Role Role AnalysisAnalysis

Chapter 6Chapter 6

By Air Cdre ( R ) Anwar SaeedBy Air Cdre ( R ) Anwar Saeed Preston UniversityPreston University

TechniquesTechniquesUsing the competencies framework, it is useful to think in terms of:Using the competencies framework, it is useful to think in terms of:

The natural competencies, ie the personality characteristics of the The natural competencies, ie the personality characteristics of the candidate, taking car to focus on those which have a direct candidate, taking car to focus on those which have a direct bearing on the successful performance of the role, rather than on bearing on the successful performance of the role, rather than on ‘desirable’ or pleasing aspects of personality which may appeal to ‘desirable’ or pleasing aspects of personality which may appeal to the selector but which provide no sound basis for influencing the selector but which provide no sound basis for influencing judgment.judgment.

The acquired competencies that will encompass formal education The acquired competencies that will encompass formal education levels, job-related qualifications, and appropriate experience, be it levels, job-related qualifications, and appropriate experience, be it the type of organization or the type of work or both.the type of organization or the type of work or both.

The adapting competencies which will look for evidence of how The adapting competencies which will look for evidence of how the candidate has applied himself or herself in his or her career, the candidate has applied himself or herself in his or her career, paying attention to the range of experiences or achievements paying attention to the range of experiences or achievements which they should record.which they should record.

Techniques for analyzing roles to identify competencies include Techniques for analyzing roles to identify competencies include activity-based techniquesactivity-based techniques such as: such as:

Focus groupsFocus groups Inventories and questionnairesInventories and questionnaires Interviews including critical incidentInterviews including critical incident Diaries and work-logsDiaries and work-logs

And And people-based techniquespeople-based techniques such as: such as: Repertory gridRepertory grid Observation Observation testingtesting

Focus GroupsFocus Groups

Focus groups involve bringing together a group of subject-matter Focus groups involve bringing together a group of subject-matter experts to analyze roles and identify the key competencies experts to analyze roles and identify the key competencies underpinning successful performance in those roles.underpinning successful performance in those roles.

The usual approach is for the group to meet on a periodic basis, The usual approach is for the group to meet on a periodic basis, the frequency of which depends on the size of the organization and the frequency of which depends on the size of the organization and the task but it usually entails fortnightly meetings over a period of the task but it usually entails fortnightly meetings over a period of months.months.

The focus group will look at a cross-representation of roles in the The focus group will look at a cross-representation of roles in the organization. It is customary to define the roles which cover about organization. It is customary to define the roles which cover about 80 percent of the work population.80 percent of the work population.

The group will look at the roles, usually through a presentation by a The group will look at the roles, usually through a presentation by a member of group, and focus on the key elements.member of group, and focus on the key elements.

Focus GroupsFocus Groups

This provides the group with an understanding of the nature of This provides the group with an understanding of the nature of the role and its deliverables. The latter is usually best the role and its deliverables. The latter is usually best acquired by seeking performance indicators for the role, (ie acquired by seeking performance indicators for the role, (ie the measures of how the role is successfully fulfilled) the measures of how the role is successfully fulfilled) attempting to use objective yardsticks.attempting to use objective yardsticks.

When all the roles have been reviewed, the group should When all the roles have been reviewed, the group should list all the qualities that have been identified, and then list all the qualities that have been identified, and then using postcards or post-it notes, sort them into clusters.using postcards or post-it notes, sort them into clusters.

Inventories and QuestionnairesInventories and Questionnaires Where jobs are well defined and predictable in terms of the tasks Where jobs are well defined and predictable in terms of the tasks

and activities required, it is useful to use the inventory (sometimes and activities required, it is useful to use the inventory (sometimes called questionnaire or check-list) technique.called questionnaire or check-list) technique.

This approach takes the range of job requirements and breaks This approach takes the range of job requirements and breaks them into segments of key task which are then sub-divided into them into segments of key task which are then sub-divided into day-to-day activities. day-to-day activities.

This breaks the role down into a very significant degree of detail, This breaks the role down into a very significant degree of detail, an activity could, for example, be described as ‘checking, coding an activity could, for example, be described as ‘checking, coding and registering invoice’.and registering invoice’.

