refereed articles - adult learning australia · pdf filepharmaceutical society of ......

AustrAliAN JourNAl ofADult lEArNiNGVolume 50 n Number 2 n JulY 2010

AU

ST

RA

LIA

N J

OU

RN

AL

OF

AD

ULT

LE

AR

NIN

G J

ulY

20

10

AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF ADULT LEARNINGVolume 50, Number 2, July 2010

213 Editor’sdeskRoger Harris

Refereed articles219 Adultlearningineducationaltourism

Tim Pitman, Sue Broomhall, Joanne McEwan and Elzbieta Majocha239 Shallwedance?ThestoryoftheRadianceDanceProject

Lisa Ehrich260 Literacypractitioners’perspectivesonadultlearningneedsandtechnology

approachesinIndigenouscommunitiesMichelle Eady, Anthony Herrington and Caroline Jones

287 Pathwayforstudentself-development:AlearningorientatedinternshipapproachBonnie Cord and Mike Clements

308 Usingappreciativeinquirytoexploretheprofessionalpracticeofalecturerinhighereducation:Movingtowardslife-centricpracticeDavid Giles and Susie Kung

323 ApproachestothepostgraduateeducationofbusinesscoachesClare McCarthy

358 Challengesinaligningworkplacelearningwithbusinessgoals:AperspectivefromHRDprofessionalsinNewZealandTom Short and Roger Harris

387 Formalandinformallearningopportunitiesingovernmentorganisations:ExperiencesofpublicsectoremployeesfromsixAsiannationsIntan A. Mokhtar

Practice articles411 Studycirclesandthedialoguetochangeprogram

Mary Brennan, Mark Brophy419 Training,OD,L&D,HRD—What’sinaname?

Sean O’Toole

Book reviewsPeter Willis

427 The case for God : What religion really means(KarenArmstrong)Don Meadows

439 Liberatingpraxis—PauloFreire’slegacyforradicaleducationandpolitics(PeterMayo)Michael Atkinson

443 The quest for meaning: Narratives of teaching, learning and the arts(MaryBeattie)Susan Bardy

446 Poetry, consciousness and community(Christopher(Kit)Kelen)John Holmes

448 Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions(DonaldA.Schon)Rob Townsend

AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF ADULT LEARNING

The Australian Journal of Adult Learning (formerly the Australian Journal of Adult and Community Education) is an official publication of Adult Learning Australia (ALA). It is concerned with the theory, research and practice of adult and community education, and to promote critical thinking and research in this field. Its prime focus is on Australia, though papers relating to other contexts are also sometimes published. Papers in the refereed section of the Journal have been blind peer reviewed by at least two members from a pool of specialist referees from Australia and overseas.

Editor: Professor Roger Harris, Adult and Vocational Education, School of Education, University of South Australia Mawson Lakes Boulevard, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095. Email: [email protected]

Editorial team: Dr Lisa Davies, Ann Lawless, Dr Tom Short,Associate Professor Michele Simons, Dr Tom Stehlik, Dr Peter Willis

Editorial Board: Dr Allan Arnott, Northern Territory University; Professor Mary Barrett, University of Wollongong, NSW; Dr Helen Bound, Institute for Adult Learning, Singapore; Professor Philip Candy, University of Southern Queensland; Dr Michael Christie, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden; Dr Jane Connell, Cape Breton University, Canada; Professor Patricia Cranton, Penn State Harrisburg, USA; Dr Leona English, St Francis Xavier University, Canada; Professor Ian Falk, Northern Territory University; Professor Brian Findsen, The University of Waikato, NZ; Mr Vaughn John, University of Natal, South Africa; Dr Helen Kimberley, Brotherhood of St. Laurence, Victoria; Professor Thomas Deissinger, Konstanz University, Germany; Ms Dorothy Lucardie, Pharmaceutical Society of Australia; Ms Veronica McGivney, National Institute of Adult Continuing Education, UK; Dr John McIntyre, University of Technology, Sydney; Dr Sue Shore, University of South Australia; Dr Joyce Stalker, University of Waikato, NZ; Dr Benjamin Chan Tak Yuen, University of Hong Kong.

Membership Services: ALA, GPO Box 260, Canberra City, ACT 2601Phone: 02 6215 9500 Fax: 02 6282 0042

Email: [email protected]

Printer: LG2 design

The Journal is published three times a year in April, July and November. Subscriptions are A$110 which includes GST for Australian subscribers and postage for all. Overseas subscriptions are A$130 which also includes postage.

Subscriptions, orders for back issues, advertisements and business correspondence are handled by the Membership Services. Papers for publication, material for review (books, reports, journals, audio-visuals) and editorial correspondence should be sent to the Editor. ‘Notes for intending contributors’ are at the back of each issue.

Opinions expressed in the Journal are those of the authors and not necessarily those of ALA.

The Journal is available on microfilm from University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106, USA. It is abstracted by the Australian Education Index, Educational Administration Abstracts, Australian Public Affairs Information Service and Current Index to Journals in Education. ALA members can download Journal papers from http://www.ala.asn.au/members. Non-members can order them for A$8 each via http://www.ala.asn.au/pubs/AJAL/ajal.htm. (Within Australia, the purchase of papers attracts 80¢ GST.)

ISSN: 1443-1394

AJAL is listed in the SCOPUS database.

AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF ADULT LEARNING

Volume 50, Number 2, July 2010



Tim Pitman, Sue Broomhall, Joanne McEwan and Elzbieta Majocha

239 Shallwedance?ThestoryoftheRadianceDanceProjectLisa Ehrich

260 Literacypractitioners’perspectivesonadultlearningneedsandtechnologyapproachesinIndigenouscommunitiesMichelle Eady, Anthony Herrington and Caroline Jones



Contents





Mary Brennan and Mark Brophy

419 Training,OD,L&D,HRD—What’sinaname?Sean O’Toole



439 Liberating praxis—Paulo Freire’s legacy for radical education and politics(PeterMayo)Michael Atkinson




Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 50, Number 2, July 2010

FROM THE EDITOR’S DESK

PerchedintheIAL(InstituteforAdultLearning)inSingapore,Ihavetheopportunitytoreflectonthe‘adulteducation’and‘VET’sectorshere.Comparisonswithone’sownfamiliarenvironmentaresometimesinformativeandinstructive,sometimesinappropriateandinelegant.Itisoftendifficulttodiscernwhichisthecase.However,fortunefavoursthebrave,andnothingventured,nothinggained.SoIpushahead…amazedattheremarkableprogressthathasbeenmadeinthiscity-stateinonlyaveryshorttime.(Singaporeisgearinguptocelebrateits45thbirthdayon9August.)

Focusingoneducation,I’msomewhatperplexedbytheverysharpdifferentiationbetweenwhatSingaporeanscall‘PET’(Pre-EmploymentTraining)and‘CET’(ContinuingEducationandTraining).Theformerencompassesalltheformalinstitutionsincludingschools,theInstituteforTechnicalEducation,thePolytechnicsandtheUniversities.Thesetraditionalestablishmentsarefirmlyentrenchedinthepublicconsciousness(muchlike,someyearsago,Ifoundnotionsof‘two-year’andfour-year’institutionsintheUSAsoingrainedthatAmericansfounditverydifficulttocomprehendwhatanAustralian‘three-year’collegeofadvanced

214 Roger Harris

educationwouldbelike)!CETisthenewkidontheblock,relativelyrecentlyestablished(since2003)inrecognitionoftheneedforcontinuingeducationinamodern,knowledge-basedsociety/economy;thatis,formalacknowledgementoflifelonglearninghasarrivedlatehere.

TheInstituteforAdultLearningwasestablishedonlyinApril2008,bytheSingaporeWorkforceDevelopmentAgency,toconductforthefirsttimetrainthetrainercoursesandtograduallybuildaresearchcultureinthesector.AlmostallresearchisconcentratedinthePETsector,andlittleresearchexistsinCET–somewhatreminiscentoftheAustralianVETsectoratthetimeofthelandmarkreport,No small change(1974).Interestingly,thelearnerswhocometotheIALareallreferredtoas‘adulteducators’,catchinguponqualificationsthathaveforsolongbeenneglectedornotthoughtimportantintheirarena.TheyworkintheCETsectoras,orintendingtobecometrainers.Mostareinoneofthe26WSQ(WorkforceSkillsQualifications)FrameworkscoveringindustrysectorssuchasFinance,Aerospace,CommunityandSocialServices,PrecisionEngineering,Tourism—tonameafew.TheIALconductscoursessuchastheAdvancedCertificateinTrainingandAssessmentandtheDiplomainAdultandContinuingEducation(akintoAustralia’sCertificateIVandDiploma),andhostsalsotheMasterofArtsinLifelonglearningfromtheInstituteofEducation,UniversityofLondon.

AnotherinterestingdevelopmentisEmployabilitySkillssetupasoneoftheWSQFrameworks,accountingforapproximatelyhalfofallSOAs(StatementsofAttainment—yes,Singaporeisfullofacronymstoo)attainedeachyear.Theyarethefoundationalskillsessentialtoeveryindividual,portableacrossallindustries,andenablingalltoadaptbettertonewjobdemandsandchangingworkenvironments.ThisareaisalsothefocusofsomeinterestingresearchworkbeingundertakenattheIAL.Itisevidentlyconsideredoneofthekeyareasinthecontinuingeducationandtrainingeffort.

Editor’s desk 215

TheforegoingobservationsontheSingaporeansystemhavenotnecessarilyanintimateconnectionwiththesubjectsofthepapersinthisjournalissue.However,inreflectingonthe50thyearofourAssociationandJournal,onecannothelpbutberemindedofthesignificanceofpost-formaleducationandtraining,andhowitisandwillincreasinglybesoimportantinknowledge-basedsocieties/economies.Inthislight,theissueembracesabumpertenpapersandfivebookreviewswhichpiggy-backonsomeoftheseintroductorythemesIhavementioned.Fourarticlesrelatetocommunityeducation,threetohighereducationenvironmentsandthreetoworkplacesettings.Twoofthesefocusonsingleindividuals—acommunityarts-basededucatorinAustraliaandahighereducationlecturerinNewZealand—andinterrogateusingdifferentresearchmethodstheiradulteducationpractice.

Tim Pitman, Sue Broomhall, Joanne McEwan and Elzbieta Majochaexaminesthecentralityofadultlearningwithineducationaltourism,analysesthekindsoflearningthatcompaniespromoteandthepedagogicprocessesinsuchorganisedrecreationaltours,andinvestigatestherelationshipofthislearningtobroaderlifelonglearningagendas.Hisresearchsuggeststhreetypesoflearningexperiences:studyabroad/credittours;familyholidays/backpackingritesofpassage;andeducationaltourism.Lisa Ehrichanalysesthepracticeofacommunityarts-baseddanceinstructorworkingalongsidewomenwithandwithoutdisabilities.Fromaninterviewwithhersubjectandobservationsofworkshopandadanceperformance,theauthorinterpretsideas,insightsandpracticesthroughthelensofethicalleadershiptheoryandempowermenttheory.Michelle Eady,Anthony HerringtonandCaroline Jonesprovideinsights,experiencesandrecommendationsfromadultliteracypractitionersworkingwithIndigenouscommunities.Focusgroupinterviews,usinganonlinesynchronousplatform,wereusedtoelicitviewsabouttheliteracyneedsof

216 Roger Harris

Indigenousadultsandthesuccessesinandbarrierstomeetingthoseneeds.Theirresearchindicatesthatthesepractitionersdevelop,throughtheirworkexperiences,veryspecificandstronglyheldviewsontheliteracyneedsoftheIndigenouscommunityinwhichtheyareemployed.

Bonnie CordandMike Clementshighlightalearningorientatedinternshipapproachasonepathwayforprovidingtertiarystudents,asadultlearners,withopportunitiestoapplytheirknowledgeandgainnewskillsinaworkcontext.Theyfurnishinsightintolearners’self-reportedlearningoutcomesafterundertakingtheCommerceInternshipProgramattheUniversityofWollongong.Theirfindingsrevealthatsoftskills—communication,interpersonalskillsandpersonalinsights—arecommonareasofself-development.David GilesandSusie KungengageinanAppreciativeInquirytofinddeepermeaninginahighereducationlecturer’sprofessionalpracticeinNewZealand.Theyfoundthat,throughthisprocess,thelecturerwasrejuvenatedaslife-centricstorieswererecalled,provocativepropositionswereconstructedandapersonalisedactionplanevolved.Theyconcludethattheprocessenergisedthelecturertoreachforhigheridealsinherfutureprofessionalpractice.TheeducationandtrainingofbusinesscoachesattheMasters/graduatelevelisthesubjectofthepaperbyGrace McCarthy.Itreviewstheknowledgeandskillsrequiredofbusinesscoaches,andeducationalapproachesmostappropriatelysuitedtohelpstudentsacquireknowledgeandskills.Usingbothperformanceandperceptiondata,theauthoranalyseslearnerexperiencesinanewMasterofBusinessCoachingatSydneyBusinessSchool,UniversityofWollongong.Indoingso,shediscussestheuseofe-learningasanon-goingsupportforstudents,andthebenefitsofauthenticassessmentandavariedapproachtolearning.

Tom ShortandRoger HarrisinterrogatethenotionofhumanresourcedevelopmentthroughtheeyesofasmallsampleofHRD

Editor’s desk 217

professionalsinNewZealand,particularlythechallengestheyfaceinaligningworkplacelearningwithbusinesses.Basedonfocusgroupdiscussion,theirpaperunfurlsmanyinsightsintotheroleoftheseHRDprofessionalsastheygrapplewithissuesofworkplacelearninganddevelopmentintheirorganisations,wherebridgingthegapbetweenstrategicidealsandoperationalrealitieswasclearlyamajorchallenge.Intan Mokhtaremployedsemi-structuredinterviewswith18civilservantsfromsixAsiancountriestoelicittheirexperiencesregardinglifelonglearningpoliciesandprofessionaldevelopmentopportunities.Althoughopportunitiesareavailableinmostgovernmentorganisations,theconditionsforcivilservantstotakeupsuchopportunitiesdifferacrossorganisationsandcountries,andexpectationsoflearninganddevelopmentfromsuchopportunitiesalsovaryconsiderably.Theauthormakesrecommendationsbasedonthesesimilaritiesanddifferenceswiththeaimofencouraginggovernmentorganisationstoreviewexistinglifelonglearningpoliciesandprofessionaldevelopmentopportunitiesavailabletocivilservants.

Thetwoshortpracticepapersspotlightstudycirclesandchangingconceptsintraining.Mary BrennanandMark BrophydetailtheformationoftheAustralianStudyCirclesNetworkwhichhasrecentlybeenestablishedandisfoundedonthe100-yeartraditionofstudycirclesinSwedenandthelast20yearsofdevelopmentbyEveryday DemocracyintheUSA.Inparticular,theyfocusontheDialoguetoChangeProgram,acommunity-drivenprocessthathelpspeopletoexplorecomplexissues,makedecisionsandbegintotakeaction.Studycircleslieattheheartofthisprocess.Sean O’Tooleengagesusinreflectingon‘educationandtraininginallitsforms[which]isnowbigbusinessandasignificantpartoftheAustralianorganisationallandscape’.Hefocusesinparticularontheintersectionsanddifferencesbetweentraining,learning

218 Roger Harris

anddevelopment,organisationdevelopment,andhumanresourcedevelopment.Thesefourconceptshesaysareoftenconfusedinthe‘shiftinglandscape’anditwouldhelptheiridentitiesiftheseprocessesweretobedefinedmorecarefully.

Enjoythesepapers—andthinkaboutthe50thConferenceofALAinAdelaideon11–13November!

Roger Harris Editor


Adult learning in educational tourism

Tim Pitman, Sue Broomhall, Joanne McEwan and Elzbieta Majocha

University of Western Australia

This article explores notions of learning in the niche market sector of educational tourism, with a focus on organised recreational tours that promote a structured learning experience as a key feature. It analyses the qualitative findings of surveys and interviews with a cross-section of educational tourism providers in Australia, their lifelong-learning client markets and Australian academic scholars participating in this sector. The paper examines the differing perceptions of providers, participants and academics to what they expect from such tours, what constitutes learning within them and

how particularly adult learning occurs through them.

Introduction

Notionsoftravelandeducationareinextricablylinked,yetthewords“tourism”and“education”seemtobemoreproblematicbedfellows.

220 Tim Pitman, Sue Broomhall, Joanne McEwan and Elzbieta Majocha

Whilethewords“tourism”and“travel”areusedbysomescholarsinterchangeably,formanyobservers,touristsareaninferiortypeoftraveller;a‘homogenousgroupofdopeybeasts,whotakecattle-classflightsat3am,organisestagnightsinPrague,anddemandeggandchipsandabeerwhosenamewecaneasilypronounceonasunnybeachinSpain’(Thomas2009:51).Succinctly,Feifer(1985:2)observesthat‘no-onewantstobecalledatourist’.

Theterm‘educationaltourism’hasbeenlinkedtonichetourism,althoughtheextentandspectrumoftravelexperiencesthatfallwithinthiscategoryarestillbeingdebated.Asan‘informationcentric’pursuit(Hecht,Starosielski&Dara-Abrams2007),mostnichetourismmarketsarepopulatedbyclientsmotivatedbyadesireorneedtolearn.Ritchie(2003:9)hasargued,‘theconceptoftravelforeducationandlearningisabroadandcomplicatedarea,whichexplainswhytourismacademicsandindustryhavetodatelargelyignoredthisfield’.Thereisvalueinexploringthetypeoflearningthatoccurswithinaparticularformofeducationaltourismthathasexistedforsometimeinthebroadersector,butwhichisstillrelativelyunder-valuedandunder-researchedbyboththetourismandeducationsectorsalike.Wereferspecificallytoorganisedrecreationaltours(usuallycommercial),aimedatthegeneralpublic(asdistinctfrom,forexample,for-creditstudytoursforstudents)whichpromoteanintentionalandstructuredlearningexperienceasakeycomponent.Thislearningcomponentisexplicit,andcore,tothedeliveryoftheproduct.Thisstudyexaminesthecentralityofadultlearningwithinthisnichemarket,analysesthekindsoflearningthatcompaniespromoteandthepedagogicprocessesinsuchorganisedrecreationaltoursandinvestigatestherelationshipofthislearningtobroaderlifelonglearningagendas.

Adult learning in educational tourism 221

Background: Educational tourism and learning

Researchintotheroleoftourismasalearningexperienceisrelativelyscarce.Certainlythe1980switnessedtheappearanceofnewtourismdesignsthatrecognisedtourism’snegativeimpactsandimaginedamorepositiverolefortourism(Zurick1992).‘Positive’hasbeeninmanycasesconflatedwithemancipatoryaspectsofpersonaldevelopment,whenreferringtoitseffectonthetraveller(forexample,Moscardo1996).Yetthesestudiesgenerallyunderstandtourismandtravelasanunstructuredandunmediatedexperience.Educationaltourism,bycontrast,involvesadeliberateandexplicitlearningexperience.Themostsignificantin-depthstudiesofthisdomainstemfromresearchcommissionedbycompaniesthemselvesabouttheirclientmarketsandtheirlearningneeds(Elderhostel2007),orontologicalinvestigationsconductedbycompanypersonnel(Wood2008).Yettheperceivednatureandorganisationofadultlearningthatoccurswithineducationaltourismremainrelativelyunder-researched,althoughfurtherknowledgecouldassistinthedevelopmentoftourismproductsthatbetterfulfiladultlearners’needsandilluminateourunderstandingofformsofincidentallearning.Aspartofalargerresearchproject,thisstudyexaminesthedifferingperceptionsofproviders,participantsandacademicsregardingwhattheyexpectfromsuchtours,theirperceptionsofwhatconstituteslearningwithinthem,andhowtheyperceivepedagogicprocessesoccurringthroughtours.

Method

Understandingsofeducationaltourismwereinvestigatedthroughananalysisofvarieddatacollectedfromacross-sectionofeducationaltourismprovidersinAustralia,theirclientmarketsandAustralianacademicscholarsparticipatinginthissector.Touroperatorliterature(suchaswebsitematerial,advertisingflyersandbrochures,specifictouritineraries,anddetailedtourhandbooks)wasanalysedfordescriptionsandunderstandingsofadultlearning.Theliterature


wasanalysedforconceptsrelatedtoeducationaltourism,languageregardingideasoflearningorteaching,anddiscussionsoflearningobjectives,andtheeducationalqualificationsoftourproviders,leadersanddesigners,asexpressedbythetourcompanieswhenmarketingtopotentialclients.Phraseswereanalysedforcontent(contentanalysis)withaviewtoidentifyingrecurringconcepts,understandingsandperceptions.

Twoonlinesurveyswerethenconductedcontainingamixtureofqualitativeandquantitativequestions.A“participantsurvey”collecteddatafromindividualswhoidentifiedthemselvesashavinghadpreviousexperienceofeducationaltoursorasbeinginterestedindoingsointhefuture.Atotalof1,091participantsweredirectlycontactedandaskedtocompletethesurveyand612responsesfromtravellers/potentialtravellers(hereafterreferredtoaslearners)werereceived.Second,scholarswereapproachedprimarilyfromhumanitiesandsocialsciencedepartmentsofAustralianuniversities,duetothehighrepresentationoftheirdisciplinesineducationaltouritineraries(history,art,languages,builtenvironment,andsoon).Atotalof228scholarscompletedthesurvey.

Third,fiveAustralianeducationaltouroperatorsagreedtorecordedinterviews.Thesecompanieswereuniquelypositionedacrosstheeducation/tourismdivide.Somecompaniesweretouroperatorswhohadevolvedtoconcentrateoneducationaltourismasanichemarket.Othersemergedfromuniversities,viatheirinstitution’sadulteducationservices.Thus,somecouldbesaidtobeeducatorsturnedtourismprovidersandtheothersessentiallythereverse.Detailedinterviewswereconductedwithcompanydirectors,tourprogramdevelopers,tourleaders,tourmanagersandtrainers,operationsmanagers,andmarketingandsalesstaff.

Finally,tenscholarsworkinginAustralianuniversitiesagreedtogivein-depthinterviewsfromtheirexperienceastourleaders,programdesignersorcoursematerialdesigners,orasorganisersofstudy


toursandvolunteertourismforuniversitystudents.Otherswereinterviewedasinterestedfutureleaders.

Adult learning in educational tourism

TheAustraliantourismsectorthatidentifieditselfasprovidingeducationaltourismofferedmanykindsofeducationalexperiencesrangingfrommature-agestudytoursandprogramstoparticipationinacademicresearchprogramssuchasarchaeologicaldigsandecologicalfieldwork,for-crediton-siteuniversityunits,schoolgrouptours,andprofessionaldevelopmenttours.Touroperatorliteratureidentifiedlearningorenquiryasakeydifferentiatingpointofitsnicheinthetourismmarket:fromthepassive‘audienceinterestedintravellingtolearn’,tothemoredynamic‘enquiringminds’whichfocuson‘stimulating…theactive,inquisitivetraveller’.Companies’advertisingmaterialpromotedthenotionofanin-depthengagementwithotherculturesthroughtheopportunitiestheyprovidedtogaincontextualisedknowledgeaswellasadeeper(oftenlonger)appreciationofparticularsites.Onecompanyproposedaquotethatsummariseditstargetaudienceidentityinthisway:‘IwanttohavetimetoabsorbtheenvironmentandtolearnsomethingaboutwhatI’mseeing’.

Learningwasunmistakablythedominantprincipledefinedbysurveyrespondentsandwasexplicitlyreferredtoinmorethan83%ofthedefinitionsofeducationaltourism.Responsesexpressedthreekeyideasabouttheformoflearningineducationaltourism.First,itwasintentional,suchas‘takingatripspecificallytobroadenmyhorizonsorenhancemyknowledge’.Second,itwasexperiential,involvingnotionsof‘immersion’,‘hands-on’,‘vivid’and‘evidence’anddescribedas‘engagingwithideasintheiroriginalcontext’.Third,itwasstructured,suchasonemaleacademic’sdescriptionof‘thecombinationoftravelwithastructurededucationalprogram’.


Likewise,theacademicsandtravelprovidersinterviewedalsostressedtheintentionalandexperientiallearningdimensionstoeducationaltourism.Howeveracademicsweremorelikelytodefinethelearningcomponentasanon-leisurepursuit,suchasonetourleaderwhosaidthateducationaltourismwas‘forthosepeoplewhowanttotakeitseriously,ratherthanthosewhojustwanttocomealongforaholiday’.Therewasatendencyforacademicstoidentifythemoreformal,structuredelementsofeducationaltourism,forexample,stressingtheneedforittobe‘structured,withathemetopursueandrequiringsomebackgroundknowledgeofthesitesbeingvisitedandsomeattempttoanalyseonthespot’.Incontrast,tourprovidersweremorelikelytofocusontheleisureaspectofeducationaltourism.Onedirectorsawhiscompany’sfocusas‘enhancingthetravelexperiencethroughlearningforfun’.Anotherexperienced,non-academictourleaderdescribedhowhe‘shudderedwhenpeopletooktheirpensout—that’snotwhatthisisabout’.Educationaltourismprovidersemphasisedthechallengetoprovidealearningexperiencethatdidnotalienatetheirmarketsince,inthewordsofonemarketingmanager,‘somepeoplethinkthey’renotsmartenough’.Experiencedtourleadersappearedtorecognisethatlearnerswanteddifferenttypesandquantitiesofinformation—asonemaletourleaderobserved,‘theyallwanttolearn…butthere’sonlyacertainamountthattheywanttolearn’.Thisaccordedwithlearners’ownperceptionsoflearningonsuchtours,wheretheytendedtoapproachtheeducativeexperienceinamoreholistic,multi-disciplinarymanner.Morethan70%surveyeddescribedthelearningexperiencesinnon-specificormulti-dimensionalways,suchas‘exploringacountrythroughitshistory,art,foodandculture’or‘travellingtootherplacesandlearningaboutthem’.

Whilsttheseconceptualisationsofacademicsandtourproviderswerenotindirecttension,thepedagogicalfunctionsofeducationaltourismwereunderstoodinsubtlydifferentways.Forlearners,educationaltourismwasmoreoftenameansofunderstandingalocation,whereas


fortheacademicitwasmorelikelytobeavehiclefortransmittingabstractknowledge.Indeed,someacademicsperceivedtheirroleoftourleadersinthisdomainasameansofsharpeningtheirownspecific,disciplinaryknowledgeandconveyingittotheadultlearner.Onearthistorianintervieweddescribedtheimportanceof‘pursuingparticularthemes’oflearningforthebenefitofthelearner.Aswell,manyoftheacademicsdescribedusingeducationaltourismasawayofsupportingcoreresearch,suchasfundingtraveltoarchaeologicalsites.Thus,theeducationaltourismexperienceperformedasecondfunctionasaprofessionaltoolformanyscholars.

Educational tours and personal development

Severalcompaniesindicatedthattheirtourscouldbeclaimedbylearnerparticipantsasprofessionaldevelopmentorusedforacademiccredit.However,thegeneralaccesseducationaltoursstressthebroad,genericnatureoftheireducationalcomponent,designedforthesatisfactionofindividualsratherthantomeetprofessionalorscholarlyrequirements.‘Experience’,‘explore’and‘discover’werekeydescriptorsofthelearningexperiencewithincompanyliterature.‘Learning’wasnotcommonlyusedandwastypicallyreplacedbylessdirected(andlessquantifiable)verbssuchas‘enquiring’.Ingeneral,thelearningdescribedwasimplicitlyaboutpersonaldevelopmentratherthantestableinformation.

Companiesemphasisedthatnospecificacademicqualificationswerenecessarytoparticipateinatour.Rather,participantsrequiredawillingnesstoexploreanothercultureindetail.Attituderatherthanqualificationwasthusakeyrequirementforlearners.Thedegreeofknowledgeattainmentwasdeterminedbytheindividual,withphrasessuchas‘broadeningyourknowledge’conveyingasenseoflearningthatwasmeasurableonlyatthelevelofeachparticipant.Companypersonnelsawexplicitlearningobjectivesaspotentiallyoff-puttingtoclienteleofdifferenteducationallevelsandexperience.Witheducationaltours,theyinsisted,learningmustprogressin


anenjoyableway.Thedirectorofoneeducationaltourcompanydescribedthelearningthattheyprovidedas‘whatwe’reaboutiscontinuingeducation,lifelonglearning.Soit’saboutlearningforfunwithoutexaminationsattached’.Anothertourdesignerbelievedthathercompany’sofferingsweretransformationallyeducativeinthatthelearners‘comeawayfromithavinglearntsomethingandhavingveryspecialexperiencesthatIthinkhelpedaidtheirlearning’.Thesediscoursesaccordedwithahumanisticperspectiveoflifelonglearning,wherebylearningthroughoutlifeandviavariedforaisameansbywhichindividualsdeveloppersonallyandsocially(Strain1998).Withtheseprinciplesandobjectivesnottoalienatepotentialclientsinmind,thefollowingsectionconsiderstheperceptionsandfunctionsofthepedagogicprocessesthatprovidersputinplacetoenableparticipantlearning—throughthelearningcommunity,theexperttourleaderandtheprovisionofsupportmaterials.

Community learning on tour

Formostsurveyrespondents,educationaltourismsuggestedtheideaofanintentional,structured,in situlearningexperience.Beingin situwasseenformanytoprovidedistinctpedagogicalinsights.Thedeliveryrequiredandthevalueofbeinginplacewasarticulatedbyoneacademictourleader:‘thereisadifferentdynamicandyoucandrawonthatsharedexperiencewithouthavingtospellitout’.Anotherobservedthatitwasunlikeclassroomlecturesbecauseoftheimmediacyofthecontent:‘dependingonwhatwe’veseenthatday,theymaybemorefocusedperhapsonwhatthey’vejustseen.Forinstance…youknowwhatXYZlookedlike,you’vejustbeendownit,thereforeyoucanvisualiseit.Sothere’sadifference’.Theinfluencethatbeinginplacehadontheproductionofnewknowledgecouldnotbeunderstated,accordingtotourleaders.Asoneacademicobserved,‘doingitin situ,absolutelytherearethingsthatyoucanteachonlywhenyouarethere.It’spartlyindescribable,justthesenseofplace…


thatyoucan’tconveyintheclassroom.There’salsoanintensitytotheteaching’.

Beyond‘beinginplace’,however,academicsobservedimportantlearningwhichlearnersexperiencedoutsideofsitevisits.Theimportanceofpost-factoreflectionhasbeenwell-documentedbyexperientiallearningtheoristsandeducationalists(Kolb1984,Mezirow1991)andisequallyvaluedbytheprovidersandtheirclients.Scholarsandtourleadersalikeobservedtheimportantlearningwhichparticipantsexperiencedoutsideofsitevisits.Manyleadersuseinformaltimesontourstopromotereflection,muchlikeatutorialorworkshop.Oneacademictourleaderarticulatedhistechniqueinthisway:

Everybodyonthattourisgoingtohaveadifferentstory,fromjustfromtheday’sjourney.AndsooverdinneratnightI’dgoroundthetable.Imean,I’dstillrunaconstructedsortofworkshop,ifyoulike.…Andthenthatbecomesquiteinterestingbecausewe’veallseenthesamethingsandyetthey’veallhaddifferentexperiencesofthesamethings.That’swhatleadstothecreativediscourse.

Otherleadersdescribedtheadvantagesofthegroup-learningenvironmentasanexchangenotonlyofinformation,butenthusiasmforwhathadbeenexperienced.Onemaleacademicexplainedthatheenjoyed‘theinteractionwithotherpeopleandit’sreallygoodwhenyouhaveagroupofpeoplewhosharethesameinterests.Youcansitaroundthehotelatdrinkstimesanddiscusswhatwe’veseen’.Therewasthusaconsensusamongstthoseinterviewedandsurveyedthatitwasimportanttoseizethemoment;thatis,toencouragereflectivepracticewhilststillontourandclose—bothtemporallyandspatially—totheactuallearningexperience.

Therewasstrongagreementamonglearnersthatlearningwasenhancedontourwhenthegroupsharedtheirexperiences.Manytourparticipantssurveyedweretertiaryeducated.Almosttwo-thirds


ofrespondents(65%)totheclientsurveyheldauniversitydegree.Almostone-quarter(24%)hadcompletedpostgraduatecourseworkstudiesandafurther13%heldahigherdegreebyresearch(MastersorPhD).Theideaofcreatingatourlearningcommunitywascommonlyfoundinproviderliterature,throughphrasingsuchas‘sharingexperienceswithlike-mindedtravelers’.Learningcommunitiesincludedconceptsof‘belonging’,sharedexperiencesandemotionalconnections.Threeassumptionsunderliethesupportforlearningcommunities—thattheywillcreateagroupthatwillworktogether,increaseintellectualinteraction,andenhancelearning(Huerta2004).Whilstresearchhasbeenconductedonlearningcommunitiesthatusetourismtofurthertheirgoals(Guevara1996),educationaltourismitselfasalearningcommunityappearstohavebeensomewhatoverlooked.Insurveyresponsesforthisproject,leadersandclientsbothidentifiedthegroupexperienceasavaluablelearningresourceandratedgrouplearning/travelexperienceshigherthanindividualexperiences.Learnersequallysawthesharingasanenjoyableaspectofthetour,valuingnotonlyitseducationalbutsocialaspect.

Thus,thestructuredorganisationofthetravelexperiencewasinitselfperceivedtobeastageinthelearningprocessofparticipants.Travellingwithotherlearnerswhosharedsimilarmotivations,drawingtogetheralearningcommunity—infact,eventheactofdefiningthesetoursaseducational—allhadpotentialtocontributetotheassociatedpedagogicalprocesses.

The expert educator: facilitating educational tourism

Theroleofthe‘educator’wascentraltomostlearners’definitionsofeducationaltourism.Explicitacademicconnectionsmatteredtoeducationaltourcompanies,withproviderliteraturemakingcleartheacademicqualificationsofitspersonnel.Companiesfrequentlydefinedtheirtourismthereforeasengagingwithacademicexpertise.Importantly,onemarketingmanagerinaneducationaltourism


companysawtheinvolvementofacademicsandexpertsascrucialinthedistinctionoftheircompanyfromothertourismproviders:‘webelieveeducationaltourismishavinggroupleaderswhoknowmoreabouttheplaceandcanputitintoasenseofitseraandtheperspectiveofwhereit’scomefrom’.Acompanydirectorconnectedexpertisetoacademicqualificationsexplicitlybystatingthatheorshe‘mustbringwiththemaneducationalstandardofsomelevel,theyhavetobearecognisedexpert,notaself-proclaimedexpert’.Oneexperienced,maletourleaderreflectedthatlearnersusedacademicqualificationsasaproxyforquality,orashephrasedit,‘theylookatmeandsayokay,thisperson’sworkedtherethatlong,theylectureatthisuniversitysowecanrelyuponwhattheysay’.Astourleaders,therefore,academicsimitatedtheirprofessionalfunction;thatistosaythatfortheadultlearner,asforthestudent,theywereateacher,enablerandfacilitatorandforthetouroperator,asfortheuniversity,theywereaphysicalmanifestationof‘quality’andamarketablecommodity.Overwhelmingly,knowledgewasidentifiedasthemostsought-afterqualityofatourleader,includedbytwooutofeverythreerespondentsinboththelearnerandacademicsurveys.

Whileacademicstendedtoconceptualiseexpertiseforleadinganeducationaltourintermsofscholarlyqualifications,first-hand,experientialknowledgewasparticularlyhighlyregardedbylearners.Therewasastrongsensethathavingbeentheredenotedsuperiorknowledgeandmanifesteditselfintheabilitytospeakthelanguage,recallanecdotesandidentifysitesoreventsofinterestthatwere‘offthebeatentrack’.Additionaltothetourleaders,manytourcompaniesprovidedasuiteofotherknowledgeexpertssuchas‘localguides’,‘locallecturers’or‘on-siteexperts’,whoweredesignedtoenhancethelearningexperience.Typically,tourleadersdrewdistinctionsbetweentheirroleandthatoflocalexpertsintermsofthematerialandcontextstheyprovided:


Thelocalguy,ifwehaveonetravellingwithus,mighttalkaboutsocial,gender,politicalissuesofthecurrentdaywhicharethingswhichheorshewouldknowinmoredetailthanIwould.ThenImighttalkabitaboutthesitesthatwe’revisitingandtheirculturalimpact.CertainlytheinterpretationofthatIcanbring…isbyputtingthesethingsinamuchwidercultural,political,historicalcontextwhichwouldbebeneficialforpeople.

Furthermore,tocaterfortherangeofskillsrequiredintourleaders,mostcompaniescreatedadivisionbetweenanorganiser/managerroleandtheaccompanyingexpert.Themanagerwasresponsibleforadministrativetaskssuchasorganisingdaytours,arrangingvisaandotherdocumentationandattendingtootherdaily,routinetasks.However,thesocialaspectsofgroupcohesionanddynamicswereverymuchseenastheroleoftheacademictourleaderandfundamentaltothelearningprocess.Oneacademicleaderdescribedhisinputonaphotographytourinthefollowingterms:‘Iwasthereasakindofcreativementor,Isuppose,thatisthetermthatIliketouse.Andthatworkedverywell’.Thus,theorganisationalcultureofaneducationaltourinmanywaysresembledthatofamoreformaleducationalinstitution;withtourleadersaslecturers,localguidesassessionaltutorsorinvitedspeakers,andtourmanagersasschoolmanagers.

Knowledgewasclearlycriticalinaleaderbutpacingitsdeliverywasequallyemphasisedbybothlearnersandtourproviders.Agoodleader,accordingtooneprovider,possessed‘skillsincommunicatingthisknowledgetoaninterestedaudience’.Thissignifiedanimportantfacetofeducationaltourismasitwasmarketedbycompanies:thatthelearningshouldbemadebothaccessibleandfun.Itwasnotsurprising,therefore,thatcompanieshighlightedthepeople-skillsoftheirleaders.Theywere‘caring’and‘willingtoadapttothepaceofthegroup’.Thiswasreflectedinthepersonalqualitiesdesirousinatourleaderratedinthesurvey,suchasagoodsenseofhumourandempathytothegroup’smood.Onedirectorsummarisedthebrieffor


thebesttourleadersas:‘Excellentqualifications,begoodattheirtourleaderexperienceandsocialco-ordinator’.Leaders’sensitivitytothediversityofknowledgeandexperienceoftourparticipantswasanimportantmarketingemphasisforeducationaltourismproviders.

Tourleaderstoocommonlyspokeoftheneedtobesensitivetothedifferentwaysandenvironmentinwhichlearningoccurred.Theimportanceofgaugingthevarietyoflearningstylesandlevelsinatourgroupwasnotedbyonefemaleacademicleaderwhoobserved‘severalofthemwillbetakingnotes.Andwithsomeofthemtheywillalsocomeuptoyoulaterandaskforclarificationofcertainofthepointsthatyou’vemade’.Theopportunitytoposequestionsoverthecourseofthetourwashighlightedbymanyleadersasacommonfeatureofparticipantlearning.Thisindicatesthatbeyondtheformaldeliveryoflectures,animportantaspectoflearningtakesplaceininformal,oftenpost factosettings.Thesemightbeplaceswhereparticipantsfeltcomfortableandsupported,unafraidtoaskquestions,toverifytheirlearningortoreflectuponthesitesvisitedandtheirmeanings.Asonetourleaderputit,‘Iftheysay,“We’dliketolearnmoreaboutthis”,Isay,“Okay,let’sgettogetherafterdinner”’.Astheseexamplessuggest,tourleaders’skillsincludednotjustknowledgeexpertisebutalsocriticalsocialskillsindetectinglevelsofengagementandrespondingappropriatelytothem.However,whilstbothacademicsandlearnerssawthispriorexperienceassomethingthatenhancedthequalityoftheeducationalproduct,scholarshadgreaterfaithinabstractknowledge,seeing‘priorexpertise’asmorevaluablethan‘priorexperience’.Conversely,learnersratedfirst-handexperienceasmoredesirablethanformalexpertise.

Forproviders,academicsandlearners,therefore,thetourleaderandlocalexpertswereuniversallyperceivedtobecriticalaspectsoftheprocessbywhichlearningoccurredontour.However,thechoiceofkeyqualitiesofsuchpersonnelforfacilitatinglearningdiffered


betweenrespondents.Typically(andunsurprisingly),tourprovidersandlearnersweremoreusuallyalignedintheirnotionsofagoodleader’srequirementsforknowledge,accessibility,sensitivityandtourexperience,whereasacademicrespondentstendedtoprioritisequalityanddepthofknowledgeasamorepowerfulcomponentofaleader’sfacilitationofclientlearning.

Learning beyond the touristic experience

Theinfluenceoftourismparaphernaliaonthetouristicexperiencehasbeenwelldocumented;however,discussionshavealmostexclusivelyfocusedontheirmarketingandpromotionpotential(Ateljevic&Doorne2002).Learnersaswellaseducationaltourproviders,however,sawpre-tourdocumentationandeventsasacrucialelementofthelearningexperience.Surveyparticipantswereaskedtorankinimportanceaseriesofstatementsregardingpreparationfortours.Theresultsindicatedthatpriorinformation,suchashandouts,booksandothereducationalaids,washighlyvalued.Femalelearnersshowedamuchstrongerpreferenceforpreparingtheirlearning.Mapswereconsideredtobethemostvaluableeducationalaidpre-tour,rankingabovehandbooksandstudynotes.Surveyparticipantswerealsoaskedtoconsiderwhattypesofeducationalaidstheywouldfindusefulforlearningonaneducationaltour.Again,mapswereconsideredtobethemostvaluableeducationalaid,consistentlyrankinghighlyatallstagesoftheeducationaltravelexperience.Atourleaderforoneeducationaltourcompanydescribedthevalueofmapsasbeinginvaluableforfocusinghistoricaldiscussionpoints;forexample,includingindividualplansofbuildingstohelpvisualise,anddirect,alearningexperience.

Nonetheless,moreformaleducationalaids,mostnotablyhandbooks,werealmostashighlyvaluedasmapspreandduringtour.Handbooksoftenincludedsuggestedreadingcontainingnovelsaswellasscholarlytextbooks.Oneleaderreflectedonhowhisgroupusedtheirtextualresourcesontour:


Ifwe’rewalkingaroundandwehavetheseavailabletous,peoplecanjotnotesdowninthatsortofwayoraboveall,whenwemeetintheevening,we’vegotthissharedresourcetoactuallyworkwith.Sothesetaketheplacefairlyobviouslyofvisuals,overheads,thingslikethatwhichwewoulduseintheteachingclassroomsetting.Soitdoesenablepeople,Ithink,tohaveafairlygoodandcomprehensiveaidmemoirforwhat’sgoingon,abitofresourcewhichcanactuallybeusedinthefield,inthehoteltoenhancetheirknowledge.

Howsuchmaterialwasusedvarieddependingontheteachingstyleofthetourleader.Asonemaleacademicleaderobservedfromhisexperience,‘thepeoplewhocomeonthesetoursdon’twanttogooverseasforthreeweeksandstudyinthewaythatwewouldthinkit.Theydon’treallywanttodomuchreadingintheevening’.

Theimportanceofaccesstoeducationalaidscontinuedpost-tour;again,mapswereconsideredtobethemostvaluable.Perhapssurprisingly,thewebappearedtoplaylittlepartinpost-tourreflectionaccordingtorespondents,althoughatleastoneacademicinterviewedhadextendedtheeducationalexperiencebothbeforeandbeyondtheon-siteengagementwithhisgroupbycreatingawebsitetomakeaccessiblethereportsfromthetoursaswellashisdetailednotes.Generallyspeaking,femalelearnersexpressedagreaterinterestincontinuingthelearningexperiencepost-tourthandidmales.Post-tour,scholarshadgreaterfaithinthepowerofinformalmeetingstoextendandstimulatethequalityoftheeducationalexperiencethandidthelearners.However,learnerspreferredtheongoinganalysisofmaps,handbooks,webresearchandnovels.Itappears,therefore,thatlearnersprefergroupinteractionon tourfollowedbyindividualreflectionpost tour,withscholarseffectivelyinvertingthepreference.


Discussion

Althoughacademicstendtoholdmorediverseideasofwhateducationaltourismcouldbethandidlearners,anumberofsharedunderstandingswereapparentfromoursurvey.Bothgroupsconsideredtheprimaryoutcomeoftheeducationaltourismexperiencetobelearning,andfurthermore,thatthelearningwasintentional.Aseriesofdistinctivefeaturesinthedesignandmarketingofsuchtourscontributedtotheirperceptionaspedagogicalexperiencesforparticipants,butthesecomponentsmustcatertoawiderangeoflearningneeds,stylesandinterestsandthereforecannotbetooprescriptiveorrigid.First,theirexplicitidentificationas‘educational’wasanimportantaspecttowhatmakessuchtourslearningexperiencesfortheirclients.Suchterminologydrewtogetherlike-mindedindividualsandprovidedasharedintentionandexpectationstotheactivitiesbeyondsimplyvisitingaseriesofdestinations.Second,touroperatorsinthisnichemarketwereperceivedtoprovideparticularknowledge,expertiseorexperience,throughthetourleaderaswellaslocallecturersandguides.Socialskills,aswellasknowledgeexpertise,werevitalbecausetheseenabledleaderstoidentifylevelsanddegreesofcapacityandengagementintheclienteleandtorespondaccordinglyinavarietyofformalandinformalcontextsontours.Third,learners,academicsandprovidersagreedthatsupportmaterialsprovidedbeforeandafterthetouraddedtotheopportunitiesforclientlearningassociatedwitheducationaltourism.

Significantly,thelearningexperienceineducationaltourismisperceivedtoextendbeyondtheactualtouristicexperienceandencompassedpre-travelconsiderationssuchasproductdevelopment,personnelrecruitmentandlearnerpreparation.Equally,thelearningexperiencehadalifeaftertravel,aslearningcommunitieswereforgedtomaintainlearners’sociallinks.Educationaltourism,therefore,hasgreatpotentialtoofferameaningful,lifelonglearning


experienceforbothitsconsumersandpractitioners.Itsupportsmanyofthedistinguishingfeaturesofalifelonglearningagenda,suchasthoseofferedbyWatson(2003),includingtherecognitionoftheimportanceofbothformalandinformallearning,theimportanceofself-motivatedandself-fundedlearning,andtheuniversalityoflearning.

