Redefining Translation Redefining Translation Competence in an Competence in an

Electronic AgeElectronic AgeIn Defence of a Minimalist In Defence of a Minimalist

ApproachApproachProf. ANTHONY PYMProf. ANTHONY PYMMeta, XLVIII 4, 2003Meta, XLVIII 4, 2003

Anthony PymAnthony Pymhttp://www.tinet.cat/~apym/http://www.tinet.cat/~apym/

Agenda 2010 Agenda 2010

Feb. 15 - 19: Tangier Feb. 15 - 19: Tangier (Marrocos)(Marrocos)

May 15- June 15. Beijing May 15- June 15. Beijing (aka Peking) (aka Peking)

June 5: Rikkyo University, June 5: Rikkyo University, Japan Japan

June 3 - 5 Cognition and June 3 - 5 Cognition and Translation, Murcia (SE da Translation, Murcia (SE da Espanha)Espanha)

July 23 - 25. July 23 - 25. Found in translation, Kuala Lumpur (Malasia) (Malasia)

July-August: Sao Paulo July-August: Sao Paulo

Redefining Translation Redefining Translation Competence in an Electronic AgeCompetence in an Electronic Age

Approaches to translation competence:Approaches to translation competence: A mode of bilingualismA mode of bilingualism A question of market demandsA question of market demands A multicomponent competenceA multicomponent competence A “supercompetence” that stands A “supercompetence” that stands

above the restabove the rest

O que é a competência tradutóriaO que é a competência tradutória

Wolfram Wilss, 1976 Wolfram Wilss, 1976 ””First, he notes rather depressingly, his First, he notes rather depressingly, his

infant Applied Science of Translationinfant Applied Science of Translationcannot provide a satisfactory answer to the cannot provide a satisfactory answer to the

question of the question of the professional minimumprofessional minimumqualificationqualification of a translator, above all, of a translator, above all,

because translational competence as a because translational competence as a uniform qualification for translational work uniform qualification for translational work is, to all intents and purposes, is, to all intents and purposes, nonexistent nonexistent and probably also nondefinableand probably also nondefinable. (1976: . (1976: 119)119)

So “competence” cannot be confused with So “competence” cannot be confused with questions of professional qualifications, no questions of professional qualifications, no matter how much teachers might worry matter how much teachers might worry about training students for the workplace. about training students for the workplace. This makes sense, since This makes sense, since qualifications qualifications change with technologychange with technology and social and social demandsdemands, bringing in bundles of history , bringing in bundles of history that are simply too big for the eternalthat are simply too big for the eternal

generalities of a science. generalities of a science.

Noções de competência tradutóriaNoções de competência tradutória

Wilss’s second point : apparently,Wilss’s second point : apparently,

the translator needs the translator needs eight eight “competence ranges“competence ranges,” each with two ,” each with two subcategories (for the two languages subcategories (for the two languages involved), giving a grand total of involved), giving a grand total of sixteen compartments for all thesixteen compartments for all the

things that trainees should learn to things that trainees should learn to do with language.do with language.

The third idea: Wilss notes that “both The third idea: Wilss notes that “both subcompetences [those of the two subcompetences [those of the two languages concerned] are in languages concerned] are in complementary relation with each complementary relation with each other and together constitute the other and together constitute the basis of translational competence”basis of translational competence”

However, as if things had not become However, as if things had not become confusing enough, Wilss’s fourth and finalconfusing enough, Wilss’s fourth and final

point would seem to say something quite point would seem to say something quite different. Now translation competence isdifferent. Now translation competence is

““clearly marked off from the four traditional clearly marked off from the four traditional monolingual skills: listening, speaking,monolingual skills: listening, speaking,

reading, and writing,” thus becoming reading, and writing,” thus becoming something like a “supercompetence” something like a “supercompetence” (120).(120).

So we find in the early Wilss a claim that there is no such thing as translationcompetence, then a multicomponent definition of it, a two-language-summationmodel, and final mention of a mysterious metacompetence, all in the space of twopages! Which of those ideas was to win the day?