The range of tasks and activities is usually developed by The range of tasks and activities is usually developed by observing the jobs in action and discussions with job holders observing the jobs in action and discussions with job holders and/or managers.and/or managers.

There are some proprietary check-lists which may form a short-cut There are some proprietary check-lists which may form a short-cut in appropriate circumstances. in appropriate circumstances.

A preliminary range of attributes or competencies is developed A preliminary range of attributes or competencies is developed from the observations and interviews. from the observations and interviews.

Inventories and QuestionnairesInventories and Questionnaires A questionnaire is then developed to seek information from the A questionnaire is then developed to seek information from the

job holder on the criticality of the tasks and information from the job holder on the criticality of the tasks and information from the manager and/or job holder on the link between the competencies manager and/or job holder on the link between the competencies or attributes and the tasks.or attributes and the tasks.

This is achieved by asking the job holder to rate, against each of This is achieved by asking the job holder to rate, against each of the activities, a score for elements such as:the activities, a score for elements such as:

The time taken to do the workThe time taken to do the work The complexity of the workThe complexity of the work The consequences of errorThe consequences of error

The ratings are then multiplied so that the greater the amount of The ratings are then multiplied so that the greater the amount of time taken and the greater the complexity and the consequence time taken and the greater the complexity and the consequence of error, then the greater the overall rating for that particular task of error, then the greater the overall rating for that particular task will be.will be.

This analysis provides us with the criticality of the tasks. This analysis provides us with the criticality of the tasks. The next stage is to rate, on a matrix, the importance of each The next stage is to rate, on a matrix, the importance of each

competency or attribute to the performance of each of the competency or attribute to the performance of each of the activities.activities.

Inventories and QuestionnairesInventories and Questionnaires This is most usually undertaken by the manager of the job This is most usually undertaken by the manager of the job

holder rather than by the job holders themselves, since this holder rather than by the job holders themselves, since this provides a more authoritative view of the required attributes.provides a more authoritative view of the required attributes.

In practice, however, it is very useful also to gauge the job In practice, however, it is very useful also to gauge the job holder’s view, preferably in discussion with the line manager, holder’s view, preferably in discussion with the line manager, to provide a closer-related and balance assessment.to provide a closer-related and balance assessment.

The importance of the competency is then determined by The importance of the competency is then determined by totaling the scores for the competency against each of the totaling the scores for the competency against each of the task, the rating may cover a scale from ‘not required’ to task, the rating may cover a scale from ‘not required’ to ‘essential’.‘essential’.

Thus, for each activity the rater is saying how essential that Thus, for each activity the rater is saying how essential that particular competency is to performing the activity.particular competency is to performing the activity.

Critical IncidentCritical Incident

This technique involves interviewing job holders and/or manager This technique involves interviewing job holders and/or manager and is focused on identifying specific events that form a critical and is focused on identifying specific events that form a critical part of the role.part of the role.

Interviewees are usually asked to describe recent experiences in Interviewees are usually asked to describe recent experiences in their work and the interviewer will identify a particular occurrence, their work and the interviewer will identify a particular occurrence, usually of some significance, and probe the interviewee on the usually of some significance, and probe the interviewee on the actions taken and the outcome. actions taken and the outcome.

Through the process of structured interviewing of a number of job Through the process of structured interviewing of a number of job holders or managers it becomes possible for the interviewer to holders or managers it becomes possible for the interviewer to infer the attributes and competencies which the job holder draws infer the attributes and competencies which the job holder draws upon in order to deal successfully with the critical incidents. upon in order to deal successfully with the critical incidents.

Critical IncidentCritical Incident One of the important considerations here is that the One of the important considerations here is that the

interviewer is not concerned with identifying an exhaustive list interviewer is not concerned with identifying an exhaustive list of the full range of attributes and competencies required to of the full range of attributes and competencies required to perform the role, but is rather more concerned with those perform the role, but is rather more concerned with those aspects which are used in the more demanding or challenging aspects which are used in the more demanding or challenging situations and are thus likely to be the differentiators between situations and are thus likely to be the differentiators between various levels of performance and coping.various levels of performance and coping.