Thisresearchsuggeststhreetypesoflearningexperienceassociatedwithtravel.Ononeendofthecontinuum,studyabroadorcredittoursorganisedaspartofauniversitycurriculuminferformallearning,especiallysincethatlearningisinvariablycredentialled.Attheotherendliestravelforreasonssuchasfamilyholidaysorbackpackingritesofpassage.Thesearegenerallyinformallearningexperiences.Situatedsomewherebetweenthesetwoliesthefocusofourstudy—educationaltourism.Itcanbestbedescribedasnon-formallearning,onewhichhasthepotentialtoprovidebenefitsatbothends.Ontheonehand,itisessentiallyapersonal/pleasurablepursuitratherthanaprofessional/studyactivity,andthusitspowertomotivateandengagethelearnerissignificant.Ontheother,itislearningthatistoalargedegreestructuredanddirected,facilitatedbyaknowledgeexpert,andsupportedbyarangeofrelevantmaterials,givingitincreasedpotentialtotransformtheadultlearner.

Inmanyways,the‘look’ofthelearningexperiencesonaneducationaltourresembledthoseoccurringinmoreformalsettingssuchashighereducationinstitutions.Organisationalstructures,roles,teachingstylesandeducationaloutcomeswereallapparent,aswereimplicithierarchies,proxiesofqualityandlearnerperceptionsofqualityteaching.Thisraisesinterestingquestionsforadulteducatorsandresearchers.Werethesestructuresapparentbecausetheyprovidedthebestenvironmentforlearningtooccur?Werethenorms,ideologiesandbeliefsofformaleducationalinstitutionsdeliberatelyinculcatedinthesecommercialoperations,asawayofattractingacademicsastourleadersandclientsfamiliarwithtertiary


institutions?Orwasitratherthattheacademicsunintentionallybroughtthesenormswiththem?Wasthereanexpectationbythelearnersthatthiswaswhateducationlookedlike?Theeffectstheorganisationalstructure,knowledgeexpertandtourdocumentationformatshaveuponlessformal,experientiallearningeventsdeservetobefurtherexplored.

Educationaltourismisatopicthatcouldbenefitfromawiderangeofdisciplinaryandmethodologicalapproachestoexploremorefullyitsimpactonbothparticipantsandlocalcommunities.Ethnographicstudies—similartoNeumann’s(1993)accountofanalternativebustourthroughtheAmericanSouthwest—areonewayinwhichadulteducatorscouldshedfurtherlightonthesocialinteractionsbetweentourparticipantsandtheirhostcommunities.Equally,criticaleducationalresearcherscouldfurtherexplorethepedagogicalrelationshipbetweenthetravelparticipantandtourleader.Thisisparticularlyrelevantgiventhetransformativepotentialofadulteducationandthewayinwhichknowledge/powerisnotionallyascribedtothe‘academic’inaneducationaltourismframework.

Acknowledgement

Support has been provided by the Australian Learning and Teaching Council Ltd, an initiative of the Australian Government Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations. The views expressed in this paper do not necessarily reflect the views of the Australian Learning and Teaching Council.

References

Ateljevic,I.&Doorne,S.(2002).‘RepresentingNewZealand:Tourismimageryandideology’,Annals of Tourism Research,29(3):648–667.

Elderhostel(2007).‘Whatwillbabyboomerswantfromeducationaltravel?’,researchreport,www.elderhostel.org[accessed3February2009].

Feifer,M.(1985).Tourism in history: From Imperial Rome to the present.NewYork:SteinandDayInc.


Guevara,J.(1996)‘Learningthroughparticipatoryactionresearchforcommunityecotourismplanning’,Convergence,29(3):24.

Hecht,B.,Starosielski,N.&Dara-Abrams,D.(2007).‘GeneratingeducationaltourismnarrativesfromWikipedia’,paperpresentedattheFallSymposiumoftheAssociationfortheAdvancementofArtificialIntelligence(AAAI).

Huerta,J.(2004).‘Dolearningcommunitiesmakeadifference?’,Political Science and Politics,37(2):291–296.

Kolb,D.(1984).Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development,NewJersey:PrenticeHall.

Mezirow,J.(1991).Transformative dimensions of adult learning,SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass.

Moscardo,G.(1996).‘Mindfulvisitors:Heritageandtourism’,Annals of Tourism Research,23(2):376–397.

Neumann,M.(1993).‘Livingontortoisetime:Alternativetravelasthepursuitoflifestyle’,Symbolic Interaction,16(3):201–235.

Pitman,T.,Broomhall,S.,Majocha,E.&McEwan,J.(2010).‘Transformativelearningineducationaltourism’,Teaching and Learning Forum 2010,http://lsn.curtin.edu.au/tlf/tlf2010/refereed/pitman.html[accessed12May2010].

Ritchie,B.(2003).Aspects of tourism, managing educational tourism,Buffalo:ChannelViewPublications.

Strain,M.(1998).‘Towardsaneconomyoflifelonglearning:Reconceptualisingrelationsbetweenlearningandlife’,British Journal of Educational Studies,46(3):264–277.

Thomas,P.(2009).‘Thetroublewithtravel’,Geographical,81(2):50–52.

Watson,L.(2003).Lifelong learning in Australia,Canberra:DepartmentofEducation,ScienceandTraining.

Wood,C.(2008).‘Educationaltourism:Culturallandscapes’,inKent,B.,Pesman,R.,&Troup,C.(eds.),Australians in Italy: Contemporary lives and impressions,Clayton:MonashUniversityePress,19.1–19.11.

Zurick,D.(1992).‘AdventuretravelandsustainabletourismintheperipheraleconomyofNepal’,Annals of the Association of American Geographers,82(4):608–628.


About the authors

Tim Pitman researches in the field of lifelong learning and educational tourism at the University of Western Australia. Previously he worked in the tourism industry in both Australia and the UK. He is, together with the other authors, an investigator on a research project examining understandings of educational tourism.

Susan Broomhall has published extensively on medieval and early modern history and heritage. Her current work at the University of Western Australia focuses on historical presentations in scholarly, heritage and tourism contexts, understandings of place and travel, and experiential learning in place, travel and the classroom.

Elzbieta Majocha is a linguist at the University of Western Australia, and participated as a researcher in this project.

Joanne McEwan is a historian at the University of Western Australia, and participated as a researcher in this project.

Contact details

The University of Western Australia, M459, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Western Australia, 6009

Tel: (08) 6488 8034 Fax: (08) 6488 1075 Email: [email protected]


Shall we dance? The story of The Radiance Dance Project

Lisa Catherine EhrichFaculty of Education

Queensland University of Technology

Community workers are often described as unsung heroes who work for, with and alongside others in order to make qualitative differences to the communities they serve. This paper reports on the story of a community-based arts educator, Morgan Jai-Morincome, winner of the ACT Adult Learners Week Award for an outstanding program in 2007. This program, referred to as The Radiance Dance Project, is an inclusive performance project open to women with and without disabilities that culminates in a yearly performance. Via an interview with Morgan, observations of a workshop she provided for the women in her 2009 program, and a viewing of a DVD of the 2008 dance performance, this case study provides an illustration of the power of arts-based educative processes for breaking down barriers between people with and without disabilities. It draws upon constructs from ethical leadership theory and empowerment theory to interpret her ideas and practices.

240 Lisa Catherine Ehrich

Introduction

IwouldonlybelieveinaGodwhoknewhowtodance(Nietzsche).

Nietzsche’sprovocativewordsresonateinmyheadasIobserve23womenwithandwithoutdisabilitiesengageinseriesofcreativemovementactivitiesduringtheirweeklysessionfacilitatedbyMorganJai-Morincome,acommunity-basedartseducatorinCanberra.ThesessionispartofTheRadianceDanceProject,a40-weekprogramofferedfreetowomeninCanberra.Morganisassistedbyherco-facilitatorwhohasworkedwithhersincetheprojectwasfoundedandamature-ageduniversitystudentwhojoinedthematthebeginningoftheyeartoconductaresearchprojectonRadiance.Intheclass,therearevaryingbodyshapes,agesandabilities.Onewomanisinawheelchairandcanmoveonlyherhead.Manywomenareatveryyoungdevelopmentalages,andsomeofthesewomenhavecometothesessionwiththeirsupportworkerswhoareengagingfullyintheactivitiesalongsidethem.Amongthegroupareafewwomenwithprofessionaldanceexperience.Mostoftheparticipantshavehadverylittleexperienceinorexposuretoperformingarts.Thegroupin2009ismadeupofabouthalfofthewomenwithoutanyofficialdisability.Allbodiescandance.

ThispapertellsthestoryofMorgan,thefounderofTheRadianceDanceProject,andtheuniquewayshehasuseddanceasameansofbreakingdownthebarriersbetweenpeoplewithandwithoutdisabilities.IfeltcompelledtowritethispaperafterhavinghadtheprivilegeofattendingaworkshopsheprovidedattheAdultLearningAustraliaConferencein2008whereshespokeofherprogramandtheprinciplesgoverningitsoperation.Thepaperbeginsbyreferringtosomeoftheimportantliteratureinthefield.Itconsidersthepotentialofthecreativeartsasameansofmobilisinglearningandgrowthforpeoplewithdisabilities,discussesthreecentralconstructspertainingtoethicalleadershiptheory,anddrawsuponsomeinsights

Shall we dance? The story of The Radiance Dance Project 241

fromempowermenttheory.ThesetheoreticalinsightsarerevisitedlaterinthepaperasameansofinterpretingMorgan’slifeandwork.

Creative arts

Forsomeyearsnow,thevalueandplaceofthecreativeartshasemergedinavarietyofprofessionalareassuchashealth,educationandbusinessasawayofenhancingandenrichinglearning.Forinstance,healthprofessionalshaveexploredthevalueofdanceandmovementasatypeofhealingandtherapy(Leavy2008).Varioustypesofarts-basededucationarebeingusedtodevelopleadersandmanagersinbusiness,premisedonthebeliefthatartcancreateadifferenttypeofspacefordealingwithproblemsandconnectingtoissuesonadeeperlevel(Kerr&Darso2008a).Inthefieldofdisability,creativearts,dramaandmovementhavebeenusedwithdisabledpeopletohelpthemdevelopphysically,sociallyandcognitively.Forexample,Fuller,Jongsma,Milne,VenutiandWilliams(2008)maintainthatdanceandphysicalmovementallowpeoplewithimpairmentstodevelopaheightenedawarenessoftheirbody’sstructureandtheirstrengths.Danceandmovementhavealsobeenseenasawayofpromotinggrowthandchange(James1996)aswellasincreasingself-esteemandimprovedskillsinsocialisationandcommunication(Lynch&Chosa1996,citedinFulleret al.2008).

Traditionally,performance-baseddancesuchasballetandotherclassicaldancestyleswaspursuedbypersonswith‘perfectbodies’(Freire2001:74).However,inmorerecenttimes,aspateofprofessionaldanceandtheatrecompaniesinAustraliaandoverseashasemergedthatuseperformerswithandwithoutphysicaldisabilities.SomeofthesebetterknowncompaniesincludeDancingWheels,Axis,JointForcesandCandoCo(Male2005).Manyofthedisableddancersinthesecompanieswereatonetimeprofessionaldancersorsportspersonsbutwhothroughaccidentsorillnessesfoundthemselvesdisabled.CompanieslikeAxischallengesociety’s


beliefsaboutdisabilityand‘blurtheboundaries’(Milner2001)aboutwhatconstitutesdanceandcreativemovement.Notsurprisingly,Axishasbeendescribedasagroupofartistswho‘challengenotionsofnormalcyandchampionsocialinclusiveness’(Felciano2002:59).BasedonanexplorationoffourcontemporaryAmericanartists/companies(ofwhichAxisisone),Davies(2003:Abstract)arguesthat‘theactualityofdisabledperformersindisabilitydanceandtheatreforcesustorethinktheboundariesofhumanexperiencetoexpandournotionsofwhatispossibleonthestage’.Commontotheseprofessionaldancecompaniesistheirdesiretoreframethewaysinwhichdisabledbodiescanbeunderstoodandconstrued(Hickey-Moody2006).Incontrasttotheprofessionaldancegroupsmentionedabove,therearenocriteriaregardingwhocanorcannotparticipateinTheRadianceDanceProject.Itisopentoanywoman,ofanyability,whowishestoengageinandbecommittedtotheyear-longprogram.Furthermore,andunlikemanyoftheaforementionedcompanies,Radianceisinclusiveofwomenlivingwithanydisabilitytype.Itdrawsuponprinciplesofcommunityculturaldevelopmentandsocialinclusion.

An ethical framework—care, justice and critique

Animportantframeworkthatisusedinthispapertounderstandthevaluesandpedagogicalpracticesofthearts-basedcommunityworkerwhoseworkandprogramareitsfocuswasdevelopedbyStarratt(1996).Theframeworkcomprisesthreeinter-relatedethics:anethicofcare,justiceandcritique.Althoughhisworkwasdevelopedforschoolleadership,ithasapplicabilitytocommunityleadershipandcommunitydevelopmentandhasbeenusedtointerprettheworkofcommunityleaders(seeCreyton&Ehrich2009,Ehrich&Creyton2008).Eachisnowdiscussed.

Anethicofcarerefersto‘astandpointofabsoluteregard’(Starratt1996)forthedignityandworthofindividuals.Thus,itprizesrelationshipswithothersandthesebecomepivotaltothefunctioning


ofpeople.AccordingtoFromm(1957:25),careisthe‘activeconcernforlifeandthegrowthofthatwhichwelove’.Whetherwewishtousethewordloveorcare,Starrattandlike-mindedwritersmaintainthatleaderswhooperatewithinanethicalframeworkaregenuinelyconcernedforandcareforothers.

Anethicofjustice,accordingtoStarratt(1996),involvesbeingfairandequitableindealingwithpeople.Forleaders,itisaboutcreatingtheconditionsofasociallyjustworkenvironment.Buildingasenseofcommunityliesattheheartofthisethic.Acommunityisdescribedasacollectionofindividualswhoarebondedtogetherbynaturalwillandboundtoasetofvaluesandideals(Sergiovanni1994).Acommunityexistswhenpeoplefeelasenseofbelongingandinterconnectednesswithothers.Sharedanddemocraticleadershipwhereeveryonecanmakeacontributionconstitutetheoperationsofthistypeofcommunity.Sharedleadership,followingPearceandConger’s(2003)definition,isviewedasaninteractiveprocessamongindividualsingroupsthatachieveparticulargoals.Theirdefinitionimpliesthatleadershipisdynamic,relationalandutilisedforthepurposesoftheachievementofgoals.Italsoassumesthatleadershipismulti-directionalandmaycomefromanyindividual.

Relatedtotheethicofjusticeisaconcernforagreatergoalormission.Starratt(1996)usestheterm,‘transcendence’toexplain‘turn[ing]ourlifetowardsomeoneortowardsomethinggreaterthanorbeyondourselves’(p.158).Hegivestheexampleofpeoplewhohaveastrongbeliefinimprovingtheenvironmentorpoliticalfreedomandthisidealleadsthemtocollectiveaction.

AccordingtoStarratt(1996),thethirdethic,anethicofcritique,hasbeeninfluencedbycriticaltheory,aneo-marxistperspectivethatemergedinitiallyinthe1920sbytheFrankfurtschoolofphilosophersandotherphilosopherssympathetictoaMarxistperspective.Anethicofcritiqueisonethatmaintainsthatinequalityandinjusticeexistinsociallife(thatis,insocialrelationships,laws,institutions,social


practices)andcriticalanalystsaskquestionssuchas‘whoseinterestsarebeingserved’?inanattempttoredresssuchinjustices.Starratt(1996)arguesthattheethicalchallengeisto

makethesesocialarrangementsmoreresponsivetothehumanandsocialrightsofallcitizens,toenablethoseaffectedbysocialarrangementstohaveavoiceinevaluatingtheconsequencesandinalteringthemintheinterestsofthecommongoodandoffullerparticipationandjusticeforindividuals.(p.161)

Asindicatedabove,centraltoanethicofcritiqueisalsotheneedfordemocraticandparticipatoryformsofleadershipthatencouragecitizenstoquestiontheunderlyingbasesofpower,hegemonyandcontrolwithinsociety.Itisarguedherethatthesethreeethicsareinterconnectedsinceeachrequirestheothertoformanethicalframework.FollowingStarratt’s(1996)lead,ethicalleadersarethosepersonswhoconnectwithothers,careforandworkcloselywiththemandbuildmoreequitablestructures.

Empowerment as a key construct

Relatedtoanethicofcare,justiceandcritiqueisthenotionofempowerment.Itisaconceptthathasbeenusedwidelyinavarietyofdisciplinessuchaseducation,feministstudiesanddisability.ItsoriginshavebeentracedtoPauloFreire(1971)andhisseminalworkpromotingtheemancipationoftheoppressed(MannHyungHur2006).Empowermentcanbeseenasbothaprocessandaproductthatisexpressedinattitudes,behaviourandknowledge(Dempsey&Foreman1997).Ithasbeendescribedalsoasoccurringatanindividual,groupandcommunitylevel,anddescribedasa‘socialprocess’(MannHyungHur2006)becauseitoccursinrelationtoothers.Feministtheorieshaveconceptualizedempowermentas‘powerto’wheretheindividualisabletoinfluencehisorherenvironmentand‘powerwith’wherepeopleworktogetherinequalpartnership(Neath&Schriner1998,inBlock,Balcazar&


Keys2001:24).‘Powerwith’hasalsobeendescribedas‘powerinconnection,relationalpowerandmutualpower’(Fennell1999:27).

Inthedisabilityliterature,empowermenthasbeenidentifiedasanecessityforpersonswithdisabilitiestohelpbecomeself-determining(Sprague&Hayes2000)andabletoregaincontrolovertheirlives(Rappaport,inSprague&Hayes2000:679).Indeedempowermenthasbeenputforwardasatheoryofchangeforpeoplenotonlywithdisabilitiesbutalsofromavarietyofmarginalisedgroups(Blocket al.2001).

SpragueandHayes(2000)supportwhattheydescribeasafeministstandpointanalysisofempowermentas‘acharacteristicofasocialrelationship,onethatfacilitatesthedevelopmentofsomeone’sself’(p.671).Theyidentifyparticulartypesofrelationshipsthatareempoweringfordisabledpeopleasthosedrawingonsupportgroups,consciousnessraisinggroups,andself-advocacygroups.Regardingthelatter,theauthorsstatethatpeopleneedtheopportunitytoexperienceachievementandreflectontheirskillsandexperiences.Thissortofrelationshipisreciprocalasitenablesdisabledpeopletocontributetoaswellasbenefitfromrelationships.Theymaintainthatempoweringrelationshipscanalsobecreatedwhentherearedifferencesinabilitybetweenthevariousparties.Heretheyarereferringtotherelationshipbetweencare-takersandpersonswithdisability.Thetermusedtoexplainthisis‘co-empowerment’(Bond&Keys,inSprague&Hayes2000:685).

SpragueandHayes’(2000)viewofempowermenthasconnectionstothenotionof‘collectiveempowerment’(MannHyungHur2006)sincethisreferstoindividualswhojointogethertolearnanddevelopskillsforcollectiveaction.Synthesisingwritinginthefieldofcollectiveempowerment,MannHyungHur(2006)referstoitskeycomponentsas‘communitybuilding’—whichreferstocreatingasenseofcommunityamongpeople;‘communitybelonging’wherepeopleareabletoidentifywithsimilarothers;‘involvementinthe


community’wherepeopleparticipateincommunityactivitiesandeventsthatcouldleadtosocialchange;and‘controloverorganization’thatreferstogroupsupportandadvocacy.

Insummary,empowermentasaconstructisconnectedtoanethicofcaresinceitvaluesrelationshipswithothersandseesindividualsasuniquepersonswhocangiveandreceive.Itisconnectedtoanethicofjusticeasitmaintainsthatpeoplecanworktogetherinequalpartnershipandbemembersofacommunitywheretheycontributefullyandbelong.Moreover,withinthiscommunitythereisaspacetohaveavoice.Finally,itisconnectedtoanethicofcritiqueasitrefersto‘powerwith’wherepeoplecanacttogethertobringaboutchange.

Methodology

Aqualitative,interpretivecasestudywasusedtocapturethearts-basedcommunityworker’sstory.Acasestudywaschosenbecauseitisaneffectivewayofpresentingrichnarrativesonindividualcases(Maykut&Morehouse1994).Itisalsousefulasitenablestheuseofmultiplesourcesofdata(Cavana,Delahaye&Sekaran2001).Threemaindatasourceswereusedinthisstudy.Theseincludedanin-depthsemi-structuredinterview,aseriesofunstructuredobservations,andtwodocumentswrittenbythecommunityeducatorabouttheprogram.Firstly,aninterviewwasusedasitenablesaparticipanttoreflectuponandmakesenseofhisorherexperience(Siedman1991).Asetofkeyquestionsoutlinedinaninterviewguidewasmadeavailabletotheparticipantpriortotheinterviewprocess(Minichiello,Aroni,Timewell&Alexander1990).Theparticipantgrantedtheresearcherpermissiontotaperecordtheinterview.Thequestionsfocusedonherbackground,thedanceprogramsheintroducedandfacilitates,thecentralvaluesunderpinningherworkasacommunity-basedartseducator,herleadershipapproachandstrategiesandthechallengesfacingpeopleinherfieldofwork.


Secondly,anobservationoftheparticipantfacilitatingatwo-hoursessionwiththewomenintheprogramwastheseconddatasource.Thisobservationwasofan‘unstructured’variety(Cavanaet al.2001)andtheresearcherobservedandtooknotesonallaspectsofthesession.Thiswasfollowedbytheresearcherlisteningtoaone-hourdebriefingsessionfacilitatedbytheparticipantwithherco-facilitatorandstudentregardingtheworkshopthatday.ThefinalobservationincludedthewatchingofaDVDthatcapturedtheperformanceofthecohortfrom2008.Thirdly,documentanalysiswasused(Maykut&Morehouse1994)wheretheparticipantmadeavailabletotheresearchertwodocumentspertainingtoTheRadianceDanceProject.Bothofthesewereinformationhandoutsabouttheprogram.

Aftertheinterviewwascompleted,atranscriptwassenttotheparticipantforcheckingandendorsement.Theanalysisofthetranscript,inlargepart,wasguidedbytheproceduresoutlinedbyMarton(1988).Forexample,commentswerebroughttogetherintocategoriesonthebasisoftheirsimilaritiesandcategoriesbeingdifferentiatedfromoneanotherintermsoftheirvariances.Datafromtheobservationsanddocumentswereintegratedwiththethemes.Theoreticalconstructsalludedtoearlierinthediscussionwereusedtoassistintheinterpretationofthethemesthatemergedfromtheanalysis.Adraftofthispaperwasgiventothecommunityartsworkerforhercommentsandendorsementthatitpresentedanauthenticaccountofherworkandideas.Thenextpartofthediscussionisbasedaroundthreemainthemes:theperson,theprogram,andtheinterpretation.

The person

Morganwasbornin1972,thefirstoftwochildren.Sheattendedanalternativehighschoolthathadachild-centredcurriculumandphilosophy.Theschoolwasidealasitenabledhertopursueher‘love of performing arts and the creative process in general’.Becauseof


hergreatinterestintheartsshecompletedadegreeineducationaltheatreatuniversityfollowedbyagraduatediplomaineducation.Between1998–2000sheworkedasaneducationofficerforOxfamCommunityAidAbroadonTheWorldNeighboursEducationProject.Itinvolvedraisingawarenessofsocialjusticeissuesthroughtheperformingartsforyouthinschools.Thejobinvolvedmanagingandadministeringpresentersandcreatingnewworks.DuringthistimeMorgansecuredfunding(forOxfam)todeviseanddeveloparoleplaybasedonrefugees.Sheandherhusband(whohadexperienceworkingasarecreationofficerwithchildren)performedthisparticularpieceforschoolsintheACTforayear.ShesaidworkingatOxfamwasa‘turning point’asitgaveheradeeperunderstandingofsocialjusticeissuesrelatedtopeopleexperiencingdisadvantageandenabledhertointegrateherloveoftheartswithherstrongcommitmenttosocialjustice.

MorgandecidedtoleaveOxfamonceshefellpregnantwithherfirstchild.SinceleavingOxfamshehasbeenself-employedasacommunityartsworkerwhereshehasworkedforarangeofcommunityorganisationsandwithpeopleofallagesandabilities.Overthenextcoupleofyearsshecompletedamastersofartsincommunication(culturalperformance),hadanotherchild,andworkedpart-timeasabellydancingteacher,skillsshelearnedwhilstatuniversity.Throughafriend,shewasaskedtotakeabellydancingclassforagroupofwomenwithdisabilitiesandsherealizedhowmuchsheenjoyedworkingwithpeoplewithdiverseabilities.Atthistimeshedecidedifshewantedtocontinuewiththistypeofworkandtobeabletoofferaprogramthatwasaffordableforwomenwithdisabilities,shewouldneedtoseekfunding.UsingskillsgainedwhileatOxfam,shewassuccessfulinsecuringaninnovationsgrantthroughtheACTgovernment.Thefirstprogramwasofferedin2005andrunbyMorganandherfriendwhohasworkedwithherasco-facilitatorsincethattime.Morganpromotedtheprogramthroughthecommunitysectoranditgrewfromsevenpeople(onthe


firstdayofthefirstprogram)to25bytheendoftheyear.Ofthe25participants,23hadsomeconnectionwithdisabilities.Theprogramisnowinitsfifthyear.Morganstatedthatofthe27womenenrolledinthisyear’sprogram,abouthalfhavedisabilities,whiletheotherhalfhavenoconnectionwithdisability.Shereflectedthat,‘to me [that] marks a big part of the evolution of the group in terms of how willing people are to get involved with something that’s inclusive in the broader community’. Likesomanycommunityprogramsthatrelyonsecuringfundingfortheirongoingoperation,Morganhashadtoapplyforfundingeveryyeartopayforthedirectcostsinvolvedinrunningacommunity-basedartsprogram.

The program: The Radiance Dance Project

Radiance has grown out of the lack of opportunities for people with disabilities to access and participate in ongoing dance/movement classes, programs or projects and a need for opportunities for people with and without disabilities to dance, create, explore, collaborate and perform together. It has grown into a project that sees all humans as having diverse abilities and offering a space where individuals can express their unique selves in connection and collaboration with others. (Jai-Morincome2009)

Asindicatedbythequote,theprogramisbasedonanumberofassumptionsandmanyoftheserelatetotheimportanceofvaluingdifferenceanddiversity,integratinglearningandcreativeopportunitiesforpeoplewithandwithoutdisabilities,andtheabilitythateveryonehastoexpressthemselves.Asanintegratedprogram,Radianceis‘open to and actively promotes dance that involves people with and without disabilities’(Jai-Morincome2009).Inthisway,itprovidesopportunitiesforpeopletoexperienceandtoappreciateeachother’sdiverseability.Allbodiesareseenasbeingabletodanceandeveryonehastheabilitytoexpressthemselvescreativelyandartisticallythroughperformance.Thus,Radianceisbasedontheassumptionthattherearenorightorwrongwaysin


moving.Forthisreason,participantsareencouragedtomovesafelyyetextendtheirrangeofmovementvocabularyandexplorenewwaysofcommunicatingandmoving.Hence,thedegreeofphysicalityisdependentonwhateachpersonisabletodoandcontribute.Activeparticipationispromotedwhereeachpersonisencouragedandsupportedtoparticipateasbesttheycan.Infact,supportworkers/carers(eitherpaidorunpaid)areexpectedtobeactiveparticipantsintheprogramandtocontributeinthesamewayasotherparticipants.Co-activeassistanceisencouragedwhereparticipantsexpressthemselvesintheirownwayandthefacilitatorsavoidofferingmovesorexamplesunlessthesearepartoftheactivity.Thefinalassumptionunderpinningtheprogramistheimportanceofacultureofkindnesstooperatesothatparticipantscanworktogetherinasupportedandsupportiveenvironment.AsstatedbyJai-Morincome(2009),‘we approach each other with openness and kindness [in] a loving, supportive and respectful environment’. Itisthiscultureofsupportandinclusivitythatenablestheparticipantstofeelateaseandtoimmersethemselvesinthecreativeexperience.

AuniquefeatureofRadianceisitisofferedtowomenonlyandthemainreasonforthisishistorical.AsMorganindicated,whatisnowknownasTheRadianceDanceProjectgrewoutofapilotprojectwithanexistingwomen’sgrouprunbyalocalserviceprovider.Astheprojectevolved,itremainedawomen’sonlygroupdueinlargeparttothepositiveresponsesoftheparticipantswhoappreciateditssinglegenderfocusanditsabilitytoenablethemtofeelsafe,supportedandfreetobethemselves.RadianceistheonlysinglegenderprogramthatMorganprovides;herotherprogramscaterformixedgenders.

Radiancespans40weeksintheyearcommencinginFebruaryandendinginDecember.Onceaweek,participantsmeetforovertwohours,includingabreakformorningtea.Eachweekbuildsonfromthepreviousweeksoparticipantsareencouragedtoattendweeklyandmakeafirmcommitmenttoremainintheprogramuntiltheend


oftheyear.Thefirst10weeksoftheyeararedevotedtoexploratorywork.MorganexplainedthatmuchofherideasaboutmovementandimprovisationhavecomefromtheseminalworkofRudolfLaban(1988),teacherandchoreographer,whoseinfluencehasbeenfeltinfieldssuchaseducation,danceandthearts.

Thenext10weeksoftheprogramaredevotedtofurtheringskilldevelopmentinmovementanddancemakingaswellasgeneratingpotentialperformancematerial.Bytheendofterm2,ideasbegintobeworkshoppedtoseewhichoneshavethepotentialtobeusedintheperformance.Participantsareencouragedtocontributeandexploretheirideasbyengaginginimprovisedactivitiesinsmallandlargegroupsinclass.Asawayofensuringthatparticipants’ideasand‘voice’areaccuratelyrecordedandthereforeabletobebuiltupon,Morganand/orherco-facilitatortakephotographsandvideoasmanysessionsastheycan.Theseideasarethenexploredinfollow-upclasses.Duringtheirdebriefingsessionfollowingtheclass,Morganandherco-facilitatordiscusswhatissuesemerged,whatworkedwell,andwhattodointhenextsession.Anotherimportantsourceoffeedbackisthetwice-yearlyevaluation(conductedinthemiddleandendoftheyear),whenparticipantsareaskedtosharetheirperceptionsandreflectionsabouttheprogram.Thoseparticipantswhocanwriteareaskedtorecordtheirresponses,whilephotographs,videomaterialandartmaterialsareusedforthosepeoplewhoareunabletospeaktocapturetheirreactions.Supportworkerswhoaccompanythewomenwithdisabilitiesarealsoaskedtoarticulatetheirperceptionsofhowtheprojectisgoingforthemselvesandforthewomantheyaresupporting.

Interms3and4,participantsworkshopandrehearsethevariouspiecestowhichtheyarecommittedandwishtoperform.Performancepiecesareusuallysemi-improvised(mostlyun-choreographed).AsMorganstated,itisaparticipant’s‘way of moving [that] inspires what direction the pieces take’.Foreachperformance,thereareseveralpiecesthatareperformedandsomeoftheseinvolveasmall


numberofparticipants,whileotherpiecesinvolveallparticipants.BothMorganandherco-facilitatorperforminmanyofthepieces.Morganexplainedtheperformanceisnotavarietyshowbutaseriesofsegmentsthatareconnectedlooselytoathemeandthatthethemeusuallyemergesaseachpiecedevelops.Thecumulativeeffectofthe40-weeksessionsisaperformanceofferedtothepublicontwodaysinDecembereachyear.In2008,over200peopleinthelocalcommunityinCanberraattendedtheperformances.

The interpretation

Dance as a vehicle of empowerment

Dancehasbeendescribedasthemost‘ephemeral’oftheartssinceitcannotbecapturedinwrittenorrecordedform(Borstel2006:66).Itisavisualspectaclethatinvolvescreativemovementandexpression.Movementandtheatre,forMorgan,arethecreativevehiclesthroughwhichsheenactsherworkasanindependentcommunityartsworker.AttheheartofTheRadianceDanceProjectistheinvitationalspaceshegivesparticipantstobecomeempoweredindividuallyandcollectively.Individualempowermentisdemonstratedbyparticipants’emergingandgrowingawarenessoftheirbodiesandthedevelopmentandexpansionoftheirskillsofmovement(James1996).Collectiveempowermentisvisibleviathewayparticipantsareencouragedtoimprovetheircommunicativeandrelationalskillswithothersinthegroup(Fulleret al.2008).Itisthroughparticipants’relationshipsandinteractionsthattheylearn,developandcreate(Sprague&Hayes2000).

Thenotionsof‘powerto’and‘powerwith’,bothrelevanttofeministtheoriesofpoweranddisability(Blocket al.2001,Fennell1999),wereapparentintheactionsofparticipantsduringtheclassthatwasobserved.‘Power to’ wasevidentwhereparticipantswereengagedinactivities,interactingwiththeenvironmentandparticipatinginawaythatsuitedthematthatmoment.‘Power with’wasevidentnotonlyin


howMorgandescribedherwayofworkingwithparticipants,butalsodemonstratedthroughtheopportunitiessheprovidedforparticipantsinsessionwhentheytookownershipofthevariousactivities,sharedtheirideaswithothersandrespondedindividuallyandcollectively.

Ethic of care

AnimportantoperatingprincipleofTheRadianceDanceProjectisaclimateofopennessandkindnessinaloving,supportiveandrespectfulenvironment.Caringforindividualsasuniquepersonsandacceptanceoftheiruniquegiftsandabilities(Fromm1957,Starratt1996)arecentraltoMorgan’svaluesasacommunityartsworkerandevidentinherpracticesandrelationshipswithparticipantsandherco-facilitators.

AnimportantfeatureofRadiance,asdistinctfromotherprogramsdesignedtosupportgroupsofpeoplewhohavedifferenttypesofdisability,isitsintegratedandinclusivefocus.Morgansaidthat,throughtheapproachthatsheandherco-facilitatortake,theexercisestheyuse,andtheprinciplesthatguidetheprogram,shebelievesshehasbeensuccessfulincreatingacaringenvironmentwherebarriersbetweengroupsofpeoplearenotanissue.Asshesays,the

groupbecomesverycloseveryquicklybecause[of]…workingtogetherthroughmovement,notreliantonwords,whenyou’reactuallymovingtogether,isaveryintimateact.Soweareclosewitheachother,we’reclosephysicallyandthatreallydevelopsabondbetweenpeople.

KerrandDarso(2008b)concurwhentheystatethat‘[a]rtcaneducateus…thatweareabletoenterintoconversationonadeeperlevelthanwenormallydo,andtheartisticexperiencecreatesstrongrelationshipsandafeelingofconnectedness’(p.591).SpragueandHayes(2000:687–688)maintainthatpeople,regardlessoftheirabilitiesordisabilities,seektobeinrelationshipsthatare


empoweringyettherealityformanypeoplewithdisabilitiesisthattheyare‘severelyconstrainedbyinterpersonalandsocialstructuralrelationshipsthatinonewayoranotherdefinethemas“other”,asobjectratherthansubject’.Itistheseconstraintsandthenotionof‘theother’thatMorganandherco-facilitatorhaveworkedhardtodiminish.

Ethic of justice

AccordingtoStarratt(1996)anethicofjusticeisconcernedwithfairandequitabletreatmentofothersinaninclusiveclimate.Morganstatedthatsheisacutelyawareofthedifficultiesthatpersonswithdisabilitiesfaceregardingaccesstoarts-basedprograms.Forexample,manypeoplewithdisabilitiesareunemployedoronlowfixedincomes.Inrecognitionofthisissue,theprojectisfullysubsidisedandparticipantsdonotpaytoattend.

Anotherillustrationofjustpracticeistheinclusiveclimatethatiscreatedthatenablesdemocratic/sharedleadershipapproachestooperate.Agoodexampletohighlightthisistheimportantexpectationthatcarersorsupportworkerswhoaccompanypeoplewithdisabilitiestotheprogramareexpectedtobeactivelyinvolvedinthedancesessionsandperformances.Asitstatesintheinformationsheet,‘[s]upportworkers/carersareconsideredfull,activeandequalparticipantsintheprogram’(Morincome2008:1).Therationaleunderpinningthisexpectationcanbeexplainedbyreferringtotheconceptsof‘co-empowerment’(Bond&Keys,inSprague&Hayes2000)and‘collectiveempowerment’throughcommunitybuilding(MannHyungHur2006).Co-empowermentisanotionstemmingfromafeministstandpointanalysisthatmaintainsrelationshipsdevelopedbetweenpersonswithdisabilitiesandthosewithoutdisabilitiescanbeempoweringasbothcanlearnanddevelopfromtheconnectionandinteractionwithothers(Sprague&Hayes2000).Byhavingsupportworkersinvolvedintheprogram,aswellaspeoplewithoutofficialdisabilities,Morganandherco-facilitator


areendeavouringtocreateopportunitiesformutuallyrespectfulandinterdependentrelationshipstobeforgedandwhereleadershipismulti-directionalandcancomefromanyoftheparticipants(Pearce&Conger2003).

FollowingMannHyungHur’s(2006)work,collectiveempowermentissaidtorefertobuildingasenseofcommunityamongpeopleaswellasenablingpeopletofeelasthoughtheybelongtoacommunity.Thereisalsotherecognitionthattheroadtoempowermentislikelytobedifferentfordifferentpeople(Sprague&Hayes2000).Forthisreason,Morganencouragesallparticipantstoexpressthemselvesindividuallyandcollectivelywithinacommunityoflike-mindedothers.Itisthebuildingofthecommunitythatprovidesaspaceforexpression,newwaysofrelatingtopeople,andthepromotionofkeyvaluessuchassharingandtrust(Jazzar&Algozzine2006).

Ethic of critique

Anethicofcritiqueisonethatsupportshumanrightsofallcitizensandprovidesthemwithavoice.Itquestionshowpowerisusedinsocietyandaimstoredressinjusticesandinequalities(Starratt1996).Morgan’sstrongbeliefsaboutsocialinclusionrevealhowshesubscribestothisethic.Shesays:‘I have a commitment to social inclusion and I have a belief that that is the right way to go and that it’s our society that needs to change in order to accommodate difference, not people who are perceived as different’. MorgandescribedRadianceasa‘statement against segregation; it’s a statement for inclusion’.TheworkofRadianceis‘a form of activism and we do that through performance. We do it through the weekly sessions; … it’s a political act just for the fact that adults with and without disabilities are coming together when in most areas of life we are separate’.ItisthroughdancethatMorganisabletoprovideanarenaforparticipantstobecollectivelyempowered(MannHyungHur2006)bybelongingtoacommunity,byidentifyingwithothersinthecommunity,andbyparticipatinginactivitiesthatcanleadto


socialchange(MannHyungHur2006).AsClover(2007)argues,creativityisanintegralpartofsocialactivism.

Indescribingintegrateddance,Hickey-Moody(2006)saysthatit‘possess[es]acapacitytoreframethewaysinwhichbodieswithintellectualdisability[orotherdisabilityforthatmatter]canbethought’(p.89)since‘differentbodiesandabilitiesmapoutnewpossibilities’(Davies2003:Abstract).AsDavies(2003)indicates,watchingdifferentbodiesdancehelpsustoreconsiderandreframewhatispossibleonstageandwhatispossibleinlife.Morganhassimilarsentimentswhenshesays,‘I see how it could be and I want to take people on that journey to how it could be, how it could be different, how it could be more empowering, more connective for communities’.

Conclusion

Thiscasestudyhasendeavouredtocapturesomeofthevaluableinsightsandpracticesofacommunityarts-basededucatorinAustralia.Herstorywastoldbecauseitisaninspirationalone.Itisinspirationalforitscreativity,itsvisionandenactmentofsocialinclusion,itsresponsivenesstodifference,anditspoliticalcontentandintent.Itisinspirationalforits‘hope,celebrationandoptimismforthefuture’—threekeynotionsthatarecentraltofeministcommunitybasedprojects(Clover2007:520).Itisinspirationalforthespaceitprovidesforpeopletousewhateverlanguagetheyhaveavailabletothemtosharetheirideasandcreativeresponses.Itisinspirationalbecauseitexistsinasectorthathasbeenmarginalisedbyinstrumentalistthinkingandincreasingfundingcuts.

Acknowledgement

MysincerethanksgotoMorganforallowingmetheopportunitytolearnmoreaboutherinnovativeandcreativedanceproject.


References

Block,P.,Balcazar,F.&Keys,C.(2001).‘Frompathologytopower:Rethinkingrace,povertyanddisability’,Journal of Disability Studies, 12(1):18–27,39.

Borstel,J.(2006).‘LizLermandanceExchange:Superheroesandeverydaydancers,oldandyoung’,Aging and the Arts,30(1):65–67.

Cavana,R.Y.,Delahaye,B.L.&Sekaran,U.(2001).Applied business research: Qualitative and quantitative methods,Milton:JohnWiley&Sons.

Clover,D.(2007).‘Feministaestheticpracticeofcommunitydevelopment:Thecaseofmythsandmirrorscommunityarts’,CommunityDevelopment Journal,42(4):512–522.

Creyton,M.&Ehrich,L.C.(inpress).‘Onesmalldifferenceafteranother:Storiesofgrassrootsleaders’,Australian Journal on Volunteering.

Davies,T.W.(2003).‘Performingdisability:RepresentationsofdisabilityandillnessincontemporaryAmericanperformance’,ProquestDissertations&Theses,Abstract.

Dempsey,I.&Foreman,P.(1997).‘Towardaclarificationofempowermentasanoutcomeofdisabilityserviceprovision’, International Journal of Disability, Development and Education,44(4):287–303.

Ehrich,L.C.&Creyton,M.(2008).‘Understandingcommunityleadership:Insightsfromacommunityleader’,paperpresentedatthe48thAnnualNationalConference,EsplanadeHotel,Fremantle,30October–1November,2008.

Felciano,R.(2002).‘Axis:Dancingwithandwithoutwheels’,Dance Magazine,March:58–61.

Fennell,H.(1999).‘Powerintheprincipalship:Fourwomen’sexperiences’,Journal of Educational Administration, 37(1):23–49.

Freire,I.M.(2001).‘Inoroutofstep:Thedifferentpersonintheworldofdance’,Research in Dance Education, 2(1):73–78.

Freire,P.(1971).Pedagogy of the oppressed,NewYork:SeaburyPress.

Fromm,E.(1957).The art of loving,London:Allen&Unwin.

Fuller,J.,Jongsma,F.,Milne,K.,Venuti,S.&Williams,K.(2008).‘Artforart’ssake:Aqualitativestudyexploringthefacilitationofcreativitywithindisabilityservices’,Accessible Arts—Articles,http:///www.aarts.net.au/news/244/115/ARt-For-Art%C3%A2-s-Sake-A-Qualitative-St...[retrieved30September,2009].


Hickey-Moody,A.(2006).‘Foldingthefleshintothought’,Angelaki: Journal of Theoretical Humanities,11(1):189–197.

Jai-Morincome,M.(2009).‘InformationfororganisationsparticipatinginTheRadianceDanceProject2009’,unpublishedpaper.

Jai-Morincome,M.(2008).‘TheRadianceDanceProject:Handout’,AdultLearningAustraliaConference, paperpresentedatthe48thAnnualNationalConference,EsplanadeHotel,Fremantle,30October–1November,2008.

James,J.(1996).‘Poetryinmotion:Dramaandmovementtherapywithpeoplewithlearningdisabilities’,inPearson,J.(ed.),Discovering the self through drama and movement: The Sesame Approach,London:JessicaKinsleyPublishers:209–221.

Jazzar,M.&Algozzine,B.(2006).‘Leadershipfortwenty-firstcenturyeducation’,inJazzar,M.&Algozzine,B.(eds.),Critical issues in educational leadership, Boston:PearsonsEducation:169–186.

Kerr,C.&Darso,L.(2008a).‘Introduction:Re-conceivingtheartfulinmanagementdevelopmentandeducation’,Journalof Management and Organization,14(5):474–481.

Kerr,C.&Darso,L.(2008b).‘Epilogue:ArtandbusinessforEuropeanidentitycasestudy:Illustratingmeaningfulevolutionsinbusinessthroughclassicalmasterpiecesofmusic’,Journal of Management and Organization,14(5):588–592.

Laban,R.(1988).The mastery of movement,Plymouth:NorthcoteHouse.

Leavy,P.(2008).Method meets art: Arts-based research practice,GufordPress.

Male,J.(2005).‘Wheelswelcome’,Dance Magazine,October:42–46.

MannHyungHur(2006).‘Empowermentintermsoftheoreticalperspectives:Exploringatypologyoftheprocessandcomponentsacrossdisciplines’,Journal of Community Psychology,34(5):523–540.

Marton,F.(1988).‘Phenomenography’,inSherman,R.R.&Webb,R.B.(eds.),Qualitative research in education: Focus and methods,London:TheFalmerPress:141–161.

Maykut,P.&Morehouse,R.(1994).Beginning qualitative research: A philosophic and practical guide,London:TheFalmerPress.

Milner,J.(2001).‘Artsimpact:Artistswithdisabilitiesblurboundaries’,Performing Arts,33(3):11.

Minichello,V.,Aroni,R.,Timewell,E.&Alexander,L.(1990).In-depth interviewing: Researching people,Melbourne:LongmanCheshire.


Pearce,C.L.&Conger,J.A.(2003).‘Allthoseyearsago:Thehistoricalunderpinningsofsharedleadership’,inPearce,C.L.&Conger,J.A.(eds.),Shared leadership: Reframing the hows and whys of leadership,ThousandOaks:Sage:1–18.

Sergiovanni,T.(1994).Building community in schools,SanFrancisco:JosseyBass.

Siedman,I.E.(1991).Interviewing as qualitative research,TeachersCollege,NewYork:ColumbiaUniversity.

Sprague,J.&Hayes,J.(2000).‘Self-determinationandempowerment:Afeministstandpointanalysisoftalkaboutdisability’,American Journal of Community Psychology,28(5):671–695.

Starratt,R.J.(1996).Transforming educational administration: Meaning, community and excellence,NewYork:McGrawHill.

About the author

Lisa Catherine Ehrich is an Associate Professor in the School of Learning and Professional Studies at Queensland University of Technology. Her substantive research interests include leadership and management, professional development of teachers and professionals, and mentoring.