Competence as a summation of Competence as a summation of linguistic competencieslinguistic competencies

“ “ the translator ‘must have an SL [source-the translator ‘must have an SL [source-language] text-analytical competence and language] text-analytical competence and a corresponding TL [target-language] text-a corresponding TL [target-language] text-reproductive competence”reproductive competence”

Translators are people who are competent Translators are people who are competent in two languages, and their work clearly in two languages, and their work clearly involves putting those two competencies involves putting those two competencies together.together.

E na hora de treinar tradutores???E na hora de treinar tradutores???

Wilss, Science of Translation (1982)Wilss, Science of Translation (1982)

Competence as no such thingCompetence as no such thing

Chomsky had distinguished between Chomsky had distinguished between “competence” and “performance,”“competence” and “performance,”

which could be mapped very loosely onto which could be mapped very loosely onto Saussure’s distinction between langue andSaussure’s distinction between langue and

parole. So the term “translation parole. So the term “translation competence” should have referred to a competence” should have referred to a kind of systemic knowledge underlying the kind of systemic knowledge underlying the actual performances of translators, in the actual performances of translators, in the same way a grammar underlies the use of same way a grammar underlies the use of speech. speech.

The early Koller (1979: 185) neverthelessThe early Koller (1979: 185) neverthelessheld held translation competencetranslation competence to be qualitatively to be qualitatively

different from different from linguistic competencelinguistic competencein the same way that speech (parole) is different in the same way that speech (parole) is different

from tongue (langue), which wouldfrom tongue (langue), which wouldin fact put translation competence on the in fact put translation competence on the

“performance” side of the Chomskyan“performance” side of the Chomskyandivide. That is, this particular kind of competence divide. That is, this particular kind of competence

concerned the actual use of language, no matter concerned the actual use of language, no matter how firmly Chomskyan linguistics had anchored how firmly Chomskyan linguistics had anchored the term “competence” on the other side of its the term “competence” on the other side of its divides. divides.

By 1988 Wilss was doing psycholinguistics, appealing to a By 1988 Wilss was doing psycholinguistics, appealing to a cognitive approach in which translation competence was a cognitive approach in which translation competence was a summation of declarative knowledge and “summation of declarative knowledge and “knowledge of knowledge of translation processestranslation processes” (übersetzungsprozessuale Wissen), ” (übersetzungsprozessuale Wissen), although the nature of the latter was still far from clear. although the nature of the latter was still far from clear.

In 1989 we find Wilss using the alternative vocabulary of In 1989 we find Wilss using the alternative vocabulary of ““skillsskills” (Fertigkeiten);” (Fertigkeiten);

in 1992 he was ready to abandon “competence” altogether in 1992 he was ready to abandon “competence” altogether and replace it with the more pedagogical term “and replace it with the more pedagogical term “proficiencyproficiency” ” (1992: 185). (1992: 185).

Lörscher, writing in terms of psycholinguistics in 1991, Lörscher, writing in terms of psycholinguistics in 1991, similarly claimed not to need “competence” at all; he similarly claimed not to need “competence” at all; he somehow thought the oncept was not concerned with somehow thought the oncept was not concerned with actual translation processes (1991: 2), which meant he actual translation processes (1991: 2), which meant he could happily get by with talk of “could happily get by with talk of “strategiesstrategies” being used to ” being used to solve problems. solve problems.

Nor was there any particular terminological problem when Nor was there any particular terminological problem when an even more mature Wilss (1996: 4) referred to an even more mature Wilss (1996: 4) referred to sociolinguistics to describe the use of languages as “code-sociolinguistics to describe the use of languages as “code-sharing,” such that sharing,” such that translation becomes a case of “code-translation becomes a case of “code-switchingswitching” (a valuable insight that seems not to have been ” (a valuable insight that seems not to have been picked up anyone else). picked up anyone else).