One of the advantages of this technique is that by One of the advantages of this technique is that by focusing directly on the attributes and competencies, the focusing directly on the attributes and competencies, the normal difficulties of trying to make the transition normal difficulties of trying to make the transition between the analysis of the work and the identification of between the analysis of the work and the identification of the competencies is overcome.the competencies is overcome.

Diaries and work logsDiaries and work logs

Diaries or work logs involve the job holders in Diaries or work logs involve the job holders in maintaining records about themselves over a period of maintaining records about themselves over a period of time, from which the appropriate competencies may be time, from which the appropriate competencies may be deduced.deduced.

There are two ways in which the approach can be used.There are two ways in which the approach can be used.

The first approach is a diary system in which job holders The first approach is a diary system in which job holders log the activities they undertake at various periods log the activities they undertake at various periods throughout the day, either on a time sampling basis (ie at throughout the day, either on a time sampling basis (ie at various time points in the day they enter the work on various time points in the day they enter the work on which they are engaged) or on a sequential basis listing which they are engaged) or on a sequential basis listing down the times they start and complete each of their key down the times they start and complete each of their key activities.activities.

Diaries and work logsDiaries and work logs

The second approach is a factor-based log which lists The second approach is a factor-based log which lists key criteria, perhaps in the form of competencies, and key criteria, perhaps in the form of competencies, and job holders are asked to record each time these are job holders are asked to record each time these are employed. For example, the list may contain perhaps 20 employed. For example, the list may contain perhaps 20 factors which may include elements such as decision factors which may include elements such as decision making and accuracy.making and accuracy.

These are listed on a pro-forma and on each occasion These are listed on a pro-forma and on each occasion the job holder is required to engage in decision making the job holder is required to engage in decision making or accuracy, he or she will note down the date and time or accuracy, he or she will note down the date and time and the specific example of the work in which they are and the specific example of the work in which they are involved and which needed them to use decision making involved and which needed them to use decision making or accuracy.or accuracy.

Repertory gridRepertory grid

One of the key principles in using competencies is the One of the key principles in using competencies is the requirement to differentiate between superior, average, and requirement to differentiate between superior, average, and poor levels of performance.poor levels of performance.

Repertory grid is a process by which the differences between Repertory grid is a process by which the differences between performers is analyzed in order to draw out the competencies performers is analyzed in order to draw out the competencies that cause such performance differences.that cause such performance differences.

The repertory grid is undertaken through a series of interviews The repertory grid is undertaken through a series of interviews with managers.with managers.

In the interviews, managers are asked to place people in In the interviews, managers are asked to place people in various categories of performance, usually poor, average, and various categories of performance, usually poor, average, and superior. superior.

Repertory gridRepertory grid

To assist in the process the interviewer usually uses a set of To assist in the process the interviewer usually uses a set of cards on which the names of the people are written.cards on which the names of the people are written.

It is important in this process that the interview is framed around It is important in this process that the interview is framed around real people and real examples, albiet that they do not need to be real people and real examples, albiet that they do not need to be current or concurrent. current or concurrent.

The interviewer prompts the manager to describe some of The interviewer prompts the manager to describe some of the examples of performance which differentiate between the examples of performance which differentiate between the superior, average, and poor performers.the superior, average, and poor performers.

The interviewer will focus on certain elements, often taking a The interviewer will focus on certain elements, often taking a draft set of competencies, and probe the manager on the draft set of competencies, and probe the manager on the differences between the different people.differences between the different people.

ObservationObservation

One of the relatively simple methods of job analysis is to observe One of the relatively simple methods of job analysis is to observe job holders in the normal course of their work, often accompanied job holders in the normal course of their work, often accompanied by unstructured interviews. by unstructured interviews.

In this approach the observer is able to see the work at first hand In this approach the observer is able to see the work at first hand and witness the behaviors associated with varying levels of and witness the behaviors associated with varying levels of performance. performance.

The observer will need to be skilled in the analysis of The observer will need to be skilled in the analysis of competencies since he or she will be required to deduce the competencies since he or she will be required to deduce the competencies from the activities being observe. competencies from the activities being observe.

It is, however the least disruptive method from the point of view of It is, however the least disruptive method from the point of view of job holders and managers, through there is certain disruptive job holders and managers, through there is certain disruptive element in people standing around observing. element in people standing around observing.