Contact details

School of Learning & Professional Studies, Faculty of Education, Queensland University of Technology, Victoria Park Road, Kelvin Grove, Queensland 4059

Tel: (07) 3138 3038 Fax: (07) 3138 8265 Email: [email protected]


Literacy practitioners’ perspectives on adult learning needs and technology approaches in

Indigenous communities

Michelle EadyUniversity of Wollongong

Anthony HerringtonCurtin University of Technology

Caroline JonesUniversity of Wollongong

Current reports of literacy rates in Australia indicate an ongoing gap in literacy skills between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australian adults, at a time when the literacy demands of work and life are increasing. There are many perspectives on what are the literacy needs of Indigenous adults, from the perspectives of community members themselves to the relatively under-researched perspective of literacy practitioners. This paper provides the insights, experiences and recommendations from adult literacy practitioners who work with adult Indigenous learners in communities across Australia. Focus group interviews, using an

Literacy practitioners’ perspectives on adult learning 261

online synchronous platform, were used to elicit views about the literacy needs of Indigenous adults in communities and the successes in and barriers to meeting those needs. The practitioners also shared their views on the use of technology in literacy learning. Together, these views can inform future directions in curriculum design and teaching approaches for community-based Indigenous adult literacy education.

Introduction

In2006,theAustralianCensusindicatedthat19.4%ofIndigenousadultshadcompletedhighschool(Year12)comparedwith44.9%ofnon-Indigenousadults(AustralianBureauofStatistics2006).Forthisstatistic,adultsaredefinedaspeopleaged15yearsoroverin2006.SinceYear12attainmentisnowconsiderablymorecommonamongyoungAustralianadultsthanadecadeortwoago,andsinceAustralia’snon-IndigenouspopulationisagingmuchfasterthantheIndigenouspopulation,dataonyoungeradultsarealsorelevant.TheresultsofrecentroundsoftheProgramforInternationalStudentAssessment(PISA)highlightthecontinuingover-representationofIndigenous15yearoldsamongAustralian15yearoldswiththelowestliteracylevels.ThePISAdataalsopointtotheimportanceoftakingintoaccountsocio-economicstatusandhomelocationinunderstandingeducationalattainmentamongyoungIndigenousadultsinAustralia.AsnotedbyMasters(2007)inhisanalysisofthe2006PISAresults,‘approximately40percentofIndigenousstudents,26percentofstudentslivinginremotepartsofAustraliaand23percentofstudentsfromthelowestsocio-economicquartileareconsideredbytheOECDtobe“atrisk”’.

DisparitiesbetweeneducationaloutcomesforIndigenouscomparedwithnon-IndigenouspeoplearenotconfinedtoAustralia.Ininternationaldata,thereisagreaterdisparityineducational

262 Michelle Eady, Anthony Herrington and Caroline Jones

attainmentbetweenIndigenousandnon-Indigenouspeoplethanbetweenmalesandfemales,orbetweenlocationsofresidence(UNESCO-OREALC2007,citedinUNESCO2008:62).Tosharpenawarenessoftheneedforincreasedadultliteracy,UNESCOcalledin2000attheWorldEducationForuminDakarfora50%increaseinadultliteracylevelsby2015,particularlytoimprovethepositionofwomenandtoallowaccesstobasicandcontinuingeducationforadults.Thisgoalmaynownotbemetfollowingtheimpactsofthecurrentglobalrecessionondevelopingcountries(UNESCO2010).

ThegapbetweenIndigenousandnon-IndigenousadultsinAustralia,ineducationalattainmentandinliteracy,islivedoutwithincontextsthatlackappropriateemploymentandtrainingopportunitiesformanyIndigenouspeople.ThisemploymentandtrainingissuehasbeendiscussedbyKralandSchwab(2003),Eady(2004)andGreenall(2005),andhaspromptedgovernmentofficialsandagenciestoseeksolutionsorimprovements.Intheliterature,however,theviewsofakeypartnerintheliteracymovement,theliteracypractitioner,havenotgenerallybeenafocusofresearch.

Indigenous literacy

TheviewofmanyIndigenousgroupsisthattheyshouldbeincludedattheonsetofanydiscussionsaroundliteracyconcernsandshouldbeaskedwhatliteracymeanstotheircommunityandwhataspectsofliteracyareimportanttotheirlanguagegroup.Indigenouscommunitiestendtoplaceanintrinsicandcollectivevalueoneducationwhichiswovenintothepresentandfutureneedsoftheirpeople.Battiste(2008:176)writes:

AboriginalscholarsandwritershaverecognizedthateducationisthekeymatrixofalldisciplinaryandprofessionalknowledgeandcentraltoalleviatingpovertyinAboriginalcommunities.

CongruentwithIndigenouslearningperspectives,literacyinIndigenouscommunitiestendstobeviewedasaprocessandnotas


afinaloutcome.Incorporatingvariouslearningstyles,Indigenousliteracyisviewedasamulti-facetedprogressionwhichdevelopsthroughoutanindividual’slifespan(Antoneet al.2002,Donovan2007,George1997,McMullen&Rohrbach2003,NADC2002).InIndigenouscommunities,increasingone’sliteracyskillstendstoberecognisedasmorethanameanstoincreasingone’seducationandobtainingviableemployment.Indigenousperspectivesonliteracyencompassabroaderperspectivewhichincludestheobjectiveofstrivingtomaintainculturalidentity,preservinglanguageandachievingself-determination(Antoneet al.2002,Battiste2008,Kral&Schawb2004,NADC2002,Paulsen2003).FormanyIndigenouspeople,‘yourembodimentintimeandplace,andyourlanguage—yourstories,placenamesandspeciesnames,songs,designs,dances,gesturesetc.—togetherproduceyouridentity’(Christie2005:2).AlltheseaspectsreferredtobyChristie(2005)reflectawholisticinterpretationofliteracy.

WellrespectedandrecognisedIndigenousEldersandteachershaveattemptedtodefineIndigenousliteracy.Seenasmorethanacquiringskillstogetabetterjobortoobtainhighereducation,literacyisrecognisedbysomeinIndigenouscommunitiesasamulti-facetedprocess,essentialtomaintainingcultureandlanguage(Antoneet al.2002).PriscillaGeorge/NingwakwedescribesIndigenousliteracy:

Indigenousliteracyisatool,whichempowersthespiritofIndigenouspeople.IndigenousliteracyservicesrecognizeandaffirmtheuniqueculturesofIndigenousPeoplesandtheinterconnectednessofallaspectsofcreation.Aspartofalife-longpathoflearning,Indigenousliteracycontributestothedevelopmentofself-knowledgeandcriticalthinking.Itisacontinuumofskillsthatencompassesreading,writing,numeracy,speaking,goodstudyhabitsandcommunicationinotherformsoflanguageasneeded.Basedontheexperience,abilitiesandgoalsoflearners,Indigenousliteracyfostersandpromotesachievementandasenseofpurpose,whicharebothcentraltoself-determination(George1997:6).


Similarly,waysinwhichIndigenousliteracyhasbeensupported,reflectculturallyinfluencedassumptions.Forexample,currentmodelsofdistanceeducationbeingimplementedforIndigenouslearnersarelargelyrepresentativeofthetechnology,heritageandscholastictraditionsofthedevelopedWesternnations,andlackculturallyappropriatelearningcomponentswhichhavebeenprovenafactortothesuccessofadultlearning(AISR2006,Ramanujam2002,Sawyer2004,Younget al.2005).Ramanujam(2002:37)cautionsagainstblindlycopyingWesternmodelsofdistanceeducationratherthanrecreatingIndigenousmodels,which‘willhavegreaterrelevanceandstrengththanthecopiedoradoptedmodels’.PrototypesbasedonWesternmiddle-classidealsandstandardswherethecurriculumandlearningobjectivesemphasisetheacquisitionofworkplaceskillsandappropriateliteracylevelsrelatedtopersonalsuccessandstatusinmainstreamsocietyareoftenrejectedinIndigenouscommunities(Taylor1997).

WhilecommunityviewsofIndigenousliteracyareinevidenceintheresearchliterature,representationoftheviewsofadultliteracypractitionersisscant(George1997).AspartofawiderstudyintotheuseofsynchronouslearningtechnologiestosupportliteracyneedsofadultIndigenouslearners(Eady,Herrington&Jones2009),theresearcherssoughttodeterminethisperspective—thatis,toanswerthequestions:WhatdoliteracypractitionersperceivetobetheliteracyneedsinIndigenouscommunities?Howmighttheuseofcomputerandinformationtechnologyassistinmeetingtheseneeds?

Methodology

Inaddressingtheproblemoftheunder-representationoftheperspectiveofliteracypractitionerswhoworkwithIndigenouscommunities,theresearchersthoughtitimportanttoconsultwithliteracypractitionerswhohaveacommonthreadofworkingwith


IndigenousadultliteracylearnersandwhoworkinvariouslocationsaroundAustralia.Thequestionstoparticipantswere:

1. Questionsrelatedtoyourcareer:a. Whatisyourjobtitle?b. Howmanyyearshaveyoubeeninthiscapacity?c. Whatareyourqualifications?d. WhatareyourmaininterestsinworkingwithIndigenous

communities?2. Whatdoyouperceivetobesomeoftheliteracyneedsin

Indigenouscommunities?3. Whataresomeofthewaysthatyouhavebeenabletoworkwith

communitymemberstomeettheseneeds?4. Haveyoueverusedcomputertechnologytoworkwithyour

learners?a. Ifso,whattechnology,howsuccessfulwasitandwouldyou

useitagain?5. Howdoyoufeelthatcomputertechnologycanchangethewaywe

supportIndigenouslearners?

Anonlinefocusgroupmethodologywasselectedforinitialconsultationasitsuitstheinvolvementofindividualsfrommanydifferentgeographicalareas(Anderson&Kanuka2003).Theinternetalsoenablessuchresearchtobedoneinacost-effectivemanner.Asynchronousandsynchronoustoolsareavailableandbecauseofthevariabilityofthetoolsthemselves,itisdifficulttomakegeneralisationsaboutthem(Anderson&Kanuka,2003).

Thepredominantformsoffocusgroupshavebeentext-based(Anderson&Kanuka2003),meaningthatdiscussiontakesplacebymeansofenteringtext.Thishappensovertime,whereoneparticipantpostsanentryandhoursordayslaterotherparticipantswillrespond(asynchronously)orinaforumwherelivetimediscussionthroughtext-basedmeanstakesplacewithimmediatefeedbackandrealtimeexchange(synchronously).


However,nowwiththeever-growinginternetandcapacityforhighspeedbroadband,thereareincreasingopportunitiesfornaturalformsofcommunicationovertheinternet(Anderson&Kanuka2003).Programsthatcanbeusedinthesesituationsallowforaudio-andvideo-basedopportunitiesthatcanbeaccessedbytheparticipantintheformofdown-streamedpasteventsthathavebeenrecordedandcanbereplayed(asynchronous),orinteractivesessions,whereparticipantscanconversewithoneanother,receiveimmediatefeedbackandalsoseeeachotherinrealtimeduringtheonlinesessions(synchronous).

Forthepurposeoftheonlinecollaborationwithliteracypractitioners,theresearchersoptedtouseiVocalize.iVocalizewasusedasasynchronousplatformtool,however,sessionscanberecordedforasynchronoususeaswell.Theonlinefocusgrouplastedapproximately90minutes.Theparticipantswereaskedavarietyofquestionsandtookturnsrespondingtoeachother’scomments.ThesequestionswerepresentedonPowerPointslidesfortheparticipants,withintheonlinesession.Theonlinefocusgroupwasrecordedandthentranscribed.Thetranscriptionswerethenreadthroughandaresearchjournalcreated,usingcodingtoidentifycommoncategoriesbetweenandamongsttheparticipantresponsesandobservations(Marlow2005, Ryan&Bernard2000,Stake2000).Therelationshipsbetweentheidentifiedcategoriesresultedintheformationofthemes,which,whencombinedandplacedinorderofpredominance,leadtocategories.Thesecategorieswerereflecteduponincombinationwiththereviewedliterature,andIndigenouscommunitymembers’views(seeEady,inprep.),whichtogetherprovidedtheguidingprinciplesoftheresearch.


Theprimarygoalintheanalysiswastomakesenseofthedataandfindcommonalitiesofmeaningbehindthedatacollectedasathoroughandorganizedsystemofanalysingthedataisimportanttoensurevalidityofthestudy(Marlow2005, Ryan&Bernard2000,Stake2000).Thetranscriptionofdatacollectedwassharedwithparticipantstoensureaccuracy,andreviewsoftheanalysisensuredminimalresearcherbias.

Results and discussion

Theresultsforeachfocusgroupquestionarediscussedbeloweachquestionandtranscribedinterviewdataareprovidedwhererelevanttohighlightparticularaspects.Theinterviewdatahavebeencoded.EachoftheparticipantswasgivenapseudonymandtheonlinegroupwascodedOPFG(OnlinePractitionerFocusGroup).Thedatewasalsorecordedbehindeachentryinaday/monthformat.

1. Career-related questions (job title, years in this capacity, qualifications, and main interests in working with Indigenous communities?)

Indiscussingcareer-relatedissues,practitionersheldvariouspositionsinliteracy-basedareas.Theaveragenumberofyearsworkinginthefieldwas11yearsand6months,varyingfromtwoyears’experiencetoa25-yearveteran.ThevolunteerpractitionerfocusgroupwaslocatedacrossvariousareasofAustraliaasdepictedonthemapbelow:


Thepractitionersinvolvedintheonlinefocusgroupcamewithavarietyofbackgroundsandskillsets.Asagroup,thepractitioners’qualificationsincluded,amongothers:

• AdvanceDiplomainFineArts,CertificateIVinTrainingandAssessment,MasterofEducation

• BachelorofArts,DipEdSecondary,CELTA• BachelorofScience,GradDipEd,,AdvDipLLNinVocational

Education• GradDipAdultEducation,GradDipAboriginalandIntercultural

Studies• BachelorofEducation


• MasterofProfessionalEducationandTraining• PhDinEducation,BEd,CGEdandDip.WorkplaceAssessment

andTraining• Socialworkdegree,communicationstudiesandpost-graduate

socialwork• DiplomaofCommunityDevelopment

Participants’maininterestsinIndigenouscommunitiesvaried.Some(likeAmy,below)expressedamaininterestinhelpingcommunitymembersprepareforthefuturewhilekeepingculturestrongtoday.Others(likeRuby,below)expressedamaininterestinimprovingvocationaleducationandemploymentoutcomes:

Iloveworkingwiththecommunity.Iwanttoassistinself-dependenceandempowermentforthenextgeneration—whilstworkingwithcommunitymembersnowtokeeptheAboriginalculturehealthyandstrongforthenextgenerationtoinheritandhavetheskillstokeeptheircountryhealthy.(Amy_OPFG_24/09,pseudonymsusedthroughout)

Mymaininterestsareaboutdevelopingandimplementingbetterapproachesinvocationaleducationandlinkingthemtoworkforceoutcomes.MycurrentinterestisaboutenterprisedevelopmentandapproachesthatengageIndigenouspeoplesinbeingtrainers,leadingIndigenouscontentandinformingfuturedevelopmentsofvocationaltraining.(Ruby_OPFG_24/09)

Thesedifferencesinmaininterestsareperhapsnotsurprising,giventhepractitioners’variedbackgroundsandskill-sets,andthegeographical,economicandculturaldiversityofthecommunitiesinwhichtheywork.

2. Literacy needs in Indigenous communities as perceived by the practitioners

Thepractitioners’perceivedliteracyneedsinIndigenouscommunitiescentredonfourmainneeds:


(i)forabetterunderstandingofthecomplexitiesoftheIndigenouslearnerfrombothalanguageandapersonalperspective

(ii)forimprovementofallliteracyskills(iii)tohelptobettersupportthechildreninthecommunity(iv)forliteracytoprovideavoiceforthecommunity.

Eachoftheseisdiscussedinmoredetailbelow:

Need for a better understanding of the complexities of the Indigenous learner from both a language and a personal perspective

Manyofthepractitionersagreedthat,beforeliteracyneedscanevenstarttobeaddressedinIndigenouscommunities,onemustunderstandthecomplexnatureofthelanguageandunderlyinglayersofpersonalexperiencesandbarriersthatarefacedbyIndigenouslearnersincommunities.Inmostcases,literacypractitionersareteachingliteracyinaWesternliteracyframework,fromaEurocentricperspective,usingtheEnglishlanguage.FormanyIndigenouspeopleinAustralia,therearemanydifferentdialectsoftheirfirstlanguagetomaster(includingtraditionallanguages,creoles,mixedlanguages,and/ornon-standardEnglish)beforestandardEnglishisevenintroduced:

Forsomeofthecommunities,weneedtorecognizethatEnglishistheirfifthlanguageandtorealizethesophisticationoftheirknowledgeforknowingandforbeingsobilingualspeakstomanydifferentAboriginallanguages,soIthinkthatthat’ssomethingthatalotofpractitionersface.(OPFG_Kelvin_24/09)

Thisisnottosay,however,thatIndigenouslearnersarenotabletofunctionintheirownlanguage.Thepractitionersagreethatitisnotamatteroflearnersnothavingthecapabilitiestoembracetheexpectedliteracytasksandalltheyentail.Forexample,onerespondentpointedoutthatitisstillalltooeasyforIndigenouspeoplewhose


firstlanguageisnotstandardEnglishtobemisjudgedandunder-estimatedfortheirideasandviews:

There’snodoubtthatpeoplecancommunicateandcommunicatesuccessfullyandtheycannegotiateandtheycandoallofthosehigh-levelthinkingthingsintheirownlanguageandthen,whenitgetstransferredtoEnglish,itmakespeoplelooklike,youknow…theydon’tknowwhatthey’redoingorthatthey’renotintelligent,whichIthinkisquitedeceiving.(OPFG_Amy_24/09)

AconcernofthepractitionersisthatthereisnotastronglinkbetweentheIndigenousliteracies,withsecondlanguageissuesandstandardAustralianEnglishcoupledwithWesternliteracyexpectations.AnothercomponentofthiscategorywasanunderstandingofpersonalexperiencesandbarriersthatIndigenouslearnershavefacedthathaveimpededandwillcontinuetoimpacttheirliteracyskills.Manyoftheselearnershavestartedoutwithnegativeearlyschoolingexperienceswhichhaveledthemtoleaveschoolwithoutgraduatingorcompletingtheireducation.ForsomeIndigenouslearners,thereseemstobealackofmotivationandalackofconfidencewhenresumingtheireducation.Onepractitionerexplained:

It’salottodowithinter-culturalconfidenceforunderstandinghowtorelatetothemainstreamwhitesystem.(OPFG_Jette_24/09)

ManypractitionersalsoagreethatIndigenouslearnersdonotseeenoughreasonforcontinuingwiththeireducationthroughliteracyupgradingoremploymentup-skilling.Acknowledgingthelinguisticcomplexitiesandincorporatingalevelofempathyandunderstandingofalearner’spersonalhistoryisnottobeoverlookedwhenworkingwithIndigenouslearners.ThepractitionersagreedthatthesefactorscombinedshouldbecarefullyconsideredbyapractitionerwhenproceedingwithaliteracyprograminanIndigenouscommunity.


Need for improvement of all literacy skills

ThenextcategoryofresultsthatemergedfromthedatawasanoverallneedtoimproveliteracyskillsinIndigenouscommunities.TheliteracyskillsoftheselearnersareoftenverylowandinsufficienttobesuccessfulatcurrentlearningtaskssuchascompletingYear11oraYear12certificate.Theseskillsarerequiredforsuccessoneverydaytaskssuchaslearninghowtofilloutformsandnegotiatingwithserviceprovidersorcorporationsfromoutsidethecommunity.Thereisalsoaneedfordigitalliteracies,thatis,learninghowtousecomputersandbecomingproficientwiththelanguageoftechnologyandthetasksassociatedwithsuchtechnology.

Formanyofthelearnersthatthesepractitionersworkalongside,itisacombinationofthelinguisticcomplexities,personalschoolingexperiencesandalackofearlyliteracystrategiesthathasresultedintheselowliteracyskills.Thesepractitionerswouldliketheirlearnerstohavetheabilitytoaccessanylearningprogram,anyemploymentopportunityandfulfilanypersonallearninggoalswithconfidenceandstrongliteracyskills.

Need to help to better support the children in the community

ThethirdcategorythatemergedfocusedonthechildrenofthelearnersinIndigenouscommunities.Thepractitionershaveidentifiedadirectconnectionbetweentheadult’slearningexperiencesandstrengtheninginteractionswithchildrenincommunities.Formanyoftheadultswhoattendliteracyclassesandup-skillingprograms,alargepartoftheirparticipationdirectlyrelatestotheirdesiretoincreasetheirparentingskillsandhelptheirchildrenwithschoolwork.

Thisemergingthemeislinkedtothedatapresentedearlierthatrelatetoadultlearners’ownpastexperiencesandpoorearlyliteracystrategies.Perhapsstrengtheningtheskillsofadultlearnersin


Indigenouscommunitieswillhaveaflow-oneffect,preventingthesamedeficitinskillsforthechildrenoftheselearners.Asonepractitionerstated:‘Manyprogramsworkinapositivewayfromadultstokids’(OPFG_Ruby_24/09).

Need for literacy to provide a voice for the community

Inthefinalcategory,theliteracypractitionersconsideredthataliteracyneedforIndigenouscommunitiestodaywasaneedforliteracyskillstobeabletoprovideavoiceforthecommunity.ThecommunitiesinquestionfaceaneedforEnglishlanguageandWesternisedterminologysothatthecommunityanditsmembersareabletonegotiatefortheircommunityandrepresentthecommunity’sstanceonissuesthattheyfeelimportanttothewell-beingoftheirpeopleandsociety:

It’saboutinter-culturalconfidenceforunderstandinghowtorelatetothemainstreamwhitesystemforwhichyouneedlanguageskillsbasicallyandanunderstandingofhowthatsystemfunctions,andthat’swhatliteracyisactuallyinthatcontext.(OPFG_Jette_24/09)

3. Ways in which practitioners have worked with community members to meet their needs

WhilethepreviousquestionfocusedontheliteracyneedsinIndigenouscommunitiesandresultedinfourcategoriesofneedsasseenbytheliteracypractitioners,thenextquestionaskedthepractitionerstosharesomeofthewaysthattheyhavebeenabletohelplearnersmeettheseidentifiedneeds.Thepractitionersidentifiedthreecategoriesofapproachesthattheyhavetaken:

• Usingculturallyrelevantapproachesandmaterials• Community/learnerownershipandcommunitydevelopmentfocus• Facilitatingamentorshipprogram.


Using culturally relevant approaches and materials

ThepractitionerssuggestedthatthebestapproachtotakewhenworkingwithIndigenouslearnersistouseculturallyrelevantapproachesandculturallyrelevantmaterialswhenfacilitatingliteracyprogramsforIndigenouscommunities.Someoftheseapproachesinclude:orallanguage,talking,read-aloudsandstorytelling,musicandsong,learningthroughnature,usingvisuallanguageandseekingElders’advice.

OnepractitionerinparticularnotedthatanimportantaspectofliteracylearninginthecommunitiesisinvolvingtherespectedElders.TheprogramsthatarenegotiatedincludetheElderswhoofferadviceabouthowtheprogramsshouldevolveandhowthoseinvolvedintheprogram;practitionerandlearner,shouldworktogether.Nomatterwhatapproachapractitionerdecidestotake,itwasagreedthatitisveryimportanttouseculturallyrelevantmaterialwithIndigenouslearners.Onepractitionerdescribedtheprocessbestinsaying:

…theotherthingiskeepingthematerialreallyrelevanttotheculturesothatyoumaybeusingEnglishbutaboutsubjectandcontentthatistodowithcaringforcountrythingsthatareofgreatinteresttothoseAboriginalpeople.(OPFG_Kelvin_24/09)

Community /learner ownership and community development focus

Thesecondcategorythatarosewascommunity/learnerownershipandcommunitydevelopment.Onepractitioner,whorunsseveraldifferentprogramsinmanyregionsofAustralia,describedonestartingpoint,anassessmenttoolforlearnersandcommunities:

Wehavedevelopedaliteracyassessmenttoolthatgetspeoplethinkingaboutwhattheyneedandwantandnegotiatetheprogram.Thisgetsmorebuy-inandconnectionthanjusttheideathatyouwillloseyourdole(ifyoudon’tparticipateintheliteracylessons).(OPFG_Ruby_24/09)


Focusingonthetopicsthatarerelevanttotheneedsandinterestsofthelearnersandthecommunityisimportantforthesuccessofthelearner.Itisimportanttohelpalearneroracommunityfigureoutwhattheyaretryingtoachievewiththeirliteracylearning,andthenhelppeoplegointhedirectionthattheyhaveidentified.Byembeddingtheliteracyandnumeracyskillsintocontentthatisofinterestandrelevancetothelearnerandorcommunity,theresultsaremoreencouragingthenwhenforcingmaterialthathasnorelevancetothelearners.

Literacylearningcanalsofocusoncommunitydevelopmentandrepresentationofcommunityviews.Thepractitionersofferedseveralpertinentexamplesofhowliteracylearningcanbedesignedtosupportcommunityenterprise:

Wehaveidentifiedprogramsinthecommunitiesforliteracythatarealocalpriority.Forexample,inacommunitytherewasacateringprogram,inanotherashop,inanotheranelders’careprogram,andwegetpeopletoactuallyworkintheseprogramsandthenallliteracysupportisabouttheseactivitiesandthereforeisplaceandcontextspecific/situated.(OPFG_Rowena_24/09)

Thepractitionersinterviewedagreedthatusingcurriculaorprogramsthatarelearnerfocused,wherethereisasenseofownershipinacontextinwhichthecommunitybenefitsanddevelopsasaresult,isfarsuperiortootherlearningapproaches.

Facilitating a mentorship program

Thethirdapproachsuggestedwasfacilitatingamentorshipprogram,notjustforlearnersbutforpractitionersaswell.Forpractitioners,itisimportanttobementoredwhenfirstarrivingtoworkwithIndigenouslearnersandequallyimportantisamentoringprogramforlearners.Amentoringprogramenablesamonitoringoflearnersastheygothroughtheirlearningprocess:


Communitymembersareinthatprogramandthey’regettingmentoredwhilethey’reinthatsothey’relearning(coursematerial)butthey’realsolearning…toaddresskindoflifeissuesreallywhilethey’redoingthat.Soitissortofemployment,servicedeliverylearningandwhatwecallcasework,youknow,butinanintegratedway.Thisprovidesplatformsforpeopleratherthanfeelinglikethey’reareceiverofliteracyteaching,they’reactuallypartofacoreservicedeliveryandalongsidethatbythewaythey’regettingliteracyteaching,they’regettingsupportwithfamilyrelationshipissues,they’regettingwhateverbuttheydon’thavetobeseenasaclientofaservice.(OPFG_Jette_24/09)

4. Practitioners’ previous use of computer technology with learners (what technology, how successful was it, and would they use it again?):

Thisquestioninvolvedcomputertechnologyexperienceswiththecommunitiesandlearnersinthosecommunities.Tenofthe11practitionersreportedusingtechnologywithlearnersinsomeform.Somepractitionersbroughttheirowncomputertosharewithlearners,explaining:

InmypresentjobmostofthecommunitiesIworkwith,thetrainingroomsdidn’thaveabilitytoputinanycomputersevenifIhadcomputersbutIusedtotakemyowncomputer.(OPFG_Robert_24/09)

Someotherhardwareaccessoriesthatwerementionedweredataprojectorsanddigitalcameras.Inthecaseofsoftwareapplications,however,thepractitionershaveemployedseveraldifferenttypesofsoftwareforvariouspurposes.Forexample,blogging,Facebook,email,SkypeandElluminatewereusedforsocialnetworking,PowerpointandPublisherforpresentations,Onlinepinballmachineforplayinggames,andPhotoStoryandMovieMakerfordigitalstorytelling.


The practitioners also reported that these computer applications incorporated literacy skill-building opportunities such as:• languageskills• wordprocessing• driver’slicencepreparation• reading• researching• writing• oralpresentation• communicationskills• mentoringopportunities• taxfilingskills• digitalphotography• jobsearching• banking• opportunityforhighereducationcourses

Someoftheskillslistedareverypracticallybased,andwhenthetechnologywasseenbythelearnerandcommunityas‘useful’,thelearnersreadilybecameproficientintheuseofthatapplication.Onepractitionerdescribedthewomeninoneparticularcommunitylearningonlinebankingskills:

…Ididn’tteachthemthis,butitwassosuccessfulbecausetheycouldpaytheirbillsandallsortsofstuffandnothaveanycashintheirhands.TheyareamongstthebestinternetbankersthatI’veseenanywhere.SoIwasreallyimpressedwith,whenthetechnologyisuseful,howquicklyitwasgrabbedoninthecommunities.(OPFG_Robert_24/09)

Whiletherewereclearindicationsthatthelearnersenjoyedusingthetechnology,thepractitionersalsosharedsomefrustrationswhenusingtechnologywithlearnersinIndigenouscommunities.Therecurringthemesinthediscussionincludedthelackofcomputers


andtheabsenceofinternetservicesinmanyofthecommunitieswherethepractitionerswork.DespitesomeofthebarrierstousingcomputertechnologyinIndigenouscommunities,thereismuchevidencetosuggestthatcomputersarebeingincorporatedinmanyaspectsofliteracylearninginthesecommunities.

5. How practitioners felt computer technologies could change the way they support Indigenous learners

Computertechnologieshaveaffordedflexiblecommunicationandlearningapplications.Whilemanymainstreamandurbancitycentreshaveenjoyedtheseprivilegesformanyyears,somemoreremoteandisolatedcommunitiesinAustraliahaveyettoexperienceeasyaccesstocomputers,theinternetandothercomputerapplications.ThepractitionerswereaskedhowtheyfeltthatcomputertechnologycouldchangethewaytheysupporttheirIndigenouslearners.

Themostprominentanswersrevealedhowpractitionersfeltthat,throughcomputertechnologies,theycouldbettermeettheneedsoftheirlearnerswhileimplementinglearningactivitiesthatbuildonbothculturalandlearnerstrengths.Computertechnologiesmeanthatvisualliteracies,oralmemoryandspatialrelationscanbebroughttotheforefrontandusedtoadvantage.Inworkingwithtechnology,peoplecanalsoworkinculturallyappropriateandsupportivetransgenerationalgroupsandfocusonsharingtheirknowledge.

Computertechnologycouldalsohelptoprovideliteracyandlearningservicesinalearner’sownenvironmentandlessentheisolationthatmanylearnersfeel:

Itwouldbegreatiftheycouldaccessthatsittingintheirown,familiar,comfortablespacewheretheyfeelconfidentandpowerful,theycanhavetheirkidsaroundtheirlegsorwhateverneedstohappenbuttheycanstillbepartofthat.Iwouldreally,reallylovethattohappen.Ithinkthatwouldbehugelybeneficial.(OPFG_Kandy_24/09)


Asecondfocusthepractitionersidentifiedwasthatcomputertechnologycanprovidemoreaccessibilitytohighereducationopportunitiesandjob/workreadinesstrainingprogramsforlearners.Theeasyaccessthatcomputerscanprovidetocourses,lecturesandworkshopsopenssomanydoorsforisolatedIndigenouslearners.Thisdoesnottakeawayfromtheface-to-facesupportandthephysicalcommunitylearningspace;infact,thetechnologycanstrengthentheseprogramsbydrawinginmorelearnersbutwithlessdemandonthepractitioner.Computertechnologycanalsoprovideaplatformforlearnerstoreceiveindividualsupport,perhapsone-to-onetutoringtoassistwiththeliteracyandnumeracyaspectsoftheirvocationaltraining.Astrengthinthisareaistheavailabilityofjob/workreadinesstrainingprograms.Usingcomputersasameanstotrainforpositionswheretherearejobsbutunder-skilledpotentialemployeesisanotherstrongargumentforbetterservicesandmoreaccesstocomputersforthesecommunities.

Thethirdbenefitwastheimprovedsocialnetworkingandcommunicationopportunitiesthatwillarisefromusingcomputertechnology.Apractitionergaveanexamplewherefamilymemberswhohadmovedawayfromcloseknitcommunitiesnowwouldhaveawayofkeepinginbettertouchwithfriendsandfamilymembersand‘stayconnected’totheirhomecommunity.

Afinaltopicofinterestforthefocusgrouparoundhowcomputertechnologycouldchangethewaywesupportlearnerswasadiscussionoftheopportunitiesforprofessionaldevelopmentofpractitionerswhoworkinsimilarfieldsbutareseparatedbydistance.Professionaldevelopmentopportunitiesforremotepractitionersareoftenfewandfarbetween,however,withcomputertechnologies,thepractitionerscouldhaveaccesstoworkshops,conferencesandonlinesharingcircles.

Thesefourwaysinwhichpractitionerscanpotentiallybettersupportlearnersthroughtechnologyarebothpromisingandexciting.


Practitionersrealise,however,therealitiesofworkingwithcomputertechnologyandhighlightedsomeconcerns.AmajorconsiderationwhenattemptingtousecomputersinIndigenouscommunitiesisaccessand,forthemajorityofthesecommunities,therearelogisticchallengesinfindingaworkspace,purchasingequipment,connectingtotheinternet,andthatisjustthebeginning.Thecostfactorisalwaysanissue,especiallywhenitcomestoliteracyprojects,soaccessbecomesabarriertothecomputertechnology.Secondistheneedfortechnicalsupportoncetheproblemofgainingaccesshasbeensolved.Thethirdpotentialbarriertousingcomputerstoeffectivelysupportlearnersthatwasidentifiedbythepractitionerswaseffectivetrainingopportunities.Trainingopportunitieswouldbeneededforthepractitionerswhowouldbeusingthetechnologywithlearners.Competentandconfidentonlineinstructorsleadtostudentswithsimilarattributes.Thetopicofeffectivetrainingalsoincludesthetrainingthatwouldbeprovidedtothelearners:

Thenextthingwehavetodoistomakeiteffectivetraining,sowehavetofindawayofmakingthetrainingworkinthecommunities.Ifwearegivingtrainingtosixorsevendifferentcommunitiesusingonlinetrainingatthesametime,whichiswhatoneassumesthatwe’llbedoing,wealsohavetomakesurethatwhatwe’resayinghasrelevancetoeachcommunity.AndIreckonthatwouldtakeawholelotofrelevantresearchinthatarea.(OPFG_Robert_24/09)

Althoughthepractitionersidentifiedthesethreepotentialbarriers,theyalsosharedhopeforfutureapplicationsaswell.Despitetheobviousconcernsofimplementation,costs,maintenanceandtraining,thepositiveimplicationsforeffectivelysupportingtechnologyusebyIndigenouslearnerswassummarisedbeautifullybyonerespondent:

Ifeelasthoughtheexperiencethatyoucanhavethroughcomputersisthatthereisincrediblemediacy(activeand


creativeproductsofmedia)…andthatit’salittlebitlikedrawing,thatyouhavethatsortofimpact…andeventhoughitnever…itwon’treplacebeinginfrontofapersonandhearingthevibrationsandthesoundoftheirvoiceandlookingintosomeone’seyes,itenablestocutthroughalotoflayersthat,youknow…throughbooksorthroughdistancecanisolatepeople.Sousingcomputersandtechnologycansparkcreativityandasenseofhopethatstartsalittlekindlingoffirewithinpeoplethattheywanttogoandmeetthosepeople,thattheywanttogotothoseplacesandactuallymovetowardsexposingthemselvestosomethingnew.SoIthink,youknow,thisiswhatthetechnologycando.(OPFG_Kelvin_24/09)

Conclusion

Thereisawealthofknowledge,expertiseandopinionstobegainedfromprovidingaforumforliteracypractitionerstocometogetherandsharetheirexperiences.FahyandTwiss(2010)accessedthesevaluableinsightsthroughastudywhichlookedathowCanadianliteracypractitionersviewtheuseofonlinetechnologyfortheirownprofessionaldevelopment.Thefindingsoftheirstudysuggestthatmanyofthesepractitionersrecognisethepotentialofusingonlinetechnologies,particularlybecauseitsavedtimeandmoneyandincreasedaccesstoopportunitiesfortrainingandinteraction.

Whilereflectingonthetrainingissuesforliteracypractitionersisimportant,toooftentheadultliteracypractitioner,thefront-lineworker,hasbeenoverlookedinresearchandpolicydesignedtoimprovethegenerallylowliteracylevelsamongmanyIndigenouspeopleinAustralia.Thisstudyhasshownthatliteracypractitionersdevelop,throughtheirworkexperiences,veryspecificandstronglyheldviewsontheliteracyneedsoftheIndigenouscommunityinwhichtheyareemployed.Theseviewsofpractitionersareverylikelyshapedbytheirownbackgroundsandthespecificgeographical,economicandculturalsituationinthecommunitieswithwhichtheyarefamiliar.Practitioners’viewsarenotnecessarily‘correct’


inanysense,andmaydiffersomewhatfromcommunitymembers’views(Eady,inprep.),buttheytendtobeheldpassionately,asseenhereandinthestudybyBatellet al.(2004).Itispractitioners’viewsaboutwhattheneedsarethatleadthemtotryoutspecificeducationalstrategies.Anumberofsuchteachingapproachesweredescribedbypractitionersinthisstudy,includingusingculturallyrelevantapproaches,workingtowardscommunitydevelopmentanddevelopingmentoringarrangements.ComputertechnologyhadbeenusedwithIndigenouslearnersbyallbutoneofthepractitioners,oftentosupportreal-lifeliteracyskills.Despitetypicalcurrentinadequaciesinhardware,softwareandtechnicalsupportincommunities,practitionersweregenerallyoptimisticandopen-mindedaboutthepotentialforcomputertechnology,includingsynchronoustechnology,toimproveliteracyskills,accesstotrainingandsocialcohesion.ItisworthrememberingthatthislastfindingmayormaynotbegenerallytrueofliteracypractitionersworkinginIndigenouscommunities,sincethefocusgroupparticipantsinthisstudywerevolunteerswillingandinterestedtotakepartinanonlinefocusgroup.

Inthisstudy,andinarecentCanadianproject(GettingOnlineProject2008),manyliteracypractitionershaveidentifiedaplaceforonlinelearningintheirfutureworkintheliteracyfield.Literacypractitionershaveavoicethatneedstobeheardinthenegotiationsanddecision-makingaroundcurriculaandapproachestoliteracylearningandtechnologyintheirownfield.Thesharedknowledgeofthesepractitionershastheinfluencetoallowustomovetowardslesseningtheliteracygapinpositive,constructiveandmeaningfulways.


References

Anderson,T.&Kanuka,H.(2003).E-research: Methods, strategies, and issues, Boston,MA:AllynandBacon.

Antone,E.,Gamlin,P.,Sinclair,M.,Turchetti,L.,Robbins,J.&Paulsen,R.(2002).What is Native literacy?,http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/CASAE/cnf2002/2002_Papers/sym-antone&etal2002w.pdf[retrieved1March,2008].

AustralianBureauofStatistics(ABS)(2006),Australia: Highest year of school completed by Indigenous status by sex,http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au[retrieved16April,2009].

AustralianInstituteforSocialResearch(AISR)(2006).The digital divide—Barriers to e-learning,http://www.ala.asn.au/research/Barriers%20%20by%20Digital%20Bridge%20Unit%20and%20undertaken%20by%20Australian%20Institute%20of%20Social%20Research.pdf[retrieved10March,2008].

Battell,E.,Gesser,L.,Rose,J.,Sawyer,J.&Twiss,D.(2004).‘Hardwiredforhope:EffectiveABE/literacyinstructors’,Nanaimo,BC:MalaspinaUniveristy-College,http://www.nald.ca/ripal[retrieved17April,2010].

Battiste,M.(2008).‘ThedecolonizationofAboriginaleducation:Dialogue,reflection,andactioninCanada’,inP.R.Dasen&A.Akkari(eds.),Educational theories and practices from the majorityworld,NewDelhi:SagePublications:168–195.

Christie,M.(2005).‘AboriginalknowledgeontheInternet’,Researching Our Practice Conference,BatchelorInstitute,http://www.cdu.edu.au/centres/ik/pdf/AbKnowInternet.pdf[retrieved12November,2008].

Donovan,M.(2007).‘CaninformationcommunicationtechnologicaltoolsbeusedtosuitAboriginallearningpedagogies?’,inL.E.Dyson,M.Hendricks&S.Grant(eds.),Information technology and Indigenous people,Hershey,PA:InformationSciencePublishing:93–104.

Eady,M.(2004).‘Buildingasolidframework:OnlinementoringforadultliteracylearnersinNorthwesternOntario—Anactionresearchstudyandrecommendationsforimplementation’,unpublishedresearch,LakeheadUniversity,ThunderBay,ON.

Eady,M.(inprep.).‘Usingsynchronoustechnologiestosupportself-identifiedliteracyneedsofIndigenouscommunities’,PhDthesis,UniversityofWollongong,Australia.


Eady,M.,Herrington,A.&Jones,C.(2009).‘EstablishingdesignprinciplesforonlinesynchronousliteracylearningforIndigenouslearners’,inProceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications 2009Chesapeake,VA:AAC:1049–1054,http://www.editlib.org/p/31619[retrieved25September,2009].

Fahy,P.J.&Twiss,D.(2010).‘Adultliteracypractitioners’usesofandexperienceswithonlinetechnologiesforprofessionaldevelopment’,Journal of Applied Research on Learning,3:1–18.

George,P.(1997)Vision: Guiding Indigenous literacy. OwenSound,ON:NingwakweLearningPress.

GettingOnlineProject(2008).Getting online: A research report on online learning for Canadian literacy practitioners,www.nald.ca/gettingonline[retrieved15April,2010].

Greenall,D.(2005).Formative evaluation of the Sunchild E-Learning Community,Ottawa,ON:TheConferenceBoardofCanada.

Ivocalizewebconference(2002).Seattle,WA:iVocalizeLLC.

Kral,I.&Schwab,R.(2003).‘TherealitiesofAboriginaladultliteracyacquisitionandpractice:Implicationsforremotecommunitycapacitybuilding’,http://dspace.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/39964/2/2003_DP257.pdf[retrieved18March,2008].

Marlow,C.(2005).Research methods for generalist social work,Belmont,CA:Thomson,Brooks/Cole.

Masters,G.(2007).‘Aworldclasseducationsystem?EvidencefromPISA2006’,ACER eNews.http://www.acer.edu.au/enews/2007/12/a-world-class-education-system-evidence-from-pisa-2006[retrieved10May,2010].

McMullen,B.&Rohrbach,A.(2003).Distance education in remote aboriginal communities: Barriers, learning styles and best practices, PrinceGeorge,BC:CollegeofCaledoniaPress.

NationalAboriginalDesignCommittee(NADC)(2002).‘PositionpaperonAboriginalliteracy’,www.nald.ca/fulltext/position/position.pdf[retrieved8March,2008].

Paulsen,R.(2003).‘Nativeliteracy:Alivinglanguage’,Canadian Journal of Native Education, 27(1):23–28.

Ramanujam,P.(2002).Distance open learning: Challenges to developing countries,Delhi:ShipraPublications.


Ryan,G.&Bernard,H.(2000).‘Datamanagementandanalysismethods’,inN.Denzin&Y.Lincoln(eds.),Handbook of qualitative research,2nded.,ThousandOaks,CA:SagePublications:768–802.

Sawyer,G.(2004).‘Closingthedigitaldivide:IncreasingeducationandtrainingopportunitiesforIndigenousstudentsinremoteareas’,http://pre2005.flexiblelearning.net.au/projects/media/digitaldivide_projectreport.pdf[retrieved9March,2008].

Stake,R.(2000).‘Casestudies’,inN.Denzin&Y.Lincoln(eds.),Handbook of qualitative research,ThousandOaks,CA:SagePublications:435–454.

Taylor,A.(1997).‘Literacyandthenewworkplace:Thefitbetweenemployment-orientedliteracyandAboriginallanguage-use’,British Journal of Sociology of Education, 18(1):63–80.

UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO)(2008).Education For All by 2015: Will We Make It? http://www.unesco.org/en/efareport/reports/2008-mid-term-review/[retrieved10May2010].

UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO)(2010).Education For All—Global Monitoring Report:Reaching the Marginalized,http://www.unesco.org/en/efareport/reports/2010-marginalization/[retrieved10May,2010.

Young,M.,Robertson,P.,SawyerG.&Guenther,J.(2005).‘Desertdisconnections:DesertlearningandremoteIndigenouspeoples.AustraliaFlexibleLearningNetwork’,http://www.icat.org.au/media/Research/telecommunications/desertdisconnections-elearning-and-remote-Indigenouspeoples-2005-AFLF.pdf[retrieved10November,2008].

Acknowledgements

ThisresearchissupportedinpartbyagenerousgrantfromtheDigitalBridgeUnit,DepartmentofFurtherEducation,EmploymentScienceandTechnology,GovernmentofSouthAustralia.TheresearcherswouldalsoliketoacknowledgetheAustralianCouncilforAdultLearning,DebbieSoccio,SiouxHudsonLiteracyCouncil,ContactNorth/Contact Nord,andpractitionersandIndigenouscommunitymembersinvolvedinthisproject.EthicsnumberHE08/195.


About the authors

Michelle Eady is a lecturer in Professional Studies in the Faculty of Education at the University of Wollongong. Her research interests have brought her from the remote areas of Canada to similar regions in Australia to research how stakeholders in education can best support adult learning in Indigenous populations. Her interests include Indigenous adult learners, Indigenous knowledge, technology and education and learners with special needs.

Tony Herrington has been involved in higher education for over 25 years. Currently he is Head of the School for Regional, Remote and eLearning at Curtin University of Technology in WA. Tony has conducted extensive research and published widely in the area of adult learning with technology. Recent research has focused on mobile learning in higher education.

Caroline Jones is a Senior Lecturer in Special Education at the University of Wollongong. Caroline has research interests in children’s language development, particularly in the development of phonological skills and word learning. She has worked with children and adults on research projects in a range of contexts, including Aboriginal communities in regional NSW and remote NT.

Contact details

Michelle Eady, 23.118 Faculty of Education, University of Wollongong, Northfields Avenue, Wollongong, NSW 2522Tel: (02) 4221 3613Email: [email protected]

Anthony Herrington, 16 Ainslie Road, North Fremantle, WA 6195Tel: (02) 9266 4821Email: [email protected]

Caroline Jones, 67.315 Faculty of Education, University of Wollongong, Northfields Avenue, Wollongong, NSW 2522Tel: (02) 4221 4905Email: [email protected]


Pathway for student self-development: A learning orientated internship approach

Bonnie Cord and Mike ClementsFaculty of Commerce

University of Wollongong

Higher education is facing new challenges in preparing students for the workforce. As demands increase for students to differentiate themselves when seeking employment, it becomes necessary for higher education and vocational providers not only to understand these challenges, but also to provide a pathway for students to develop the skills necessary to become sought-after employees. This paper presents a learning orientated internship approach as one such pathway that aims to provide students, as adult learners, with the opportunity to apply their knowledge and gain new skills in a work context. The paper provides insight into students self-reported learning outcomes after undertaking the learning orientated internship program. Preliminary findings reveal that communication, interpersonal skills and personal insights are common areas of self-development through this program.