Shreve (1997: 130) draws on cognitive linguistics, Shreve (1997: 130) draws on cognitive linguistics, describing language competencies as “describing language competencies as “mapping mapping abilitiesabilities,” thus allowing translation competence to ,” thus allowing translation competence to become the process by which a translator can become the process by which a translator can “map map-“map map-

pings.” pings.” Risku (1998) names her object as “Risku (1998) names her object as “translatorial translatorial

competencecompetence” but then immediately switches to ” but then immediately switches to the discourse of “the discourse of “expertiseexpertise,” established as a key ,” established as a key term since the mid-1980s (cf. Holz-Mänttäri term since the mid-1980s (cf. Holz-Mänttäri 1984). 1984).

Schäffner and Adab (2000: x) explicitly accept Schäffner and Adab (2000: x) explicitly accept that “competence” involves any number of other that “competence” involves any number of other terms; they actually propose that it be accepted terms; they actually propose that it be accepted as as “a cover term and summative concept for the “a cover term and summative concept for the overall performance ability which seems so overall performance ability which seems so difficult to definedifficult to define””

Competence as multicomponentialCompetence as multicomponential

Bell (1991) describes translator Bell (1991) describes translator competence as a competence as a huge summationhuge summation: target-: target-language knowledge, text-type knowledge, language knowledge, text-type knowledge, source-language knowledge, subject area source-language knowledge, subject area (“real-world”) knowledge, contrastive (“real-world”) knowledge, contrastive knowledge, then decoding and encoding knowledge, then decoding and encoding skills summarized as “communicative skills summarized as “communicative competence” (covering grammar, competence” (covering grammar, sociolinguistics and discourse). sociolinguistics and discourse).

Neubert (1994: 412) offers “language Neubert (1994: 412) offers “language competence,” “subject competence” and competence,” “subject competence” and “transfer competence” as the three main “transfer competence” as the three main components. components.

Lee-Jahnke reduces the translator’sLee-Jahnke reduces the translator’s

““objective knowledge” to three different objective knowledge” to three different heads: mother tongue, foreign tongue andheads: mother tongue, foreign tongue and

““sociocultural background” (1997: 178). sociocultural background” (1997: 178).

Hatim and Mason (1997: 204-206), working from Hatim and Mason (1997: 204-206), working from Bachman (1990), present a traditional three-part Bachman (1990), present a traditional three-part competence inherited from linguistics (competence inherited from linguistics (ST ST processing, transfer, TT processingprocessing, transfer, TT processing) and then ) and then name a handful of name a handful of skillsskills for each of those heads. for each of those heads.

Hewson (1995) adds something called “cultural Hewson (1995) adds something called “cultural and professional elements” (108), where the and professional elements” (108), where the “professional” part refers to “remuneration “professional” part refers to “remuneration professional elements” (108), where the professional elements” (108), where the ““professionalprofessional” part refers to “remuneration” part refers to “remuneration

[…] access to and use of proper dictionaries and […] access to and use of proper dictionaries and data banks, access to equivalent material in the data banks, access to equivalent material in the second language, practical knowledge of word-second language, practical knowledge of word-processors and peripherals, and so on”processors and peripherals, and so on”

Hurtado (1996) breaks down translation Hurtado (1996) breaks down translation competence into competence into linguisticlinguistic, , extralinguisticextralinguistic, , textualtextual (comprehension and production), (comprehension and production), generalgeneral “professional skills,” and “transfer “professional skills,” and “transfer competence” (competencia translatoria, competence” (competencia translatoria, later called competencia de transferencia), later called competencia de transferencia), described in a Harris-like way as “a described in a Harris-like way as “a predisposition to change from one predisposition to change from one language to another without language to another without interferences” (1996: 34). interferences” (1996: 34).

