reducibility and np-completeness cosc 3101b, prof. j. elder 2 computational complexity theory...
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Reducibility and NP-Completeness
COSC 3101B, PROF. J. ELDER 2
Computational Complexity Theory
• Computational Complexity Theory is the study of how much of a given resource (such as time, space, parallelism, algebraic operations, communication) is required to solve important problems.
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Classification of Problems
• Q. Which problems will we be able to solve in practice?
• A working definition. [Cobham 1964, Edmonds 1965, Rabin 1966] Those with polynomial-time algorithms.
Yes Probably no
Shortest path Longest path
Min cut Max cut
2-SAT 3-SAT
Matching 3D-matching
Primality testing Factoring
Planar 4-color Planar 3-color
Bipartite vertex cover Vertex cover
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Tractable Problems
• We have generally studied tractable problems (solvable in polynomial time).
• Algorithm design patterns. Examples.
– Greed. O(n log n) activity scheduling.
– Divide-and-conquer. O(n log n) merge sort.
– Dynamic programming. O(n log n) activity scheduling with profits.
– Duality. O(n3) bipartite matching.
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Intractable Problems
• There are other problems that provably require exponential-time.
• Examples:
– Given a Turing machine, does it halt in at most k steps on any finite input?
– Given a board position in an n-by-n generalization of chess, can black guarantee a win?
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Impossible Problems
• There are other problems that cannot be solved by any algorithm.
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The Halting Problem
• The halting problem is a particular decision problem:
– Given a description of a program and a finite input, decide whether the program will halt or run forever on that input.
• A general algorithm to solve the halting problem for all possible program-input pairs cannot exist: The halting problem is undecidable.
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NP Completeness
• Bad news. Huge number of fundamental problems have defied classification for decades.
• Some good news. Using the technique of reduction, we can show that these fundamental problems are "computationally equivalent" and appear to be different manifestations of one really hard problem.
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Ingredients:
•Instances: The possible inputs to the problem.
•Solutions for Instance: Each instance has an exponentially large set of solutions.
•Cost of Solution: Each solution has an easy to compute cost or value.
Optimization Problems
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Specification of an Optimization Problem
•Preconditions: The input is one instance.
•Postconditions: The output is one of the valid solutions for this instance with optimal cost. (minimum or maximum)
Optimization Problems
Eg: Given graph G, find biggest clique.
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•An optimization problem
•Each solution is either valid or not (no cost)
•The output is
•Yes, it has an valid solution.
•No, it does not
•the solution is not returned
•Eg: Given graph and integer <G,k>,
does G have a clique of size k?
Non-DeterministicPoly-Time Decision Problems (NP)
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•Key: Given •an instance I (= <G,k>)•and a solution S (= subset of nodes)•there is a poly-time alg Valid(I,S) to test whether or not S is a valid solution for I.•Poly-time in |I| not in |S|.
k=4
ValidNot Valid
Non-DeterministicPoly-Time Decision Problems (NP)
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Which are more alike?
Network Flow
Graph Colouring
Circuit Satisfiability
BipartiteMatching
Best known algorithmexponential time
Polynomial timealgorithm
Non-Deterministic Poly TimeComplete
Similar structure Similar structure
Reducibility
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A Graph Named “Gadget”
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K-COLORING
• A k-coloring of a graph is an assignment of one color to each vertex such that:
– No more than k colors are used
– No two adjacent vertices receive the same color
• A graph is called k-colorable iff it has a k-coloring
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Course Scheduling Problem
Given the courses students want to take and Given the courses students want to take and the time slots available, schedule courses to the time slots available, schedule courses to minimize number of conflicts (Avoid minimize number of conflicts (Avoid scheduling two courses at the same time if a scheduling two courses at the same time if a student wants to take both). student wants to take both).
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K-CRAYOLA Problem:
• Given a graph G and a k, find a way to colour G with k colours.
Rudich www.discretemath.com
Colour each node.each node.
Nodes with lines between Nodes with lines between them must have different them must have different colours.colours.