288 Bonnie Cord and Mike Clements

Introduction

Preparingstudentsforthechallengesofindustryisacentralroleforhighereducation.Industry,however,isseekinganewbreedofstudent(Nicholas2009),onethatcandifferentiatethemselvesfrompeersbybeingabletoengagewiththeorganisation,thecommunityandtheworld.Highereducationmustunderstandthesechallengesandprovideasupportivetransitionintotheworkforcebyfostering

thenecessarylearningtocompeteinthemarketplace.

Astheworkplaceevolves,therearesignificantinfluenceswhichgovernandshapetheneedtoprovideapathwayforourstudents.Withglobalizationandincreasinginternationalcompetition(Carnoy2002),thereispressureonorganisationstoinnovatefordifferentiationandmanagetheadaptationtochangeeffectively.Greateremphasisisbeingplacedonknowledgecreation(Gow&McDonald2000)andtechnologicalinnovation(Castells2000)fororganisationalcompetitiveness.Thereismoredemandnowonindividualsandtheirsocialandeconomiclives(Moreland2005).Asmanyorganisationsbecomeawareoftheirsocialandethicalresponsibilities,pressureisbeingplacedongraduatestonotonlyhavejob-relatedskillsbutanawarenessoftheenvironment,ethicsandthecommunity(Jackson2009a).Employersarealsoplacinggreateremphasisongraduateswhoare‘workready’.Softskillsarebecominghighlysoughtafterqualities,movingawayfromcompetency-basedrecruitmentdecisionstowardstheabilitytoeffectivelycommunicate,interactandempathisewithclientneeds(Hodges&Burchell2003).

Inpresentingourcaseforapathwayfortransitioningstudentsintotheworkplace,webeginbydiscussingworkplacelearningthroughsoftskillsandlearningframeworks.Awork-relatedlearningprogramisthenpresented,asonesuchpathwayforpreparingstudentsforindustry.Wethenpresentourfindingsfromanalysingstudents’self-reportedsoftskillsthroughtheprogramandoffersupportfor

Pathway for student self-development 289

highereducationtoengagewithindustryinadualefforttopreparegraduateswhoarereadyfortheworkplace.

Learning in the workplace

Learningsoftskillsisimportantforprofessionalandorganisationalsuccess.Softskillsareofteninterchangedwiththeterm‘genericskills’,orcontrastedwithhard,technicalskillsanddiscipline-specificskills.Thedefinitionof‘softskills’includescommunicationskills(Stovall&Stovall2009),interpersonalskillsandelementsofpersonalcharacteristicssuchasemotionsandvalues(Kohler2004).Softskillshavebeenlinkedtoemployability(Stovall&Stovall2004),expectationsofindustryandprofessionalbodies(Jackson2009b,Murphy&Calway2008)andaccordingtoGoleman(1995)softskillscanbeattributedtoanindividual’ssuccessorfailuremoresothantechnicalskillsorintelligence.Thedevelopmentoftheseskillspriortograduationcanthereforebecriticalinthepreparationofstudentsfortheworkforce.

Learningframeworkssuchaswork-basedlearning(WBL),work-integratedlearning(WIL)andwork-relatedlearning(WRL)arebecomingleadingmechanismsforstudentlearninginaworkcontext.WBLislearningthroughpaidorunpaidworkbyapplyingknowledgewhileatahighereducationlevel(Gray2001)butspecificallyfocusedontheacademic-prescribedlearningoutcomes(Moreland2005).SoftskillsmaybelearntthroughWBL;however,theprimaryfocusisnotonpersonaldevelopmentorworkplacelearningtechniques.

WILencompassesallvocationalandhighereducationactivitieswhicharedirectlylinkedtoanenrolledprogramandcentresonintegratinglearningandpractice(Bohloko&Mahlomaholo2008).WILissimilartoWRLinthatitallowsstudentstodevelopessentialskillssuchascommunicationandproblem-solving,whileapplyingclassroomlearntknowledge.However,whilesoftskillsmayalsobedevelopedthrough


WILinitiatives,whatdifferentiatesWRLpracticesisreflectivepracticeandlifelonglearning.

Reflectioniscriticaltoprofessionaldevelopmentandlearningfromexperiences.Usedinhighereducation,reflectiveassessmentsinthewrittenform(suchasajournal)canbeusedtoreinforcelearning(Beck&Halim2008)andmeetacademicrequirements.Reflectionallowsstudentstoidentifylinksbetweentheoryandpractice,aswellasuncoverotherissuesthatconcernorpuzzlethem(Gray2007).Reflectiveassignmentsprovidestudentsanavenuetosupporttheirlearningbytransformingtacitknowledgeintoexplicit,codifiedknowledgetobesharedwithothersandtoinformfuturedecisions.WRLfostersstudentlearningthroughreflectivetechniques(Bockbank,McGill&Beech2002)andpromoteshigherordermetacognitiveskills,suchasjudgment(Hager2000)forself-managedlearning.

WRLisintendedtoenhancethestudent’sabilitytoengageinworkinglifeandemployability,includinglearningthroughtheexperienceofwork(QualityandCurriculumAuthority2003).Whiletraditional,work-orientedframeworksseemtofocusontheperson-jobfit,WRLactivitiesplaceemphasisonthedevelopmentofthegraduatetobetterfitthechangingeconomicsituation,societaldevelopmentsandtheevolvingjobmarket(Moreland2005).SuccessfulWRLpromoteslearningacrossthelifespan(Moreland2005),andthereforeencouragingstudentsinhighereducationtoadopttheprinciplesoflifelonglearningisincreasinglyimportantinordertocapturethese

learningskillsthroughouttheiradultlives.

WRLprogramsengagestudentsattheearlystagesoftheiradultlearninglives.Duetothechanginghighereducationpopulation,studentsareincreasinglybeingconsideredasadultlearnersbecausetheyareeitheradults‘biologically,legally,sociallyorpsychologically’(Benson2006:339).Thedegreeofautonomyandself-directionexperiencedinhighereducationalsoreflectsqualitiesofanadult


learner(Benson2006).AWRLprogramthatpromoteslifelonglearningandaddressestheneedtobettertransitionstudentsinto

industryispresentedhere.

Learning orientated internship approach

TheCommerceInternshipProgram(CIP)attheUniversityofWollongongisanundergraduateprogramthatprovidesapathwayforstudentstoengagewithindustry.AlignedwiththeperspectivesofWRL,thisprogramadoptsalearning-orientated,pedagogicalapproachinthatithasacorefocusonstudentlearning.BoudandFalchikov(2007)arguethatforegroundinglearningandpromotingtheimportanceoflearningbeyonduniversityismissinginthediscourseofhighereducation.

StudentlearningissupportedandenhancedthroughseveralkeyfeaturesoftheCIPprogram.Firstly,theprogramoffersanindustryenvironmentsuitedtopractice.Thismeansensuringthattheenvironmentmeetstheneedsofallpartiesinvolved,tobestallowstudentstopractisetheirskillsandknowledge.Secondly,astheprogramisembeddedinasubject,theprogrampromotesanassessmentframeworkfocusedonlearning.Theassessmentdrawsstudents’attentiontogenericworkplaceareassuchasteamwork,cultureanddifferentwaysofthinking,throughreflection.Detailsontheassessmentarepresentedfurtherinthissection.Lastly,theCIPprogramaffordsasupportivetransitionintotheworkplace.Allstudentsareprovidedsupportfromtheprogramintheformofregularcontact,includingworkplacevisits.Studentsarealsoallocatedamentorwithintheworkplacetonurturetheirdevelopment.

Withstudentlearningattheheartofourpedagogicalapproach,theCIPframework(Clements2009)wasfurtherbuiltonmeetingtheneedsofitsstakeholders;thehostorganisation,thefacultyandthestudent.AccordingtoJackson(2009a),highereducationmustplayamoreactiveroleinunderstandingtheinterestsofourstakeholders.


Subsequently,thisprogramwasdesignedinconjunctionwithdiscussionsfromindustrywhichidentifiedaneedforaflexibleandresource-effectiveprogramthatmadearealbusinesscontribution.Forthisreason,CIPisashort,16-dayplacement,conductedduringsession.Theplacementdescriptionisbasedontheneedsofthehostorganisation,asistheselectionofthestudent.Onesemesterbeforetheplacement,hostorganisationssubmitadescriptionoftherolewhilestudentsapplyfortheprogramthroughanonlineapplicationsystemwithacoverletterandresumedirectlytothefaculty.Afterashort-listingprocesswithfacultyacademics,thehostorganisationisinvitedtointerviewthreestudentsfromwhomtheymaketheirselection.Theplacementcanbeconductedanytimeduringthefollowingsemester.

Thefaculty’sneedsaremetthroughfosteringcommunitypartnershipsandcontributingtograduatedevelopment.Thefacultyengageswithorganisationsbyprovidingknowledge-filledgraduatesaswellaspotentialcollaborationforfutureresearchopportunities.Quality,flexibilityandsustainabilityarekeyattributesdrivingtheprogram.Studentsareprovidedwithasupportivetransitionintoindustrythroughaninitialpre-placementmeetingatthehostorganisation’spremiseswiththecoordinatorandworkplacementor.Thismeetingorientsthestudentwiththeorganisationanddiscussestheirroleinfurtherdepth.Atthistime,formalagreementsaresignedbytheorganisationandbythestudent,outlininglegalobligations,suchasIP,insuranceandconfidentiality.Throughouttheplacement,studentsandcoordinatorremainincontactthroughemails,text

messagesandplacementvisitations.

Theneedsofstudentsarealsometthroughthisthreetieredstakeholdermodel.Theinternshipfitsintotheuniversitysemester,qualifiesforsixcreditpointsandexposesthemtoreal-lifebusinesschallengesandoperationsthroughparticipatinginorganisedandindependentlearningactivities.Asentryintotheprogramisbasedon


industryselection,theprogramisopentoallsecondandthirdyearstudentsstudyinganundergraduateBachelorofCommercedegree.Thisisdifferentfromthetraditionalapprenticeschemeorworkexperiencemodel,duetothefocusbeingdrawnawayfromdevelopingjob-relatedcompetenciestoaWRLperspectiveofdevelopingthegraduatefortheworkplace.

CIPisdesignedtopreparestudentsfortheworkplacebyenablingthemtodevelopreflectiveskillstoencouragelifelonglearning.Tobepreparedfortheworkforce,‘studentsneedtodeveloptheirownrepertoireofassessment-relatedpracticesthattheywillbeabletousewhenconfrontedwithlearningchallengesthroughouttheirworkinglives’(Boud&Falchikov2007:5).Therefore,inadditiontothepracticalcomponent,theprogramisembeddedinathirdyearelectivesubjectandutilisesacombinationofface-to-faceandonlinemediumstoassessandpreparestudents.Allassessmentsaresubmittedonlinethroughane-learningforum.Assessmentsincludeadailye-log,fourmodules:workplaceenvironment,teamwork,creativeandcriticalthinking,andareflectivejournal.E-logsareduetheMondayafteraninternshipday,thisbeingatimelyandflexibleassessmentmethodtomonitorstudents’activities,providesupportandofferfeedbackon

theirreflectivetechniques.

Theaimofthisresearchwastoexplorestudents’self-reportedlearningoutcomesanddevelopmentthroughreflectionatthecompletionofCIP.Itwasassumedthatstudentswouldhavedevelopedskillsrelatingtotheirdiscipline-specificknowledgeastheirplacementrolewasselectedtobethatoftheirdiscipline.Giventhatexperiencesandtheleveloflearningwilldifferbetweenstudents,thegoalofthisstudywastoinvestigateandidentifythecommonthemesamongststudentperceptionspertainingtotheirsofterskills,whicharethosenotconcernedwiththeirdisciplineinpractice.Insummary,thispaperthereforeinvestigatesthesofterskillsdevelopedthrough


aprogramthathasakeyfocusonstakeholderneeds,flexibilityand

reflectivelearning.

Method

Data Collection.Students’reflectionsfromCIPwereexaminedandselectedduetotheirusefulnessingatheringrichinsightsintotheunderlyingdimensionsofworkpractice(Clegg2000).Dataweregatheredintwostages:first,reflectivejournalswereanalysed,andsecond,semi-structuredinterviewswereconducted.Thereflectivejournalisaculminationofthee-logssubmittedatthecompletionoftheirplacementandallowsthestudenttotakeastepbackandreflectontheirinternshipasawhole.Thereflectivejournalrequiresstudentstorespondtosixopen-endedquestionsorstatements.Studentswereaskedto‘drawonwhatyouhaveexperiencedduringyourtimeonworkplacementtoreflectonyourlearning’.Threequestionswereeliminatedfromthisanalysisastheyweredescriptiveinnature,outliningthestudent’sroleandorganisationalstructure,orspecifictothetransferofdisciplineknowledge.Thestatementsanalysedinthiscaseincluded:

1. Identifyspecificskillsyoudevelopedduringyourplacement.2. Identifywhatyouhavelearntfromapersonalperspective,during

yourinternshipplacement,includingthepossibleidentificationofstrengthsandareasinneedofimprovement.

3. Reflectonyouroverallexperienceanddiscusshowthismightinformyourfutureuniversitystudiesorprogressionintoyourchosencareer.

Studentswerealsoinvitedtoparticipateinsemi-structuredinterviews.Theseinterviewsaimedtoprobeandclarifyresponses(Aakeret al.2005),toallowstudentstofurtherelaborateonthekeythemesandtovalidatetheanalysisfromthereflectivejournals.Duringtheinterviews,thesamethreestatementswereusedasguides;


however,theauthorssoughtclarificationandtheopportunityto

revealfurtherinsightsintothethemesuncoveredfromthejournals.

Sample.Aconveniencesampleof28studentsenrolledintheCommerceInternshipProgramattheUniversityofWollongongwasinvitedtoparticipateintheresearch.Ofthe28students,17werefemaleand11male,twoofthesewereinternationalstudentsandonlyoneidentifiedthemselvesasamature-agedstudent.ThesestudentswereallundertakingCommercemajors,with12studentsinmarketingroles,sixstudentsinmanagementpositions,fourstudentsinaccounting,threestudentsinfinanceandthreestudentsineconomics.Therolesundertakenbythestudentswerediverseandbasedontherequirementoftheorganization,howevermaybeidentifiedasrolesthatagraduateorentrylevelprofessionalwouldundertake.Theplacementsalsovariedgiventheorganisationaltype:10placementswereatlocalsmallandmediumenterprises(SMEs),sevenwereinnationalorinternationalbusinesses,sixwereatlocalgovernments,andfivewereinnot-for-profitorganisations.Intotal,all28studentsprovidedtheirreflectivejournaltobeanalysedandagreedtoparticipateinaninterview.

Analysis.Reflectivejournalswerethefocusfordataanalysisastheseprovidedrich,self-reportedinsightsintotheirpracticallearningexperience(Smithet al.2007).Resultsfromthesemi-structuredinterviewswereusedtofurtherrevealandclarifykeythemeswhichemergedfromtheanalysis.Reflectivejournalswerecodedindividuallyforkeyterms,expressionsorphrases.Thistechniqueisknownas‘opencoding’(Strauss&Corbin1998:32)andhasbeenemployedintheanalysisofopen-endedquestionnairestorevealcommonthemes(Yanamandram&Noble2005).Anexternalthirdpartyalsocodedthedata,tominimisetheriskofoverlookingimportantconcepts(Walter2006).Thetwoauthorsandtheindependentresearcherfollowedtheprocessofinter-raterreliabilityinqualitativeresearchwherebythedatasetwasindependently


coded,thencollectivelycomparedforagreementtouncovercommonthemes(Armstronget al.1997).Firstly,reappearinganalogouscategoriesorkeytermswereplacedintosub-themesasidentifiedbytheresearchers,thensecondly,thesesub-themesweregroupedintolargerkeythemesbasedontheircommonalitiesandjudgmentbytheresearchers.Theauthorsdiscussedandresolvedanyconcerningexpressionsbyconsideringthemeaninginthegivencontext,toreach

agreementonthethemesthathademergedinthedata.

Findings

Threekeythemesemergedasaresultoftheanalysis:communicationskills,peopleskillsandpersonalinsights.Furthertothediscoveryofthesethreekeythemes,itwasrevealedthatthedegreetowhichstudentsself-reportedthesethemeslendsitselftotheidentificationofthreedimensions:self-assurance,self-improvementandself-awareness.Thefirstdimension,self-assurance,denotesownershipofthebelieforskilltowhichthestudentisreferring.Forexample,iftheidentifiedskillwaslistening,thecommentobservedwouldbe‘Iamagreatlistener’.Theseconddimensionisself-improvement,whichsuggeststhestudentrecognisesthedevelopment,improvementorgrowthofabelieforskill.Anexampleofself-improvementwouldbe‘Ihaveimprovedmylisteningskills’.Thefinaldimensionisself-awareness,whichimpliesrecognitiononthepartofthestudentoftheneedtoimprovethebelieforskill.Inthisinstance,anexamplewouldbe‘Ineedtoworkonmylisteningskills’.Thesedimensionsprovideasnapshotofthestudents’perceptionsofthemselvesandwhattheyhavelearntordevelopedduringtheinternshipplacement.Eachkeythemefromthedata,asidentifiedbythefindingsfromtheanalysisandamplifiedwithinsightsfromthesemi-structuredinterviews,isdiscussedbrieflybelowandpresentedwithexamplesinthefollowing

tables.


Theme 1: Communication skills

Thefirstkeythemerelatestocommunicationandincludesthefollowingcategories:generalcommunication,identificationofspecificcommunicationmethods,effectivenessofcommunicationandcommunicationaudiences.Table1presentsamatrixwithexamplesofstudents’reflectionsdemonstratingthefoursub-themesofcommunicationandthethreedimensions.Interviewsrevealedthat,althoughstudentsfelttheyhadgeneralcommunicationskillspriortotheinternshipplacement,itwastheopportunitytopractisetheseskillsinaworkcontextthatwasvalued.Moststudentsalsoagreedthattheyfeltmoreconfidentoverallwithhowtheycommunicatedaftertheplacement.Itwasfurtherrevealedthatstudentswhoinitiallyfeltverynervouswiththetasksandtheenvironment,overtimefeltmorecomfortableastheygottoknowtheircolleaguesandtheworkplacewhichenabledthemtospeakupandaskquestions.StudentselaboratedduringtheinterviewsthattheyweresurprisedintheirowncapabilitiesincommunicatingwithCEOsandgeneralmanagers.Theyrevealedthattheythoughttheywouldfeelintimidated,howeverlearntthattheywere‘peoplejustlikeus’.

298 Bonnie Cord and Mike ClementsT

abl

e 1:

Exa

mp

les

of d

imen

sion

s in

the

Com

mu

nic

ati

on S

kill

s th

eme

Th

em

eS

ub

-th

em

es

Dim

en

sio

ns

Self

-ass

ura

nce

Self

-im

pro

vem

ent

Self

-aw

are

nes

s

Co

mm

un

ica

tio

n

Sk

ills

General

communication

skills

“IbelieveIhaveidentified

mycommunicationskillsas

astrength”

“Ialsodevelopedmy

communicationskills”

“Mycommunicationskills

areinnowayperfectedand

thereforefurtheractive

improvementinthisarea

wouldgreatlyassist”

Specific

communication

methods

“Iwasabletousemywritten

andoralcom

munication

skills,whichIpreviously

dem

onstratedwithessays

andreportsaswellasclass

presentations”

“Ifoundtheinternship

presentationhasim

proved

mypresentationskills”

“[A}personalqualitythat

Ineedtoimprove[is]

confidencewhenpresenting”

Effectivenessof

communication

“Iusedpersuasionand

negotiationskillsto

justifythebenefitsofthe

recommendations”

“AsIbecamemoreconfident

Ibeganproactively

requestingandsuggesting

work,butgivenmynature

Ihadtopushmyselftobe

moreforwardandself-

promoting”

“AweaknessthatIbelieveI

stillneedtoworkonismy

assertiveness[after]Ihad

completedagiventaskand

neededsom

ethingextrato

do”

Com

munication

audiences

“EvenwhenIwasengaging

oneononewiththe

GeneralManager,Ifound

iteasytoholdanintelligent

conversation”

“Themainskill,whichhas

beenworthwhileachieving,

isbuildingconfidencein

communicatingwithsenior

managers”

“Apersonalareafor

improvementidentified

from

myroleat[sic]isin

tailoringofcom

munication

skills”


Theme 2: People skills

Thesecondkeythemeisaroundpeopleorinter-personalskillsandincludes:businessrelationshipskills,workingwithpeopleandworkplacefriendships.Table2illustrateswithexamplesthesethreesub-themeswiththedimensionsself-assurance,self-improvementandself-awareness.Studentswhodiscussedtheirnetworkingopportunitiesduringtheinterviews,revealedthat,whilethiswastheirfirsttime,mostfeltquiteateasenetworkingandcannowappreciatethevalueofbuildingrelationships.Althoughmanystudentsagreedthattheyhadimprovedteamworkskills,onlyasmallnumberofstudentswhoworkedrelativelyautonomouslyfeltasthoughtheydidnothavetheopportunitytopractiseteamworkastheyhadhoped.Fewstudentsalsoreferredtotheirgroupworkinuniversityassignmentsassettingaprecedentforteamworkactivities.Throughaskingstudentstoelaborateonworkplacefriendshipsintheinterviews,itbecameapparentthatmostofthestudentshaddevelopedfriendshipswhileonplacement,howevertheirreflectivejournalsgaugeun-solicitedinsightsandunderrepresentedthistopic.Therewasnoevidenceofstudentsreflectingontheneedtoworkonmakingfriendsintheworkplace,undertheself-awarenessdimension.


abl

e 2:

Exa

mp

les

of d

imen

sion

s in

the

Peo

ple

Ski

lls

them

e

Th

em

eS

ub

-th

em

es

Dim

en

sio

ns

Self

-ass

ura

nce

Self

-im

pro

vem

ent

Self

-aw

are

nes

s

Pe

op

le S

kil

lsBusiness

relationship

skills

“Ifeelm

ynetworkingskills

wereparticularlystrong”

“Bycorrespondingwith

businesspartnersand

clients,Ihavebegunto

buildmyprofessional

relationshipsandcontacts”

“Ishouldtakeamoreactive

roleingettingtoknowmy

lecturers…Iguessthisall

comesdowntonetworking

andtheabilitytobuild

relationships”

Workingwith

people

“Bybeingdeterminedin

buildingmyrelationships

withothers,Icouldbetter

understandmyposition

withintheorganisation”

“Anim

portantskillwhichI

haddevelopedwashuman

interaction”

“IbelieveIneedtospeak

upmoreandgetpeople

involvedsothatthingscan

beachievedasateam

”

Workplace

friendships

“Iformedstrongworking

relationshipswithmyfellow

team

mem

bersandhave

remainedfriendsoutsideof

workwithsom

eofthem

”

“Ilearntthatjoininganew

socialcirclecanbefunand

excitingaswellasterrifying”N/A


Theme 3: Personal insights

Thethirdkeythemethatwasidentifiedispersonalinsights,includingpersonalconfidence,personalability,motivationandworkplacereadinesssub-themes.Table3presentsthesesub-themeswithexamplestodemonstratethethreedimensionsofself-assurance,self-improvementandself-awareness.Althoughtherewerenoexamplesofstudentsdemonstratingself-assuranceovertheirpersonalconfidencelevels,duringtheinterviewsstudentscontestedtheyfeltmoreconfidentaftertheinternshipandsomecomparedthemselvestotheirpeerswithoutpracticalexperience.Interviewsalsorevealedthatthecontenttheywerelearningatuniversitycouldbeappliedinapracticalsetting.Reflectivejournalsinthisinstance,however,didnotrepresentthefindingsfromtheinterviewsinwhichmoststudentsexpressedtheirenjoymentfortheexperience,anddemonstratedhowmotivatedtheynowfeelfortheirstudiesandtobegintheirprofessionalcareer.Moststudentsconfirmedintheinterviewsthattheyfeltmorepreparedtoentertheworkforce.However,onestudentstatedthatalthoughtheinternshiphelpedminimiseanxiety,theystillseethe‘realworld’asfarawayandfeelquiteintimidatedbytheprospect.


abl

e 3:

Exa

mp

les

of d

imen

sion

s in

the

Per

son

al I

nsi

ght

s th

eme

Th

em

eS

ub

-th

em

es

Dim

en

sio

ns

Self

-ass

ura

nce

Self

-im

pro

vem

ent

Self

-aw

are

nes

s

Pe

rso

na

l In

sig

hts

Personal

confidence

NIL

“Idevelopedmore

confidenceinmyselfand

thatwhatIcoulddowould

reallymeansom

ethingto

somebodyandnotjustbe

doneforthesakeofkeeping

busy”

“Ineedtohavemore

confidenceoverall”

Personalability

“IfeelIreallyputinmybest

andhavestartedsom

ething

ofrealbenefittothe

company”

“Isawmyselfbecomemore

confidentinmyabilities”

“IfeelIneedtohavemore

faithintheworkIam

completing”

Motivation

“Inotonlyenjoyedthe

experiencebutIreally

valuedthefactthatIwas

exposedtothepracticalside

ofaccounting”

“Theinternshiphasactually

providedmewithincreased

motivationformyfinancial

studies,sothatIcanobtain

highermarksandthus

overall,abettergraduate

position”

“OnethingImightchangeis

myattitudetowardlifeafter

universitywhichwillimpact

myconscientiousnessand

attemptsatstudy”

Workplace

readiness

“Inowfeelasaresultthat

Iam

readytogetoutthere

andfacethebigbadworld

andgetagrownupjob”

“Ihavealsoachievedalotof

skillssuchasconfidencein

theworkplace”

“Inmanyways,mylack

ofconfidenceinraising

questionshinderedthefirst

partsofmyproject.Thiswill

certainlyshapethewayI

conductmyselfwithinfuture

workplacesandworktasks”


Discussion and conclusion

Thefindingsdemonstratethat,whilethesesoftskillsarebeingdeveloped,studentsarealsotakingpersonalinsightsawayfromtheexperience.Theyalsosuggestthatthereisalearningspectrumfromwhichstudentsmaymove,fromself-awarenesstoself-improvementandself-assurance.Althoughthejourneyisaverypersonalprocess,fromuniversity(highereducation)toindustry(practice),studentswhoareabletoreflectontheirexperiencearebetterinformedonwhattheyhavelearnedandhowtheywillapplythislearningintheirfutureemployment.

Thispaperhasidentifiedalearning-orientedinternshipprogramthatseekstomeetindustryexpectations,bymeansofdevelopinggraduatesthroughreflectivelearningassessmentsandplacingemphasisonstakeholderneeds.CIPhasseenstudentsbetterequippedtoengageinlearninginprofessionalpractice.Furthertotheindividualdevelopmentofthestudent,theprogramhasalsoseenstudentsgoontofindemploymentwithintheirhostorganisation,besuccessfulingraduatepositionsandgainlocaljobopportunitiesthroughnetworking.

Withinthiscompetitiveenvironment,studentsneedtohavebothdiscipline-specificknowledgeandthesoftskillsrequiredtodemonstrate,communicateandlearnintheworkplace.Asthegraduatemarketplacebecomesmorecompetitive,studentswhoareshortofsoftskillsmaydiscoverthatseekingemploymentopportunitiesbecomesmoreofachallenge(Stovall&Stovall2009).WRLinternships,workexperienceandlearning-orientatedprogramscanthereforebebeneficialinshapingstudentstobecomehighlydesirablegraduatesthroughincreasingtheiremployabilityskillsand

professionaldevelopment.

Encouragementandsupportofstudentsandprovisionoflearningopportunitieswillplacestudentsonthepathwayforself-development


andlifelonglearning.Itistheresponsibilityofhighereducationtoprovideapathwayforstudentstogainthenecessaryexpertisebothintheapplicationofdiscipline-specificknowledgeandinthedevelopmentofthesofterskillsrequiredforstudentstoengage,interactandeffectivelycommunicateintheworkplace.Theauthorssuggestthatonewayofdoingthisistoembedlearning-orientatedandwork-relatedprogramsintoacademiccurriculuminpartnershipwiththewiderbusinesscommunityandreinstatelearningintheforegroundofhighereducationdiscourse(Boud&Falchikov2007).

Thelimitationsofthisstudyincludethesampleselection,whichwastakenfromtheSouthCoastofNSW,Australia,andthereforefindingsmaynotbegeneralisedtoametropolitanprospective.Theresultsarealsolimitedtoonecohort,howevertheevaluationcontinuesasthisisanongoingresearchfocus.Futureresearchmayincludecomparingthedifferentschoolswithinthebusinessfaculty,forinstancemarketingandaccounting,tofurtherrevealthenatureofdiscipline-specificlearning.

Inconclusion,thefindingssuggestthatsoftskillsdevelopedbythestudentswereinfluencedthroughacombinationoftheprogramdesignandtheCIPmodelwhichprovidedthecontextandopportunityforencouragingstudentstoexploreandengagewiththeirwiderworkplaceenvironment,ultimatelycontributingtothedevelopmentofthesesoftskills.Wealsoacknowledgethedegreetowhichindividualsembracedandconnectedwiththeseskillswaslargelydependentontheirpersonallevelofengagement.Weadvocatethatifthestudentscancontinuetoengageinthedevelopmentofthesetypesofskills,thisawarenesswillaidtheirlifelonglearning.


References

Aaker,D.A.,Kumar,V.,Day,G.S.&Lawley,M.(2005).Marketing research,PacificRimedition,Milton,Queensland:JohnWiley&Sons.

Armstrong,D.,Gosling,A.,Weinman,J.&Marteau,T.(1997).‘Theplaceofinter-raterreliabilityinqualitativeresearch:Anempiricalstudy’,Sociology,31(3):597–606.

Beck,J.&Halim,H.(2008).‘Undergraduateinternshipsinaccounting:WhatandhowdoSingaporeinternslearnfromexperience?’,Accounting Education,17(2):151–172.

Benson,R.(2006).‘Alternativestudymodesinhighereducation:Students’expectationsandpreferences’,Australian Journal of Adult Learning,48(3):337–363.

Bohloko,G.&Mahlomaholo,S.(2008).‘Workintegratedlearningqualitypartnerships:ThecaseoftheCentralUniversityofTechnology,FreeState’,inProceedingsoftheWACE/ACENAsiaPacificConference,Sydney:WorldAssociationforCooperativeEducationandAustralianCollaborativeEducationNetwork:56–66.

Boud,D.&Falchikov,N.(2007).Rethinking assessment in higher education: Learning for the longer term,NewYork:Routledge.

Carnoy,M.(2002).‘Globalization,knowledgeandtheinternationalknowledgeeconomy’,inIstance,D.,Schuetze,H.G.&Schuller,T.(eds,International perspectives on lifelong learning, Buckingham:SocietyforResearchintoHigherEducation(SRHE)andOpenUniversityPress:129–140.

Castells,M.(2000).‘Informationtechnologyandglobalcapitalism’,inHutton,W.&Giddens,A.(eds.),On the edge: Living with global capitalism,London:JonathanCape:52–74.

Clegg,S.(2000).‘Knowingthroughreflectivepracticeinhighereducation’,Educational Action Research, 8(3): 451–469.

Clements,M.D.(2009).‘Connectingkeystakeholders:Sustainablelearningopportunities’,Development and Learning in Organisations,23(2):12–15.

Goleman,D.(1995),Emotional intelligence,NewYork:BantamBooks.

Gow,K.&McDonald,P.(2000).‘Attributesrequiredofgraduatesinthefutureworkplace’,Journal of Vocational Education and Training,52(3):373–394.

Gray,D.(2001).A briefing on work-based learning,Bristol:HigherEducationFundingCouncilforEngland (HEFCE).


Hager,P.(2000).‘Knowledgethatworks:Judgmentandtheuniversitycurriculum’,inSymes,C.&McIntyre,J.(eds.),Working knowledge: The new vocationalism and higher education,Maidenhead:SocietyforResearchintoHigherEducation(SRHE)andOpenUniversityPress:47–65.

Hodges,D.&Burchell,N.(2003).‘Businessgraduatecompetencies:Employers’viewsonimportanceandperformance’, Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 4(2):16–22.

Jackson,D.(2009a).‘Aninternationalprofileofindustry-relevantcompetenciesandskillsgapsinmoderngraduates’,International Journal of Management Education,8(1):85–98.

Jackson,D.(2009b).‘Undergraduatemanagementeducation:Itsplace,purposeandeffortstobridgetheskillsgap’,Journal of Management and Organisation,15(2):206–223.

Kohler,J.(2004).‘TheBolognaprocessandemployability:Theimpactofemployabilityoncurriculardevelopment’,paperpresentedattheAKeyObjectiveofAcademicStudiesandforAcademicInstitutions:Bled,Slovenia,22October.

Moreland,N.(2005).‘Work-relatedlearninginhighereducation’,Learning and employability series 2,Heslington:TheHigherEducationAcademy.

Murphy,G.A.&Calway,B.A.(2008).‘Professionaldevelopmentforprofessionals:Beyondsufficiencylearning’,Australian Journal of Adult Learning,48(3):424–444.

Nicholas,P.(2009).‘Tryalittlebitharder’,Weekend Professional,13–14June:1.

QualityandCurriculumAuthority(2003).Work-related learning for all at key stage 4: Guidance for implementing the statutory requirement from 2004,London:QualityandCurriculumAuthority.

Smith,K.,Clegg,S.,Lawrence,E.&Todd,M.(2007).‘Thechallengesofreflection:Studentslearningfromworkplacements’,Innovations in Education and Teaching International,44(2):131–141.

Stovall,D.C.&Stovall,P.S.(2009).‘Professionalaccountants:Voidof“softskills”?’,The Business Review, Cambridge,14(1):99–104.

Strauss,A.&Corbin,J.(1998).Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques, ThousandOaks,CA:Sage.

Yanamandram,V.&Noble,G.(2005).‘Teamteaching:Studentreflectionsonitsstrengthsandweaknesses’,inProceedingsofthe14thAnnualTeachingLearningForum,The Reflective Practitioner,Perth:MurdochUniversity.

Walter,M.M.(ed.)(2006).Social research methods,Melbourne:Oxford.


About the authors

Ms. Bonnie Cord is the Coordinator of the Internship Program in the Faculty of Commerce at the University of Wollongong, Australia. Ms Cord’s core research area is student learning in a vocational context. Her current research focus includes student experiential learning and reflective learning in transitioning programs. Ms Cord’s research is also in the area of volunteerism and social marketing.

Dr. Michael Clements is a Senior Lecturer in Management and the Director of the Commerce Internship Program and Industry Partnerships within the Faculty of Commerce at the University of Wollongong, Australia. His research interest involves learning reflection from both a student and organisational learning perspective, and the relationship dynamics and the design of experiential learning programs across disciplines.

Contact details

Ms. Bonnie Cord, Coordinator, Commerce Internship Program, Faculty of Commerce, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2500Tel: 612 4221 3756 Fax: 612 4221 4410Email: [email protected]

Dr. Mike Clements, Faculty of Commerce, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2500Tel: 612 4221 5497Email: [email protected]


Using Appreciative Inquiry to explore the professional practice of a lecturer in higher

education: Moving towards life-centric practice

David GilesUniversity of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand

Susie KungManukau Institute of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand

This paper reports on a strategy for exploring the life-centric practice of a lecturer in Higher Education. The initiative for this inquiry arose out of the realisation that there did not appear to be positive, heart-lifting stories in a lecturer’s current teaching experiences. Using an appreciative eye and supported by a critical friend, life-giving experiences were ‘stalked’ from the past. The hope in this endeavour was to find greater meaning in the lecturer’s best professional practice. Using an Appreciative Inquiry approach, this endeavour rejuvenated the lecturer’s professional practice. As life-centric stories were recalled, provocative propositions were constructed that became the basis of a personalised action plan for future professional practice. This paper outlines the nature of the journey and the heartfelt discoveries.

Moving towards life-centric practice 309

Introduction

Onaneducator’spersonaljourneytowardsgreatercongruencyandauthenticity,theworkplacecanbechallengingand,attimes,life-less(Bhindi&Duignan1997,Brook2009,Gibbs2006).Inthesetimes,educatorscanlosetheirsenseofpurposeandfeelanalienationfromcolleaguesandstudents.Moreover,thisnegative,problem-centeredwayofbeingcanengenderdeficit-basedthinkingonthepartoftheeducator.Whatpossibilitiesexistifthelenseshiftsfromseeingoneselfasaproblemtobesolvedtoseeingoneselfasacomplexmiracletobeappreciated?Howwouldthisinfluencethenatureofaninquiryintoanindividual’sprofessionalpracticeandwhatopportunitiesmightexistforunderstandingone’sfuturepractice(Giles&Alderson2008,Whitney&Trosten-Bloom2003)?Thesethought-provokingquestionstargetparticularlife-givingmomentsinanindividual’sprofessionalpracticeasthebasisforanalternativewayoflooking.

English,FenwickandParsons(2003)suggestthattheuseofAppreciativeInquiry(AI)offersawayofeffectingapositivevisionforprofessionalpractice.Cooperriderandothers(Cooperrider&Srivastva1987,Hammond1998,Hammond&Royal1998,RyanSovenSmitherWilliam&Vanbuskirk1999,Whitney&Trosten-Bloom2003)maintainthattheprocessofappreciativeinquiryitselfisintervention,thatis,aninquiryintohumanactivityandsystemschangetheinquirers.Itisasif,‘Theseedsofchange—thatis,thethingspeoplethinkandtalkabout,thethingspeoplediscoverandlearn,andthethingsthatinformdialogueandinspireimagesofthefuture—areimplicitintheveryfirstquestionsweask’(CooperriderSorensonWhitney&Yaegar2000:18).Inotherwords,ourwayofbeingandourprofessionalpracticeisinfluencedthemomentquestionsareaskedandquestionsaresought.Incontrast,problem-centredconstructionsofrealitycanleadtoagreatersenseofhopelessness.BusheandCoetzer(1995:5)suggestthat‘thetheories

310 David Giles and Susie Kung

wehold…haveapowerfuleffectonthenatureofsocialreality.Notonlydoweseewhatwebelieve,buttheveryactofbelievingitcreatesit’.Forthisreason,AIistargetedatappreciatingwhatitisaboutthesocialworldthatispositive,whileexploringthepossibilitiesofmakingtheessenceoftheseexperienceshappenagaininthefuture.

UnderpinningAppreciativeInquiryisthechallengetosystematicallyconsiderpositivestoriesofprofessionalpractice(Hammond&Royal1998).Inthisway,‘everynewaffirmativeprojectionofthefutureisaconsequenceofanappreciativeunderstandingofthepastorpresent’(Bushe&Coetzer1995).Hammond(1998)suggeststhat,ifanythingisbroughtfromthepast,itoughttobethebestofthepastthatisbroughtforward.Itiscriticallyimportantintheprocessthatactual,groundedandupliftingstoriesfromthepastarerecalledfordeliberationandcontemplation.Suchstoriesshowmomentswherepracticeisinharmonywithwhoweare(Giles&Alderson2004,2008).

Inthebestscenario,AIresultsinagenerativemetaphorthatcallsforandcompelsnewaction(Bushe&Kassam2005).Generativemetaphorsareseenas‘sayingsorphrasesthatarethemselvesprovocative,andcancreatenewpossibilitiesforaction,thatpeoplehadnotpreviouslyconsidered’(Bushe&Kassam2005:4).Proust(citedinBushe&Kassam2005:4)explainsthat‘therealvoyageofdiscoveryconsistsnotinseekingnewlandscapes,butinhavingneweyes’.Theappreciativeprocessinvolvespractisinganappreciativeeyeoverpastexperiencesinthequesttofindthebeautyinspecificevents(Hammond1998).Hammond(1998:2)goesfurthertosuggestthattheexcitementgeneratedinlookingforbestpractice‘energizesboththeresearcherandparticipantsaliketoreachforhigherideals’.

Methodology: Appreciative Inquiry

CooperriderandSrivastva(1987)haveproposedasetofprinciplestoguideAppreciativeInquiry.Thepurposeofsuchinquiryisthe


creationofgenerativetheorywhicharticulatesfuturepossibilities(Bushe&Kassam2005).AppreciativeInquirybeginswiththetellingandrecordingoflife-centricstories.Giventhatourlivesarearticulatedcontinuouslyandcollectivelyinthestorieswetelleachothereveryday,storieshavepowertobeusedascatalystsofchange.The seedsofchangeareembedded inthestoriesthataretold.Inthisway,changehappensthemomentwebegintoinquire(Bushe&Kassam2005).Themomentumforsustainablechangerequirespositiveaffectandarelationalconnectiontoacolleagueorcriticalfriend(Giles2008,Giles&Alderson2004,2008,Mantel&Ludema2000).Acriticalfriendcanbeacolleagueorassociatewithwhomatrustingrelationshipexists.Inaddition,thecriticalfriendmusthaveanunderstandingoftheappreciateprocessandbeskilfulinseekingtaken-for-grantedaspectsofan-other’sstories.

TheprinciplesofAppreciativeInquiryareincorporatedinafour-stepframework(Cooperrideret al.2000,Hammond1998,Mohr&Watkins2001,ReedPearsonDouglasSwinburne&Wilding2002).Thefirststepintheframeworkisdescribedasthe‘discovery’step.Thisstephastheintentofdescribingthebestof‘whathasbeen’and‘whatis’.Thebestaspectsofanindividual’speakprofessionalpracticeareidentified,appreciated,recalledandtoldinstoryformasdescriptivelyaspossible.Inthisway,AppreciativeInquiryisgroundedintheactualexperiencesofanindividual(Giles&Alderson2008).Insightsaresoughtintowhatmadetheparticularstoryapeakexperience(Bushe1999).Hammond(1998)describesthisasgentlyinvestigatingtherootcauseofsuccessfulpractice.

Thesecondstepintheframeworkisdescribedasthe‘dream’step.Thisstepconsiderswhatourpracticecouldlooklikeifwewerefullyalignedaroundourstrengthsandaspirations.Inthisway,thissecondstepimagineswhatmightbepossiblewithinourprofessionalpracticeonthebasisofourpaststories.Thisstepisintentionallygenerative.


Thethirdstepintheframeworkisdescribedasthe‘design’step.Inthisstep,theeducatorandcriticalfriendco-construct‘possibilitypropositions’thatarevaluestatementsthatchallengetaken-for-grantedstatus quoassumptionsinthepracticestories(Giles&Alderson2008,Hammond1998).Inthisway,theco-constructioninvolvesthedrawingtogetherofcommonthemesfromacrossthepersonalexperiencesinordertocreateprovocativepropositionsthatactaschallengingvaluestatements.Thesestatementsareintentionallydesignedtobestretchingandprovocative,andcapturequalitiesthataremostdesired(Englishet al.2003).Thearticulationofemergentthemestypicallyrequiresthesupportofafacilitatororcriticalfriend.

ThefinalstepintheAIframeworkisdescribedasthe‘destiny’step.Inthisstep,asetofintentionsforpracticearedevelopedintheformofanactionplan.Theactionplanningprocessseekstosustaintheopportunitiesandpossibilitiesdrawnandconstructedfromtheoriginalstories.Again,thedialoguewithacriticalfriendiscriticallyimportantinholdingthethreadsfromthestoriesthroughintopossibilities.Itwouldseemthat‘theprocessisasimportantastheendproduct’(Goldberg2001:57).

Theappreciativeprocessissummedupas‘stalking’thelife-centricflowwithinanindividual’spastexperienceswhichleadstoan‘amplificationthroughfanning’oftheelementsthathavecontributedtotheexemplaryorpeakperformance(Englishet al.2003).

Background to the inquiry

Thisarticlereportsonsuchanendeavourintotheprofessionalpracticeofalecturerinhighereducation.Susie,thelecturerwhosepracticewasconsideredinthisAppreciativeInquiry,hadbeeninvolvedinanumberofeducationalroles.HerteachingcareerbeganasanEnglishteacherinMalaysiawithsubsequentrolesasaresearchandplanningofficerintheMinistryofEducation,Malaysia,avice-


principalofahighschoolinKualaLumpur,Malaysia,alearningsupporttutorinaMalaysianuniversity,alanguageteacherinNewZealand,andpresently,asateachereducatorinNewZealand.David,thecriticalfriendinthisAppreciativeInquiry,completedhisdoctoralresearchontheteacher-studentrelationship(Giles2008)andlecturesontheuseofAppreciativeInquiryintheformationofindividualsandorganisations.

ThefirststepinthisinquiryinvolvedSusierecallinganddescriptivelywritingaboutspecificteachingexperienceswhichsheidentifiedasexperienceswhichshowherpeakprofessionalpractice.Theseexperiencesrelatedtoone-on-oneinteractionwithcolleaguesinherformerrolesasadeputyprincipal,lecturerandtertiaryeducator.Thesestoriesarereferredtowithinthediscussionofeachthemethatfollowsinthefindingsanddiscussionsection.Mostimportantly,Susie’sstoriesrepresentedactualexperiencesofprofessionalpractice.

Thesestorieswerewrittendescriptivelyandthenre-toldinstoryformtoSusie’scriticalfriend,David.DavidwasinvitedtoparticipategivenhisresearchinterestsinAppreciativeInquiryandHermeneuticPhenomenology(Giles2008).Thedialogueonthestoriesandtheextrapolationofemergentthemeswereidentifiedcollaboratively.

Findings and discussion

AfterrecordingandanalysingSusie’sstories,thefollowingthemeswereidentifiedcollaborativelyasintegraltoanemergentgenerativemetaphor.ItshouldbenotedthatthepurposeofthispaperistoshowanalternativediscourseonprofessionalpracticeaidedbyanAIprocessratherthanacritiqueoftheAIapproachitself.

The first theme

The firsttheme thatwasco-constructedfromthestorieswastheneedasateacherto‘walkthetalk’,consistentlymodellingone’sdeepestvalues.Susie’spracticeisempoweredbythefirmbeliefthatteachers


arelessdispensersofheadknowledgethantheyare‘sourcesoflifeandvision’(Englishet al.2003:78).Assuch,studentsareuniqueandshouldbevalued.Itisthisbeliefthatunderpinsone’srelationshipswithstudentsacrosstimeandplace(Giles2008).Memorieswererecalledofmanyrespectfulrelationshipswithstudentsandareadydesiretogothe‘extramile’forstudents.ThisdesirewasembeddedinthewaySusie’slessonswereplanned,thewaylessonswereconductedandthewayresourcesandactivitieswereselected.Previousteachingmoduleswererecalledwherestudentsweregiventheopportunitytolookforanswersthataredeepwithinthemselvesinrelationtotheiremergentunderstandingsofteachingandtheirprofessionalformation.