Presas (1997) allows for language-based core Presas (1997) allows for language-based core competencies (competencies (ST reception, production of a draft ST reception, production of a draft TT, production of a final TTTT, production of a final TT) and then adds a ) and then adds a series of “peripheral competencies” that include series of “peripheral competencies” that include the use of dictionaries, documentation, area the use of dictionaries, documentation, area knowledge, uses of briefs, and technological knowledge, uses of briefs, and technological tools.tools.

In a later text (1998), the same author adds In a later text (1998), the same author adds “adequate memory configuration,”“flexibility of “adequate memory configuration,”“flexibility of code-switching” and “interference control” as code-switching” and “interference control” as components of a specifically “components of a specifically “pretranslationpretranslation” ” competence. competence.

What is truly remarkable here is how long it took What is truly remarkable here is how long it took definitions of competence to include reference to definitions of competence to include reference to the the client’sclient’s brief (Auftrag, “instructions,” brief (Auftrag, “instructions,” “commission”), a key point in German-language “commission”), a key point in German-language Skopostheorie since 1984.Skopostheorie since 1984.

In Fraser (2000) we find further development of In Fraser (2000) we find further development of this line, where freelance translators describe this line, where freelance translators describe their competence in terms of “a detailed briefing their competence in terms of “a detailed briefing and resources for the job in hand, coupled with and resources for the job in hand, coupled with feedback and evaluation of the finished feedback and evaluation of the finished translation in terms of translation in terms of how well it fulfils its how well it fulfils its purpose or meets its readers’ needspurpose or meets its readers’ needs” (60). ” (60).

Mayoral (2001: 109) insists on components Mayoral (2001: 109) insists on components including “common sense (above all), curiosity, including “common sense (above all), curiosity, ability to communicate, capacity for self-criticism, ability to communicate, capacity for self-criticism, meticulousness, ability to synthesize, etc.” meticulousness, ability to synthesize, etc.”

In Douglas Robinson’s Becoming a Translator In Douglas Robinson’s Becoming a Translator (1997) we find serious attention to the real-world (1997) we find serious attention to the real-world necessities of good typing speeds, Internet necessities of good typing speeds, Internet discussion groups, and working with a computer discussion groups, and working with a computer in a room at the right temperature (sic).in a room at the right temperature (sic).

For that matter, Pym (1992) has pointed out the For that matter, Pym (1992) has pointed out the strategic benefits of wearing a good suit and tie, strategic benefits of wearing a good suit and tie, especially on days when you have a hangover.especially on days when you have a hangover.

And the ever-present Wilss (1996: And the ever-present Wilss (1996: 11), with the irony of the wise, 11), with the irony of the wise, recognizes that timeliness is an recognizes that timeliness is an essential requisite of translators essential requisite of translators (“fast is smart”).(“fast is smart”).

Why was the time factor not Why was the time factor not mentioned in any of Wilss’s earlier mentioned in any of Wilss’s earlier formulations?formulations?

Indeed, why were these many Indeed, why were these many necessary things absent from almost necessary things absent from almost all the initial definitions? all the initial definitions?

And why should the lists of And why should the lists of components seem to have grown components seem to have grown larger over the years? larger over the years?

Any number of things can be included Any number of things can be included under the label of “translation under the label of “translation competence.” competence.”

the evolution of the translation profession the evolution of the translation profession itself has radically fragmented the range itself has radically fragmented the range of activities involved. of activities involved.

In the 1970s, In the 1970s, translators basically translators basically translatedtranslated. In our own age, translators are . In our own age, translators are called upon to do much more:called upon to do much more:

documentation, terminology, rewritingdocumentation, terminology, rewriting, , and the gamut of activities associated with and the gamut of activities associated with the the localizationlocalization industry. industry.

Multicomponentiality has undoubtedly Multicomponentiality has undoubtedly followed the fragmentary developmentfollowed the fragmentary development

of the profession; it is obviously a response of the profession; it is obviously a response to interdisciplinarity and the break withto interdisciplinarity and the break with

linguistics; but institutionally it operates as a linguistics; but institutionally it operates as a political defence of a certain model ofpolitical defence of a certain model of

translator training. And that model is not translator training. And that model is not the only one, nor necessarily the best.the only one, nor necessarily the best.

