedial measures ................................................................................................................... 125 12.3.1 Prevention ................................................................................................................... 125 12.3.2 Mitigation.. ..................................................... . .............. . ........................................... .125 12.3.3 Compensation.. ........................................................................................................... 126

12.4 Minimizing impacts of land acquisition and resettlement: An action checklist.. .............. .127

12.5 References and bibliography.. ................................................................................................ .129

Impacts on indigenous peoples 13.1 impacts and setting ................................................................................................................... 132

13.1.1 Loss of traditional sense of identity ......................................................................... 132 13.1.2 Loss of livelihoods and violation of

traditionally-exercised land rights ........................................................................ 132 13.1.3 Health and social problems.. ..................................................................................... 133 13.1.4 Violation of rights to participate in development .................................................. 133

13.2 Determining the nature and scale of impacts ......................................................................... 134 13.2.1 Identifying the population and the affected area ................................................... 134 13.2.2 Consultation and participation ................................................................................. 134 13.2.3 The surveys ................................................................................................................. 134

vii

Chapter 14

Chapter 15

Chapter 16

13.3 Remedial measures.. ................................................................................................................. 135 13.3.1 Prevention ................................................................................................................... 135 13.3.2 Mitigation.. .................................................................................................................. 135 13.3.3 Compensation.. ........................................................................................................... 137

13.4 Minimizing impacts on indigenous peoples: An action checklist.. ..................................... .l37


Impacts on cultural heritage 14.1 impacts and setting.. ................................................................................................................. 140

14.2 Determining the nature and scale of impacts.. ...................................................................... .141 14.2.1 Preliminary assessment.. ........................................................................................... 141 14.2.2 Cultural heritage.. ...................................................................................................... .141

14.3 Remedial measures.. ................................................................................................................ .144 14.3.1 Prevention ................................................................................................................... 144 14.3.2 Mitigation.. .................................................................................................................. 144 14.3.3 Compensation.. ........................................................................................................... 145

14.4 Minimizing impacts on cultural heritage features: An action checklist.. ............................. 145


Impacts on aesthetics and landscape 15.1 Impacts and setting.. ................................................................................................................. 148

15.1.1 Links between aesthetic values and regional landscape design.. ....................... .148 15.1.2 Potential negative aesthetic impacts ........................................................................ 148

15.2 Determining the nature and scale of impacts.. ....................................................................... 149

15.3 Remedial measures.. ................................................................................................................. 150 15.3.1 Prevention ................................................................................................................... 150 15.3.2 Mitigation.:. ................................................................................................................. 150 15.3.3 Compensation.. ........................................................................................................... 152

15.4 Minimizing impacts on aesthetics and landscape: An action checklist.. ........................... .153


Impacts on the noise environment 16.1 Impacts and setting ................................................................................................................... 156

16.1.1 Sources of road noise ................................................................................................ .156 16.1.2 Road noise impacts.. ................................................................................................... 156

16.2 Determining the nature and scale of impacts.. ....................................................................... 156 16.2.1 Assessing noise impacts ............................................................................................ 158 16.2.2 Noise measurement.. .................................................................................................. 159 16.2.3 Noise level standards ................................................................................................. 160

16.3 Remedial measures .................................................................................................................. .160 16.3.1 Prevention ................................................................................................................. ..16 0 16.3.2 Mitigation .................................................................................................................... 160 16.3.3 Compensation.. ........................................................................................................... 162

16.4 Avoiding impacts on the noise environment: An action checklist ..................................... .162


Chapter 17 Impacts on human health and safety 17.1 Impacts and setting ................................................................................................................... 166

17.2 Determining the nature and scale of impacts.. ...................................................................... .166 17.2.1 Human health ............................................................................................................. 166 17.2.2 Road safety .................................................................................................................. 168

. . . Vlll

17.3 Remedial measures.. ................................................................................................................. 168 17.3.1 Prevention .................................................................................................................. .168 17.3.2 Mitigation.. ................................................................................................................. .17l 17.3.3 Compensation.. .......................................................................................................... .172

17.4 Avoiding impacts on human health and safety: An action checklist.. ................................ .172

17.5 References and bibliography.. ................................................................................................ .172

Chapter 18 Environmentally sound construction and facility management practices 18.1 New construction projects ...................................................................................................... .176

18.1.1 Settings and Impacts ................................................................................................. .176 18.1.2 Remedial measures ................................................................................................... .178

18.2 Maintenance and rehabilitation (M 81 R) projects.. ................................................................ .lSO 18.2.1 Defining maintenance and rehabilitation.. .............................................................. 180 18.2.2 Setting and Impacts .................................................................................................... 181 18.2.3 Mitigation.. .................................................................................................................. 182

18.3 The implementation of environmental requirements ............................................................ 182

18.4 Environmental risk .................................................................................................................... 182 18.4.1 The failure of mitigative measures.. ......................................................................... 182 18.4.2 Mitigative measures ................................................................................................... 184


Chapter 19 Economic valuation of the impacts of road projects on the environment 19.1 Economic valuation of environmental impacts (EVEI). ........................................................ ,188

19.1.1 The fundamental problem ......................................................................................... 188 19.1.2 Alternative institutional approaches ...................................................................... .188 19.1.3 The cost-benefit evaluation formats.. ...................................................................... .188

19.2 EVEI in the context of public involvement.. ............................................................................ 189

19.3 Procedural considerations ....................................................................................................... 190 19.3.1 Some prerequisites ..................................................................................................... 190 19.3.2 Choosing a valuation technique and scheduling the procedure.. ....................... .190

19.4 Common valuation techniques ................................................................................................ 191 19.4.1 A valuation typology ................................................................................................. 191 19.4.2 Direct valuation approaches ..................................................................................... 191 19.4.3 Surrogate market approaches.. ................................................................................ .192 19.4.4 Preventive expenditures approach .......................................................................... 193 19.4.5 Replacement cost approaches ................................................................................... 193 19.4.6 Contingent valuation approach.. .............................................................................. 194

19.5 Alternative economic format .................................................................................................... 195 19.5.1 Cost effective analysis approach .............................................................................. 195


Appendices Appendix 1 Example of environmental management plan ........................................................ 201

Appendix 2 Impact of road maintenance tasks on the environment in the Sahel.. ................ .207

Appendix 3 Guide to defining natural and social indicators

in environmental assessment ............................................................................... 213

Other sources of information .................................................................................................................................. 215

Glossary ........................................................................................................................................................................... 217

Index ................................................................................................................................................................................... 221

ix

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