ThevaluingofpeopleappearedtobeembodiedinthewaySusie’scarewasofferedtostudentsandthelengthstakentocreatetrustingspacesforopenin-classdiscussions.FreireandMacedo(1995),MezirowandAssociates(2000)andPalmer(1999a,2000,2004),amongstothers,appealtoteacherstointentionallyenter,andmeaningfulpromote,engagingdialoguewithlearners.Teachersareencouragedtostructure‘experiencesthatinvitelearnerstoaskquestionsofmeaningsuchasWhoamI?’(Englishet al.2003:79).Inasimilarway,Ayers(2001)advocatesforasincerityofrelationshipwithstudents,anoutcomeofauthenticfriendshipsthathaveadeepcaringandcompassionateconcern.

Thepropositionthatwasco-constructedfromthisthemewasthatteachers,whosevaluesandbeliefsalignwiththeirpractice,rolemodelanauthenticitythatenablescloserelationalbondswiththeirstudents.

The second theme

Thesecondtheme thatwasco-constructedfromthestorieswastheimportanceofanalignmentbetweenone’spersonalvaluesandtheorganisation’svalues.Asalecturer,Susieisatherbestwhenher


personalculture,valuesandbeliefsalignwiththeorganisation’sculture,valuesandbeliefs.Tensionsoccurwhenarticulatedvaluesdonotalignwithindividualororganisationalpractice;thatis,thetalkisnotwalked.Attimes,thewordsusedtodescribeourvaluingappearsimilar,yetthemeaningsthatareheldaredifferent.

Inoneparticularstory,theconceptof‘valuingpeople’wasvieweddifferentlybydifferentmembersoftheorganisation.Theteachers’viewwasthatthevaluingofpeopleoughttobemadevisibleinpracticeandpermeatethewaytheyteach,assessandprovidefeedback.Thosewhoguardthebusinessinterestsoftheorganisationmaysaytheyshareacommonvisioninvaluingpeople,butstudentswerereadilyseenineconomictermsasmoneyearnersfortheorganisation.Valueisthusplacedontheeconomicsoftheclient(student)ratherthanthepersonwhoisthestudent.

Susierecalledtimeswhenherprofessionalpracticewasinharmony,andinalignment,withtheorganisationalvalues.EarliercareerstoriesledustoinitialteachingexperiencesinMalaysia.Susierecalledhavingtheprivilegeofawonderfulmentorwholedanexemplarylifeofservicetoboththeschoolheservedandthecommunityatlarge.Thislecturersaidthatteachershadtobeagoodhumanbeingfirstandagoodeducatorsecond.Inthisway,hewalkedthetalk;hiseverystepshowedavaluingofrelationship.HeinspiredSusiesayingthatshewasacustodianofthestudents’souls.Thismentorunderstoodtheneedtobridgethegapbetweenteachersandstudents,andhisgenuinenessofspirittouchedbothstaffandstudents.‘Weallknowwhatwilltransformeducationisnotanothertheory,oranotherbook,oranotherformulabuteducatorswhoarewillingtoseekatransformedwayofbeingintheworld’(Palmer1999).Leadersareexhortedto‘buildthecredibilityoforganizationalvalues…bydemonstration,notarticulation’(Sengeet al.1999:200).


Thepropositionthatwasco-constructedonthisthemewasthatteachersneedtoregularlyconsiderthealignmentbetweentheirownvaluesandpracticeswiththeorganisation’svaluesandpractices.

The third theme

Athirdthemethatwasco-constructedfromthestorieswasthenotionthatstudentsareholisticbeings.Indeed,theholisticnatureofstudentsneedstobeaffirmedandencouragedinpractice.Susiewasatherbestwhenherteachingreflectsthiscorebelief.AsGibbs(2004:7)suggests,educationshouldbeasourceofnurturanceforthespiritaswellasameansofreachingunderstanding.Inastoryfromhersecondyearofteaching,Susierealisedthatshewasnotconnectingwithoneofherstudents.Infrustration,onedayhedeclared,‘Mengapa selalu berbulu-bulu dengan saya?’TranslatedintoEnglish,itroughlymeans,‘Whyarewelikeporcupines?Wearealwaysinflictingpainoneachother’.Thisthought-provokingquestionopenedasoul-searchingdiscussionwhichculminatedinbetterunderstandingthisstudent’sperceptionoftheteacher-studentrelationship.Astheteacher,Susiewasgivenarareopportunitytocatchaglimpseofthisstudent’sessentialbeing.Whentheypartedwaysattheendoftheyear,theybothknewthatsomethingspecialhadhappened.Threeyearslater,thisyoungmanreturnedtotheschooltoletSusieknowhowmuchhehadappreciatedthecareandconcernshownthatday.GilesandSanders(1996:7)notethatasensitiveunderstandingofthemulti-facetednatureofrelationshipshelpsteachersto‘developtrustthroughencouragementandsensitivity’.

Theproposition thatwasco-constructedfromthisthemewasthatteachersneedtosensitisethemselvestotheholisticinfluenceoftheirinteractionswithstudents.


The final theme

Thefinalthemethatemergedfromthestoriesrelatedtotheteacher’sawarenessoftheirown‘timesandseasons’.Susieisatherbestwhensheisawareofthe‘timesandseasons’inherlifepersonallyandprofessionally.Overateachingcareerofmorethan26years,themesandpatternswereidentifiedthatwerelooselydescribedasrelatingto‘timesandseasons’.TheappreciativeprocessenabledagreaterawarenessofthedifferentseasonsinSusie’spersonalandprofessionallife.Recollectingstoriesenablestherealisationofhowmuchateachercanfeelalienatedfromthecoreofwhotheyarewhentheyworkinorganisationsthatdonotpractiseagenuinecaringconcernforhumankind,insteadofembracingdifferencesasuniqueandforcelebration.

Theprovocativepropositionco-constructedfromthisthemewasthatteachers’professionaldevelopmentneedstobeongoingandlinkedtoanincreasedawarenessofthetwistsandturnsintheirpersonalandprofessionallives.

Asummaryofthepropositionsisasfollows:

Themes Propositions

1Teachers,whosevaluesandbeliefsalignwiththeirpractice,rolemodelanauthenticitythatenablescloserelationalbondswiththeirstudents.

2Teachersneedtoregularlyconsiderthealignmentbetweentheirownvaluesandpracticeswiththeorganisation’svaluesandpractices.

3Teachersneedtosensitisethemselvestotheholisticinfluenceoftheirinteractionswithstudents.

4Teachers’professionaldevelopmentneedstobeongoingandlinkedtoanincreasedawarenessofthetwistsandturnsintheirpersonalandprofessionallives.


EachprovocativepropositionhasbeenconsideredintermsoftheactionthatwouldbenecessarytoenableSusie,asthelecturer,toexperiencefurtherlife-givingmomentsofprofessionalpractice.Thefollowingtableidentifiesspecificactioninrelationtoeachproposition.Thesubsequentactionplanisasfollows:

Proposition Related Action When

1 Reflectonone’sprofessionalpracticewithregardtothenatureofmyteacher-studentrelationships.

Seekongoingandinformalfeedbackwithregardtomyteacher-studentrelationships.

Beforeeachsemesterandongoing.

Ongoing,andattheendofeachsemester.

2 Articulateapersonalphilosophyforeducationandteachingasalivingdocument(forregularreview)asanempoweringstrategyforengagingtowardsgreaterauthenticitywithinthewiderorganisationalvaluesandpractices.

Informallyengagewithimmediatelinemanagersoverconcernfuldiscrepanciesbetweenone’sownpracticesandthatoftheorganisation.

Articulateapersonalphilosophyassoonaspossible.Tobereviewedeachsemesteratleast.

Aspracticesarenoted.

3 Establishareflectivejournalforrecordingmoments/experienceswhichcaptureattentiongiventoindividualstudents.Phenomenologicallyreflectonthenatureoftheinfluenceofsuchmomentsbywritinginterpretivestatementsaboutsuchevents.

Setupajournalassoonaspossible.Aimfortheinclusionofatleastonenewexperiencepermonthwithasubsequentinterpretivestatement.

4 Atleasttwiceayear,andpreferablymonthly,reviewmonthlyandannualgoalsbeingconcernedabouttheprogress,relevanceandmeaningfulnessofsuchgoals.

Twiceyearly.


Conclusion

TheAppreciativeInquiryprocessexhortsparticipantstohaveanappreciationforthemysteryofbeingandareverenceforlife(Cooperrider&Srivastva1987).Suchaprocesscallsforanexplorationoflife-givingforceswhichsupportanindividual’sbestpractice.Thispositive,possibility-focusedawakeningisduetothechallengetolookatone’sprofessionalpracticewithneweyes.

Storiesareapowerfultoolforregeneration.Tellingandre-gatheringstoriesenablesgreatermeaningtobefoundineverydaylife-centricexperiencesand,intheprocess,enablestherediscoveryofone’struevoiceinaneducator’sprofessionalpractice.Theseedsofchangeareplantedthemomentweinquire.ThisAIexperienceenergisedalecturertoreachforhigheridealsintheirprofessionalpractice.

References

Ayers,W.(2001).To teach: The journey of a teacher,NewYork:TeachersCollegePress.

Bhindi,N.&Duignan,A.P.(1997).‘Authenticityinleadership:Anemergingperspective’,Journal of Educational Administration, 35(3):195–209.

Brook,A.(2009).‘Thepotentialityofauthenticityinbecomingateacher’,Educational Philosophy and Theory, 41(1):46–59.

Bushe,G.R.&Coetzer,G.(1995).‘AppreciativeInquiryasateamdevelopmentintervention:Acontrolledexperiment’,Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 31(1):19–31.

Bushe,G.R.&Kassam,A.F.(2005).‘WhenIsAppreciativeInquirytransformational?Ameta-caseanalysis’,The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 41(2):161–181.

Cooperrider,D.L.,Sorenson,P.F.J.,Whitney,D.&Yaegar,T.F.(eds.)(2000).Appreciative Inquiry: Rethinking human organizations towards a positive theory of change,Champaign,Illinois:StipesPublishing.

Cooperrider,D.L.&Srivastva,S.(1987).‘AppreciativeInquiryinorganizationallife’,Research in Organizational Change and Development, 1:129–169.


English,L.M.,Fenwick,T.J.&Parsons,J.(2003).‘AnappreciativeInquiryintothespiritualvaluesofChristianhighereducation’,Christian Higher Education, 2(1):71–90.

Freire,P.&Macedo,D.(1995).‘Adialogue:Culture,languageandrace’,Harvard Educational Review, 65(3):377–402.

Gibbs,C.J.(2004).‘“AtschoolIhavenotimetodream”.Spiritoftheteacherandlearner:Learningandteachingforspiritualdevelopment’,paperpresentedattheTeacherEducationForumofAotearoa-NewZealand(TEFANZ)NationalConference.

Gibbs,C.J.(2006).To be a teacher: Journeys towards authenticity,Auckland,NewZealand:PearsonEducation.

Giles,D.L.(2008).‘Exploringtheteacher-studentrelationshipinteachereducation:Ahermeneuticphenomenologicalinquiry’,unpublisheddoctoralthesis,AUTUniversity,NewZealand.

Giles,D.L.&Alderson,S.(2004).‘Enablingdialogue:AnAppreciativeInquiryintostudents’transformativelearningexperienceswithinaFamilyLiteracyproject’, paperpresentedattheFourthAnnualConferenceoftheNewZealandAssociationofBridgingEducators,AUTUniversity,NewZealand.

Giles,D.L.&Alderson,S.(2008).‘Anappreciativeinquiryintothetransformativelearningexperiencesofstudentsinafamilyliteracyproject’,Australian Journal of Adult Learning,48(3):465–478.

Giles,D.L.&Sanders,M.(1996).‘Arelationalmodelofteachereducation:DistinctivesatBethlehemTeachersCollege’,paperpresentedattheNewZealandCouncilforTeacherEducation,Dunedin.

Goldberg,R.A.(2001).‘Implementingaprofessionaldevelopmentsystemthroughappreciativeinquiry’,Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 22(2):56–61.

Hammond,S.A.(1998).The thin book of appreciative inquiry(2nded.),Plano,TX:ThinBookPublishing.

Hammond,S.A.&Royal,C.(eds.)(1998).Lessons from the field: Applying appreciative inquiry,Plano,TX:ThinBook/PracticalPress.

Mantel,M.J.&Ludema,J.D.(2000).‘Fromlocalconversationstoglobalchange:Experiencingtheworldwidewebeffectofappreciativeinquiry’,Organization Development Journal, 18(2):42–53.

Mezirow,J.andAssociates(2000).Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress,SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass.

Mohr,B.&Watkins,J.M.(2001).‘AppreciativeInquiry:Changeatthespeedofimagination’,Organization Development Journal, 19(3):92–93.


Palmer,P.J.(1999a).‘Goodteaching:Amatteroflivingthemystery’,http://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/events/afc99/articles/goodteaching.html[retrieved21/04/04].

Palmer,P.J.(1999b).‘Thegraceofgreatthings:Reclaimingthesacredinknowing,teachingandlearning’,inGlazer,S.(ed.),The heart of learning. Spirituality in education,NewYork:Tarcher/Putnam:15–31.

Palmer,P.J.(2000).Let your life speak: Listening for the voice of vocation, SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass.

Palmer,P.J.(2004).A hidden wholeness. The journey toward an undivided life, SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass.

Reed,J.,Pearson,P.,Douglas,B.,Swinburne,S.&Wilding,H.(2002).‘Goinghomefromhospital-anappreciativeinquirystudy’,Health & Social Care in the Community, 10(1):36–46.

Ryan,F.J.,Soven,M.,Smither,J.S.,William,M.&Vanbuskirk,W.R.(1999).‘AppreciativeInquiry:Usingpersonalnarrativesforinitiatingschoolreform’,Clearing House, 72(3):164–168.

Senge,P.,Kleiner,A.,Roberts,C.,Ross,R.,Roth,G.&Smith,B.(1999).The dance of change,NewYork:Doubleday.

Whitney,D.&Trosten-Bloom,A.(2003).The power of Appreciative Inquiry: A practical guide to positive change,SanFrancisco:Berrett-Koehler.

About the authors

Dr David L. Giles completed his doctoral work at Auckland University of Technology and is currently a senior lecturer in the Department of Professional Studies, School of Education, University of Waikato. His research interests focus on relational practice/pedagogy in education and the use of hermeneutic phenomenology and appreciative inquiry research methodologies.

Susie Kung has an active interest in the characteristics of effective teachers. Such teachers appear to know who they are, and how they are called to the teacher’s role. Susie’s consideration of these matters opens a re-consideration of the nature of teacher education as a holistic endeavour.


Contact details

Dr David Giles, Department of Professional Studies in Education, School of Education, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New ZealandTel: +64 21 354448 Fax: +64 7 838 4555Email: [email protected]

Susie Kung, School of Education, Manukau Institute of Technology, Private Bag 94006, South Auckland Mail Centre, Manakau 2240, Auckland, New ZealandTel: +64 9 968 8765 x 7153 Fax: +64 9 968 7714Email: [email protected]


Approaches to the postgraduate education of business coaches

Grace McCarthySydney Business School University of Wollongong

This paper focuses on the education and training of business coaches, specifically at the Masters/graduate level. The paper first reviews the knowledge and skills required of business coaches, comparing the recommendations of professional associations and the literature. Next the paper reviews the approaches to education which are best suited to help students acquire knowledge and skills, and how these may be assessed. The paper discusses the challenge of developing both knowledge and skills, and the use of e-learning as an on-going support for students. The benefits of authentic assessment and a varied approach to learning are also reviewed. Thirdly, the paper reports on the experiences of a new Master of Business Coaching at Sydney Business School, University of Wollongong, Australia, providing both performance and perception data from the first cohort of students. Possible reasons for the students’ strong performance are suggested.

324 Grace McCarthy

Introduction

Inrecentyears,therehasbeenanexplosionofinterestinbusinesscoaching(Grant2008,Hawkins2006).AccordingtotheCharteredInstituteofPersonnelandDevelopmentintheUK,82%ofrespondentstotheirannualLearningandDevelopmentSurveyin2010usecoaches.Businesscoachingisheredefinedastheapplicationofcoachingskillsinabusinesscontext,excludingotherformsofcoachingsuchaslifecoaching,orotherservicessuchascounsellingormentoring.Itcanincludecoachingwhichisfocusedontheindividual’sdevelopment,onteamperformance,oronbusinessperformanceissuesrelatingtostrategyandgoals.

Manycommentators,suchasClegg,Rhodeset al.(2005)andShermanandFreas(2004)haveobservedthatthecoachingindustryisunregulated,withlow/nobarrierstoentry.Neat(2006:32)noted‘aninfluxofover-hyped,ill-equippedpeoplecallingthemselvescoaches—yetoftenbereftofbusinessacumen,empathyandanalyticalskills’.Therearecallsforaccreditationandtraining,inthehopethatthiswillraisethestandardsoftheprofessionandgivepurchasersofcoachingservicessomequalityassurance.

Thispaperfocusesontheeducationandtrainingofbusinesscoaches,specificallyattheMasters/graduatelevel.Thepaperfirstreviewstheknowledgeandskillsrequiredofbusinesscoaches.Next,thepaperreviewstheapproachestoeducationwhicharebestsuitedtohelpstudentsacquiretheknowledgeandskills,andhowtheymaybeassessed.Thirdly,thepaperreportsontheexperiencesofanewMasterofBusinessCoachingatSydneyBusinessSchool(UniversityofWollongong,Australia)andsuggestsreasonsfortheresultsobtained.

Priortotheglobalfinancialcrisis,BennisandO’Toole(2005)arguedthatgraduatebusinesseducationisgenerallynotgroundedinbusinesspracticeandhencehasbecomelessrelevanttopractitioners.

Approaches to the postgraduate education of business coaches 325

Theylamentedthatmanyacademicsinbusinessschoolshavenobusinessexperience.Podolny(2009:63)articulateshisconcernthat‘manyacademicsaren’tcuriousaboutwhatreallygoesoninsidecompanies’.IntheirguidelinesforMastersofPublicAdministrationcourses,Coxheadet al.(2009)advocateteachingandassessmentbyateamcomprisinguniversityacademicsandpublicservicespractitioners.TheauthorofthispaperistheCoordinatoroftheMasterofBusinessCoachingcourseandalsolecturesonthecourse.Workingwithcolleaguesinindustryandotheruniversitieshasenabledustorisetothechallengeofdevelopinganewcourseratherthantakeonesideof‘theoldacademicversuspractitionerdichotomy’whichGrant(2008:97)argues‘isspurious,unhelpfulatbest,andfrequentlyquitedestructive’.

Knowledge

Manycoacheshavebeentrainedinatheoretical,proprietarymodelsofcoachingwithalimitedevidencebase,accordingtoRostron(2009:323)andGrantandCavanagh(2007:241).AMastersprogram,bycontrast,aimstohelpstudentsmodeltheiradvancedunderstandingofaspecialistbodyoftheoreticalandappliedtopics(AustralianQualificationsFramework2010).OurMasterofBusinessCoachingenablesstudentstodevelopabodyofknowledgeincludingnewperspectivesrelatingtocoaching,professionalcoachingpractices,cognitiveskillsenablingthemtodemonstratecriticalanalysisandunderstandingoftheory,andreflectiveskillstoenablethemtoreflectonprofessionaltheoryandpractice.Ourstudentslearnaboutabroadrangeofcoachingmodels,fromthewidelyusedGROW(GoalsRealityOptionsWhat/Will)modelpopularisedbyWhitmore(1996),tomorerecentmodelssuchasITEA(ImpactThoughtEmotionAction)(Leimon2005),andreferringtobehaviouralmodelsandsystemsmodels(BarnerandHiggins2007).

326 Grace McCarthy

TheneedforcoachestodevelopasolidunderstandingofbusinessisunderscoredbyCharlton(2009:3)who,inhiscommentaryonthelikelyfuturescenarioforbusinesscoaching,suggeststhat:

Thosewoolly-mindedcoaches,wrappedupinair-head1960sfauxphilosophy,willfindtheirdaysarenumbered.Theoneswhowillsurvivewithadegreeofcomfortduringthedownturnwillbethosewhocanallycoachingwithsoundbusinessandcommercialexperienceandcanbringthattothecoachingtable.

Furthermore,weagreewithPodolny(2009)abouttheneedtoavoid‘disciplinarysilos’.Instead,weseektointegratebusinessdisciplineswithcoachingtheoryandpractice.Studentslearnabouttheoriesofleadershipandmotivation,ethicsanddiversity,strategydevelopmentandimplementation,innovationandchange,andhowcoachingskillsarerelevanttoeachofthesedomains,thusavoidingthesituationcommoninbusinessdegreescriticisedbyBennisandO’Toole(2005)where,the‘integrationofdisciplined-basedknowledgewiththerequirementsofbusinesspracticeislefttothestudent’.

Coaching skills

Unlikeestablishedprofessionswithclearguidancefromrelevantaccreditingbodiesorinstitutions,wehadthefreedomandthechallengeoffirstdeterminingwhatskillswewantedourstudentstodevelop.WelookedindetailatacademicliteratureandatcompetencyframeworksdefinedbytheInternationalCoachFederation(ICF)andtheEuropeanMentoringandCoachingCouncil(EMCC).WhiletheEMCCcompetenciesareevidence-based,GriffithsandCampbell(2008)suggestthatthedevelopmentoftheICFcompetenciesiseclecticandunscientific.However,theirresearchfoundempiricalsupportformanyoftheICFcompetencies,althoughthismayhavebeenexpectedastheirsurveywasofICF-accreditedcoaches.AcomparisonofcoachingcompetenciesisshowninTable1.Fortunately,thereisconsiderableoverlapinthecompetencies


identifiedintheliterature,althoughexactlyhoweachauthordefinesconceptssuchas‘listening’or‘presence’mayvary.

Fromthistable,itcanbeseenthatthecoachingskillsincludedintheSBScoursearesupportedbothbythecoachingliteratureandcoachingprofessionalassociations(ICFandEMCC).WhatisnovelhereistheintegrationofbusinessskillsasadvocatedbyFeldmanandLankau(2005)andBermanandBradt(2006),andresearchskillsforcoaches(Rostron2009,Passmore&Gibbes2007).Businessskillsincludethedevelopmentandimplementationofstrategy,innovationandchangemanagement,leadershipandpeoplemanagement.Manyofourstudentsareexperiencedpractitionerswhohavenotstudiedformanyyears.Workshopsincludestrategiesforfindingacademicandcompanyinformation,criticalanalysisandacademicwriting,reflectivewriting,andstrategiesfortacklingassignmentsandexams.

Throughouttheprogram,studentsareencouragedtoself-assess,gainfeedback,reflectontheirlearningandexperience,andtosettargetsfortheircontinueddevelopmentascoaches.Moon(2004:74)stressesthat‘learningextendsbeyondformaleducationandbecomesveryimportantinself-managedcontinuingprofessionaldevelopment’.Byencouragingtheuseofreflectionthroughassignmentsandthroughtheprovisionofself-assessmentresources,weencouragestudentstotakeresponsibilityfortheirlearningbothinandoutsidetheclassroom.BlackandPlowright(2010:246)definereflectionas:

328 Grace McCarthy Approaches to the postgraduate education of business coaches 329T

abl

e 1:

C

omp

ari

son

of

coa

chin

g c

omp

eten

cies

Ide

nti

fie

d i

n

Lit

era

ture

ICF

EM

CC

SB

S C

oa

chin

g S

kil

lsS

BS

Bu

sin

ess

Sk

ills

C

oa

che

s

Se

lf-m

an

ag

em

en

t

Ahern(2003)

BeliefsAttitudes

Self-managem

ent

Self-assessm

entand

managem

ent

Timemanagem

ent

Eth

ics

Ahern(2003)

Meetingethical

guidelinesand

professionalstandards

Ethicsofcoaching

Developingstrategy

Relationship

Hawkins&Smith

(2006)

Ahern(2003)

Wilson(2007)

Leimon2005)

Establishingthe

coachingagreem

ent

Contracting

Internalandexternal

coachingrelationships

Context

Implementingstrategy

Tru

st

Dubrin(2005)

Establishingtrust

Trust

Marketresearch

Pre

sen

ce

Ahern(2003)

Presence

Presence

Negotiation

328 Grace McCarthy Approaches to the postgraduate education of business coaches 329

Ide

nti

fie

d i

n

Lit

era

ture

ICF

EM

CC

SB

S C

oa

chin

g S

kil

lsS

BS

Bu

sin

ess

Sk

ills

C

oa

che

s

Lis

ten

ing

Hawkins&Smith

(2006)

Ahern(2003)

Wilson(2007)

Dubrin(2005)

Leimon(2005)

Listening

Listening

Listening

Managingpartnerships

andalliances

Qu

est

ion

ing

Hawkins&Smith

(2006)

Ahern(2003)

Wilson(2007)

Leimon(2005)

Questioning

Questioning

Questioning

Challenging

Reframing

Facilitatinguseof

innovationtools

Co

mm

un

ica

tio

nCom

munication

Com

munication

Com

munication

Aw

are

ne

ss

Dubrin(2005)

Hawkins&Smith

(2006)

Wilson(2007)

Dubrin(2005)

Creatingawareness

Self-awareness

Self-awareness

Reflection

SelfAssessm

ent

Feedback

Feedback

Perform

ance

Managem

ent


Ide

nti

fie

d i

n

Lit

era

ture

ICF

EM

CC

SB

S C

oa

chin

g S

kil

lsS

BS

Bu

sin

ess

Sk

ills

C

oa

che

s

Act

ion

Hawkins&Smith

(2006)

Dubrin(2005)

Designingactions

Actionplanning

Actionplanning

Motivation

Go

als

Dubrin(2005)

Planningandgoal

setting

Goalsetting

Goalsetting

Prioritisationand

decision-making

Pro

gre

ss

Wilson(2007)

Managingprogressand

accountability

Managingtheprocess

Process

Projectmanagem

ent

Ev

alu

ati

on

Wilson(2007

Evaluating

Evaluation

Supervision

Te

am

co

ach

ing

Zeus&Skiffington

(2000)

Clutterbuck(2007)

Teamcoaching

Managechange

Re

sea

rch

(Rostron2009)

Researchskills


...theprocessofengagingwithlearningand/orprofessionalpracticethatprovidesanopportunitytocriticallyanalyseandevaluatethatlearningorpractice.Thepurposeistodevelopprofessionalknowledge,understandingandpracticethatincorporatesadeeperformoflearningwhichistransformationalinnatureandisempowering,enlighteningandultimatelyemancipatory.

Reflectiveskills,althoughnotspecifictocoaching,areparticularlyvaluableforcoaches(Hay2007).Formany,thecourseprovidesanopportunitytoreflectuponandunderstandtheirexperience(Mezirow1991)aswellastodevelopandenhancetheirskillsandunderstandingofcoachingandbusinesstheory.Furthermore,reflectionnotonlyformsabridgebetweentheoryandpersonalexperience,accordingtoCox(2005),butitisalsoahighlymotivatingexperience.

Pedagogical choices

Theeducationaltheorybasisforthiscourserelatestoandragogy(Knowles2005),constructivism(Kolb1984,Schön1983)andtransformativelearning(Mezirow1991).Andragogyisappropriatebecausethestudentsarematureadultswhocantakeresponsibilityfortheirownlearningandwhoarekeentolearnasthiscourseisrelevanttotheirwork.Aconstructivistapproachsuitsbecausethecoursecombinesboththeoryandpractice,callingforapproacheswhichhelpstudentsreflectontheirexperience,relatetheorytopractice,andtocontinuetodeveloptheirunderstandingandcompetenceduringandafterthecourse.Thisapproachisparticularlyappropriatehere,ascoachingisayoungdisciplinewithmanydifferingschoolsofthought.Theabilitytoteaseoutthesubtledistinctionsindefinition,tohighlightwherethereisempiricalevidenceoftheeffectivenessofparticularapproaches,andtoexploreethicalandbusinessissuesrelatedtocoaching,encouragestudentstoengagebothinclassandinassignments.Thiscanleadtogenuineinsightsandtransformationoftheirunderstandingofwhatcoaching

332 Grace McCarthy

isandhowitworks.AsMezirow(1991:11)pointedout:‘Makingmeaningiscentraltowhatlearningisallabout’.Interestingly,CoxandBachkirova(2009)arguethatregardlessofthespecificcoachingframeworkcoachesuse,allcoachingisbasedonadultlearningtheory,inparticularthetheoriesofKnowleset al.(2005),Kolb(1984)andMezirow(1990).Hencethereiscongruencebetweenthecoursecontentandtheeducationalapproachesadopted.

Mode of delivery

Oneoftheearlydecisionswasabouthowbesttodeliverthecourse:face-to-faceordistancelearning,weeklyorintensiveblocks,onesubjectatatimeorinparallel.Whilevirtualcoachingisanimportanttopic,itisourbeliefthatcoachingskillsdevelopmentisbestachievedface-to-face.Discussingandapplyingtheorycollectivelyensuresthatstudentsengagewiththematerialandtrulyunderstandit.AccordingtoMoon(2004:20),studentsdonotbuildmeaningalone,butrather‘inconjunctionwiththecollectedexperiencesofothers’.Furthermore,thepeersupporteffectispowerful,asnotedbyMurray(2009)whofoundthatlearninggroupsempoweradultlearners,encouragingdialogueandreflectionontheoryandpractice,andenhancingprofessionaldevelopment.Inrelationtopeersupervisionofcoaches,Hay(2007)suggeststhatgroupsessionshelppeopletoseemistakesaslearningopportunities,toexploremultipleperspectivesonthesameissueandtofeelvalidatedbythereactionsofothers.This,sheargues,enablespotentlearningwhichallowspeopletoupdatetheirframeofreference.

Wefindthathavingtwo-dayblocksofteachingisadvantageousasthisallowsstudentstoexploretopicsindepth.Betweenthetwo-daysessions,studentsread,research,writeassignments,practisetheirskillsandreturntodiscusstheirreflections.WenotedGrant’s(2007)researchwhichfoundthatcoachingstudents’emotionalintelligence,measuredusingtheSchutteEmotionalIntelligence


Scale(Schutte1998),improvedmoreovera13-weekprogramthanonatwo-dayprogram.Grantdefinedemotionalintelligenceastheabilitytoperceiveaccuratelyemotionsinoneselfandothers,touseemotionstofacilitatethought,tounderstandhowemotionscanchangeovertime,tomanageemotionsandtranslatethemintoconstructiveaction.However,inGrant’sresearch,participantsonthetwo-dayprogramwereonlygivenacondensedversionofwhatwasincludedinthe13-weekprogram,hencedifferencesmightbeexpected.Davies(2006)notesthatonarangeofmeasuressuchaslearningoutcomes,studentcommitmentandinteraction,intensivemodedeliveryhasshowncomparableandsometimesbetterresultsthantraditionaldelivery.Hesummarisestheadvantagesofintensiveteachingas‘increasedmotivation,commitment,andconcentration,diversityofteachingmethods,stimulationandenthusiasm,strongerrelationsamongstudents,andflexibility’.However,healsowarnsthatshorteningcoursesmayresultinstudentcramming,lessactivediscussionandsuperficialtreatmentofcontent.Inourcase,wewerenotshorteninganexistingcoursebutdesigninganewcourse,specifyingthenumberofdaysweregardedasnecessarytoachievethelearningoutcomes.Oursubjectsaredeliveredovera10-weekperiod,forexample,one-dayintroduction,twodaysamonthlaterandtwodaysamonthlateragain.Wewouldnotexpectafive-dayblockofintensivelearningtobeasvaluablefortworeasons,firstly,becauseconcentrationcanwaneasBambacaset al.(2009)foundonafour-dayintensiveMBAcourse,andsecondly,becausethelearningbetweenclassesaddstotherichnessofthelearningandthequalityofin-classdiscussion(Merriamet al.2007).

Finally,wechosetodelivertheprogramonesubjectatatime,sothatstudentscanbuildinlatersubjectsonwhattheyhadpreviouslylearned.Wedonotmeananaccumulationofknowledgebutrather,asintheconstructivistapproachoutlinedbyMoon(2004),learningisseenasanetwork,wherenewideasarelinkedbythelearner,andifregardedasmeaningful,addedtowhattheyalreadyunderstand.

334 Grace McCarthy

Forexample,inthesubjectInnovation,improvementandchangemanagement,studentsapplytheircoachingskillsinelicitingideasforinnovationandsettinggoalsforimplementation.Totheirexisting‘toolbox’ofcoachingskills(Megginson2005),studentsaddinnovationtools(Chai2005).TheoptionoftakingonesubjectatatimeisfeasiblebecauseSydneyBusinessSchooloperatesonfourtermsayear.

Teaching theory

Withinthebroadframeworkofaconstructivistapproachtolearning,thenextsetofchoicesrelatedtothebestwaystoputacrossthetheorycoveredineachsubject.Themainchoicesweconsideredwere:

• traditionallectureswithcasestudiesandgroupdiscussions• givingstudentstheresponsibilitytoreadsettextsbeforeclass• videoclipsofrelevantpointsorofsomeoneelsediscussing

relevantpoints• learningsetswithstudentspresentingtheirlearningtoeachother.

Weconcludedthatamixofapproacheswouldbebest,bothforthelecturerandthestudents.Wedidnotatanypointconsiderusingtraditionallectureswithoutbreak-outsessions.Deliveringatwo-daymoduleinthiswaywouldbeextremelytiringforbothlecturerandstudents,andwedidnotbelievethatthestudentswouldretainasmuchoftheinformationorbeabletoapplyitasiftheywereactivelyengaged(Killen2007).Thestudentperceptionsreportedlaterinthispapersupportthischoice.

Developing skills

Todevelopskills,itisnotenoughforstudentstolistenorreadabouttherelevantskills—theyhavetolearnbydoing.Kolb(1984)identifiedafour-stagecycleoflearning,wherestudentsmovefromconcreteexperiencetoreflection,thentoabstractconceptualisationandactive


experimentation.Weincorporateanumberofopportunitiesforstudentstodevelopandreflectontheirskillsinthesafeenvironmentoftheclassroom.Theseinclude:

• demonstrationofskills—liveandonvideo• explanationfollowedbystudentscoachingeachother• listening,paraphrasing/reflecting,questioningandfeedback

exercises• studentscoachingrealclientsintheclassroom• studentsactingascoachsupervisorsforeachother• videoofstudentscoaching,whichstudentscantakeaway,review

andreflectupon.

Adoptingaconstructivistapproachtoexperientiallearning,thelecturersinthiscontexttakeontheroleoffacilitatorsofreflection,ashighlightedbyMerriamet al.(2007),who‘encouragelearnerstodiscussandreflectonconcreteexperiencesinatrusting,openenvironment’.HoweverweseektoallowforallfourofKolb’s(1984,2005)learningstylesbydevisingactivitiesforeach.

Kolb learning styles Examples of activities

Diverging Brainstorming,groupdiscussionsofdifferentperspectives,observingotherscoach

Assimilating Lecture,groupdiscussionofcoachingframeworks

Accommodating Listeningexercise,groupactivities

Converging Coachingsimulation

Whilewehavenotassessedstudents’learningstyles,thestudentfeedbackreportedlaterinthispapersuggestthatstudentsvalueavarietyofactivities.

Akeyconsiderationwashowtoenablestudentstobuilduptheirconfidence,andtoworkwiththedoubtswhicharecommoninboth

336 Grace McCarthy

newandexperiencedcoaches,accordingtodeHaan(2008).Itisimportantforstudentstoassessthemselvesfairlyandtore-definetheirdevelopmentaimsonanon-goingbasis.

Afurtherconsiderationinsettingin-classcoachingactivitiesiswhethertheyshouldrelatetoreallifeissuesorroleplays,whicharesubtlydifferentashighlightedbyMoore(2005).Astherearealwaysrealissuesonwhichstudentscancoacheachother,reallifecontextsallowstudentstopractisecoachingwithouthavingtorememberdetailsofaroleplay.Theconfidencessharedinthissafeenvironmentstrengthenthebondsbetweenstudents.Ontheotherhand,roleplaysallowstudentstoexperimentwithresponsestoaparticularsituationandcanalsobeuseful.

Balancingtheoryandskillsdevelopmentintheclassroominvolvescontinuousrefinement,toensuretheoptimummixinthegiventimeframe.Inreviewingtheprogram,wehaveincreasedthenumberofface-to-facedaysperyearfrom16daysto20,inordertodevoteadequatetimetoeachtopic.

Assessment

Boud(2007)advocatesanapproachtoassessmentwhichgoesbeyondaqualityassuranceframeworktoonewhichwillhelpstudentsimprovetheirownjudgementoftheirperformanceduringandafterthecourse,willfosterself-regulation,andrecognisesthevariedcontextsinwhichlearningtakesplace.Understandingoftheoryanditsapplicationcanbeassessedintraditionalacademicformats,suchasessaysorexams.Ourwrittenassignmentsalsorequireapersonal,creativecontributiononthestudent’spartandnotmerelyaprécisoranalysisofpreviousresearch.Forexample,toexplorethetopicofethicsincoaching,oneassignmentasksthestudentstoresearchdifferenttypesofcodesofconduct,todecidewhichelementsaremostappropriateforabusinesscoach,andthentodevisetheirowncodeofconductforabusinesscoach,justifyingeachelementtheyinclude


andgivingguidelinesforitsimplementation.Anaddedadvantageofsuchassignmentsisthatstudentswillnotfindsomethingpreviouslywrittenwhichexactlyanswersthequestiontheyhavebeenasked.

Weincludeinourassessmentsactionlearningreviews,asdefinedbyZuber-Skerritt(2002:11):‘learningfromexperienceandcriticalreflectiononthatexperience—throughgroupdiscussion,trialanderror,discovery,andlearningfromandwitheachother’.Studentsreflectonhowtheyhaveappliedtheircoachingskillsinaparticularcontextandhowtheirexperiencerelatestotheconceptscoveredonthecourse,whichhelpstoplanfortheirowndevelopment.InSchön’s(1983)terminology,thisisreflection-on-action,ratherthanreflection-in-action.Actionlearningcanbeused,accordingtoBournerandFlowers(1997),todevelopstudents’abilitytogenerateideasandevidence,tofacilitatethepersonaldevelopmentofstudents,andtodevelopthecapacityofstudentstoplanandmanagetheirownlearning.Includingareflectiveanddevelopmentalelementenrichesassignments,removingthemfromthepurelytheoreticaldomain,tosomethingmeaningfulforthestudent.AsHartog(2004:397)reports,‘studentslearnbestwhentheyareengagedinliveandmeaningfullearning’.Thehookofrelevancemakesthelearningexperiencestrongerandlongerlasting,andinlinewithBoud(2007),developsstudents’capacitytocontinuetolearnaftertheyhavegraduated.Actionlearningcanalsobeused,accordingtoHartog(2004:400),as‘avehiclefordevelopingintegrityandethicalpracticeandintroducingthem[thestudents]toadisciplineofactionandreflectionthattheywouldhavefortherestoftheirlives’.

Asforexaminations,theintentionisnottoteststudentmemorybuttheirunderstanding.ExaminationsarenotappropriateinallsubjectsbuttheydohaveaplacewithinaMastersprogramwherestudentsaredevelopingaknowledgebaseaswellasaskillsbase.Inordertodemonstratetheirunderstanding,studentsareexpectedtoselectanduseconceptsappropriately,relateconcepts,anddemonstratethe

338 Grace McCarthy

applicationoftheorytorealworldsituations(Boulton-Lewis1995).AccordingtoCarlesset al.(2006),summativeassessmentscanhaveabeneficialeffectonthefocusofstudyandhowstudentslearn.

Inadditiontoassessingstudents’understandingofcoachingtheoryinassignmentsandexams,studentsarealsoassessedontheirbusinesscoachingskills.Coachingskillscannotbeassessedbyassessingastudent’swriting.Instead,skillsassessmentinvolvesstudentsundertakingauthentictaskssuchascoachingsessions,feedbacksessions,clientpresentations,businessplansandgroupfacilitationexercises.Theseareauthenticinthesensethattheyaretaskswhichabusinesscoachmightrealisticallyexpecttoperform.TheyconformtoHerringtonandHerrington’s(1995)criteriaforeffectiveauthenticassessment,namely,anarrayoftasksinarealisticcontext,requiringthestudenttodisplayjudgementandperformeffectively,andprovidingmultipleindicatorsoflearning.Beingabletotakeawayavideooftheircoachingsessionprovidedapowerfullearningstimuluswhichthestudentsratedveryhighly,althoughsomefoundituncomfortabletowatchandlistentothemselves.Thevideoallowedthemtoseethemselvesasanoutsider,toseeinstanceswheretheycouldhaverespondeddifferentlyortobecomeawareofcertainhabitsofspeechorbodylanguage.Somefoundthattheyalsonoticednewthingsaboutthepersontheywerecoachingandrealisedthattheyhadnotbeenpayingenoughattentiontovisualorauditorycueswhilecoaching.Whiletheendoftheactualcoachingsessionleftstudentsfeelingverypositiveabouthowthesessionhadgone,inreviewingthevideo,theycouldseemanyopportunitiesforimprovement.Thevideosthereforeprovidedastimulusforreflection,asnotedbyOrland-BarakandRachamim(2009),enablingstudentstoimprovetheirself-assessment.

Detailedfeedbackisprovidedoneachassessmenttask.BoudandFalchikov(2007)notethatfeedbackfromavarietyofsourcesisvital.Manyofourstudentsareinseniorpositionsandrarelyreceive


feedbackofanykind.Itcanbeablowtotheirself-esteemtoreceivenegativefeedback.NicolandMacFarlane-Dick(2006)pointoutthatmotivationandself-esteemplayaveryimportantroleinlearningandassessment.Whenfeedbackisspecific,timelyandaboveallconstructive,studentsreactpositivelyandstriveforimprovement.

Method

Studentperformanceisassessedformallybothinexamsandassignments.Table2showsthestudentresultsforthefirsttwocorecoachingsubjectsforthefirstcohortofstudents.

Forthepurposeofunderstandingstudentperceptionswhichcanbeusedtoinformcoursedesignandcurriculumdevelopment,threetypesofformalfeedbackweresought.ThefirsttypeoffeedbackisaSubjectsurvey.Thefocusisthesubjectitselfandhowwellstudentsaresupportedintheirlearning.Table3showstheresponsesforthefirsttwosubjectsforthefirstcohortofstudents.

ThesecondtypeofsurveyisaTeacherevaluationsurvey,whichisundertakenattherequestofthelecturer.Itfocusesonhowwellthelecturerconductsthecourse.ResultsareavailableforthefirstandsixthsubjectonlyshowninTable4.

Boththesesurveysareconductedinclasswithoutthelecturerpresentandresponserateswere100%.Theexcellentresponserateisattributedtotheemphasisontwo-wayfeedbackthroughoutthecourseandthestudents’awarenessthattheiropinionswereavaluableinputtoimprovingthecourseforfuturecohorts.Thesetwosurveysareanonymousandanalysedexternally.

Thethirdsetoffeedbackwasasurveydistributedbytheauthortothestudentsbyemailafterthefirsttwosubjectshadbeencompleted.Thissurveyfocusedonstudentreactionstothetypesoflearningactivitiesundertaken,assessmentsusedandsupportservicesavailable.Aresponserateof65%wasobtained,whichwas

340 Grace McCarthy

consideredgoodgiventhatallthesestudentsareworkingfull-timeaswellasstudyingpart-time.Althoughtheresponseswereidentifiable,confidentialitywasguaranteed,withnoresponsesincludedinthisorotheranalysiswhichcouldidentifyastudentortheirorganisation.Asfeedbackisanintegralfeatureofthiscourse,studentslearntogiveandreceivefeedbackfromthestartofthecourse.Therefore,theissueofanonymitywasnotregardedasadeterrent.

Results

Performance

Studentperformancebythisgroupwasveryhigh,asshowninTable2.

Table 2: Student results for first two core Coaching subjects (n = 17)

Subject Mean Grade* SD

IntroductiontoBusinessCoaching Distinction 5.48

AppliedCoachingSkills Distinction 6.24

*Grades:HighDistinction=85–100%,Distinction=75–84%,Credit=65–74%,Pass=50–64%

Sixlecturerstaughtthecoresubjects(thesamelecturertaughtthefirstandsixthsubject,whiletwolecturerstaughtthesecondsubjecttogether).StudentresultswereconsistentlyhigherthanourotherMasters’courses,averagingabove70%.Thishighperformancewasachieveddespitethefactthatmanyofthesestudentshadnotundertakenanyformalstudyforalongtime,andmosthadhadnoexperienceofsearchingacademicdatabasesorwritingcriticalanalysesorreflections.Thereasonsfortheirexcellentperformancelieinacombinationoffactorswhichwillbediscussedlaterinthispaper.


Perceptions

FortheSubjectsurvey,studentswereaskedtorateaseriesofstatementsagainsttheheadings:stronglyagree(+3),agree(+2),mildlyagree(+1),mildlydisagree(-1),disagree(-2)andstronglydisagree(-3).Ameanabovezeroindicatesthatstudentperceptionsaremorepositiveaboutthesubject,withameanofthreebeingthehighest;ameanbelowzeroindicatesnegativeperceptionswiththreebeingthelowest.Table3showstheresultsforthefirsttwosubjects.

Table 3: Subject survey results (n=17)

QuestionSubj. 1

Mean

Subj. 1

SDSubj. 2 Mean

Subj. 2

SD

Q1:Inthissubjectthelearningobjectivesweremadecleartome

1.412 1.326 2.133 0.743

Q2:Theassessmentcriteriawereclearlystatedatthebeginningofthesubject

2.353 0.624 2.067 0,704

Q3:Feedbackonmyworkwasprovidedtomeintimetoprepareforotherassessmenttasks

1.867 2.604 0.533 0.688

Q4:Thissubjecthelpedmegainabetterunderstandingofanareaofstudy

2.294 0.619 2.6 0.632

Q5:Mylearninginthissubjectwaswellsupportedby:

a)accesstoteachers 2.824 0.393 2.4 0.632

b)accesstootherassistance 2.412 1.064 2.133 0.64

c)learningtasks 2.176 1.298 2.067 1.309

d)learningresources 2.059 1.298 1.933 0.799

e)e-learning(ifused) 1.824 1.139 1.933 1.163

Q6:OverallIwassatisfiedwiththequalityofthissubject.