Competence as just one thingCompetence as just one thing

Hans P. Krings (1986) produced a typology Hans P. Krings (1986) produced a typology of of translation problemstranslation problems in which some in which some concerned ST comprehension,concerned ST comprehension,

others had to do with target-language skills, others had to do with target-language skills, and a third group involved strictlyand a third group involved strictly

interlingual questionsinterlingual questions. This third group was . This third group was then labeled “then labeled “translation competencetranslation competence” ” problems.problems.

Can empirical research be of help? Undoubtedly yes. Our Can empirical research be of help? Undoubtedly yes. Our models and definition must be able to make sense of reams models and definition must be able to make sense of reams of data on many levels (translations, errors, doubts, of data on many levels (translations, errors, doubts, expectations, time constraints, whatever), and should expectations, time constraints, whatever), and should ideally do so in a way that makes the models and ideally do so in a way that makes the models and definitions falsifiable (this aspect has been sadly missing).definitions falsifiable (this aspect has been sadly missing).

Then again, no, the key step resides in the intellectual task Then again, no, the key step resides in the intellectual task of staking out the field of study in the first place. And there, of staking out the field of study in the first place. And there, in the production of a definition, the problem is not just to in the production of a definition, the problem is not just to account for data; it is also to approach some kind of account for data; it is also to approach some kind of consensus among the translation community, it should consensus among the translation community, it should orient research, and it should ideally focus training.orient research, and it should ideally focus training.

In all of this, a definition can look as scientific as you like, In all of this, a definition can look as scientific as you like, but it can never really remain neutral. As we shall now see.but it can never really remain neutral. As we shall now see.

A minimalist definitionA minimalist definition As an interpersonal activity working on As an interpersonal activity working on

texts (of whatever length or fragmentarytexts (of whatever length or fragmentarystatus), the training of translators involves status), the training of translators involves

the creation of the following two-fold the creation of the following two-fold functional competence (cf. Pym 1991):functional competence (cf. Pym 1991):

• • The ability to The ability to generate a series of more generate a series of more than one viable target textthan one viable target text (TTI , TT2 … (TTI , TT2 … TTn) for a pertinent source text (ST);TTn) for a pertinent source text (ST);

• • The The ability to select only one viableability to select only one viable TT TT from this series, quickly and with justifiedfrom this series, quickly and with justified

confidence.confidence.

There can be no doubt that translators There can be no doubt that translators need to know a fair amount of grammar, need to know a fair amount of grammar, rhetoric, terminology, computer skills, rhetoric, terminology, computer skills, Internet savvy, world knowledge, Internet savvy, world knowledge, teamwork cooperation, strategies for teamwork cooperation, strategies for getting paid correctly, and the rest, but getting paid correctly, and the rest, but the specifically translational part of their the specifically translational part of their practice is strictly neither linguistic nor practice is strictly neither linguistic nor solely commercial. It is a solely commercial. It is a process of process of generation and selectiongeneration and selection, a , a problem-problem-solving processsolving process that often occurs with that often occurs with apparent automatism.apparent automatism.

A defence of minimalismA defence of minimalism Our definition thus has the virtue of its limitations. It does Our definition thus has the virtue of its limitations. It does

not say that there is any ideal professional profile; it does not say that there is any ideal professional profile; it does not assume that no other major competencies will ever mix not assume that no other major competencies will ever mix with this one. On the contrary, we would be more than with this one. On the contrary, we would be more than comfortable with the assumption that comfortable with the assumption that such mixes are such mixes are increasingly the normincreasingly the norm, and that translation competence , and that translation competence may often be a minor component in the range of skills may often be a minor component in the range of skills required of intercultural professionals. required of intercultural professionals.