Observation Observation

Although the observation may appear to be ‘informal’ it will Although the observation may appear to be ‘informal’ it will usually entail the pre-development of a checklist of important usually entail the pre-development of a checklist of important or critical behaviors which the observer will be using as a or critical behaviors which the observer will be using as a guide. guide.

The observations process can therefore often take the form The observations process can therefore often take the form of two stages,of two stages,

The first stage being the drafting of the various kinds of The first stage being the drafting of the various kinds of behaviors into a record form. behaviors into a record form.

The second stage is then using the form as the recording The second stage is then using the form as the recording mechanism for the observation.mechanism for the observation.

TestingTesting

An effective but sensitive approach to identifying the An effective but sensitive approach to identifying the competencies is to use psychometric tests on a range of job competencies is to use psychometric tests on a range of job holders, and correlate the results of the test with job holders, and correlate the results of the test with job performance, in order to identify differentiating performance, in order to identify differentiating characteristics. For this to work it is essential that there are characteristics. For this to work it is essential that there are measures of performance available which properly class measures of performance available which properly class poor, average, and superior performance. A group of poor, average, and superior performance. A group of people, spread across the different ranges of performance, people, spread across the different ranges of performance, is asked to complete a series of tests, usually comprising is asked to complete a series of tests, usually comprising both ability and personality tests. The results of the test are both ability and personality tests. The results of the test are then compared with the performance rating, and significant then compared with the performance rating, and significant correlations will identify the key competencies.correlations will identify the key competencies.

Suitability: Advantages:

Focus group Inventories Critical incidents

Work logs Repertory grid Observation Testing

People are involved. Easily analyzed. People are involved.

Modeled for predicting the outcome of future work changes.

People are involved.

Don’t predetermine the outcome of analysis by confining the responses to predetermined formats

Focus on key aspects

Describe & identify competencies.

Modeled for predicting the outcome of future work changes.

Describe & identify competencies.

Easily analyzed. Describe & identify competencies.

Effective in picking up unexpected competencies

Differentiate on performance

Easily analyzed. Focus on key aspects Avoid bias Avoid bias

Modeled for predicting the outcome of future work changes.

Differentiate on performance

Don’t predetermine the outcome of analysis by confining the responses to predetermined formats

Don’t predetermine the outcome of analysis by confining the responses to predetermined formats

Effective in picking up unexpected competencies

Effective in picking up unexpected competencies

Avoid bias

Disadvantages:

Focus group Inventories Critical incidents

Work logs Repertory grid Observation Testing

Rely on view points of effective performance ,is that biases about the way in which jobs should be performed creep into process

Intimidating. People feel uncomfortable at being watched &read their diaries.

Rely on view points of effective performance ,is that biases about the way in which jobs should be performed creep into process

Sensitive (people feel threatened)

Sensitive (people feel threatened)

Gender differences in thinking & perception

Additional burden imposed

Gender differences in thinking & perception

People feel uncomfortable at being watched &read their diaries.

Need skilled practitioners

Need skilled practitioners

Unstructured leap b/w activities undertaken & competencies req.

Unstructured leap b/w activities undertaken & competencies req.

biasness biasness

Choosing Techniques

Chapter 7

SuitabilitySuitability

It is important when choosing the technique to focus on It is important when choosing the technique to focus on the aspect which it is intended to measure. the aspect which it is intended to measure.

This becomes much easier when a competency-based This becomes much easier when a competency-based approach is used. Using the competencies framework it approach is used. Using the competencies framework it is possible to look at the most suitable techniques for is possible to look at the most suitable techniques for natural competencies, acquired competencies, adapting natural competencies, acquired competencies, adapting or performing competencies. Natural competencies (ie or performing competencies. Natural competencies (ie the underlying personality traits and characteristics) can the underlying personality traits and characteristics) can be identified through the use of personality tests or be identified through the use of personality tests or structured behavioral interviews.structured behavioral interviews.

Resources and CostsResources and Costs

Selection techniques differ widely in their resource Selection techniques differ widely in their resource requirements and support costs. It is, however, important requirements and support costs. It is, however, important to look at costs in the complete sense of development to look at costs in the complete sense of development costs, production costs, and usage costs.costs, production costs, and usage costs.