2.36 0.505 2.273 0.647

SubjectMean 2.154 2.0

342 Grace McCarthy

ItcanbeseenfromTable3thatstudentswereverysatisfiedwithlearningtasks(Q5c)inbothsubjects.However,inthefirstsubject,thelearningobjectiveswerenotmadesufficientlyclear.Inthesecondsubject,thestudentsdidnotreceivefeedbackintimetoprepareforotherassessmenttasks,whichisreflectedinQ3.Timingofassessmentscanbedifficultinteachinginintensivemodeandwehaveaddressedthisissueinlaterinstancesofthesubject.Whilethemajorityofthescoresarehigh,thelowerresponsestosomequestionsgivesomereassurancethatthedatareflectstudents’actualperceptionsoftheirexperience.

Thereweremanypositivecommentsonthesurvey.Severalstudentscommentedthattheinvolvementofexperiencedbusinesscoachesaddedcredibilitytothecourse.Thedifficultyofgettingtherightbalancebetweentheoryandpracticewasreflectedinmixedfeedback,withsomewantingmoretheorywhileotherswantedmorepractice.Commentsonthefirstsubjectpraisedtheacknowledgementandencouragementofdiverseopinionsandhealthydebate,andforthesecondsubject,therewerecommentsontheclosebondsthegrouphadformedandthegenuinesupportforeachother.

Teacherevaluationsurveyresultsareavailableforthefirstandlastsubjectand,asshowninTable4,demonstratedhighlevelsofsatisfaction,withratingsvaryingfrom5.1to6,where6isthemaximum.


Table 4: Teacher evaluation survey results (n=17)

QuestionSubj. 1 Mean

(Max.6)

Subj. 1

SD

Subj. 6 Mean

(Max. 6)

Subj. 6

SD

Q1:Thisteacheriswellpreparedforthesubject

5.8 0.437 5.9 0.258

Q2:Thisteacherpresentsthesubject-matterclearly

5.5 0.717 5.9 0.258

Q3:Thisteacherorganisesandsequencesthesubjectmatterwell

5.5 0.717 5.7 0.617

Q4:Thisteacherpresentsanappropriateamountofmaterialforthetimeavailable

5.3 0.92 5.7 0.414

Q5:Thisteacherstimulatesmetothinkaboutthesubject

5.6 0.795 5.9 0.352

Q6:Thisteacherappearstobeinterestedinhelpingmetolearn

5.8 0.393 6.0 0

Q7:Thisteacherishelpfulinresponsetomyquestionsorproblems

5.7 0.588 6.0 0

Q8:Becauseofthisteacher,Ihavefeltenthusiasticaboutstudyingthissubject

5.5 0.874 5.6 0.632

Q9:Thisteacherencouragedmetointeractwithotherstudents

5.4 0.618 5.5 0.64

Q10:Thisteacherorganisedclasstimeeffectivelyandefficiently

5.1 0.928 5.3 0.737

Q11:Thisteacherencouragedparticipationinclassdiscussions

5.8 0.393 5.5 0.743

Q12:Assignmentsmarkedbythisteacherhavebeenreturnedwithinareasonabletimeframe

5.9 0.277 5.9 0.363

Q13:Writtencommentsonassignmentsmarkedbythisteacherhavebeenhelpful

5.8 0.452 5.8 0.414

Q14:Thisteacherhasbeenavailabletodiscussproblemsandquestionsrelatingtomyassignmentsorexaminations

5.9 0.352 5.9 0.267

Overall Mean 5.6 5.8

344 Grace McCarthy

Freetextcommentsforthefirstsubjectnotedthattherewasanunderstandingthatthestudentsmightnotinitiallyhavestrongresearchorwritingskillsandthatsupportwasputinplacetohelp.Thevalueofworkingwithothermotivatedstudentswasnotedbymany.Studentscommentedthatthediscussionsandlearningbeguninclasscontinuedoutsidetheclassroom.Fortheresearchsubject,studentswelcomedtheabilitytounderstandandtrialtheresearchprocessandtochooseatopicwhichwasmeaningfulforthem(theabilitytochooseisastrongmotivatorinadultlearningaccordingtoKnowles2005).Howeverthelimitedtimeavailableputthestudentsunderpressureandthissubjectwillbeextendedovertwotermsforstudentscommencingin2011.

Theemailsurveyalsoshowedaverypositiveresponsetothein-classlearningactivitiesofthefirsttwosubjects,asshowninTable5.


Table 5: Student rating of learning activities on a scale of 1 to 6, where 1 is low and 6 is high (n=17)

Subj. 1 Subj. 2 Subj. 1 Subj. 2 Subj. 1 Subj. 2

Mean SD Mean SD Mode Mode Range Range

Lecture 5 0.3 5 0.82 5 5 1 2

Discussion 6 0.5 5 0.42 6 5 1 2

Video 5 1.14 5 4

Listeningexercise 5 0.5 5 1

Feedbackexercise 5 0.5 5 1

Brainstormingexercise

5 0.54 5 2

Demonstrationofcoaching

5 1.17 5 4

Learningfromfellowstudents’facilitationsessions

6 0.82 6 2

Coachingpracticesession

5 1.49 6 5

Whilethemeanandmodeareveryhigh,therangeindicatesthatasmallnumberofstudentsfoundsomeexercisessuchasobservingfellowstudents’facilitationsessions,thelivecoachingdemonstrationandthevideooflittleuse.Thesestudentsmaypreferamoretraditionalstyleoflearningfromlecturesandtextualmaterial.However,despitetheirlowratingoftheseexercises,allthestudentsperformedwellintheassessments,indicatingthatevenwherelearningactivitiesarenotinastudent’spreferredstyle,thelearning

346 Grace McCarthy

outcomescanstillbeachieved.Forthemajorityofstudents,alltheactivitiesusedwerebeneficial.Asstudentsmayhavedifferentlearningstylesandpreferences(Kolb1984,Sternberg1997),itistobeexpectedthatsomestudentswillprefersomeactivitiestoothers.Hayes(1990:32)adviseseducatorsto‘recognizethediversityofadultlearningneeds,attitudes,andabilities,aswellasthevarieddemandsofdifferenteducationalsettings,anddrawonaspectrumofinstructionalstrategies’.Intheircomments,allthestudentsratedthediscussionshighly,valuingtheopportunitytolearnfromtheirfellowstudentsaswellasthelecturer,andtothinkthroughtheirownpositiononethicalandotherprofessionalaspectsofcoaching.Commentsfromstudentsshowthattheyappreciatethattheirexperienceisvaluedandthatdifferentperspectivesarewelcome.AsBoud(1993)notes:

Experienceisnotagiven;itiscreatedbylearnersinrelationtothelearningmilieuandtheirownpersonalfoundationofexperience.Differentlearnerswillhavequitedifferentexperienceswithinthecontextofthesamelearningevent.

Furthermore,allstudentsrespondedthatitwasveryimportanttomixlearningactivitiesandlectures,asshowninTable6.

Table 6: Student rating of importance of learning activities on a scale of 1 to 6, where 1 is not very important and 6 is very important (n = 11)

Mean SD Mode Range

Itisimportant:

tomixlearningactivitiesandlectures 6 0 6 0

topractisecoachinginrealsituations 6 0 6 0

topractisecoachinginroleplaysituations 6 0.52 5and6 1


FromTable6,wecanseethatstudentsdonotwantapurelytheoreticalorpurelypracticalapproach,butamixofthetwo.Theyalsoseetheopportunitytohavetheopportunitytopractisecoachinginrealsituationsasveryimportant.Thirdly,theyregardcoachinginroleplaysituationsasveryimportant,onlyslightlylowerthanfor‘realplay’,orpracticeinrealsituations.

StudentsalsoratedtheassessmentshighlyasshowninTable7.

Table 7: Student rating of assessment tasks on a scale of 1 to 6, where 1 is low and 6 is high (n = 11)

Mean SD Mode Range

Subject 1:

ReportSubject1 5 0.5 5 1

Presentation 6 0.52 5 5and6

Reflection 5 0.98 6 2

Exam 5 0.79 4 2

Subject 2:

ReportSubject2 5 1.19 6 4

Groupfacilitation 5 1.3 6 4

Coachingsession 5 1.17 6 4

Again,themeanandthemodewereveryclose,withthemeanforallassessmentsat5outofamaximumof6marks,andthemodevaryingbetween4and6.Inthefirstsubject,thedistributionwasclosewithmarksonlyvaryingbetween4and6.Inthesecondsubject,althoughthemeanwas5andthemodewas6,therewasgreatervariation,withsomestudentsratingallthreeassessmenttasksat2outof6.However,inthefreetextcommentsinthesubjectevaluations,somestudentscommentedthattheassessmentswereoneofthebestthings

348 Grace McCarthy

aboutthesubject,gettingthemtofocusindepthonrelevantareas,tohonetheirresearchandcriticalthinkingskillsaswellastheircoachingskills.

Studentcommentswereinteresting,inparticularinrelationtotheexamination.Studentsnotedthattheexaminationencouragedthemtoreviewmaterialwhichtheymightotherwisehaveskimmedover,hadmadethemorganisetheirlearningsintoacoherentstructureforfuturereference,andhadhelpedthemdevelopaportfolioofideasandmodelsfortheirworkplace.Theycommentedpositivelyontheinclusionofreflectionandactionlearning.Interestingly,theyalsoregardedtheexaminationaslessconfrontingthantheircoachingassignments.Thismaybebecauseexaminationsassessknowledgeratherthanskillsorself-awareness.Aswiththelearningactivities,acombinationofassessmentformatsseemstoworkwell.

Studentswereaskedtoratethefactorsthatmatteredtotheminreceivingfeedbackontheirassignments.TheirresponsesareshowninTable8.

Table 8: Student ranking of assignment feedback factors, on a scale of 1 to 6, where 6 is very important (n = 9)

Factor Average SD

Specificandpersonalisedtoyourassessment 4.3 1.22

Timely-availablewithin2weeksofassignmentsubmissiondate

4.0 1.32

Clearlylinkedtomarkingcriteria 3.7 0.87

Lectureravailablefordiscussionoffeedback 3.7 0.87

Suggestionsforimprovement 3.3 1.41

Other Nosuggestions


Studentperceptionoflecturers’performanceagainstthesecriteriaforthefirsttwosubjectswashigh,withaveragesofover5outof6againsteach.

Discussion

Theperformancedataindicatethatthestudentshaveclearlyachievedthelearningoutcomesforthesubjectstheyhadcompletedatthetimeofthesurvey.Theperceptiondataindicatethatthestudentsenjoyamixoftheoryandpractice,avarietyoflearningactivities,andavarietyofassessmenttasks.Webelievethestudents’enjoymentandtheirachievementarelinked.Braming(2007)pointsoutthatstudentsatisfactionandstudentlearningarenotalwayslinked,astransformativelearningcanbeapainfulprocess.However,inthiscase,thestudents’performancehasbeenexcellent.Thepositiveratingshavebeenachieved,althoughitisstressedtothestudentsthatwearelookingforhonestfeedbackandsuggestionsforimprovement.

Thehighperformanceandpositiveperceptionsofthestudentscanbeattributedtoavarietyoffactors:

1. Thestudentselectionprocessincludesaninterviewtoassessstudents’motivationandcommitmenttothecourse,andtheirabilitytoworkwellwithothers.ThisisinlinewithrecommendationsbyYangandLu(2001)whoarguedthatadmissionshouldnotpurelybeonthebasisofpreviousacademicrecordsbutalsoothercriteriasuchascareerstatementsandpersonalinterviews.

2. Thecourseisorganisedonacohortbasis.Choy(2009)notesthatadultlearningisasocialpractice.Thecohortsystemleadsbothtopeersupportandcompetition,studygroups,revisionsessions,andsharingoflearningandnotes.Thecohorteffectisfosteredbyexerciseswherestudentsshareexperienceswhichtheymaynothavesharedwithanyonepreviouslyandbystudentsworking

350 Grace McCarthy

togetheronsomeassignments.Thestudentsseeeachothergrowandhelpeachotherwithgenuinefeedback.

3. Areviewoftheassignmentsindicatesthatstudentsexperienced‘AHA’momentsatvaryingtimesduringthefirsttwosubjects,an‘AHA’momentbeingamomentofinsightwhensomethinginthetheoryordiscussionchimedwiththeirpersonalexperience,aconceptbecomereal,somethingmadesense,orinLiljedahl(2005:220)words,‘itistheturningonofthelightaftersixmonthsofgropinginthedark’.Examplesof‘AHA’momentsonthiscourseincludedstudentssuddenlyconnectingtheireverydaycoachingpracticewiththetheory,realisingthattheirlisteningskillswerenotasgoodastheyhadbelieved,andstudentsrealisingthatotherpeoplethoughthighlyoftheircoachingskills,eveniftheythemselvesstillfeltinexperienced.

4. Thecoursecontentishighlyrelevanttothestudents,whichenhancestheirinitialmotivation.AsKillen(2007)argues,themoresubjectsareseenasrelevant,themorestudentsarelikelytofindmeaninginthem,andhencethemorepowerfulthelearningexperience.

5. Themodeofcoursedeliveryallowstimebothforreflectionandforin-depthexploration.Thetwodaysatatimeformatallowsstudentstogetintotopicsindepth.Themonthbackintheworkplaceallowsthemtotrythingsoutandtobringthatexperiencebacktothenextface-to-facesessionand/ortoreflectonitinalog.Thisblendingoftheoryandapplicationenablesstudentstodevelopadeepunderstanding,ratherthanmerelylearningconceptsforanexamination(Murphy2005).

6. The24x7availabilityofthee-learningsitemeansthatinformationisavailableatanytime,includinglectureslides,self-assessments,notesonmodelsandskills.Studentsnowadaysexpectthis.AsElliset al.(2009)note,e-learningisnowa


fundamentalpartofthelearningexperienceinhighereducation,andnolongerthedomainsolelyofthoseuniversitiesengagedindistancelearning.

7. TheinvolvementofcolleaguesintheLibraryandLearningDevelopment,whotailorworkshopstohelpstudentsdeveloptheskillsnecessarytomeettheacademicrequirementsofthecourse.ThisisinlinewithMeldrumandTootell(2004)whoreportedthatcollaborationoflibraryandacademicstaff,integrationofinformationliteracyinthecurriculumandlinkingwithassessmentsupportssuccessfuloutcomes.

Conclusion and further developments

Therearemanyapproachestocoachingeducation,somerootedinpsychology,othersarisingfromadulteducation,andothersinbusinessschools,asnotedbyCoxet al.(2010).Asabusinessschool,SydneyBusinessSchoolhascarefullydefineditsapproachtocoaching,andconsideredcarefullywhatthestudentsshouldlearnandwhatapproacheswecanusetohelpthemlearn.Indoingso,wehavetriedtoaddresstheneedinthemarketplaceforbusinesscoacheswhoarewellversedinthetheoryandpracticeofcoaching,whounderstandtheapplicationofcoachinginabusinesscontext,andwhoareequippedwiththecritical,reflectiveandresearchskillstocontinuetodevelopascoachesongraduationandtocontributetothedevelopmentofthefieldthroughpractitionerresearch.Weaimtohelpstudentsnotonlytodeveloppracticalcoachingskillsbutalsotoequipthemwiththecriticalandreflectiveskillstochoose,modify,developandevaluatetheirowncoachingapproaches.Webaseourapproachontheoriesofadultlearning,particularlyandragogy,experientialandtransformativelearning,theorieswhichalsounderpincoachingitself(Coxet al.2010).

Wecontinuetogetfeedbackfromourstudentsoneachsubjectandwehavealsoplannedlongitudinalsurveysofourgraduatesoneyear,twoyearsandfiveyearspost-completion.Thechangesmade

352 Grace McCarthy

tothecoursesofarhavebeentoincreasethenumberofface-to-facedaystoallowmoretimefordiscussion,fortheorytobeprocessedandmorepracticetobegained,andtoimprovethebalancebetweentheoryandpracticeineachsubject.Wehavealsoallocatedmoretimeforcompletionoftheresearchproject.Wearefortunatethatourstudents,graduatesandapplicantsincludebusinesscoachesandemployersofbusinesscoaches.Wegainfromtheirmultipleperspectives,gettingideasfromthemandtestingideaswiththem.Togetherwithbenchmarkingwithotheruniversitiesandmonitoringofacademicliteratureoncoaching,managementandeducationaltheoryaswellasprofessionalpractice,thiswillallowustohonebothourapproachesandthecontent,sothatourprogramwillconstantlyevolve.However,itwillevolvewithinthecoreparameterswehaveestablishedfromthestart,namely,arigorousacademicdegreecombinedwithrealworldexperienceandbusinessunderstanding.

Acknowledgements

Theauthorwishestoexpressherthankstotheeditorandanonymousrefereesfortheirconstructivefeedbackwhichhasgreatlystrengthenedthispaper.

References

Ahern,G.(2003).‘Designingandimplementingcoaching/mentoringcompetencies:Acasestudy’,Counselling Psychology Quarterly,16(4):373–383.

AustralianQualificationsFramework(2010).‘Draftlevelcriteriaandqualificationtypedescriptors’,availableathttp://www.aqf.edu.au/

Bambacas,M.,Sanderson,G.et al.(2008).‘UnderstandingtransnationalMBAstudents’instructionalcommunicationpreferences’,Journal of International Education in Business,1(1):15–28.

Barner,R.&Higgins,J.(2007).‘Understandingimplicitmodelsthatguidethecoachingprocess’,Journal of Management Development,26(2):148–158.

Bennis,W.G.&O’Toole,J.(2005).‘HowBusinessSchoolslosttheirway’,Harvard Business Review,83(5):96–104.


Berman,W.&Bradt,G.(2006).‘Executivecoachingandconsulting:“Differentstrokesfordifferentfolks”’,Professional Psychology—Research & Practice, 37(3):244–253.

Black,P.E.&Plowright,D.(2010).‘Amulti-dimensionalmodelofreflectivelearningforprofessionaldevelopment’,Reflective Practice: International and Multidisciplinary Perspectives, 11(2):245–258.

Boud,D.(1993).‘Experienceasthebaseforlearning’,Higher Education Research & Development, 12(1):33–44.

Boud,D.&Falchikov,N.(2007).Rethinking assessment in higher education: Learning for the long term,London:Routledge.

Boulton-Lewis,G.M.(1995).‘TheSOLOTaxonomyasameansofshapingandassessinglearninginhighereducation’,Higher Education Research & Development, 14(2):143–154.

Bourner,T.&Flowers,S.(1997).‘Teachingandlearningmethodsinhighereducation:Aglimpseofthefuture’,Reflections on Higher Education,9:77–102.

Bramming,P.(2007).‘Anargumentforstronglearninginhighereducation’,Quality in Higher Education,13(1):45–56.

Carless,D.,Joughin,G.et al.(2006).‘Aconceptualframeworkforlearning-orientedassessment’,How Assessment Supports Learning: Learning-Oriented Assessment in Action,HongKong:HongKongUniversityPress: 7–15.

Chai,K-H.et al.(2005).‘ATRIZ-basedmethodfornewservicedesign’,Journal of Service Research,8:48–66.

Charlton,J.(2009).‘Editor’scomment’,Training & Coaching Today,March:3.

Choy,S.(2009).,Teachingandassessmentforanorganisation-centredcurriculum’,Journal of Workplace Learning,21(2):143–155.

Clegg,S.,Rhodes,C.et al.(2005).‘Businesscoaching:Challengesforanemergingindustry’,Industrial and Commercial Training,37(4/5):218.

Clutterbuck,D.(2007).Coaching the team at work,Boston,MA:NicholasBrealey.

Clutterbuck,D.&Lane,G.(2004).The situational mentor: an international review of competences and capabilities in mentoring,Aldershot:Gower.

Cox,E.(2005).‘Adultlearnerslearningfromexperience:Usingareflectivepracticemodeltosupportwork-basedlearning’,Reflective Practice: International and Multidisciplinary Perspectives,6(4):459–472.

Cox,E.,Bachkirova,T.et al.(eds.)(2010).The complete handbook of coaching,London:Sage.

354 Grace McCarthy

Coxhead,F.,Grauberg,J.et al.(2010).‘Newdevelopment:Adaptinguniversityeducationforchangingexpectationsofpublicservicesleadersandmanagers—guidancefordesigninganddeliveringMPAs’,Public Money and Management, 30(3):135–139.

Davies,W.M.(2006).‘Intensiveteachingformats:Areview’,Issues in Educational Research, 16(1):1–21.

deHaan,E.(2008).Relational coaching,Chichester:Wiley.

Dubrin,A.J.(2005).Coaching and mentoring skills,UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:Pearson/PrenticeHall.

Ellis,R.A.,Ginns,P.et al.(2009).‘E-learninginhighereducation:Somekeyaspectsandtheirrelationshiptoapproachestostudy’,Higher Education Research & Development,28(3):303–318.

EuropeanMentoringandCoachingCouncil(EMCC).www.emcc.org[accessed5/5/2009].

Feldman,D.C.&M.J.Lankau(2005).‘Executivecoaching:Areviewandagendaforfutureresearch’,Journal of Management,31(6):829–848.

Grant,A.M.(2008).‘CoachinginAustralia:Aviewfromtheivorytower’,Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice,1(1):93–98.

Grant,A.M.(2007).‘Enhancingcoachingskillsandemotionalintelligencethroughtraining’,Industrial and Commercial Training,39(5):257–266.

Grant,A.M.&Cavanagh,M.J.(2007).‘Evidence-basedcoaching:Flourishingorlanguishing?’,Australian Psychologist,42(4):239–254.

Griffiths,K.&Campbell,M.(2008).‘Regulatingtheregulators:Pavingthewayforinternational,evidence-basedcoachingstandards’,International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring,5(1):19–31.

Hartog,M.(2004).‘Criticalactionlearning:Teachingbusinessethic’,Reflective Practice: International and Multidisciplinary Perspectives,5(3):395–407.

Hawkins,P.(2008).‘Thecoachingprofession:Someofthekeychallenges’,Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice,1(1):28–38.

Hawkins,P.&Smith,N.(eds.)(2006).Coaching, mentoring and organizational consultancy: Supervision and development,Maidenhead,England:OpenUniversityPress.

Hay,J.(2007).Reflective practice and supervision for coaches,Maidenhead:OpenUniversityPress.

Hayes,E.(1990).‘Adulteducation:Contextandchallengefordistanceeducators’,American Journal of Distance Education, 4(1):25–38.


Herrington,J.&Herrington,A.(1998).‘Authenticassessmentandmultimedia:Howuniversitystudentsrespondtoamodelofauthenticassessment’,Higher Education Research & Development,17(3):305–322.

InternationalCoachFederation(ICF),www.icf.org[accessed5/5/2009]

Killen,R.(2007).Effective teaching strategies, lessons from research and practice,Melbourne:Thomson.

Knowles,M.S.,Holton,E.F.et al.(2005).The adult learner,6thed.,SanDiego,CA:Elsevier.

Kolb,D.(1984).Experiential learning,NewYork:PrenticeHall.

Liljedahl,P.(2005).‘Mathematicaldiscoveryandaffect:TheeffectofAHA!experiencesonundergraduatemathematicsstudents’,International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology,36(2):219–234.

Leimon,A.(2005).Essential business coaching,Hove:Routledge.

Megginson,D.&Clutterbuck,D.(2005).Techniques for coaching and mentoring,Oxford:ButterworthHeinemann.

Meldrum,A.&Tootell,H.(2004).‘Integratinginformationliteracyintocurriculumassessmentpractice:Aninformaticscasestudy’,Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice,1(2):50–58.

Merriam,S.B.,Caffarella,R.S.et al.(2007).Learning in adulthood,SanFrancisco,CA:Jossey-Bass.

Mezirow,J.(1990).Fostering critical reflection in adulthood: A guide to transformative and emancipatory learning,SanFrancisco,CA,Jossey-Bass.

Mezirow,J.(1991).Transformative dimensions of adult learning,SanFrancisco,CA:Jossey-Bass.

Moon,J.A.(2004).A handbook of reflective and experiential learning: Theory and practice,Abingdon:Routledge.

Moore,D.(2005).Managing change, managing stress,MacquarieUniversityLabourManagementStudiesFoundation,Sydney,http://www.lmsf.mq.edu.au/LMSF_docs/mtl/mtl16/mtl16_chapter7.pdf[accessed5/5/2009].

Murphy,S.M.&Tyler,S.(2005).‘Therelationshipbetweenlearningapproachestopart-timestudyofmanagementcoursesandtransferoflearningtotheworkplace’,Educational Psychology,25(5):455–469.

Murray,J.(2009).‘Thevalueoflearninggroupstothe1styearundergraduateexperienceforstudentsofearlychildhood’,Worcester Journal of Teaching and Learning,(1):1–13.

356 Grace McCarthy

Neat,G.(2006)‘CoachingandtheCwords’,Management Today,Jan/Feb:32.

Nicol,D.J.&MacFarlane-Dick,D.(2006).‘Formativeassessmentandself-regulatedlearning:Amodelandsevenprinciplesofgoodfeedbackpractice’,Studies in Higher Education,31(2):199–218.

Orland-Barak,L.&Rachamim,M.(2009).‘Simultaneousreflectionsbyvideoinasecond-orderactionresearch-mentoringmodel:Lessonsforthementorandthementee’,Reflective Practice: International and Multidisciplinary Perspectives,10(5):601–613.

Passmore,J.&Gibbes,C.(2007).‘Whatdoesthecurrentliteraturetellusandwhat’snextforcoachingresearch?’,International Coaching Psychology Review, 2(2):116–128.

Podolny,J.M.(2009).‘Thebuckstops(andstarts)atbusinessschool’,Harvard Business School,88:62–67.

Rostron,S.S.(2009).Business coaching international,London:Karnac.

Schoen,D.(1983).The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in practice,Aldershot,England:Ashgate.

Schutte,N.S.et al.(1998).‘Developmentandvalidationofameasureofemotionalintelligence’,Personality & Individual Differences,25(2):167–177.

Sherman,S.&Freas,A.(2004).‘TheWildWestofexecutivecoaching’,Harvard Business Review,82(11):82–89.

Sternberg,R.J.(1997).Thinking styles,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Whitmore,J.(1996).Coaching for performance,London:NicholasBrealey.

Wilson,C.(2007).Best practice in performance coaching: A handbook for leaders, coaches, HR professionals, and organizations’,London:KoganPage.

Yang,B.&Lu,D.R.(2001).‘Predictingacademicperformanceinmanagementeducation:AnempiricalinvestigationofMBAsuccess’,Journal of Education for Business,77(1):15–20.

Zeus,P.&Skiffington,S.(2000).Complete guide to coaching at work,Sydney:McGraw-Hill.

Zuber-Skerritt,O.(2002).‘Theconceptofactionlearning’,The Learning Organization,9(3):114–124.


About the author

Dr Grace McCarthy is the Coordinator of the Master of Business Coaching at Sydney Business School, University of Wollongong, an innovative course enabling students to apply theory and skills in their organisations. Prior to joining this University, Grace was a researcher at Manchester Business School, exploring business excellence, leadership and innovation, building on her years of experience in a multinational company.

Contact details

Sydney Business School, University of Wollongong, NSW 2522, AustraliaTel: +61 2 42214880 Fax: +61 2 42214709Email: [email protected]


Challenges in aligning workplace learning with business goals:

A perspective from HRD professionals in New Zealand

Tom ShortUniversity of South Australia

Roger HarrisUniversity of South Australia

Modern organisations have become more complex, less mechanistic and increasingly sensitive to rapid changes in the external environment than in previous eras. Today, executives lead employees through a maze of complexity and changing contexts. However, another group of dedicated professionals, the human resource managers and practitioners, also play a big part in shaping business success. For human resource managers, learning how to cope with a diverse range of people-centred challenges has generated a succession of workplace development initiatives aimed at aligning education and training with business strategy (Anderson 2009). In the knowledge economy, the value of workplace

Challenges in aligning workplace learning with business goals 359

education and training has become a mantra for business survival. Simultaneously, in response to a requirement for change, the human resource management (HRM) profession has engaged in frequent and often inward-looking processes to re-define its own contribution, not only to the effectiveness of an enterprise but also to the individual employee and wider community. Within this evolution, in some organisations, the traditional sub-areas of HRM, such as human resource development (HRD), have gradually become detached from mainstream HRM and assumed a role quite different in both purpose and approach to from the more hegemonic notion of resources management. This paper draws insights from a group of senior HRD professionals in New Zealand to review the significance of workplace learning in a strategic context and identify the challenges the profession faces in meeting the demands of complex workplaces. The paper focuses on how HRD professionals go about aligning learning activities with business objectives—often with mixed results.

Introduction and background

Inrecentyears,humanresourcemanagement(HRM)practiceshavegrownsystematicallytobecomefirmlyembeddedwithinabusinessmindset(Boxall&Purcell2003,Elsey1997),yetbycontrast,humanresourcedevelopment(HRD)activitieshaveevolvedtoperchawkwardlybetweenthemore-establisheddisciplinesofbusiness,educationandsocialpolicy(Short2009).Intheacademicworld,HRDspecialistsare‘strugglingfortheirownspaceandfreedom,distinguishingthemselvesfromHRMorvocationaleducation’(Sambrook2004:617).HRDprofessionalshave‘longsearchedforcredibility’(Iles,Preece&Chuai2010:125)andmuchhasbeenwrittenaboutthechallengesHRDfaces,primarilykeepingthefieldrelevant,adoptingmorestrategicapproaches,embracingtechnologicalchangesandmeasuringitscontribution

360 Tom Short and Roger Harris

toorganisationalperformance(McGuire&Cseh2006).ItsgradualevolutionhasbothgeneratedopportunitiesandcreatedlimitationsforHRDresearch.Inbecomingwedgedbetweenmainstreamacademicdisciplines,HRDcanbeperceivedasfertilegroundandanattractiveplaceforappliedstudy;ontheotherhand,thispositioningcanalsobeinterpretedasbeinginthedisciplinarywilderness,resultinginalackofinterestfrompuristsonallsidesandadilutingoftheimportanceofHRDasastrategicareaofinterest.

Partofthisresponsecomesfromtherecurrenttensionsofideologybetweenthedisciplines.TheunfortunateresultisthatHRDofferingsbecomeoverlookedbytopexecutivesorsubsumedasalessimportantactivityofHRM,andthissituationbecomesmostevidentwhenanorganisationre-alignsitsstrategyinordertocopewithever-changingmarketcompetitionanddemand.SomeorganisationshaveamplifiedthisestrangementbyplacingHRMinacentralised,corporateservicewhiledevolvingHRDtolinemanagement.Therearetwokeyimplicationshere.First,itrelegatestheidentityofHRDtowardstheoperationallevelofabusiness;andsecond,itassumesthatlinemanagersareequippedwiththeknowledge,skills,motivationandtimetoorganiseworkplacetraining.Moreover,Sambrook(2004)foundthat,whenlinemanagerswerekeentoacceptautonomyonHRDdecisions,atensiondevelopedaboutthepurposeofHRD—thatistosay,whowouldbenefitmost,theindividualortheorganisation?Asaconsequence,manyHRDpractitionershavebecomeresignedtotheirrelegatedstatuswithincorporateaffairs,butthislackofrecognitionhasimpactedadverselyontheirprofessionalidentityasworkplaceeducatorsandmayevenhaveinhibitedtheircareerdevelopment.

Historically,workplacedevelopmentprojectshavebeenamongthefirstcasualtiesofrationalisation,especiallysofterskillprograms,whereevaluationsofbenefitsarehardertosourcethanstraightforward,practical,skill-basedtraining.Yet,evenbeforethe


widespreaduptakeofHRDinthemid-1980s,workplacelearningandtrainingwasseenasasub-activityofpersonneldepartments(Buckley&Caple1990).Asaresult,anorganisation’scommitmenttotraininganddevelopmentwasverymuchdependentonthepersonnelmanager’senthusiasm.Inspiteofever-increasingtrainingbudgets,present-dayresearchshowsanongoingandtenuousexistenceforworkplacedevelopment,inthatonlyasmallpercentageoftheUK’sFTSEtop100organisationshaveahumanresourcesrepresentativeatboardroomlevel(Manocha2006).Suchever-presentdilemmascreatemanychallengesforHRDprofessionalswhobelievetheircontributiontoworkplaceperformanceisspecial,notonlyintermsofenrichmentofpeoplebutalsotothelonger-termdevelopmentoftheorganisationandwidercommunity.

Therearetwofactorstoconsiderhere. First,despitetherepeatedassertionsofHRMadvocatesthattrainingshouldbefullyintegratedintobusinessstrategy(Guest1987,Purcell1989,Story1989,Hendry1995,Tyson1997,Mueller1996,Elsey1997,Boxall&Purcell2003,Field2004),thecontributionofHRMasagenuinestrategicactivitycontinuestodominatestudies,thoughsometextsindicatethatHRDisawell-establishedconceptwithinthewiderfieldofHRM(Sambrook2009,Wang,Hutchins&Garavan2009).Second,despiteglobalincreasesintrainingbudgets,thereremainsongoingdoubtatboardroomlevelaboutthepositiveconnectionbetweenworkplacelearningactivities(oftenincludedinthenotionofHRD)andlonger-termbusinesssuccess.Somecommentatorsbelievethattopexecutivesfailtoacknowledge,orvalue,HRDasastrategicimperativeandthissituationpresentsaninterestingparadox,becausetrainingbudgetsareeverincreasing.TheestimatedforecastfortheUKin2008was£24billionandlaterrevisedto£36billion(CIPD2008).

CommitmentfromthetopisanessentialfactorinthesuccessofHRD(Pareek&Rao2008).AccordingtoSambrook(2004:619),‘how


seniormanagersthinkaboutHRDcaninfluencehowitispractised’andpartofthereasonwhyexecutivesreducetrainingbudgetssoeasilyispoorevaluationpractices.HRDprofessionalsrecognisetheimportanceofgainingfeedbackfromlearningevents,butresearchfindingscallintoquestionthethoroughnessofevaluationprocesses,claimingtheyrarelyhappentothesatisfactionofseniormanagers.Thisproblemfuelspre-existingscepticismamongseniormanagerswhoneedevidenceofthepayback(Horwitz1999,Sloman2004).Consequently,traininganddevelopmentprojectsthatareunabletodemonstrateclearalignmentwiththefirm’sobjectivesarepostponedorcancelledaltogether(Tarrant2009).TheuneasyrelationshipbetweenHRDandstrategy,therefore,meansthattraditionalapproachestoevaluationmayhavefailedtoconvincemanagers—creatinganeedtodiscoverbetterwaysofexpressingthebenefitsoftraining,ifthestrategicvalueofHRDistostrengthen.Moreover,inrecentyears,theterm‘alignment’hasgrowninuse—especiallyinthepro-HRMliterature—asadescriptivetermtosymbolisearangeofmanagement-drivenprocessesbasedonplanninganddirectingtrainingprojectstowardsstrategicgoals(Anderson2009).Thereisnoshortageofadviceonhowtoachievealignment,butsometimestheofferingsseemoverplayedandsimplistic,andtooverlooktheincreasingcomplexityoforganisationallife(Short2008b).HRDprofessionalsknowthatachievingalignmentisnotstraightforward.Forexample,inaculturallyrichsetting,alignment-basedscorecardsthatsetanobjectivisttonemayfailtorecognisethequalitativecircumstancesinwhichorganisationsdeploytheirlearningstrategies.Arguably,thenotionofalignment(inthecontextofHRD)takesamanagerialperspective(Field2004,Short2008a)andoverlooksthatorganisationsfrequentlygaincompetitiveadvantagebypursuingseveralstrategiesatthesametime(Thompson1995),thusmakingalignmentdifficulttoquantifyanddefineasauniversalentity.Consequently,confusionprevailsandalignmentdegeneratesintoamanagementdream,orperception,ratherthananachievablereality.


TheupshotisthatorganisationsusingalignmentasareasonformakingstrategicdecisionsonHRDfinditchallengingtoarticulateaccuratelywhatalignmentmeansandhowitimpactsonbusinesssuccess.

Withallthisferment,thetraditionalsub-areasofHRM,suchasHRD,havegraduallybecomedetachedinsomeorganisationsfrommainstreamHRMandassumedarolequitedifferentinbothpurposeandapproachfrom themorehegemonicnotionofresourcesmanagement.Sambrook(2010:121)suggeststhereare‘varioustitlesassociatedwithHRD’andsuchsignificantissuesareinneedofilluminationthroughresearchonactualpractice.Thispaper,therefore,drawsinsightsfromagroupofseniorHRDpractitionersinNewZealandtoreviewthesignificanceofworkplacelearninganddevelopmentandtoidentifythechallengestheHRDprofessionfacesinmeetingthedemandsofcomplexworkplaces.ThepaperexaminestheperceptionsoftheHRDpractitionersoftheirroleandprofessionalcontribution,howtheyestablishanidentityandhowtheyinfluencewhatmanagersandemployeesconsiderasimportantfororganisationstosucceed.Indoingso,itrevealsanumberofoccupationaltensionsforHRDpractitioners.

Research method

Aninterpretiveapproachhasbeenusedinthisresearch,sincethestudywasprimarilyconcernedwithperceptionsandexperiences.Aninterpretiveapproachisbasedontheviewthatpeoplesociallyandsymbolicallyconstructtheirownorganisationalrealities(Berger&Luckman1967).Itconstruesknowledgeasbeinggainedthroughsocialconstructionssuchaslanguage,sharedmeaningsanddocuments.Thustheindividualiscastas‘acentralactorinadramaofpersonalmeaningmaking’(Fenwick2001:9).Inthisway,individualsareunderstoodtoconstructtheirownknowledgethroughinteractionwithenvironments(constructivism).


ThedataonwhichthispaperisbasedwerederivedfromaspeciallyconvenedfocusgroupoffivehumanresourcepractitionersinNewZealandduring2007.Thegroupwasdrawnfromaselectionoforganisationstoprovidecommentaryonarangeof HRDissuesandpractices.Noneoftheparticipantskneweachotherbeforethemeeting,butoneoftheresearchersknewtheindividualsthroughpreviousconnections.Thegroup,comprisingtwoearly-careermaleHRDmanagersandthreeseniorfemalepractitioners,hadallexperiencedHRDinaninternationalsetting.Theyweredrawnfromfiveindustrysectors,includingmanufacturing(MF),automotiveretail(AR),localgovernment(LG),commercialbanking(CB)andtertiaryeducation(TE).Theseindustrysectorswerepurposivelyselectedwiththeintentofobtainingasdiverseaspreadofviewsaspossible.

Thefocusgroupwasledbyanindependentandprofessionalfacilitator.Usingafacilitatorwithsubject-matterknowledgeaddedmuchcredibilitytothediscussion,enabledparticipantstorelatequicklytotherangeofissuesandalloweddiscussionto‘freewheel’withintherangeofquestions(seeappendix).Thediscussionwasaudio-tapedtoassistwithlateranalysisandeachmemberverifiedthewrittentranscription.Usingdesktopanalysis,thetextdatawereclusteredforthepurposeofwriting-upthefindings.Thefindingsthatfollowarestructuredaroundtenthemes.Thesethemesemergedfromtheinterviewtranscripts,interpretedfromnotestakenduringthefocusgroupandinformedbyanextensivereviewoftheliterature.Thisstrategywaschosentobestcapturetheessenceofhowgroupmembersnotonlycontributedtotheirorganisation’ssuccessbutalsoreconciledtheirownprofessionalagendaofeducatingemployeeswithinthewidercontextoflifelonglearning.(Thecodesusedafterquotationsindicatethequestionnumberandtheindustrysector).


Findings and discussion

Strategic HRD considerations in a global workplace

ThehighturnoverofemployeesinNewZealand’smobilelabourmarket,particularlyinlargecitiessuchasAuckland,raisedconcernaboutthechallengesoffinding,retaininganddevelopingcapablepeople.Thegroupdiscussedhoworganisationsmightfallbackonahistoricreluctancetoinvestintrainingiftheythoughtstaffmembersweregoingtobepoachedatalaterstage.Therewassomebeliefthisattitudeprevaileddespiteresearchtothecontraryshowingthattraininganddevelopmentactuallyhelpedinretainingemployees(SmithandHayton1999).Oneparticipantsaid:

Ithinkthereisquitealotofreluctanceouttheretodeveloppeoplesometimeswhenyouthinkthey’regoingtobepoachedifIdevelopthemtoomuch.Youknowtheoldsortofmodelwherewe’vejustinvestedalotinJim,andnowJim’sgoingsolet’snotinvestanymoreandnotmakethatmistakeagain.Thatkindofattitudestillprevailsinalotofareasandyouhavetotryandconvincethemthatinactualfacttheresearchisincreasinglyshowingthatdevelopmentisvaluedbyemployeesandthey’remorelikelytostayiftheyaredevelopedandstimulatedinthatwayandtryingtoconvincepeopleofthat.(Q3,LG)

Theneedforeconomicsurvival,growthandincreasedlevelsofcompetitivenessweresignificantconcerns,especiallythedeclineofwholeindustryinfrastructures,asincreasingnumbersofNewZealandorganisationsmovedoffshore.Inanatmosphereofsurvival,peoplerarelyconsideredthatifonecompanyfailedithadaknock-oneffectonmanyotherpartsofthesupplychain.ThegroupbelievedNewZealand,asanationofsmallbusinesses,wasparticularlyvulnerable,andthechallengewasforlargerorganisationstoseebeyondthemselves,considerhowtheycouldsupportthesmallfirms,andcreateaformofstrategicinterdependence.Guaranteesofpartnershipwouldthengivesmallfirmstheconfidencetoinvestincapitalanddeveloppeople.Buildingonthisidea,oneparticipantfromthe


bankingsectorrecognisedtheneedtobecreativeanddifferentfromthecompetition.Inhisview,‘Itwouldbesoeasytogetsuckedintotherestofthepackandnobodywouldbeabletotellthedifference’(Q3,CB).Hebelievedcustomersvaluedapointofdifference—soimportantwhenattractingnewtalent.NewZealandhasarelativelysmallpooloftalent,limitingtheavailabilityofhighcalibrepeople.Inthetradeunionsector,importantchallengesincludedencouragingpeopletoseelearningaspartofthebiggerpictureandbecomingmulti-skilled.NewZealandersarealsonotoriouslylowrisk-takersandworkingpeoplerarelytakeonalearningchallengeforfearoffailureorbeingperceivedasafailure.Theemergenceoftheknowledgeeconomyhadbeenahugewake-upcallformanyworkingNewZealandersaseconomicsuccessincreasinglydependedlessonagricultureandmoreonadvancedtechnology.Themanagerconcluded:‘Inmostcases,theproblemwasnotthetechnologyitselfbutthemannerinwhichpeoplecommunicatedthedifficultiesorhelpedothersovercometheirdifficulties.’(Q3,CB).

Influences on workplace development decisions

Asorganisationsstruggletosurviveintheglobaleconomy,prioritiesareever-changingandHRDpractitionersplayanimportantroleinshapingthemanagementdecisionsontraininganddevelopment.Participantsreportedawiderangeoforganisationalissues,largelycentredonselectingthecorrectpeoplestrategy,overcomingresourceconstraintsanddrivingtheneedforperformanceimprovement.Mostly,decisionsrelatedtotrainingwerebasedonaprimaryassessmentoftheexternalenvironmentandmarket.Thisappraisalwasundertakentodeterminecustomerexpectationsonperformance,andthenexaminehowemployeescouldbestmeetthoseexpectations.Oneparticipatingmanagerfromthebankingsectorexplained:‘Welookatthebig-ticketissuesthatarepresentlyonthehorizonandintothefuture.Thenwelookinsidetheorganisationtoseewhatourcapabilitiesareinrelationtothosethings.Itisaclassicgap


closingactivity,startingwiththebigpictureandthenworkingdown’.Thompson(1995:229)referstothis‘relational’processasdealingwiththestrategic‘architecture’.Themanagercontinuedhisaccountoftheprocessasfollows:

Costissecondarytobusinessneedovertheshortertermandwhatstafftrainingwasneededtomoveforward.Inthelongerterm,itwasaboutconsideringwhatformulasworkedinthemarketplace-investigatingwhatactivitiesweregoingwellandwhatappearedlikegoodinitiativestodeployoverthemediumtolongterm.Culturalfitwasalsoanimportantpartofthisassessment,asexperiencehadshownthattraininginitiativesfailedwhentheydidnotfitwiththeorganisationalculture.(Q2,CB)

Thetertiarysectorparticipantemphasisedfinancialfactorsinrecountingthat‘inmyorganisation,allwehearaboutisbudgetsbutatthesametimeyouaresupposedtokeepyourselfuptospeedwithprofessionaldevelopmentandgetonwiththenextthing...itisreallyanissueofrhetoricversusreality’(Q2,TE).Interestingly,participants’commentsreflectedbothstrategicandoperationallevelsofdecision-makingontraining.Typically,seniorexecutivessetthreetofiveprioritiesperyearasstrategicitemstosupporttheoverallbusinessplan,butatthenextlevel,trainingwasdeterminedmorebytheengagementofoperationalline-managersandavailabilityofbudgets.

Therewaswidespreadagreementthatdecisionsontraininganddevelopmentoftenresultedfromamanagerialdesireforperformanceimprovement,atrendsupportedbyresearch(Tarrant2009).However,onefeaturethatemergedfrequentlywasthelevelofunderstandingrequiredtobringaboutperformanceimprovement.Experiencehadshownthatsomeleadersdoggedlystucktoatriedandtestedstyleofcurriculummanagementapproachandwerenotactuallyfocussedonmakingdecisionsaroundwhatmadeadifferencetoperformance,yetthiswasrequiredatastrategiclevel.


SuchexperiencesupportsthefindingofRiggandTrehan(2008)whoreportedhowdifficultitistoemploycriticalreflectionwithintheworkplacebecauseofthecomplexpowerrelationsbetweenmultiplestakeholdersinacommercialcontext.Learningwasacknowledgedasakeypartofanorganisation’sdevelopmentstrategyandwasnotsomethingthatfeaturedonitsown,orhappenedtopeople.Participantsreportedthatsometimesevenhumanresourceprofessionalsdidnothavethedepthofunderstandingrequired—especiallyamongthoseappointedintohumanresourcesrolesfromotherprofessionalareas.Oneparticipantclaimed:‘AsaHRDmanager,youoftenhavetoworkforpeoplewhodon’thaveyourdepthofknowledgeandthatcanbedangerous’(Q2,LG).