As Gouadec puts it, “translators require a multicompetenceAs Gouadec puts it, “translators require a multicompetencebecause they must also work as because they must also work as documentalists, documentalists,

terminologists, writersterminologists, writers, etc., BUT it is time we recognized , etc., BUT it is time we recognized the professional distinctions of these activities” (1991: the professional distinctions of these activities” (1991: 543).543).

The discontinuity with language The discontinuity with language learninglearning

A minimalist approach should ideally A minimalist approach should ideally enable a enable a clearer distinction between clearer distinction between translator training and language translator training and language learninglearning. The latter should be at least . The latter should be at least to some extent analytical, rule-bound to some extent analytical, rule-bound and grammar-oriented, whereas the and grammar-oriented, whereas the training of translators should be training of translators should be relatively relatively non-analytical, context-non-analytical, context-bound, and example-orientedbound, and example-oriented. .

The role of theoryThe role of theory The minimalist approach basically sees The minimalist approach basically sees

translating as a process of producing and translating as a process of producing and selecting between hypothesesselecting between hypotheses, and this is in itself , and this is in itself a mode of constant theorization. If thought a mode of constant theorization. If thought through, the model is actually claiming that through, the model is actually claiming that translators are theorizing whenever they translators are theorizing whenever they translate; translate; theorization is an important part of theorization is an important part of translation practicetranslation practice. The model also implies that . The model also implies that whole translation approaches may be related to whole translation approaches may be related to translating in two ways: translating in two ways: they may help translators they may help translators produce more alternativesproduce more alternatives than they would than they would otherwise have thought of (pointing out the otherwise have thought of (pointing out the existence of a problem is often the most existence of a problem is often the most important task of theorization), and/or they may important task of theorization), and/or they may help them eliminate possible alternatives. help them eliminate possible alternatives. Theories would thus be productive and/or Theories would thus be productive and/or reductive, and both kinds are obviously reductive, and both kinds are obviously necessary. necessary.

Student-instructor relationsStudent-instructor relations A minimalist definition of translation A minimalist definition of translation

competence implicitly challenges the truth competence implicitly challenges the truth models that underlie equivalence-based models that underlie equivalence-based approaches to translation. In doing so, it approaches to translation. In doing so, it also challenges the authoritarian role such also challenges the authoritarian role such models accord the teacher of translation. models accord the teacher of translation. This means that, although This means that, although teachers teachers certainly have every right to give their certainly have every right to give their own TTs and to assess the divergent TTsown TTs and to assess the divergent TTs of of individual students, the actual training of individual students, the actual training of translator should not mirror the translator should not mirror the individualism of such assessment individualism of such assessment procedures.procedures.

Solving the problemSolving the problem

Let us now return to our original Let us now return to our original problem. Historical factors require us problem. Historical factors require us to teach our students a wide range of to teach our students a wide range of electronic tools, and electronic tools, and we are not sure we are not sure if these things should be admitted to if these things should be admitted to our concept of translation our concept of translation competencecompetence. How should we now . How should we now answer our students?answer our students?

The easy response would perhaps be The easy response would perhaps be the the multicomponent one: you all multicomponent one: you all have to know all these things; if not, have to know all these things; if not, you will not find a good jobyou will not find a good job, and , and that’s that. that’s that.

A better answer should ensue from a A better answer should ensue from a minimalist definition, negotiating a few minimalist definition, negotiating a few paradoxes. As we have seen, the paradoxes. As we have seen, the minimalist approach is designed to minimalist approach is designed to promote theorization over declarative promote theorization over declarative knowledge and technical skills, in keeping knowledge and technical skills, in keeping with a highly interactive and experiential with a highly interactive and experiential pedagogy. And yet, on the surface, the pedagogy. And yet, on the surface, the skills associated with electronic tools are skills associated with electronic tools are of a highly declarative and technical kind. of a highly declarative and technical kind.