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Schedule each course.Courses that conflict can’t be at same time.
Colour each node.each node.Nodes with lines Nodes with lines between them must between them must have different colours.have different colours.
Two problems that are cosmetically Two problems that are cosmetically different, but substantially the samedifferent, but substantially the same
Two Different Problems
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Problems are the Same!
Schedule each course.Courses that conflict can’t be at same time.
Colour each node.each node.Nodes with lines between Nodes with lines between them must have different them must have different colours.colours.
English
MathScience
course course nodenode
can’t be scheduled can’t be scheduled at same timeat same time line between themline between them
scheduled time scheduled time colourcolour
1pm Mon
1pm Mon
3pm Fri
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A CRAYOLA Question!• Is Gadget 2-colorable?
•
No: it contains a triangle!
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• Is Gadget 3-colorable?
•
A CRAYOLA Question!
Yes!
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• Given a graph G, how do we decide if it can be 2-colored?
2 CRAYOLAS
PERSPIRATION; BRUTE FORCE: Try out all 2n ways of 2 coloring G.
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• Given a graph G, what is a fast algorithm to decide if it can be 3-
colored?
3 CRAYOLAS
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Let’s consider a completely different problem.
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k-CLIQUES
• A k-clique is a set of k nodes with all k(k-1)/2 possible edges between them.
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This graph contains a 4-clique
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Given an n-node graph G and a number k, how can you decide if G contains a k-
clique?
• PERSPIRATION: Try out all n-choose-k possible locations for the k clique
• INSPIRATION:
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
! possibilities
!( )!
n n
k k n k
3e.g., 3 ( )k n
In general, ( )kn
OK, how about a slightly different problem?
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INDEPENDENT SET
• An independent set is a set of vertices with no edges between them.
This graph contains an independent set of size
3.
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Given an n-node graph G and a number k, how can you decide if G contains an
independent set of size k?
• PERSPIRATION: Try out all n-choose-k possible locations for independent set
• INSPIRATION:
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
One more completely different problem
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Combinational Circuits
• AND, OR, NOT, gates wired together with no feedback allowed (acyclic).
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Logic Gates
Not And Or
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Example Circuit
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CIRCUIT-SATISFIABILITY(decision version)
• Given a circuit with n-inputs and one output, is there a way to assign 0-1 values to the input wires so that the output value is 1 (true)?
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CIRCUIT-SATISFIABILITY(search version)
• Given a circuit with n-inputs and one output, find an assignment of 0-1 values to the input wires so that the output value is 1 (true), or determine that no such assignment exists.
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Satisfiable Circuit Example
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Satisfiable?
No!
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Given a circuit, is it satisfiable?
• PERSPIRATION: Try out all 2n assignments
• INSPIRATION:
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
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We have seen 4 problems: coloring, clique,
independent set, and circuit SAT.
They all have a common story: A large space of possibilities only a tiny fraction of which satisfy the constraints. Brute
force takes too long, and no feasible algorithm is
known.
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CLIQUE / INDEPENDENT SET
• Two problems that are cosmetically different, but substantially the same
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Complement Of G
• Given a graph G, let G*, the complement of G, be the graph obtained by the rule that two nodes in G* are connected if and only if the corresponding nodes of G are not connected
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Example
G *G
3-Clique Independent set of size 3
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Reduction
– Suppose you have a method for solving the k-clique problem.
– How could it be used to solve the independent set problem?
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Or what if you have an Oracle?
• or·a·cle
• Pronunciation: 'or-&-k&l, 'är-
• Function: noun
• Etymology: Middle English, from Middle French, from Latin oraculum, from orare to speak
• 1 a : a person (as a priestess of ancient Greece) through whom a deity is believed to speak
• 2 a : a person giving wise or authoritative decisions or opinions
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Let G be an n-node graph.
GIVEN:Clique Oracle
<G,k>
BUILD:Indep.
SetOracle
<G*, k>
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Let G be an n-node graph.
GIVEN: Indep.