Ways in which HRD practitioners add value in their organisations

ParticipantsplacedgreatimportanceonthesupportingroleofHRDinhelpingpeopletomaintainfocusandensuringalignmentwithbusinessgoals.Furthermore,itwasthoughttheabsenceofaHRDpractitionermightleadtomanagersbecomingdistractedby‘fire-fighting’activitiesand/ordealingwiththecomplexitiesofroutinework.Afterall,HRDpractitionersweretherespecificallytohelpmanagersmaketherightdecisionsintermsofdevelopmentandtoidentifyopportunitiestoleverimprovementsinperformance:

Ifyou’reaHRDpractitioner,thendevelopmentispartofyourgameandIthinkyou’rekeepingyoureyeontheballandfocusingonit—you’resupportingmanagementinthatrole.Ifyouhaven’tgotHRDpractitioners,whathappensisthateveryoneknowsit’sreallyimportantbuttheyaresobusyfightingfirestheynevergetroundtoit.SoIthinkthemainroleistokeepthingsfocusedonwhat’simportantandtomakesureHRDpractitionershelpmanagersmaketherightdecisionsintermsofdevelopmentalopportunities.(Q5,LG)

Thegroupmembersalsoacknowledgedthevitalroleofthehumanresourceprofessionalasaninternaladvisor/consultanttolinemanagement.However,theyacknowledgedthelogisticaldifficulty


ofaloneHRDpractitionerorganisingeveryaspectoflearninganddevelopmentinalargeorganisation.Theybelievedthatcoachinglinemanagerstocarryoutactivities,suchastaskanalysisandtrainingneedsanalysis,helpedtoraiseawarenessoftheneedtoidentifyperformancegaps,andensuredaconsistentleveloflearninganddevelopmentthroughouttheorganisation.However,astrongpartnershipwithlinemanagerswascentraltomakingthissuccessful.Aboveall,thegroupconsideredHRDpractitionersaspeoplewhohadacatalysingeffectonlinemanagers.Accordingtoonerespondent,‘theyinfluencedfirstandtransactedsecond’(Q5,AR).ThefollowingstatementtypifiedtheimportanceoftheHRDeffortbeingtotallyalignedwithbusinessgoals:‘Youhavetobesoinextricablylinkedthatyouaresuchapartofthebusinesstheydon’tseeyou’(Q5,AR).Thegroupconcludedthatthislevelofintegration(thatis,workingbehindthescenes)hadtobevaluedatalllevelsintheorganisation.

Alignment of workforce development with business strategy

Discussionfocusedonthepopularconceptofdevelopinghumancapital(Boxall&Purcell2002)asthebasisforahumanresource,service-ledmodel,buttheyconsideredthisideaassomewhattransactionalandfundamentallydifferentfromthephilosophyoflearninganddevelopment.Someofthegrouphadworkedinhumanresourcedepartmentswheretrainingwasviewedassomeoneelse’sproblemandwhereworkwasinappropriatelycontractedoutinthenameofefficiency.Onerespondentproclaimed:‘Ithinkthatlearninganddevelopmentstrategieshavetobetalkingaboutpeople—notresources,bitsofcardboardorasortofdisembodiedsomething.Ialwayssay,youmanageresourcesbutyouleadpeople’(Q6,TE).

Atanorganisationallevel,therewasagreementthatlearninganddevelopmentactivitiesshouldfocusonthewholebusinessaswellasthecomponentparts.Thissuggestionreflectsthesystematicorholisticapproachandsupportstheideaofworkinginclosepartnershipwiththoseresponsiblefordevelopinganddeploying


thebusinessstrategy.Participantsconsideredhowhumanresourcefunctionsinlargerorganisationshadbecometooremote.Somebelievedlearninganddevelopmentmanagerswereperceivedassubservienttothehumanresourcesfunctionandexamplesweregivenofhowhumanresourcesdepartmentshadinitiatedtrainingwithoutfirstconsultingthelearninganddevelopmentpractitioners,creatingmuchconfusionandmisalignment:

Quiteoften,they’re[HRstaff]offrunningcoursesforAfrica[everywhere],butwhatdoesithavetodowithanythingelse?Youcanactuallyfindtheyarerunningprogramswiththebestofintentionthatactuallydonotalignatall.Ithinktheonlywayyoucanspecificallyalignistocarryonwithapartnershipatahighlevelandalwaysgobacktowhatthebusinessstrategyisforthefuture.Iftheydonotcontribute,thendonotdothem…itisthatstraightforward.(Q6,LG)

Thenotionoflearninganddevelopmentactivitybeingphilosophicallydifferentfromthatofpersonnel-relatedworkisaninterestingoneandcloselyassociatedwiththecreationofhumanresourcemanagementaswehavecometoknowit.Uptothelate1970s,trainingandpersonneldepartmentswereoftenseenastotallydifferentdisciplines,buttheadventofHRMinthe1980ssoughttomeldthesetwoactivitiestogetherforthebettermentofbothprofessions.Overtheyears,thisunitaryvalueofpersonnelortraininghasbeendebatedinglobalstudies(Cunningham&Hyman1999),butinthisfocusgroup,itseemedtheHRDpractitionerswerefeelingcompromisedandinhibitedfrommakingafullcontributiontothewiderstrategyonhumanresourcemanagement.Simplyput,someoftheHRDprofessionalsinthefocusgroupfeltlessvaluedthantheirHRMcounterparts.However,oneparticipantfromthemanufacturingsectorthoughthavingroleseparationwasadvantageousattheoperationallevelandgaveanexampleofhowinternalhumanresourceconsultantsandlearninganddevelopmentprofessionalshadworkedinpartnershiponaperformancemanagementissue—human


resourcestaffdealingwiththedisciplinaryaspectsandlearninganddevelopmentstafffacilitatingalearning-centredsolution.Inthisexample,theorganisationalstructureinfluencedroleboundaries—withhumanresourcesreportingtoacentralservicefunctionandHRDtolinemanagement.

What employees value

TheHRDpractitioners,intheirworkwithinorganisations,frequentlybecameinvolvedintheimplementationoforganisationaldevelopmentactivitiesthataimedtopromoteandsustainavalue-drivenculture.Fromthisexperience,participantscommentedonwhattheythoughtemployeesvaluedintheirrespectiveorganisation.Thepurposeofthisquestionwastoidentifyhowgroupmembersunderstoodandreconciledemployeevalueswiththeirownandthoseoftheorganisation.Asummationoftheparticipants’viewsindicatedthatcareerprogressionandfairlevelsofremunerationfeaturedstronglyinemployeeengagementsurveysasvaluedemploymentpractices.Additionally,formalandinformalcommunicationswereconsideredasimportantprocessesforprovidingfeedbacktoemployees.Participantshighlightedthatinformalfeedbackhelpedtoembedcommunicationsintotheorganisationatanaturallevel.Incomparisonwiththepast,newentrantshadamuchhigherexpectationfromtheiremployer,especiallyonworkplacecommunicationsystems,workplacedemocracyandstructuredfeedbackmechanisms.Thiscontrastedsharplywithlongerservingmanagers,whomaynothaveexperiencedthesameapproachtocommunicationsearlierintheircareers.Youngpeopleenteringtheworkforcetoday,oftenreferredtoasGenerationY,seemedtocravecommunicationsandfeedback,especiallyonindividualperformanceandprogression(MacLeod2008).Thegroupbelievedthislevelofpersonalvalidationwasimportant,asemployeeswerequicktocriticiseleaderswhodidnotadapt—seeingpoorcommunicationsasasignofmanagementincompetence.


Increasingly,peopleatanylevelintheorganisationstructurewerethoughttovalueaworkinglifethatdevelopedinparallelwiththeirpersonalidentity.Forexample,theyasked,‘DoesthisorganisationhelpmefeelgoodandclarifywhereIamgoing?’(Q1,TEandRB).Alltoofrequently,managerswerereportedtobenotgoodatcommunicatingthevision,valuesandoverallobjectivesoftheirorganisation.Employeesalsovaluedbeingabletotrusttheirorganisationwastreatingthemfairly.Oneparticipantcommentedthat‘managerscangetawaywithalmostanythingaslongastheyareperceivedasbeingfair.Ifitis[consideredtobe]fairandconsistent,thenemployeesareusuallywillingtodowhatisaskedofthem,withinreason’(Q1,CB).Thisviewsuggeststhatperceptionsoffairnessareanimportantfactorinthelevelofemployeelenienceonpotentiallycontentiousissuesandreinforcesthenotionofpsychologicalcontracting.Issuesmightincludeunexpectedchange,workre-organisationortheimpositionofnewrules.Inotherwords,whenmanagersdemonstrateabeliefintheirpeopleandareperceivedasbeingfair,employeesrespondwithunobstructedconsentonmostinitiatives,aspeoplearehappytogobeyondthelimits.However,thislenienceisfragileandarevealingexamplewascitedbytheparticipantfromthemanufacturingsectorwhosaidthat,whenmanagementtookaunilateraldecisiontoimposethewearingofsafetyhatsinthefactory(afterreportsofafatalaccidentinanotherorganisation),workersdidnotseetheneedforthisrulingandtookexceptiontothewayinwhichtherulewasbeingenforced.Theparticipantrecalledoneemployeesaying:

Ablanketrulewasmadethatweshouldwearhardhats.Therewasabsolutelynodiscussionandforusitwasabittoughbecausewewerenotusedtowearingahelmet.Weareallintosafety,butitwasablanketrule…eveninareaswherenothingcouldfallonyourhead.They[management]saiditwasforourownsafety,butwebelieveditwasjusttocoverthemandnotworryaboutus.Noonecares,Ineverusedtosweatbefore…butnowmyheadisdrippinganditiscausingirritatingrashes.(Q1,MF)


Overall,thefocusgroupmembersagreedthathard-earnedgoodwillcouldbeerodedveryquicklybythreefactors:managerinconsistency,internalpolitickingandthepresenceofavacuumincommunications.Intheorganisationsoftheseparticipants,engagementsurveysandintranetfeedbacktestedthelevelofemployeecommitmentbyaskingindividualsarangeofquestions,includingtheextenttowhichtheywouldgotheextramile.

Evaluation of learning

ThefocusgroupparticipantsreportedaheavyrelianceontheuseoftheKirkpatrickmodelofevaluationintheirorganisationsandalloftheparticipantswereabletoarticulatethewell-knownfourlevelsofevaluation:reaction,learning,behaviourandresults(Kirkpatrick1996,Parry1997).Therewasrecognitionthatcomputer-basedtechnologyhadmadeitmucheasiertocollectevaluationdata,butthemainchallengewasfindingthetimetoanalyseandinterpretthem.

Thesizeofthetraininginvestmentwasanimportantconsiderationbutpresentedaparadoxicalsituation.Forexample,evaluationsoftrainingprojectsthatdirectlyaffectedbusinessperformancewereconsideredamuchhigherprioritythansmallertrainingactivities,yetthesetrainingprojectswerereportedasbeingthemostdifficulttoevaluate.Furthermore,organisationaldevelopmentprogramsoftenraninparallelwithseveralotherprojects,makingithardertoisolateandevaluatethebenefitsofanyonetraininginterventioninaneffectiveandtimelyway.Poorinitiationoftrainingprojectspresentedanotherreasonwhyevaluationwasdifficult.Thegroupsuggestedthatunderstandingthebusinessdriversfirstandthenbuildingperformancemeasurementintotrainingneedanalysesmightofferamorereliableplatformforassessingtrainingoutcomesandthecorrespondingvaluetotheenterprise.

Ithinkitdependsonthesizeoftheinitiativeandwhatyouaretryingtoprovebyit.Youcanspendanawfullotofenergyonevaluatingaprogram.Idefinitelythinkonthe‘bigticket’


itemsitisworthplanningfortheevaluationanddoingsomemeasurementbeforeyoustarttheinitiative,soyoucanshowtheaddedvalueafterwards.Wesometimesthinkwearemakinganimpactbut,whenyoulookattheresults,wearenot.(Q7,LG)

Onerespondentexplainedthat‘gaininggenericimprovements,throughcollaborativeworkingwithmanagers,oftenmeantthat“non-curriculum”trainingwasundertakenspontaneously’,makingitmoredifficulttoderiveafixedmodelofevaluation(Q7,AR).Sometimes,HRDinterventionsfocusedontheaffectivedomainoflearning(suchassecuringengagement),soasuccessfultrainingoutcomemightbebeneficialtoadiverserangeofperformanceindicators.Forexample,oneparticipantacknowledgedthedifficultyinposingthisquery:‘Howdoyoumeasurethatcoachingsomebodytogivefeedbackisgoingtoimprovetheirabilitytogivefeedbackuntilwegetthenext[employee]engagementresult,whichmaybearesultofsomethingelse?’(Q7,AR).SuchcommentstypifytheinherentcomplexityofaligningHRD,especiallywhentryingtobalancetheneedsandlearningoutcomesofspecifictrainingprojectswiththelongertermgoalsoftheorganisation.

Anotherdimensionofevaluationrelatedtotheformalversusinformallearningenvironmentandtheorganisation’sculturetowardspeopledevelopment.Thegroupconsideredtheseissuestobeimportantbecausetheyhadadirectbearingonhowleadershipvaluedemployeesandhowindividuallearningneedswereaccommodatedintheprocessofongoingperformancecoaching.Thegroupagreedthatlearningcontinuedirrespectiveoftheorganisation’sintent,butthiscouldhaveapositiveordetrimentaleffectonalignment.Thisperspectivesuggeststhat,inmostcircumstances,itishelpfultocaptureandrecognisetherelevantinformallearning,oftenemanatingfromtacitexperienceacquiredatworkoroutsideofemployment.


Barriers to learning

Therewasauniversalacceptanceinthefocusgroupthatleanorganisationalstructuresandbusinesspressuresfrequentlymadeitdifficulttoreleaseemployeesforformaltrainingcourses.Lackofadvocacybyandsupportfromlinemanagersmadeitaneasyoptionforpeopletowithdraw.Fromthediscussion,thereappearedtobeampleevidenceofstrongrhetoricbyseniormanagersaboutpeopledevelopmentandperformancereviews,butoperationalrequirementsfrequentlygotintheway.Evenmoredisturbingwasthesuggestionthatseniormanagerswereamongtheworstoffendersandthisreflectedpoorrolemodelling.However,thecurrenttrendtowardsflatterorganisationalstructuresmadeiteasiertoobservewhethertopmanagementwassupportinglearning-relatedprojects:

Ireckonlackofadvocacyiswhereitcounts.Ifyou’retryingtodosomethingwhereeveryoneisagreeing—sotherhetoric’sthere,youknow,yeswedoagreethatyoushouldhaveaperformanceimprovementprocessinplace,yesweshouldhaveperformancereviews…[however]whenyou’redrivingsomekindofinitiativethatthosepeoplethatareatveryseniorlevelifthey’renotrightinbehindit,ifthey’renotfilteringthroughtherightinformationtotheirdirectreports,thenyou’reindeep[trouble].(Q8,AR)

Thefocusgroupthoughtthatthosepeoplewhoputupbarrierstolearningwereoftenthesameindividualswhofailedtounderstandthetruevalueoflearning.Typically,theysoughtquickfixsolutionsandcouldnotseethateffectivelearningtakestime.Forsome,theirtraditionalperceptionoflearningemanatedfromschoolanduniversity.Theyunderstoodtheroleoftrainingbutdidnotfullyappreciatethechangeoflanguagetowardsamoredistinctnotionofadultlearning.Inthisregard,HRDmanagersfrequentlystruggledtochangethemindsetoftheircolleaguesandthisresistancestemmedfromtheorganisationculture.


Finally,thegroupdiscussedanemerginglearningbarriermorespecificallyrelevanttothoseolderworkerswhostruggledtoseeanybenefitfromtraining.Therewasgeneralacknowledgementthatthisgroupofpeoplehadexperiencedintensiveorganisationdevelopmentoverthelasttwodecades,oftenwithlittleornodirecttraining.Somehadexperiencedlossofemploymentormadelateralcareertransitionsandcarriedaresultantlowesteem.Conversely,thegroupdiscussedhowotherlong-servingemployeesmightbevictimsofmisalignmentwhentheirorganisationschangedstrategicdirection.Ironically,changesinthedemographicmixofsocietymeanttheoverallageofemployeeswouldincreasesignificantlyintheyearsahead.

Employer recognition of tacit knowledge and experience

Onerecurringthemewithinthefocusgroupdiscussionwastheimportanceofapartnershipapproachtolearninganddevelopmentandthecomponentpartsofthisprocessincludedablendofdirecttraining,individualcoachingandongoingprofessionaldialoguewithteamleadersandhumanresourcepractitioners.Thefocusgroupbelievedthatidentifyingandutilisingtacitknowledgeorextra-murallearningwasanimportantrequirement,becauseunderstandingthevalueoftacitknowledgeandusingperformance-basedcoachingmodelstomaximisethisinformationwouldencouragestaffretention.Peoplewouldmorereadilyappreciatethealignmentbetweentheirownobjectivesandthoseoftheirorganisation.Furthermore,thefocusgroupmembersrecognisedthatformalmentoringprogramsandinformalmentoringactivitieshadbeensuccessfullyusedintheirorganisationsasawayofdisseminatingtacitknowledgetolessexperiencedstaff:

Ithinkthatperformancemodelsworkwellintermsofthecoachingmodelandyou’vegotyourindividualwiththeirownskillneedsandtheirownobjectivesandtheirownmissionandpurposeandyou’vegottheorganisation’s;ifyou’vegotthatalignmentthroughgoodcoaching,thentheymaynotleave.If


they’regoingtoleaveinfiveor10yearstime,thenyou’vehadthebenefitoftheirservicesforthattimeandtheymaywellcomebackorhavefosteredotherrelationshipswiththeorganisation.(Q9,MF)

Thecontradictionbetweenrhetoricandrealityoftencreatedincongruencebetweentheplanningofformalandthatofinformallearning.Insomesituations,suchasbusinessre-structuringprograms,employeescontinuedtolearnirrespectiveofwhattheorganisationwantedthemtolearn,butsuchlearningdidnotalwaysalignwiththebusinessstrategy.Itwasthoughtthecompetitivemarketsofthe1990shadforcedorganisationsselfishlytodirecttheirlearningactivitiestowardsbusinessgoals,butindoingso,hadneglectedthebroaderneedsofsociety.Itwasrecognisedenterprisesexistedwithinawidercommunityandorganisationsthatvaluedlearningquicklybuiltanexternalreputationforvaluingtheirpeople.Overall,theHRDfocusgroupmembersconsideredtheirorganisationswereweakatrecognisingandutilisingtacitknowledge.Thosethatdidattempttoharnessthefullextentoftacitknowledgedevelopedablackholeofunmanageabledatathatwasneverminedandused.Equally,organisationswerereluctanttoinvestinextra-murallearningthatdidnotofferanydirectbenefittothebusiness.Thoseorganisationsthatpaidforextra-muralstudyrarelyutilisedthefullextentofthelearning.

HRD challenges facing New Zealand in the 21st century

Thegrouprecognisedthechangingdemographicmixintheglobalworkforceandreflectedhowthisaffectedissuessuchasfewerpeopleretiringearlyandlessyoungpeoplebecomingavailableforemployment.Astheaverageageoftheworkforceincreased,apolarityinvalueswaslikelytoemergebetweenthedifferentagegroupsintheworkplace:

Iwanttopickuponthisone…aboutthechangeofdemographics.Ithinkthatprobablythegreatestproblem


wehaveinNewZealandisrecognisingtheageingworkforceandrealisingthatthosepeopleovertheageof50constitutealmostthemajorityofpeopleintheworkforce,andthat’sarealchallenge.Seeingtheneedsofanolderworker,andwhatdrivesthem,isverydifferentfromwhatyouaregettingina25yearold,andyetwehaven’tevencometogripswiththis.(Q10,TE)

EarlierinthispapertheHRMchallengesassociatedwithdistinctivedemographicgroups,suchasGenerationXemployeeswereraised.Membersofthefocusgroupreflectedontheirownpersonalexperiencesandsawthisasasignificantchallengeforhumanresourcepractitioners.Examplesincludedemergingvalues,suchasapproachestotime-keeping,debt,expectationsofworkingconditions,andattitudestoacademicsubjectssuchasmaths,sciencesandtechnology.Thedeclineintechnicalcompetence,atanelementarylevel,washarmfultotheNewZealandeconomy—asasmallislandnationthathadhistoricallyreliedonexport,manufacturingandagriculture.AnotherconcernwasthesizeofNewZealand’seconomy,itsgeographicisolationandthelackofabilitytosourcenewtechnology.Membersofthegroupcommentedthatuniversitieswereusingoutdatedequipmenttotrainstudents—puttingNewZealandlearnersatadisadvantagecomparedwiththosestudyinginoffshoretertiaryinstitutions.Emergingservice-basedindustries,suchastravelandtourism,seemedtobegrowing,butweregeneratinglowerpaidemploymentopportunities,andtherewasconcernoverhowmanyservice-sectorjobstheeconomycouldsustain.Thebankingsectorinparticularwascontinuallyseekingnewwaysofdoingbusiness,soinnovationwasthekeychallengeforthatindustryinthe21stcentury—despitethehugeprogressmadeinrecentyears.

Inrelationtogloballearning,theissueofconsistencycameupasamajorconcern—especiallyinthedeploymentofglobalHRDsolutionsinitiatedbyanoffshoreheadoffice.Thisfrequentlyledtoinitiativesbeingre-inventedtofitwiththeindigenouswayofdoingbusinessorviceversa.Themainchallengewasdevelopingglobalvaluesand


consistentpoliciesthatallowedtheincorporationoflocalculturesortraditionsintothesepolicies.Thegrouprecognisedhowincreasinglocalcomplianceissues(suchassafetyandlegislativereporting)oftenmadeanorganisationriskaverseandconsequentiallylesswillingtobecreative.InmanyNewZealandorganisationalsituations,thepressuretoperformdidnotcomefromoverseasmastersbutlocalgovernmentagenciesthathadaresponsibilitytoprotectthenationalinfrastructureandenvironment.

Factors affecting organisational success

TheparticipantsreflectedonHRDoutcomesthatwouldmostcontributetomakingtheirorganisationssuccessful.Akeyfactorthegroupstressedwastheimportanceofvaluingpeople,inparticularrecognisingwhatindividualscouldcontributeatalllevels.Theysuggestedemployeesshouldbeabletoarticulateanddefendthebusinessstrategyandknowwheretheycontributedtoit.Thestrategyneededtobeabalancebetweentheneedsoftheorganisationandthoseoftheindividualemployees.Theimportanceofbeingabletorelatepersonallytoavisionensuredthatpeopleremainedfocusedwhenthingsbecamedifficult.Asoneparticipantexpressedit,‘whenthingsstarttogettough,thevisiongivesyouamaptofollowandkeepsyouontrack’(Q12,MF).However,inadditiontounderstandingthevision,itwasimportanttohavetheabilitytobeflexiblewhenthesituationchanged:

Fromanemployeeperspective,theyarekeenonamorestablevisionandstrategybecauseitfeelsasthoughtheyknowwheretheyare—butitismakingsureyouarenotstuckwithasinglevisionandsinglestrategy.(Q12,CB)

Systemintegrationwasalsosignificant.Thisinvolvedconnectingtheneedsofindividualswiththeneedsoftheirorganisationsandembeddingtherelationshipwithsystemsandprocesses.Thegroupagreedthat‘visionwasnothingwithouttherealityofplanningandoperatingsystems’(Short2008a:237).Furthermore,theparticipants


claimedpeoplewhoweregoodatdevelopingstrategyoftenneglectedtheimplementationissues.Inthisregard,aworthwhileHRDoutcomewouldbetoalignandsynthesisethedevelopmentofallleaders,bothstrategicandoperational.Thegroupre-emphasisedthatbeingaleaderandvisionarywasnotexclusivetoseniormanagersaspeopleatalllevelshadacapacityforstrategicthinking.Theyoftenhadasignificantcontributiontomake,reinforcingtheneedforfeedback.Finally,thediscussionrevertedtoapotentialpolaritybetweenlearninganddevelopmentactivitiesandhumanresources.Onreflection,thegroupthoughtsuchpolaritywasdetrimentaltothewholeareaofperformanceimprovement,duetothestrongneedforagenuinepartnershipbetweenallstakeholdersinthebusiness.

Conclusions

ThispaperhasreviewedhowHRDprofessionalsinarangeoforganisationalsettingsdealwiththechallengesofimplementingworkplacelearningprojects,andinparticular,attempttoalignlearningactivitieswithbusinessobjectives.Throughsynthesisofthesepractitioners’views,ithasbeenpossibletogaininsightintothemajorthrustoforganisationaldevelopmentissuesintheworkplaceandtheroleofHRDprofessionals.Analysisoftheseprofessionals’perspectivesoftheirhumanresourcepracticesandexperiencessupportsanumberofconclusionsregardingthesignificanceofworkplacelearninganddevelopment.

First,seniormanagerswerefoundtodevelopstrategicplansandcascadeinformationthroughtheirorganisationsbymeansofbriefingsystemsandothercommunicationmechanisms.Inmanycases,HRDprofessionalswereresponsiblefortheimplementationofthesecommunicationsystemsandhelpedtoadvocatethedownstreambenefitstoemployeesaspartofanoverallchangemanagementstrategy.


Second,theresearchsupportedfindingsfromaDelphisurveyofleadingHRDacademicsbyMcGuireandCseh(2006)whofoundthatworkplacelearning,employeedevelopmentandtraininganddevelopmentwerethemosthighlyrankedconstituentcomponentsofHRD,butinthisstudy,theneedforaperformance-basedculturewaspermeatingthroughmanagementdecisionsonworkplacelearninganddevelopmentandwasinextricablylinkedwiththeorganisationalperformancemanagementsystems.Takingacriticalperspective,Sambrook(2004:613)arguesthatthischaracteristicwillslowlychangeasthestudyofHRDmatures,when‘organisationswillneedtoconsiderotherdiscoursesincludingthePRroleofHRDinpromotingcorporatesocialresponsibilityanditsmorehumanisticrole’.Evidenceofthistrendcouldbeseenattheindividuallevel,wherepeopleweremotivatedtodeploytheircompetenciesinanethicalandfairway.Thatmeantworkingforvalue-driventeamsandorganisationsthatalignedtheirbehaviourswithsociallyappropriategoals.Onceagain,HRDprofessionalswereplacedcentre-stageintheimplementationofthesealignmentstrategies.

Third,thespecialleadershiproleofhumanresourcepractitionersandtheemergingcomplexitiesofthistaskwereevidentintheresponses.Throughouttheresearch,theatmospherereflectedamixofoccupationalpassionandpersonalcommitmenttothedevelopmentofpeople,yetthispassionwastemperedbyamoodoffrustrationwithintherole.Majorsourcesofanxietyforthemwereinconsistencyinseniormanagementcommitmentandcontinuingresourceconstraints.Clearly,bridgingthegapbetweenstrategicidealsandoperationalrealitywasamajorchallengefortheseHRDprofessionalsinmeetingthedemandsoftheirmodern,complexworkplaces.

Fourth,thefailuretoevaluatelearningeventsandshowpositivebusinessresultswasclearlylinkedtoanundervaluingoftraininganddevelopmentinvestmentamongseniormanagers.Historically,


thisissueismostevidentinthewayHRDprojectsarecut-backwhenbusinessperformanceispoor.

Finally,mostoftheorganisationsembracedbytheseHRDprofessionalswerefailingtoexploittheopportunitiesthatcouldbeavailablethroughanimprovedandsystematicrecognitionoftheemployees’tacitknowledgeandskillswithjobrequirements.Intheirstudyofcrisismanagement,KhatriandNg(2000)highlightedthevalueoftacitlearningandhoworganisationscandrawonknowledgethathasaccumulatedfromyearsofexperience.

References

Anderson,V.(2009).‘Desperatelyseekingalignment:reflectionsofseniorlinemanagersandHRDexecutives’,Human Resource Development International,41(3):263–277.

Berger,P.L.&Luckman,T.(1967).The social construction of reality: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge,Harmondsworth,UK:Penguin.

Boxall,P.&Purcell,J.(2003).Strategy and human resource management,Basingstoke:PalgraveMacmillan.

Buckley,R.&Caple,J.(1990).The theory and practice of training,London:KoganPage.

CharteredInstituteofPersonnelandDevelopment(2008).‘Trainingspendup’,People Management,14:13.

Cunningham,I.&Hyman,J.(1999).‘Devolvinghumanresourceresponsibilitiestotheline:beginningorendforpersonnel?’,Personnel Review,28(1/2):9–27.

Elsey,B.(1997).Australian graduate human resource studies—the people factor in workplace change management,Adelaide:UniversityofSouthAustralia.

Fenwick,T.(2001).Experiential learning,Informationseriesno.385,ERICClearinghouseonAdult,CareerandVocationalEducation,Columbus,Ohio:OhioStateUniversity.

Field,L.(2004).‘Rethinking“organisational”learning’,inFoley,G.(ed.),Dimensions of adult learning: Adult education and training in a global era,CrowsNest,NSW:Allen&Unwin:201–218.


Guest,D.(1987).‘Humanresourcemanagementandperformance:Areviewandresearchagenda’,International Journal of Human Resource Management,8(3):263–276.

Hendry,C.(1995).Human resource management—A strategic approach to employment,Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann.

Horwitz,F.(1999).‘Theemergenceofstrategictraininganddevelopment:Thecurrentstateofplay’,Journal of European Industrial Training,23(4/5):180–190.

Iles,P.,Preece,D.&Chuai,X.(2010).‘TalentmanagementasamanagementfashioninHRD:Towardsaresearchagenda’,Human Resource Development International,13(2):125–145.

Khatri,N.&Ng,H.A.(2000).‘Theroleofintuitioninstrategicdecisionmaking’,Human Relations,53:57–86.

Kirkpatrick,D.L.(1996).Evaluating training programs—the four levels,SanFrancisco:Berett-Koehler.

MacLeod,A.(2008).Generation Y: Unlocking the talent of young managers.London:CharteredManagementInstitute:1–11.

Manocha,R.(2006).‘HRisstillnotstrategicenough’,People Management,12:13.

McGuire,D.&Cseh,M.(2006).‘ThedevelopmentofthefieldofHRD:ADelphistudy’,Journal of European Industrial Training,30(8):653–667.

Mueller,F.(1996).‘Humanresourcesasstrategicassets:Anevolutionaryresource-basedtheory’,Journal of Management Studies, 33(6):757–785.

Pareek,U.&RaoT.V.(2008).‘Fromasaplingtoarainforest:ThesagaofthedevelopmentofHRDinIndia’,Human Resource Development International,11(5):555–564.

Purcell,J.(1989).‘Theimpactofcorporatestrategyonhumanresourcemanagement’inStorey,J.(ed.),New perspectives on human resource management,London:Routledge:67–91.

Rigg,C.&Trehan,K.(2008).‘Criticalreflectionintheworkplace:Isitjusttoodifficult?’,Journal of European Industrial Training,32(5):374–384.

Sambrook,S.(2004).‘A“critical”timeforHRD?’,Journal of European Industrial Training,28(8/9):611–624.

Sambrook,S.(2009).‘CriticalHRD:Aconceptanalysis’,Personnel Review,38(1):61–73.

Sambrook,S.(2010).‘ThebestofHRD:Fad,factorfactions’,Human Resource Development International,13(2):121–123.


Short,T.W.(2008a).‘Strategicalignmentandlearninginhumanresourcedevelopment:Ahermeneuticexploration’,unpublishedPhDthesis,UniversityofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

Short,T.W.(2008b).‘Aligninghumanresourcedevelopmentwithbusinessstrategy’,Proceedings of the11th Australian VET Research Association Conference,Adelaide,3–4April,http://www.avetra.org.au/annual_conference/papers.shtml

Short,T.W.(2009).‘TheplaceandshapeofHRDinaglobalisedandturbulentworkplace’,Proceedings of the10th International Conference on Human Resource Development Research and Practice across Europe,NewcastleuponTyne,10–12June.

Sloman,M.(2004).‘Evaluationandevolution’,People Management,9:50.

Storey,J.(1989).New perspectives on human resource management,London:Routledge.

Tarrant,D.(2009).‘Trainsofthought’,HR Monthly,May:28.

Thompson,J.L.(1995).Strategy in action,London:Chapman&Hall.

Tyson,S.(1995).Strategic prospects for HRM,London:CharteredInstituteofPersonnelandDevelopment.

Wang,J.,Hutchins,H.M.&Garavan,N.2009).‘Exploringtheroleofhumanresourcedevelopmentinorganizationalcrisismanagement’,Human Resource Development Review,8(22):22–53.

Appendix: Focus group questions

General

1. Whatdoyouthinkemployeesinorganisationsvalue?2. Whatfactorsmoststronglyinfluencethedecisionsontrainingand

development?

Strategy

3. Whatwouldyousayisstrategicallyimportantfororganisationsatthepresenttime?

4. Howdoesyourorganisationcommunicatestrategytoitsemployees?


Human resource development

5. WhatrolesdoHRDpractitionersfulfilinorganisations-howdotheyaddvalue?

6. Inwhatwaysdolearninganddevelopmentactivitiesspecificallyalignwithbusinessstrategy?

Learning

7. Howdoyouevaluatelearninginyourorganisationandusetheinformation?

8. Whatwouldyousayarethecurrentbarrierstolearninginorganisations?

9. Howcanorganisationsrecognisethebroader‘extra-mural’learningandcapturethe‘tacit’knowledgepeoplehave?

Closing questions

10.Whatdoyouthinkarethechallengesfacingorganisationswhenoperatingina21stCenturyNewZealand?

11.Towhatextentisthephenomenonof‘globalisation’affectingorganisations?

12.Ifyoucouldrecommendjustonethingtoanorganisationtohelpmakeitmoresuccessful,whatwoulditbe(inthecontextofthisstudy)?

About the authors

Dr Tom Short has been a research fellow with the Centre for Research in Education, Equity and Work (CREEW) since 2008. Prior to that his career has included work in the education and manufacturing sectors as an engineer, business manager, management consultant and human resources manager. His research interests are strategic human resource management and adult learning in relation to workplace development.


Dr Roger Harris is a Professor in the School of Education and Director of the Centre for Research in Education, Equity and Work, University of South Australia. He has had extensive experience in VET teacher education and VET research, with a focus on national training reform. Recently, he was Director of the national research consortium, Supporting VET providers in building capability for the future. Current professional activities include the South Australian Training and Skills Commission; Program Leader in the CRC for Rail Innovation; the Academic Board of a private provider; and Visiting Research Fellow in the Institute for Adult Learning, Singapore, for three months.

Contact details

Centre for Research in Education, Equity and Work, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes Boulevard, Mawson Lakes, SA 5095Tel: (08) 8302 5421Email: [email protected]

Tel: (08) 8302 6246Email: [email protected]


Formal and informal learning opportunities in government organisations: Experiences of public

sector employees from six Asian nations

Intan A. MokhtarNanyang Technological University

Singapore

Lifelong learning and professional development have been the focus of government organisations after the 21st century was declared the ‘learning century’, amidst the impact of globalisation and growth of knowledge-based economies. Although lifelong learning and professional development opportunities are available in most government organisations, the conditions for civil servants to take up such opportunities differ across organisations and, even more so, across countries. In addition, the expectations of learning and development from such opportunities also vary, with some organisations focusing on specific work-based competencies, others on formal education and qualifications. However, lifelong learning and professional development in government organisations seldom include informal learning, which forms a part of daily leisure time yet involves human capital enhancement that

388 Intan A. Mokhtar

indirectly impacts work performance. Informal learning, which is facilitated by individual information literacy competencies that involve information search, retrieval, evaluation and use in varying contexts, is largely for personal development rather than economic efficiency, but is equally important in developing effective individuals and knowledge workers. In this exploratory study, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 18 civil servants from six Asian countries to elicit their experiences with regard to lifelong learning policies and professional development opportunities in their respective government organisations, expectations of learning and development from such opportunities, as well as provisions for informal learning opportunities. Shared characteristics as well as distinct differences across the interviewees’ organisations and countries are discussed. Finally, recommendations based on these similarities and differences are made specifically to encourage government organisations to review existing lifelong learning policies and professional development opportunities available to civil servants.

Introduction

Theimpactofglobalisationandtheincreasedeconomicandsocialimportanceplacedonknowledgehavebroughtaboutgreateremphasisonlifelonglearningandadulteducation.Themigrationoftheagriculturalandindustrialsocietyintothecurrentinformationorknowledgeorlearning societyhasspawnedthecreationofsub-disciplinessuchasknowledge managementandinformation literacy.Theseemphasisethepotentialtoexploitthespectrumofinformation,skillsandideasheldbymembersofanorganisation,aswellasabilitiestoeffectivelysearch,locate,evaluate,andcreativelyandethicallyuseinformationwithinrequiredcontextstoaddressvaryingneeds.Inaddition,developmentsininformationandcommunicationtechnologies(ICTs)havealsolentsignificant

Formal and informal learning opportunities in government organisations 389

influenceoverbusinessprocesses,andhowinterpersonalinteractionsandcorrespondencesarecarriedout,aswellashowentertainmentandmediainformationisdelivered.Thesechangeshavecongruentlycreatedtheneed,notforpoolsofcodifiedandexplicitformsofknowledge,butratherforskillsthatwouldassistanindividualtoaccess,evaluateanduseinformationandknowledgeeffectively,regardlessofwhereitisstoredorlocated.This,inturn,hasdeep-rootedimplicationsforworkplacelearningandprofessionaldevelopment,especiallyinthegovernmentsectorthathastokeepupwithmountingpublicexpectationsandincreasingcomparisontoandcompetitionfromtheprivatesector.

Literature review

Rapiddevelopmentsacrossmanysectorsandchangingglobaldemandsmeanthatgovernmentorganisationscannolongercontinuedoingthingsthewaytheyhave,justbecausethosewayshaveworkedinthepast.AsOsborneandPlastrik(2000:11–12)suggest,governmentorpublicorganisationshavetodotherightthings,ratherthandoingthingsright.Inotherwords,thereisaneedtofocusonsteeringfunctionsthatwouldhelptheorganisationremaindynamicandachievesettargets,ratherthanfocusonrowingfunctionswheretheycontinuedoingthingsthesamewayastheyhavealwaysbeen(Osborne&Plastrik2000).Whenclarityofpurposeisestablished,performancecanbeimproveddramatically.

Havingclarityofpurposeandbeingabletofocusonsteeringfunctionsrequiregovernmentorganisationstohavecompetentandexperiencedpersonnel.Thisimpliesthatprofessionaldevelopmentandlifelonglearningopportunitiesmustbeavailableforpersonneltoboostcontinuallytheirknowledgeandskillsthatwillimprovetheirworkperformanceandprofessionalaptitude.Suchdevelopmentandlearningopportunitiesmaybeintheformofmandatoryskillstraining,prescribedcoursesorworkshops,


andseminars,amongothers,thatmayresultintheattainmentofformalqualificationsandcertifications.Otherthanobtainingformalqualificationsandcertifications,ithasbeenrecognisedthatlifelonglearningcreatesopportunitiesforgreaterworkerparticipationinself-directedimprovementandscholarship(Dohmen1996,citedinField2000:27).Inotherwords,throughlifelonglearningopportunities,employeesthemselveslearntodecidewhichlearningprocesses,focusinspecificareas,andavailableroutesoflearningwouldmeettheirspecificneedsasrequiredintheirjobscopeandfortheirpersonaldevelopment.

However,ithasalsobeenestablishedthatamoremulti-dimensionaldevelopmentispreferredovermereskillsorwork-basedtraining(Chadha2005:103).Whereskillsorwork-basedtrainingisseentobemorenarrowinfocusandmorediscrete(suchasworkshops,trainingcourses,seminars),multi-dimensionaldevelopmentorlearningismorecontinuousandwide-ranging,andrequiresmoreself-directedresearchandanalysis(Swantz,Ndedya&Maisaganah2001:387),andaddresstheindividual’sneedfordevelopmentinmorethanjustonearea(Cheng2001:47).Thus,multi-dimensionallearningprovidesopportunitiesforbothprofessionalandpersonaldevelopmentrelatedtoworkperformance,aswellastheincreasedcapabilitytoassumegreaterworkresponsibilities(Chadha2005:105).

Althoughorganisationshaveexercisedmoreflexibilityintermsofthefocusofstafftrainingandprofessionaldevelopmentcourses,byallowingmoremulti-dimensionallearningcontentstobeincluded,ithasalsobeendocumentedthatskillsorknowledgegainedthroughskillstrainingandprofessionaldevelopmentcoursesmaynotalwaysbedirectlyorimmediatelyappliedintheorganisationalcontextorworksystem(Chadha2005:338–339).Thisisespeciallysoinsmallorhighly-specialisedorganisations.This,inturn,mayleademployeestofeeldemoralisedaboutthetrainingorprofessionaldevelopment


coursesthattheyhadattended,wheretheyfeelthatitwasawasteoftimeorbeapatheticaboutfuturecourses.

Asaresult,informallearningopportunitiesarerecommendedbyexperts(Conner2004)andpreferredbyemployees(Coetzer2007),whereemployeescanlearnanddevelopskillsindependently,outsideofprescribedtrainingcourses(Smith2002:111,citedinSmithet al.2007).Ithasbeenfoundthatinformallearningequallycontributestowagegrowthforemployees(Loewenstein&Spletzer1994)andaccountsforsome75%oflearningthatoccursintheworkplace(Grebow2002).Informallearningopportunitiesincludeown-timediscoverylearning,interactionsandexchangeswithcolleagues,discussionsandtalkswithpeopleacrossvariousdisciplinesandsectors,andanyotherformoflearningthattakesplaceoutsideadedicatedorprescribedlearningenvironmentandwhichlargelystemsfromtheindividual’sinterestsandactivities(Smith1999).

Traditionally,informallearningthatresultsinself-developmentiscommonlyforleadersandmanagers(Sheal1999:4–5).However,withflatter,lesshierarchical,organisationalstructures,employeeautonomyandself-developmentaredesiredbecausetheytranslatetoflexibleandquickresponsestocustomerneeds.Otherthanthat,informallearningamongemployees(andhence,self-development)createsbetterworkenvironmentandclimate,includingpositiveworkattitudeandagreatersenseofpersonalsatisfaction(Hager2004).This,inturn,increasesanorganisation’sinternalcapabilityandpromotesenhancedknowledgedistributionamongtheemployeesaswellasimprovedversatilityinrespondingtoenvironmentalchanges(Sheal1999:4–5).

Inthepublicsector,governmentofficersindecision-makingpositionsoradministratorsneedto‘know,deliberateanddecide’moreeffectivelyandefficiently(Porat1998:127)duetorapidlychangingdemandsandexpectationsfromthepublic,largelybroughtaboutbyglobalisationandtheomnipresenceoftheWorldWideWebin


people’slivesthathaveinfluencedthewaypeoplesee,thinkandfeel.Suchgovernmentofficersandadministratorsarelikelytofindprescribedteachingandlearningsettingstoorestrictivefortheirowncomfort(Geertshuis&Fazey2006),andarethusmoreinclinedtolearnindependentlyandinformally,whichthenrequiresacuteinformationskillsandknowledgecapabilities.AsCortada(1998:5)mentioned,‘informationbegetsmoreinformation’,whichleadstodeeperinsightandthusabetterabilitytoformulateeffectivedecisionsandexecutecriticalactions.Hence,informationliteracyskillsfacilitateinformallearning,whichiscrucialespeciallyforgovernmentofficersandadministrators.

Althoughithasbeenfoundthatself-directedlearningpromulgatedthroughinformallearningopportunitiesiseffectiveandtakesplacemorereadilythanformallearning,itisalsorecognisedthatinformallearningopportunitiesarenotwellprovidedinmostorganisations(Smithet al.2007).Ingovernmentorganisationsespecially,thereexiststheconstantdilemmaofwhetherprofessionaldevelopmentorformallearning(muchlessinformallearning)isan‘efficientinvestmentofgovernmentfunds’(Field2000:28).Formallearning,suchasskills-basedcoursesandvocationaltraining,haveconsiderablelegitimacyandare‘safe’intermsoftargets(suchasthenumberofpeopletrainedandthequalificationsobtained)thataresetthoughimplementedpolicies.Hence,itisusuallythecasethatgovernmentorganisationsrestrictprofessionaldevelopmenttoformallearning,whichisfamiliaranduncontroversial(Field2000:29).Informallearningcreatestoomuch‘uncertainty’intermsofmeasurementandapplicability.

Problem statement

Asiahasexperiencedphenomenalgrowthinthelastcoupleofdecades,duetotheopeningupofdomesticmarketsandrapiddevelopmentsandinfiltrationofinformationandcommunication


technologiesintheregion(Lee&Khatri2003).ItisthustimelytostudytheprovisionofbothformalandinformallearningopportunitiesingovernmentorganisationsinAsia,whichwillfacilitatemoreeffectiveandefficientdecision-makingandactionwithinthepublicsector.

Ithasbeenfoundthat,intheAsianregion,onlyJapanhasbeenastrongadvocateofindividualinformallearning,wheretheonusoflearningisnotonemployersandnotfocusedsolelyonvocationalorskills-basedtraining(Field2000:30).Theemphasishasbeenoncreatingaculturalclimatewhereemployeestakemoreresponsibilityandaregivenmoreopportunitiesforpersonaldevelopment.Forinstance,floralarrangementclassesarepromotedjustasmuchastechnologycourses,toensureamoreholisticindividualdevelopment.

Hence,thisexploratorystudyseeksto(i)findoutmoreaboutlifelonglearningandprofessionaldevelopmentopportunities;and(ii)determinetheexistenceandextentofinformallearningopportunitiesthatareprovidedingovernmentorganisationsinAsia.

Methodology

Semi-structuredinterviewswereconductedwith18civilservantsfromsixAsiannations,namelyBangladesh,(People’sRepublicof)China,India,Indonesia,PhilippinesandSingapore.Conveniencesamplingwasemployed,wherethe18respondentswereidentifiedandselected.Therespondentswereparticipantsinayear-longprofessionaldevelopmentprogramthatwasconductedinanAsiancountry.Englishwasthelanguageusedintheinterview.

Sevenquestionswereposedtoeachrespondentduringtheinterview,addressingthefollowingissues:

(i) descriptionofrespondent’sduties/responsibilitiesandthegovernmentorganisationinwhichtherespondentwasworking;

394 Intan A. Mokhtar Formal and informal learning opportunities in government organisations 395

(ii) opportunitiesforlifelonglearningorprofessionaldevelopmentinthegovernmentorganisation;

(iii)expectationsplacedonemployeeswithregardtolifelonglearning/professionaldevelopment;

(iv) whattherespondentunderstoodbyinformallearningopportunities;

(v) provisionsforinformallearningopportunitiesinthegovernmentorganisation;

(vi) skillsneededforinformallearning;and(vii)howtheseskillscanbedevelopedorlearnt.