At base, one knows how to use a given tool or one does not; At base, one knows how to use a given tool or one does not; one moves from simpler to more complex objectives; one moves from simpler to more complex objectives; those skills rarely involve the production and selection of those skills rarely involve the production and selection of

alternatives. alternatives. As a theorizing teacher, interested in working with theorizing As a theorizing teacher, interested in working with theorizing

students, I am thus given to admit that my critical students students, I am thus given to admit that my critical students are quite right in this case. Most of those electronic skills are quite right in this case. Most of those electronic skills are not happily seen as part of translation competence; are not happily seen as part of translation competence; they should not be confused with the prime purpose of our they should not be confused with the prime purpose of our teachingteaching. They should certainly be there, in the classroom, . They should certainly be there, in the classroom, but but not enjoying pride of placenot enjoying pride of place..

What does this mean in practical terms? It What does this mean in practical terms? It basically suggests that basically suggests that we should not lose sight of we should not lose sight of our aimsour aims as translator trainers. Most of the as translator trainers. Most of the electronic tools are simply techniques that speed electronic tools are simply techniques that speed up and broaden the production of alternative TTs up and broaden the production of alternative TTs (cf. what can be done with web searches); others (cf. what can be done with web searches); others are extensions that favour the authoritative are extensions that favour the authoritative elimination of alternatives (cf. the basic elimination of alternatives (cf. the basic advantages of translation memories and advantages of translation memories and glossaries of all kinds). glossaries of all kinds). Translators produce and Translators produce and select from alternatives; the various new select from alternatives; the various new technologies do not alter those tasks, they simply technologies do not alter those tasks, they simply make them wider-ranging, dealing with more of make them wider-ranging, dealing with more of the world in less timethe world in less time. To that extent, a . To that extent, a minimalist view of competence should help minimalist view of competence should help keep keep us aware of the ends of our tasksus aware of the ends of our tasks, without getting , without getting lost in the means.lost in the means.

At the same time, a At the same time, a minimalist approachminimalist approach can sustain a critical can sustain a critical approach to those tasks and technologies that do indeed approach to those tasks and technologies that do indeed mistake means for ends. For instance, the mistake means for ends. For instance, the postmodern postmodern abundance of informationabundance of information makes the production of makes the production of alternative TTs easy, which means that more emphasis has alternative TTs easy, which means that more emphasis has to be placed on the elimination of possible TTs. Students to be placed on the elimination of possible TTs. Students must thus be taught to must thus be taught to mistrust websitesmistrust websites, for instance, or at , for instance, or at least to evaluate them with suspicion. least to evaluate them with suspicion.

On the other hand, the use of translation memories On the other hand, the use of translation memories facilitates the facilitates the unthinking repetition of previous TTsunthinking repetition of previous TTs, such , such that what is lacking in such modes of work is the that what is lacking in such modes of work is the active active production of hypothesesproduction of hypotheses, which is clearly the side that our , which is clearly the side that our pedagogy should then emphasize. pedagogy should then emphasize.

More important, the use of websites, memories and the rest More important, the use of websites, memories and the rest imposes a massive mediation between the translator and imposes a massive mediation between the translator and the figure of the the figure of the target readertarget reader. That technology invites us . That technology invites us to forget that certain TTs are better than others because to forget that certain TTs are better than others because they are destined to achieve a certain purpose, in a certain they are destined to achieve a certain purpose, in a certain time and place, for a certain end-user. They invite us to time and place, for a certain end-user. They invite us to forget that forget that our basic tasks involve communicationour basic tasks involve communication between between humans, and only then the manipulation of electronic humans, and only then the manipulation of electronic mediation.mediation.

A A minimalist conceptminimalist concept of competence of competence should help keep such aims clearly in should help keep such aims clearly in sight.sight.

A A multicomponent modelmulticomponent model, on the other , on the other hand, tends to accept complexity without hand, tends to accept complexity without critically distinguishing between means critically distinguishing between means and ends. And that, with all due respect and ends. And that, with all due respect and comprehension, is a recipe for and comprehension, is a recipe for perdition.perdition.