Set Oracle
<G,k>
BUILD: Clique
Oracle
<G*, k>
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Thus, we can quickly reduce clique problem to an independent set
problem and vice versa.
There is a fast method for one if and only if
there is a fast method for the other.
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Given an oracle for circuit SAT, how can you quickly
solve 3-colorability?
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Vn(X,Y)
• Let Vn be a circuit that takes an n-node graph X and an assignment Y of colors to these nodes, and verifies that Y is a valid 3-colouring of X. i.e., Vn(X,Y)=1 iff Y is a 3-colouring of X.
• X is expressed as an n-choose-2 bit sequence. Y is expressed as a 2n bit sequence.
• Given n, we can construct Vn in time O(n2).
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Let G be an n-node graph.
GIVEN:SAT
Oracle
G
BUILD:3-
colorOracle
Vn(G,Y)
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Given an oracle for circuit SAT, how can you quickly
solve k-clique?
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Vn,k(X,Y)
• Let Vn be a circuit that takes an n-node graph X and a subset of nodes Y, and verifies that Y is a k-clique X. I.e., Vn(X,Y)=1 iff Y is a k-clique of X.
• X is expressed as an n choose 2 bit sequence. Y is expressed as an n bit sequence.
• Given n, we can construct Vn,k in time O(n2).
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Let G be an n-node graph.
GIVEN:SAT
Oracle
<G,k>
BUILD:CliqueOracle
Vn,k(G,Y)
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Given an oracle for 3-colorability, how
can you quickly solve
circuit SAT?
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Reducing Circuit-SAT to 3-Colouring
• Goal: map circuit to graph that is 3-colourable only if circuit is satisfiable.
• How do we represent a logic gate as a 3-colouring problem?
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X Y
Output
ExampleExample
X and Y and Output are boolean variables in circuit.
Without loss of generality, map truth values to colours, e.g.
0 red
1 green
Add base colour for encoding purposes, e.g. blue.
XY
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X Y
Output
ExampleExample
Note that in a valid 3-colouring, this node cannot have the same colour as X, Y or Output.
Thus, without loss of generality, we can assign it the base colour, blue.
XY
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X Y
Output
ExampleExample
Now suppose we fix this node to represent false.
XY
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X Y
Output
ExampleExampleF
Now suppose we fix this node to represent false.
XY
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Example
T FX Y
Output
Now build a truth table for (X, Y, Output).
What if X=Y=0?
XY
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Example
T FX Y
Output
Now build a truth table for (X, Y, Output).
What if X=Y=0?
XY
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Example
T FX Y
Output
Now build a truth table for (X, Y, Output).
What if X=Y=0?
XY
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Example
T FX Y
Output
Now build a truth table for (X, Y, Output).
What if X=Y=0?
XY
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Example
T FX Y
Output
Thus (X,Y)=0Output=0
XY
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Example
T FX Y
Output
Conversely, what if Output=0?
XY
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Example
T FX Y
Output
Conversely, what if Output=0?
XY
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Example
T FX Y
Output
Conversely, what if Output=0?
XY
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Example
T FX Y
Output
Conversely, what if Output=0?
XY
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Example
T FX Y
Output
Thus Output=0X=Y=0.
XY
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ExampleT F
X Y
Output
X Y Output
F F F
F T T
T F T
T T T
What type of gate is this?
An OR gate!
XY
End of Final Lecture
Nov 29, 2007
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T F
X What type of gate is this?
A NOT gate!
Output
X
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OR
OR
NOT
x y z
xy
z
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OR
OR
NOT
x y z
xy
z
Satisfiability of this circuit = 3-colorability of this graph
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Let C be an n-input circuit.
GIVEN:3-colorOracle
C
BUILD:SAT
Oracle
Graph composed of gadgets that mimic
the gates in C
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Formal Statement
• There is a polynomial-time function f such that:
• C is satisfiable <-> f(C) is 3 colorable
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4 Problems All Equivalent
• If you can solve one quickly then you can solve them all quickly:
• Circuit-SAT
• Clique
• Independent Set
• 3 Colorability
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