Consideration also needs to be given to whether the Consideration also needs to be given to whether the technique is to be used for screening or selection technique is to be used for screening or selection decisions since the number of applicants screened will decisions since the number of applicants screened will usually be greater than the number of candidates being usually be greater than the number of candidates being assessed in the final selection, and in some cases the assessed in the final selection, and in some cases the screening process will need to deal with very high screening process will need to deal with very high volumes.volumes.

EffectivenessEffectiveness The effectiveness of any selection technique is of great The effectiveness of any selection technique is of great

importance since the amount of resource or cost devoted importance since the amount of resource or cost devoted to it or the degree of reliance placed upon it must be to it or the degree of reliance placed upon it must be influenced by its accuracy.influenced by its accuracy.

It may therefore seem surprising that hard evidence on a It may therefore seem surprising that hard evidence on a comparative effectiveness of different selection comparative effectiveness of different selection techniques is not available, although some studies have techniques is not available, although some studies have been undertaken to compare results of the studies of been undertaken to compare results of the studies of each technique carried out separately.each technique carried out separately.

AcceptabilityAcceptability Client acceptabilityClient acceptability Candidate acceptabilityCandidate acceptability Ethical and legal acceptability.Ethical and legal acceptability.

Acceptability:Acceptability:Acceptability may be overlooked in a number of ways:Acceptability may be overlooked in a number of ways: Client acceptabilityClient acceptability Candidate acceptabilityCandidate acceptability Legal and ethical considerationsLegal and ethical considerations

Acceptability to clients:Acceptability to clients: Interviews can feel uncomfortable with interviewers being conscious of their Interviews can feel uncomfortable with interviewers being conscious of their

own performance.own performance. Structured interviews overcome these problems.Structured interviews overcome these problems. Bio data creates discomfort and difficult to graspBio data creates discomfort and difficult to grasp Ability tests create discomfort in treating candidates as schoolchildren rather Ability tests create discomfort in treating candidates as schoolchildren rather

than adults.than adults. Personality tests are sometimes seen as rather vague and meaningless Personality tests are sometimes seen as rather vague and meaningless

questions.questions. Assessment centers can be seen as tedious, time consuming and overly Assessment centers can be seen as tedious, time consuming and overly

academic.academic.

Acceptability to candidates:Acceptability to candidates:

Contradictions on selection techniques.Contradictions on selection techniques. Candidates may feel irritated by filling poorly designed application Candidates may feel irritated by filling poorly designed application

forms.forms. Panel interviews are regarded as more intimidating than one to one Panel interviews are regarded as more intimidating than one to one

interview.interview. Bio data data has mix review , with some studies showing that Bio data data has mix review , with some studies showing that

candidates perceive it to be less invasive than ability tests and other candidates perceive it to be less invasive than ability tests and other techniques.techniques.

Ability tests are proven to be more difficult for older workers, while Ability tests are proven to be more difficult for older workers, while graduates and schoolchildren may view it as unduly hard.graduates and schoolchildren may view it as unduly hard.

Assessment centers if properly handled. Can even be enjoyed by Assessment centers if properly handled. Can even be enjoyed by candidates.candidates.

Ethical and legal considerations:Ethical and legal considerations:

Important because there are many opportunities for unfair Important because there are many opportunities for unfair discrimination that creep in selection process.discrimination that creep in selection process.

Application forms and bio data are not in themselves Application forms and bio data are not in themselves discriminatory except in case of people with sight discriminatory except in case of people with sight difficulties.difficulties.

Discriminatory decisions can be made from the interviewDiscriminatory decisions can be made from the interview Vocabulary and tone of answers from Asian candidates Vocabulary and tone of answers from Asian candidates

make it difficult for interviewer to evaluate the response.make it difficult for interviewer to evaluate the response. Key elements in ensuring ethical and legal acceptability of Key elements in ensuring ethical and legal acceptability of

any selection technique is to ensure that the criteria which any selection technique is to ensure that the criteria which have been set are free from bias and relevant to the have been set are free from bias and relevant to the performance of role.performance of role.