Eachinterviewsessionwitharespondentlastedbetween20and40minutes.Eachinterviewsessionwasaudio-recordedandlatertranscribed,andfieldnotesweretakenduringtheinterview.Similarresponsesorthemesfromtherespondents’answerswereidentifiedandcoded.

Demographics

Table1presentsthedemographicinformationoftherespondentswhowereinterviewed.

394 Intan A. Mokhtar Formal and informal learning opportunities in government organisations 395T

abl

e 1:

Dem

ogra

phi

cs o

f re

spon

den

ts

IDC

ou

ntr

yS

ex

No

. o

f ye

ars

as

go

ve

rnm

en

t o

ffice

r

Go

ve

rnm

en

t se

cto

rC

urr

en

t p

ost

No

. o

f ye

ars

in

po

st

ABangladesh

M9

Judiciary

DeputyDistrictJudge

1

BBangladesh

M12

Administrative

SeniorAssistantSecretary

5

CBangladesh

M9

Inform

ation

DeputyDirector

4

DChina

F11

Econom

ics

SectionChief

4

EChina

F13

Planning

SectionChief

3

FChina

M8

ForeignAffairs

DivisionChief

4

GIndia

M20

Police

InspectorGeneral

1

HIndia

M13

Finance

DeputyChief

4

IIndia

M9

SocialSecurity

Executive

9

JIndonesia

M12

Finance

Auditor

1

KIndonesia

F12

Agriculture

HeadofProgram

5

LIndonesia

M2

Education

JuniorOfficer

1

MPhilippines

F24

Thinktank

SeniorVice-President

4

NPhilippines

F7

ForeignAffairs

DevelopmentOfficer

3

OPhilippines

F2

Judiciary

JuniorOfficer

2

PSingapore

F5

Administrative

MiddleManagem

ent

3

QSingapore

M18

Defense

Lieutenant-Colonel

4

RSingapore

M20

Defense

Lieutenant-Colonel

3


Findings and Discussion

Respondents’ duties/responsibilities in the government organisation

Throughtheinterviews,itwasfoundthatthemajority(16or88.9%)oftherespondentsheldimportantdecision-makingpositionsintheirrespectivegovernmentorganisations.Theserespondentswereinthemiddletouppermanagementranks,andhadatleastfiveyearsofworkexperience.Althoughtheremainingtworespondentswereinjuniorpositions,theywereingraduate-levelranksandwouldbeinDivisionIofmostgovernmentorganisations’hierarchies.

Opportunities for lifelong learning/professional development

Generally,therewereabundantopportunitiesavailableforprofessionaldevelopmentandlifelonglearninginthevariousgovernmentorganisations,especiallyasindicatedamongrespondentsfromSingapore,China,IndiaandPhilippines.AsRespondentQ(fromSingapore)elaborated,

…wehavetogothroughcertaincourses…theyarefixedcoursesthatwehavetodoforprofessionaldevelopment…therearealsoothercoursesforlifelonglearningthatareeitherconductedbythemilitary,orpaidforbythemilitaryandconductedbycivilians…likecomputerliteracy,creativethinking,managementoftheworkplace…

RespondentD(fromChina)claimedthat,

…therearealotofopportunitiesfortraining...oncetherearenewtradeorinvestmentpolicies,specialisedtrainingisrequired…onlygraduatesareacceptedintheservice,andonlythosewhodowellcanfurthertheirstudies(i.e.undergoprofessionaldevelopment).

RespondentG(fromIndia)added,

…wegetavarietyofjobs,andeachjobhassomethingnewtobelearnt.Wegoforperiodictraining…thegovernmentencouragesanyinitiativetakentolearn…even[thoseby]juniorofficers.


FromPhilippines,RespondentOsaid,

…therearealotofopportunitiesforsuch…10,000pesosareprovidedayearforeachstafftousethemoneyforprofessionaldevelopmentactivitiesforthatyear.

Ontheotherhand,arespondentfromIndonesia(RespondentJ)saidthatopportunities,althoughexisting,arelimited,mainlyduetofinancialconstraints.Asheexplained,

…therearetoomanypersonnelcompetingfortheseopportunities…formalcompulsorycoursesaresubsidisedbythegovernment,butothertypesofcoursesneedtobesponsoredbyexternalorganisations.

AsRespondentK,alsofromIndonesia,furtherelucidated,

…thegovernmentseldomgivesmoneytosendyoufortraining,especiallyabroad,exceptforshortseminars…thecostoftrainingisusuallybornebycooperatingorganisations.

Similarly,RespondentA(fromBangladesh)said,

…trainingopportunitiesareoccasionalandusuallydoneinternally…othertrainingopportunitiesarerecognised,butusuallynotfunded(bythegovernment)…

Hence,itisseenthatforsomegovernmentorganisations,professionaldevelopmenttrainingandlifelonglearningopportunitiesaresomewhatlimited,althoughtheyarehighlyencouragedandprized.Thiscanbeattributedtotwomainfactors:firstly,largelyalackoffundsfortrainingpurposes,sinceformaltrainingcostsalotofmoneythatisnotreadilyavailableinsomegovernmentorganisations;secondly,onlyemployeeswhohaveattainedacertaindegreeofseniorityandexpertiseorshowcapabilityorleadershippotentialaregivenprofessionaldevelopmentorlifelonglearningopportunitiesmorereadily.


Expectations placed on employees who have undergone lifelong learning/professional development courses

Therearevariedexpectationsplacedonemployees.Onecommonexpectationisthatemployeeswhohaveundergoneprofessionaldevelopmenttrainingareconsideredhighlyspecialisedandareexpectedtocontributemoretotheirjobs.AsRespondentJ(fromIndonesia)alleged,

…thosewhoundergofurthertrainingareconsideredveryexclusiveandelite…[theyareexpectedtogive]moreprofessionalcontributionsand[have]betterjobprospects…

Similarly,RespondentA(fromBangladesh)addedthatemployeeswhohaveundergoneprofessionaldevelopmenttrainingareexpectedto

…increase[their]qualityofwork…theexpectationismoretowardsthequalityofcontribution[towardstheirjob]…”

RespondentP(fromSingapore)mentionedthat

…itisnotahardandfastrule,butitisanincreasingrequirementforpeopletosharewhattheyhavelearntespeciallywhentheyhavegoneforexpensivetrainingprograms.

However,someorganisationsdonothavesuchexpectationsforsharingknowledgeornewresponsibilities,norprovisionsfornewcompetenciestobeappliedtothecurrentjobscope.AsRespondentC(fromBangladesh)explained,

…thereisnoexplicitexpectationfornewduties…[formal]trainingdoesnotmeanyoucanalwaysapplyitinyourjob…itdependsonwhatyouknow…

RespondentQ(fromSingapore)added,

…moreonanoptionalbasis…onlyforcertaincourseswhereyouareexpectedtosharewithothers(i.e.yourcolleagues)…


RespondentH(fromIndia)claimed,

Frankly,myorganisationwillnotgiveanyvalueadditiontomewhenIcomplete[thetraining]…Ihavetodothesameroutinejobagain…

Hence,itisseenthatnotallformaltrainingopportunitiesareutilitarianorwillmakemuchdifferencetothejobthatisalreadydonebyemployees.Althoughnewresponsibilitiesaresometimesexpectedtobegiven,thisisnotaguarantee.Inaddition,employeeswhoundergoformaltrainingarenotusuallyexpectedtosharewiththeircolleagueswhattheyhavelearnt.

Informal learning

Respondentswereaskedwhattheyunderstoodbyinformallearningopportunities.RespondentD(fromChina)statedthat‘itinvolvesdiscussionandsharingwithcolleagues’.RespondentJ(fromIndonesia)explainedthatinformallearningopportunitiesincluded‘volunteerworkwithotheragenciestobroadenexperiences…[anything]outsideofworkhours’.RespondentQ(fromSingapore)addedthatinformallearninginvolves‘learningonthejob…learningfrompeersandsuperiors’,whileRespondentH(fromIndia)feltthatinformallearningoccurs‘throughobservingandinteractingwithpeople[outsidetheoffice],suchasonmyfarm…thevillagers’.RespondentM(fromPhilippines)elaborated,

…informallearningopportunities…areoccasionsoractivitiesoutsideoftheHumanResourceprograms[run]bytheorganisation,whichneverthelessenablestafftoexchangeexperiencesandenhanceknowledgeofjob…andtheirlife…ontopofthevastopportunitiestolearningprovidedbytheInternetand…publishedmaterialswhichindividualscandoontheirown.

Itisseenthatinformallearningisunderstoodtoinvolveanysortofunstructuredornon-institutionalisedlearningthatoccursoutsideformalworkhoursorboundaries.Respondentsalsomentionedthata


lotofinformallearningtakesplacethroughobservation,interactionswithpeersandotherpeople,aswellasthroughonlineorpublishedinformationsources.Moreimportantly,informallearningisbelievedtotakeplacevoluntarilyandislargelyself-directed.Inotherwords,informallearningisnotexplicitlyendorsedbythegovernmentorganisation.

Provisions for informal learning opportunities

Respondentswerealsoaskedtodescribeopportunitiesforinformallearningintheirorganisationalworkplaces.RespondentQ(fromSingapore)sharedthat

…myorganisationinstitutesasystemofreflectionanddebriefingofprojects…sothereareplentyofopportunitiesforinformallearningwherewediscusswithoneanotherwhathappenedandwhatwelearnt.

RespondentI(fromIndia)addedthat‘inmyorganisation,informallearningisthroughdifferentjobpostingsandjobrotation…peoplelearnonthejobandfromtheircolleagues’.Similarly,asRespondentE(fromChina)asserted,

…opportunitiestolearn[informallyare]throughworkingoninter-departmentalprojects,wheredifferentinformationcanbesharedandlearnt…youlearnfromthosewhoaremorespecialisedandexpert.

RespondentL(fromIndonesia)explained,

…wehavead hocsessionswherewearefromdifferentdepartmentsandwesharewithoneanother[thingssuchas]booksthatwehaveread,ouropinionsonnationalissues…butthisinvolveusuallythejuniorofficersonly.

Similarly,RespondentB(fromBangladesh)said,’certainly,especially…intheinitialyearsofourservice[where]we…mustmastercertainpracticesinaninformalwaybecausewedonothaveformaltraining…’.


However,RespondentF(fromChina)opinedthat

…matureemployeescanlearnmorefrominformalthanformallearning…theformerismorepractical[-based]whilethelatterisusually[about]theories…whenyouaremature,youknowhowtolearnanythinginanypossiblesituation.

Althoughseveralgovernmentorganisationshavesomeformofprovisionorsystemforinformallearningtotakeplace,thisisnotacommonpractice.RespondentO(fromthePhilippines)saidthat,‘because[the]organisation[Iworkin]isdemocratic,therearealotofinformallearningopportunities…onlythat[theprovision]isunwritten’.RespondentJ(fromIndonesia)added,‘…notreally…itdependsontheindividual’.

RespondentG(fromIndia)said,

…notreallystructured…itdependsonyourowninitiativeandinterest…onecandecidenottolearnorlearnasmuchaspossible,butitultimatelymakesadifferenceinyourperformanceandrecognitionintheorganisation.

Thus,itisseenthatgovernmentorganisations,whichdoprovideopportunitiesforinformallearningtotakeplace,wouldhaveinstitutedacertainstructureorsystemforit.Otherwise,informallearningwouldhavetotakeplaceatthediscretionandoutofthepersonalinterestoftheemployeeconcerned,eventhoughitisgenerallyrecognisedthatinformallearningiseffectiveandutilitariantothejob.

Skills needed for informal learning

Respondentswereaskedwhattheythoughtwerecertainskillsorpersonalcharacteristicsthatarerequiredforinformallearningtotakeplace.SeveralrespondentsalludedtotheuseoftechnologiesandvariousinformationsourcesthatareespeciallyexpeditedbytheInternet,inadditiontotheinitialrecognitionofaninformationneedbytheindividual.


…abilitytoidentifyfromwhichsources[you]cangetknowledge…whoyoucanapproachtolearnfrom.Alsobeforethat,youneedtobeabletoidentifywhatspecificknowledgeyouneedtolearn(RespondentE,China).

…informallearningneedsthathungerforlearning…basedononeperson’sperceivedlearningneedsasdemandedbyhisorherwork.Itrequiresabilityandself-cognitiontobeabletoidentifytheappropriatefit…(RespondentN,Philippines).

…noparticularskills…itstartswithideas…tomaterialise,youneedtodiscuss[theseideas]andseeitevolvenaturally…(RespondentL,Indonesia).

…agreatpersonality,discussionskills,and[skillstouse]computersandtheInternetorothernewtechnologies…(RespondentH,India).

…lifeskills…andcomputer-relatedskillsthatwouldbeusefulforresearch…(RespondentO,Philippines).

Severalotherrespondentsmentionedthatcommunicationandsocialnetworkingskillsareimportant: ‘be[ing]activeinsocialnetworksisanimportantthing…[when]youbuildupthesocialnetwork,youlearnmorefromdifferentpeople’(RespondentF,China),‘…communicationskillsandindividualinitiativerequired’(RespondentI,India)and‘[f]orinformallearningtotakeplaceeffective[ly],socialandcommunicationskillsareprobablykey…’(RespondentR,Singapore).

Thereisthereforearangeofskillsorabilitiesthatneedtobedevelopedinorderforinformallearningtotakeplace.First,theremustbethedefinitionofaninformationneed;thatis,knowingwhatitisthatyoudonotknowandthereafter,hatchinganideaandrealisingwhatitisthatyouwanttofindout.Thisalludestoinformationliteracy competencies(AmericanLibraryAssociation1989).Thentherearethetoolsthatcanbeusedtoobtainthatneededinformation,suchasvariouspublishedinformationsources,newtechnologiessuchastheInternet,andinteractingwithpeoplewhoare


richbuttacitsourcesofinformation.Hereiswherecommunicationandsocialnetworkingskillsareimportantsoastotapinontheknowledgethatisheldbypeople.

Means of developing such skills

Respondentswereaskedtodescribehowtheyfeltsuchskillscouldbedeveloped.Afewrespondentsmentionedtheneedforwantingtoknowmore:‘inquisitivenessandbasedonneeds’(RespondentB,Bangladesh),‘keepyoureyesandearsopenandhaveaprobingmindforwhateverthatisnewordifferent’(RespondentG,India),andthe‘needtoquestionassumptions…howthingsarederived’(RespondentQ,Singapore).

Severalrespondentscitedtheneedtobeopentolearningthroughdifferentmeansandfromdifferentsources:‘beopen-mindedtoeverything’(RespondentF,China)and‘onecanalsolearnthisinthecommunity…opportunitiesforacquiringknowledgehavebeenexpandedwithchangingpedagogiesandtechnologies’(RespondentN,Philippines).Othersadded:

…individualsautonomouslyseeknewknowledgeandinformation.Theyaremotivatedandopentolearnbecausetheyfindimmediategratificationandapplicationoftheirlearning.Whattheorganisationneedstodotodevelopthisattitudeistoprovidetheopportunityandstimulatemotivationforcontinuousself-improvement(RespondentM,Philippines).

…youneedtounderstandmoreaboutthebackground…understandingofculture(RespondentJ,Indonesia).

…informalrelationshipswithpeople…throughnetworkingopportunities…(RespondentL,Indonesia).

…theseskillsarelifelongskillsand[are]developedinthecourseoflifeandworkwheretheopportunitiesforsocialinteractionsare…(RespondentR,Singapore).


Itcanbeseenthat,todevelopskillstofacilitateinformallearning,theremustfirstlybethewillingnesstolearnandquestion.Next,theremustbeopportunitiesfortheknowledgethathasbeenlearnttobeappliedwiththehelpofvarioustoolssuchastechnologiesandthroughprovisionbyorganisations.Then,theremustbetheawarenessofvariousculturesandcontextssothatrelationshipscanbeforgedandsocialnetworkscanbeformed.

Implications

Thereareseveralimplicationsthatcanbederivedfromthefindingsofthisexploratorystudy.Firstofall,itisevidentthat,althoughopportunitiesforprofessionaldevelopmentareabundantinsomegovernmentorganisations,thisisnotthecaseinothers.Inbothcases,theavailabilityoffundsandthestringentselectionofemployees,basedonseniorityorpotential,forsuchopportunitiesarestrongdeterminingfactors.AsGorardandSelwyn(1999)claimed,oneofthemostobviousbarrierstoformallearningiscost,involvingbothfinancialandopportunityaspects.Hence,itcanbeconcludedthatformallearningopportunitiesarerathercostlyandcanbeprovidedonlyselectively.ForgovernmentsofwealthierAsiannations,fundingformallearningopportunitiesmaynotbeaproblem,butforthegovernmentsoflesswealthynations,thisfundingprobablyneedstobetappedfromelsewhere.Forinstance,countriessuchasBangladeshcanlookforfundingfromcooperatingprivateorinternationalorganisationstofundtheircivilservantsfortraining,suchasthatbeingdoneintheIndonesiangovernmentwhichhascooperativetieswithoneortwoorganisationsinJapanthatprovidefundingandtrainingopportunitiesforIndonesiancivilservants.

Second,theexpectationsfromgovernmentorganisationsvarywhereemployeeswhohaveundergoneprofessionaldevelopmentareconcerned.Toelaborate,someemployeesareexpectedtotakeonmoreresponsibilitiesuponcompletionofthetraining,while


othersexperiencenochangetotheirdutiesorresponsibilitiesatall.Someemployeeswhoreturntotheirjobaftersuchtrainingmaybeexpectedtosharetheirexperienceandknowledgewiththeircolleagues,althoughthisisnotformallyinstitutionalisedorenforced.Itisbelievedthatemployeeswhoundergofurthertraininghopetotakeinitiativeanddevelopnewideasthatcanbeappliedintheworkplace(Evans2003:59).However,thisisnotalwaysthecase.Hence,formallearningortrainingmaynotalwaysbeusefulforthejoborbeeffectivelysharedwithothercolleaguesintheorganisationduetodifferentjobscopesandorganisationalpolicies.Forinstance,whathasbeenlearntthroughaformaltrainingcoursesuchasacertificateprogrammaynotbeholisticallyemployedintheemployee’scurrentjob,althoughpartsofitmaybedirectlyapplied.Inanotherinstance,whathasbeenlearntthroughaformaltrainingcoursethatisdirectlyrelevanttoanemployee’scurrentjobmaynotbeeasilysharedwithanotheremployeewithadifferentjobfunctionbecauseitistoospecialisedinscope.ThereisthenaneedforgovernmentorganisationsinAsiatobeclearerregardingtheexpectationsandoutcomesofformallearningorprofessionaldevelopmentforemployees.Toelaborate,employeeswhohaveundergonefurthertrainingorprofessionaldevelopmentthroughformalcoursesorprogramsoughttobeinformedabouttheirnextjobposting,expectationsandresponsibilities,evenbeforeembarkingonthosecoursesorprograms.Itbecomesfutileandinefficientwhenemployeesaresentforfurthertrainingorprofessionaldevelopmentcoursesorprogramsonlytoreturntothesameroutineworkwherethenewknowledgeandskillslearntcannotbereadilyapplied.

Next,informallearningisrecognisedtobelargelyvoluntaryandself-directed,occursoutsideformalworkhoursandboundaries,andinvolvesinteractionwithpeopleandobservationorthroughpublishedinformationsources.Itisalsogenerallyfeltthatinformallearningopportunitiesarenotwell-providedforbygovernmentorganisations,eventhoughemployeesvouchforitsvalue.Ithas


beenclaimedthatmuchofadultlearningtakesplaceinformally(Field2000:147)throughvariousmeanssuchasinteractions,groupmembershipsorengagementinapublicsphere.However,mostofthetime,informallearningisusuallynotrecognisedoristakenforgrantedbygovernmentswhichpreferformallearning(Evans2003:7)aspartofemployees’professionaldevelopment.Hence,governmentorganisationsneedtoandcaninstituteformalprovisionsforinformallearningtotakeplace(Conner2004),atemployees’convenienceandwhichcatertotheirinterests.Examplesofsuchprovisionscouldbeintheformofallocatedtimeweeklyforemployeestocometogethertoshareideasorknowledge,allwithina‘coffeebreak’oralternativerelaxedambience;settingupalearningcommonsareawhereemployeescanshareideasorknowledgewiththeircolleagues,whetherinaphysicalspace(e.g.discussionloungesorphilosophycafés)oranonlineenvironment(e.g.discussionforumsorsocialnetworkingwebsites);andtheinclusionofstaffsharingasacompulsorycomponentintheannualemployeeperformanceappraisal.

Finally,otherthantheprovisionbygovernmentorganisationsforinformallearningopportunities,theemployeesthemselvesalsoneedtobeequippedwithseveralcompetenciesbeforeinformallearningcantakeplace.Forexample,asdeterminedfromtheinterviews,employeeshaveidentifiedseveralofthesecompetencies,suchastheabilitytoidentifyone’sinformationneed,knowinghowtoaccessvariousinformationsourcesandhowtousetechnologicaltoolstoexpeditethem,andbeingacquaintedwiththerightpeoplewhomaybearichbuttacitsourceofknowledgeandwhocanhelpthemaddresstheirinformationneed.TheAmericanLibraryAssociationdefinedinformationliteracyastheabilitytorecognisetheneedforinformation,andeffectivelyaccess,evaluateandcreativelyuseinformation(ALA1989),whichinfactmirrorstheperceptionsofemployeeswithrespecttocompetenciesneededforinformallearningtooccurintheworkplace.Inaddition,informationliteracy,


whichrequiresaccesstosocialandphysicalsourcesofinformationaswellastextualordigitalsources,contributestoworkplacelearning(Lloyd&Somerville2006).Itcanthenbeconcludedthat,essentially,employeesneedtobeequippedwithinformationliteracycompetenciesinordertofacilitatethemtocarryoutmoreefficientandeffectiveinformallearning.Thus,agovernmentorganisationshouldprovideopportunitiesforemployeestobeequippedwithinformationliteracycompetencies,suchasdedicatedtimeorplatformforemployeestosharethesecompetenciesthattheyhaveobtainedordevelopedwiththeircolleaguesthroughdepartmentalsharingworkshopsorseminars,orallocatedin-housetrainingsessionsforinformationliteracycompetenciestobetaughttoemployeesbyinformationprofessionals,whetherfromtheorganisation’sownlearninganddevelopmentunitorfromexternalagencies.

Limitations

Thereareobviouslimitationstothisstudy.Beingexploratoryinnature,thestudyhasinvolvedperceptionsanddatathatmaybemoreanecdotalthanempirical.SinceonlythreecivilservantsfromeachofthesixAsiannationsinvolvedinthestudywereinterviewed,theirinputsmaynotberepresentativeoftheentirecivilserviceoftheirrespectivecountries.Inaddition,Asiaitselfisaveryexpansiveanddiversecontinent.DatafromcivilservantsfromsixnationsinAsiawouldreallybeamerescratchonthesurfaceintermsofelicitingtheexactnatureofformalandinformallearningopportunitiesinthecivilserviceinthispartoftheworld.Hence,thegeneralisabilityofthisstudymustbeapproachedwithalotofcaution.

Conclusion

LifelonglearningorprofessionaldevelopmentopportunitiesthroughformallearningmeansareusuallycostlyandcanonlybeselectivelyallocatedtoemployeesinAsiangovernmentorganisations.Inaddition,theknowledgeandskillslearntthroughformaltrainingmay


notalwaysbeappliedtothejoborsharedwithcolleagueseffectively.Hence,thereisaneedtotakeacloserandmoreseriouslookatinformallearningopportunitiesthatarelesscostly,morevoluntaryandself-directedinnature,andthatallowmoreinteractionsandexchangeofideastofollow.Employeesneedtohavespecificskillsorabilitiessuchasinformationliteracycompetenciesandgoodcommunicationandnetworkingskills,tohelpthemexploitinformallearningopportunities.However,moreimportantly,theseAsiangovernmentorganisationsmustbeabletoprovideinformallearningopportunitiessuchasallocatedtimeorlearningcommonspacesforemployeessoastoallowittooccurspontaneouslyintheworkplace.Thesemeasureswouldfacilitategreateremployeeeffectivenessandcompetence,andwouldmostlikelycontributetooverallorganisationalefficacyandgrowth.Inturn,theseAsiangovernmentorganisationswouldbeabletoplayamoresignificantroleinshapingglobalgrowth,whichisstillcurrentlyregulatedbythemoredevelopedwesternnations.

References

AmericanLibraryAssociation(ALA)(1989).Presidential Committee on Information Literacy: Final report,Washington,DC,10January,para.3,http://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlpubs/whitepapers/presidential.htm[accessed10/10/2008].

Chadha,P.(2005).The new-age empowering organisation: Lessons in excellence,NewDelhi,India:Rupa&Co.

Cheng,Y.C.(2001).‘Neweducationandnewteachereducation:Aparadigmshiftforthefuture’,inCheng,Y.C.,Chow,K.W.&Tsui,K.T.(eds.),New teacher education for the future: International perspectives,Dordrecht,TheNetherlands:KluwerAcademicPublishers:33–68.

Conner,M.L.(2004).‘Informallearning:Developingavaluefordiscovery’,inGoldsmith,M.,Morgan,H.&Ogg,A.J.(eds.),Leading organizational learning: Harnessing the power of knowledge, SanFrancisco,CA:Jossey-Bass.

Cortada,J.W.(1998).‘Wheredidknowledgeworkerscomefrom?’,inCortada,J.W.(ed.),Rise of the knowledge worker,Woburn,MA:Butterworth-Heinemann:3–21.


Evans,N.(2003).Making sense of lifelong learning: Respecting the needs of all,London:RoutledgeFalmer.

Field,J.(2000).Lifelong learning and the new educational order,StokeonTrent,Staffordshire,UK:TrenthamBooksLimited.

Geertshuis,S.A.&Fazey,J.A.(2006).‘Approachestolearningintheworkplace’,Journal of Workplace Learning,18(1):55–65.

Gorard,S.&Selwyn,N.(1999).‘Switchingonthelearningsociety?Questioningtheroleoftechnologyinwideningparticipationinlifelonglearning’,Journal of Education Policy, 14(5):523–534.

Grebow,D.(2002).‘Atthewatercooleroflearning’,Transforming culture: An executive briefing on the power of learning, Charlottesville,VA:TheDardenSchoolFoundation,BattenInstitute.http://agelesslearner.com/articles/watercooler_dgrebow_tc600.html[accessed10/10/2008].

Hager,P.(2004).‘Lifelonglearningintheworkplace?Challengesandissues’,Journal of Workplace Learning,16(1/2):22–32.

Lee,I.L.&Khatri,Y.(2003).‘InformationtechnologyandproductivitygrowthinAsia’,IMF Working Paper No. 03/15, http://ssrn.com/abstract=879090[accessed10/10/2008].

Lloyd,A.&Somerville,M.(2006).‘Workinginformation’,Journal of Workplace Learning, 18(3):186–198.

Loewenstein,M.A.&Spletzer,J.R.(1994).‘Informaltraining:Areviewofexistingdataandsomenewevidence’,Bureau of Labor Statistics working papers.Washington,DC:USDepartmentofLabor,OfficeofResearchandEvaluation,http://www.bls.gov/ore/pdf/ec940090.pdf[accessed10/10/2008].

Osborne,D.&Plastrik,P.(2000).The reinventors’ fieldbook: Tools for transforming your government,SanFrancisco,CA:Jossey-Bass.

Porat,M.U.(1998).‘Theinformationeconomy:Definitionandmeasurement’,inCortada,J.W.(ed.),Rise of the knowledge worker,Woburn,MA:Butterworth-Heinemann:101–131.

Sheal,P.(1999).The staff development handbook: An action toolkit to improve performance,2ndedition,London,UK:KoganPageLimited.

Smith,M.K.(1999).‘Informallearning’,The encyclopedia of informal education,http://www.infed.org/biblio/inf-lrn.htm[accessed10/10/2008].

Smith,P.J.,Sadler-Smith,E.,Robertson,I.&Wakefield,L.(2007).‘Leadershipandlearning:Facilitatingself-directedlearninginenterprises’,Journal of European Industrial Training, 31(5):324–335.


Swantz,M.L.,Ndedya,E.&Masaiganah,M.S.(2001).‘ParticipatoryactionresearchinSouthernTanzania,withspecialreferencetowomen’,inReason,P.&Bradbury,H.(eds.),Handbook of action research: Participative inquiry and practice,ThousandOaks,CA:SagePublications:386–396.

About the author

Dr Intan A. Mokhtar is an Assistant Professor in Policy and Leadership Studies, National Institute of Education (NIE), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Prior to taking up a faculty position in NIE, she was an Assistant Professor of Educational Technology in the College of Arts and Sciences, Abu Dhabi University, in the United Arab Emirates. She has taught courses such as Instructional Technology, Instructional Design and Technology and Teaching of English as a Foreign Language to prospective school teachers and educators, as well as Information Literacy and Interpretation to mass communication undergraduates. Her research interests are in the areas of information literacy, critical thinking, instructional technology, school libraries, and IT and information policy in education. She was awarded the inaugural Asia Pacific Educational Research Association—Educational Research for Policy and Practice (APERA-ERPP) Young Researcher Award in 2006.

Contact details

Policy and Leadership Studies, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Nanyang Walk, Singapore 637616Tel: +65 6219 6042 Fax: +65 6896 9151

Email: [email protected]


Study circles and the Dialogue to Change Program

Mary Brennan and Mark BrophyAustralian Study Circles Network

Background

TheoriginsofstudycirclescanbetracedbacktotheChautauquamovementintheUSAinthelatenineteenthcentury.However,interestdiminishedintheUSAandtheSwedesdiscoveredandenthusiasticallyimportedthestudycircleideaasaremedytotheirproblemsofpovertyandilliteracyandtoeducatethebroadestpossiblespectrumofsocietyintheartofdemocracy.

Overthenext100years,SwedendevelopedtheprocesstosuchanextentthattheGovernmentnowsubsidisesthisformofeducationandusesitnotonlytoeducatepeopleaboutgovernmentpolicies,buttoreceivefeedbackfromthepublic.ThelateSwedishPrimeMinisterOlafPalmeisoftenquotedashavingsaidthat‘Swedenisastudycircledemocracy’.

Today,overthreemillionpeopleparticipateannuallyin350,000studycirclesinSweden.Over75percentofSwedesbetween15to

412 Mary Brennan and Mark Brophy

75yearsofagehaveparticipatedinstudycirclesatsometimeintheirlives.Inrecentdecades,theuseofstudycircleshasspreadthroughouttheworldfromtheUnitedStatestoBangladesh—andnowAustralia.

BasedupontheSwedishmodel,studycirclesre-emergedintheUSAinthelate1980sthroughtheworkofEveryday democracywhichhasdevelopedandrefinedtheprocesstoaddresschallengingcommunityissuessuchasracism,multiculturalism,terrorism,educationalreform,studentachievement,smallruraltownpoverty,theenvironment,religiousandinter-faithtensionsandcommunitydevelopment,oftenwithhundredsandeventhousandsofparticipants.

TheAustralianStudyCirclesNetworkhasrecentlybeenformedandisfoundedonthe100-yeartraditionofstudycirclesinSwedenandthelast20yearsofdevelopmentbyEveryday democracyintheUSA.TheAustralianStudyCirclesNetworkhasfine-tunedtheUScommunity-widestudycircleprogramprocesstomeettheAustraliancontext.

Historically,studycircleshavebeenusedinAustralia,frequentlywithgreatsuccess.Forexample,theworkofHelenSheil,whoresearchedstudycirclesinSwedenandwhonowworkswithruralcommunitiesinVictoria,DeniseHaganwithremoteIndigenouscommunitiesinQueensland,MaryHannanfromAdultLearningAustraliaandLizSudawhoresearchedSpanishdialogicstudycircles.

InAustraliaoursporadicexperienceandunderstandingofthisuniquemethodhasnotbeenpooled.Manydifferentiterationsandadaptationshavebeenusedovertime.Wenowneedtobuildasystemiccapabilitytomakeuseofsuchapowerfulprogram.ThesignificantstudycircleactivityinAustralia’spastdemonstrates,andistestimonyto,theneedtobringtogetherinanorganisedmannertheexperiencesofthecurrentandpaststudycircleactivity.

Study circles and the Dialogue to Change Program 413

TheAustralianStudyCirclesNetworkhasdevelopedthenecessarylocalandinternationalstudycirclelinksandpartnerships,developedamodelforAustraliaandhasstartedtodeliverworkshopsformanyorganisationsandcommunitiesacrossAustralia.

In1995,LenOliver,whowasinstrumentalinintroducingstudycirclestotheUnitedStates,askedinhisarticle,‘Is the United States ready for a study circle movement?’.Hesuggestedthatstudycircles‘maypossiblybethemostpowerfuladulteducationformatforsmallgroupdemocracyeverdevised’.

Organising a Dialogue to Change Program

ADialoguetoChangeProgramisatypeofcommunitydialogueprocessthatcanhelppeopleexplorecomplexissues,makesomedecisionsandbegintotakeaction.AttheheartoftheProgramarestudycircles,wherepeoplecometogethertohavedeliberativedialogueonanissue.ADialoguetoChangeProgramisacommunity-drivenprocessthatrecruitsfromallcommunitysectors.Theprocessbeginswith‘communityorganising’andisfollowedbyfacilitated,smallgroupdialoguethatleadstochange.Theprocessdoesnotadvocateaparticularsolution.Instead,itwelcomesmanypointsofviewaroundasharedconcern.

ADialoguetoChangeProgramisorganisedbyadiversecoalitionthatreflectsthewholecommunity.Itincludesanumberofstudycircleswithparticipantsfromallwalksoflife,useseasy-to-usenonpartisandiscussionmaterialsandtrainedfacilitatorswhoreflectthatcommunity’sdiversity.Itresultsinspecificopportunitiestomovetoactionwhenthestudycirclestageconcludes.

ADialoguetoChangeProgramrequiressignificantorganising.Beforetheroundofstudycirclescommences,itisimportanttoorganisethelogistics,therecruitmentofparticipants,thetrainingoffacilitators,acommunicationsstrategy,developmentofadiscussionguideand


establishinghowthefinalactionideas—thatwillemergefromtheprocess—willbeaddressed.Planningfortheactionideasstartsatthebeginning.Thisstagecantaketwotothreemonths.

Aftertheorganisationalstage,theroundofcirclesbeginswithanopeningsessionwhereindividualparticipantstelltheirownstoryandofferpersonalexperiencesabouttheissuethatconcernsthem.Thisgivesmembersthechancetohear,listentoandempathisewithauthenticstories,realpeople,realscenariosandrealexperiences.Infurthersessions,membersthenlookathowtheissueevolvedandhowothershavedealtwiththeconcerns.Subsequently,membersexamineanddiscussalternativesforaction,afterwhich,inthefinalsessiontheyworktowardcommonsolutions.ADialoguetoChangeProgramisbaseduponfiveseparatestudycirclegroups,eachoperatingonceaweekforfourweeks.

Initially,somepeoplearealittlehesitantaboutaDialoguetoChangeProgramduetothelengthoftimefortheprocesstounfold.However,thisisoneofthekeystrengthsoftheapproach.Sessionsbuildoneachother,allowparticipantstoworkthroughtheissues,andworkonfindingsolutionsthattheythenworktoimplement.Withfewersessions,the‘buyin’andparticipationintheactionoutcomeslessen.Shorterformatsalsofacetheriskofreactionaryideascomingforward.Themoretimespentonthedialogueandcarefuldeliberation,thehigherthequalityoftheactionideasthatemerge.

Furthermore,evenwitharoundofstudycirclesthatrunsforfoursessions,invariablyparticipantswillstatethatthetimepassedquicklyandtheywouldhavepreferredmoretime!

Study circles—the heart of the Dialogue to Change Program

Asinglestudycircleisasmall,diversegroupoffivetoeightparticipantswhomeetforabouttwohoursweeklyfora‘roundofstudycircles’overfourweekswheretheyaddressacriticalpublic


issueinademocraticandcollaborativeway.Ledbyaneutralfacilitator,peopleconsideranissuefrommanypointsofview.Thediscussionprogressesfrompersonalexperiences,tosessionsexaminingmanypointsofviewontheissue,andontoasessionthatconsidersstrategiesforactionandchange.

Studycirclesarenottypicalmeetingsinwhichmembersfeelunheardandworsestill,feelthatnothingisresolvedoractedupon.Onthecontrary,aroundofstudycirclesisdesignedtoleadtocollaborativeaction.Incontrast,whenpeopledebate,theyoftenneverlistenwithintenttounderstand,becausetheyaresobusypreparingacounterargumentandareeagerlywaitingtointerject.

Quiteoften,manycontentiouscommunityissuesaredealtwithbyeitherafocusgroup,whichusuallyconsistsofonlyinvited,similarthinkingorhomogenousgroupsofpeople,orforumsinwhichahandfulof‘experts’expresstheiropinionsandonlyafewpeopleareallowedtohaveavoice.Alternatively,often‘experts’areengagedtodevisesolutionsandplansthatarethenimposedoneveryoneelse.

Studycirclesareeffectiveduetothesmall,safeandsupportivenatureinwhichthedialogueoccurs,allowingmemberstofeelcomfortableaboutexpressingtheirtruefeelings.Membersbegintoactivelyengage,participateandexperienceconnection.Onebeginstounderstandthatweareallinterdependent,andthewell-beingofeachofusaffectsthewell-beingofall.Theprocessresultsinthecriticalreflectionofideasandthedevelopmentofnewknowledgeandinsights.

Noinstructorteachesorcontrolsthecircle.Theyareledbytheneutralfacilitatortrainedingroupdynamicsandstudycircleconcepts;theparticipantsmakeallthedecisions.Duetothisinclusiveprocess,individualsbenefitinmanywaysincludingconfidencebuildingandgainingrealvoice.Thegroupisabletomoveforwardbecausetheyknowthattheircontributionsarevaluedandheard,the


decisionsareownedbythemembersandthecorefundamentalsofastudycircleensurethatallparticipants’knowledgeandexperiencearegivenspaceandusedasthebasisforinitialdiscussion.

Learningfromothersisanotheressentialelementofthestudycircle.Understandingandlearningisbuiltuponthroughthecontributionfromeachmember’sexperienceandknowledge.Asmembersstudyanddiscusstheirissue,theylearnfromeachotherandhorizonsareexpandedaseveryone’sviewsarebeingconsideredthroughopenanddemocraticdialogue.Theprocessresultsinthecriticalreflectionofideasandthedevelopmentofnewknowledgeandinsights.Baseduponthisnewknowledge,membersareempoweredtoactinwhateverwaythegroupseesasappropriate.

Thisapproachalignswithmuchofadultandstudentlearningresearchthatdemonstratestheneedforauthenticpurposeandownershipofthelearningprocess.Inday-to-dayworkandcommunitysettings,muchoftheprocessofgenerating,distributingandapplyingknowledgeactuallyoccursbestinteamsettings.Themoreeffectivetheteamworkstogether,themoreunderstandingandlearningoccurs.Theeducationalideasbehindthesuccessofthestudycircleapproachalignwithmanyfundamentaladulteducationalprinciples—thatis,adulteducationisaliving,activeprocessthatrelatesknowledgetoaction,creativity,aswellastocollectiveandpersonaldevelopment.

Studycircleprinciplesalsoaligntosocialobjectivesthataimtoencourageindividualparticipationandownershipofthecommunity.Understandingthefundamentalprinciplesofstudycirclesisimportantforrecognisingthecontextandthecontentthatstudycirclesultimatelydealwith.Astudycircleisanenvironmentwhere:


• Itisacceptedthatpeoplefundamentallyhaveaninnatedesiretolearn.

• Individualsmeetandsharetheirexperiences.• Peoplelearninaparticipatoryenvironment.• Knowledgeisbuiltuponbylisteningtotheexperiencesof

allmembers.• Everyone’sviewsareconsidered.• Lifeandlearningbelongtogether.• Thelearningisself-directedandexperiential.• Learningisdemocratised.• Outcomescanbepersonalisedforeachindividualmember.

Withdeliberativedialogue,studycirclemembersdeliberate,cooperativelyinvestigate,exploreandclarifydifferentviews,usecriticalthinking,evaluateideasanddecideonsolutions.Thedialogueisconstructive,alltypesofdiscoursesareaccepted,stereotypesaredispelled,membersarehonest,andtheylistenandtrytounderstandeachother.

Creatingownershipisanimportantcharacteristicofstudycircles.Eventhoughthestudycircleformatissimpleindesign,itencouragesdemocraticparticipant-directed,group-directed,experientiallearningthroughopendiscussioninseveralsequentialsessions,developingtolerancefordifferingviews,equalityinparticipationandcollectivelyarrivedatoutcomes.Studycirclesarealwaysvoluntary,highlyparticipatoryandtotallydemocratic.

Moredetailsareavailableat:http://www.studycircles.net.au/


About the authors

Mary Brennan is a Director of the Australian Study Circles Network and Deliberative Dialogue Practitioner, helping communities organise their own Dialogue to Change Programs. She is an experienced teacher, lecturer and workshop facilitator. Mary also contributed to the design of the unique Australian Dialogue to Change Program. She is a lecturer at Victoria University and Director of her own private practice which has included the delivery of workshops across Australia on the Commonwealth Government’s Ministerial Declaration on Adult Community Education.

Dr Mark Brophy is the founder and a Director of the Australian Study Circles Network. Mark’s 15 years of research developing his understanding of the application of study circle methodology, as it is used internationally, has resulted in the unique Australian Dialogue to Change Program. He has created many resources, written extensively, presented workshops and training in Australia and overseas. Mark is internationally considered to be the key study circle authority and exponent in Australia. While working in education, training, public service and community engagement areas for over 22 years in Australia and abroad, Mark was awarded a PhD from Victoria University for an extensive participatory action research investigation into the study circle process.

Contact details

Australian Study Circles NetworkTel: 0401 009 113Email: [email protected]


Training, L&D, OD, HRD—What’s in a name?

Sean O’TooleNSW Department of Community Services,

Sydney

This article describes the various aspects of human resources development and highlights the intersections and the differences between what are often mistakenly viewed as interchangeable concepts. It argues that, while it is generally accepted that developing staff is fundamental to good organisational health and business outcomes, a clear understanding of how this should be achieved is often hampered by an identity crisis in the field itself.

Theeducationindustrycontributes5.8%ofAustralia’snationalexpenditure(ABS2009).Atotalof2.6millionAustraliansarecurrentlyenrolledinformalqualificationsand61%(5.3million)oftheAustralianworkforceareengagedinsomeformoftrainingatworkeachyear(ABS2008).Thisisupfrom30%in1990(ABS2005)andincludesincreasesinallcategoriesofworkersandallagegroups.Educationandtraininginallitsformsisnowbigbusinessanda

420 Sean O’Toole

significantpartoftheAustralianorganisationallandscape.However,thefieldofadulteducationisstillrelativelynewandcontinuestoevolve.Whileattemptingtokeeppacewiththedesiretoskill,up-skill,re-skillanddevelopthenation’sworkforce,thisfieldofHRhasnotbeenabletoproperlydefineitselfandconfusionoftensurroundseventhebasicnomenclaturewhichisused.

Thisidentitycrisishasatitscorearangeoftitleswhichareusedinterchangeablybutremainlargelyundefinedandunalignedtowhatindividualorganisationsaretryingtoachieve.Thebasicterminologyassignedtothesesectionsinorganisationalstructuresisoftenconfusingtooutsidersandincludes:training;learninganddevelopment;humanresourcedevelopment;workplacelearningandperformance;organisationdevelopment;andprofessionaldevelopment.Whiletheyareallorientedtowardsbuildingorganisationcapacitythroughindividualandteamdevelopment,allofthesethingsmeansomethingdifferent.

Perhapsthebestwaytounderstandthisshiftinglandscapeistoexaminewhatismeantbythevariouswayswehavecometodefinetheseprocesses.

Training

Adultlearningandtheconceptofwork-basedtraininghasitsoriginsinthemid-twentiethcenturywiththecreationoftheAmericanSocietyforTrainingDirectorsin1944(laterre-namedtheAmericanSocietyforTrainingandDevelopment),theInstituteofPersonnelManagementintheUnitedKingdomin1946(nowtheChartedInstituteofPersonnelDevelopment)andthesubsequentworkofMalcolmKnowles,PaoloFreire,JohnDeweyandCarlRogers.

Trainingislearningprovidedbyemployerstoemployeesrelatedtotheirpresentjob(Smith1993).Ithasajob-skillsorientation.Traininggenerallyaimstoimprovespecificknowledgeorskillsthat

Training, L&D, OD, HRD—What’s in a name? 421

canbeachievedintheshorttermthatwillshowbenefitsintheshortterm.Formalinstructioninhowtodoaparticularjobisregardedastraining.Learningoutcomesarenormallysetandactiontakentoachievethem.

Therearethreecomponentstogoodtraining.Theprimarycomponentistheactualinstructionprovidedtothepersonconcerned—thisisreadilyacceptedandunderstood.Beyondthis,thereisarequirementwhichisnotaswellunderstood,tomotivatethepersonwhohasbeentrainedtowanttochangehisorherwaysandadoptnewmethods.Theformeristheresponsibilityofthetrainer,whilethelatterisasharedresponsibilitybetweenthetrainerandtheoperationalmanagementofthebusinessconcerned.

Aftersendingapersontoatrainingcourse,twofurtheractivitiesarenecessarytocompletethedesiredbehaviouralchangeprocess—closesupervisionandrelentlessfollow-up,untilthenewbehaviourbecomesnormal.

Itisnolongerasufficientoutcometoreportonhowmanystaffmembersattendedtraining,andinsteadwemustgaugethe‘transferoflearning’totheworkroleandthereturnoninvestmentwhichrequiresaskilledandrigorousapproachtoevaluatingthetrainingordevelopmentactivity.

Trainingisalsoquitedistinctfromeducation.Educationrelatesmorebroadlytoanindividual’sfuturecareerandaboutlifelongandlife-widelearning.Itisnotconcernedwiththeparticularsofatrainingeventbutrathertheexperience,applicationandoutcomeinaformatthatmakessensetotheindividualandcanbeapplied.

Learning and Development (L&D)

Individualemployeelearningandskilldevelopmentneeds,onceseentobesolvedbytrainingalone,nowdemandacomplexrangeofdevelopmentsolutionsandmostofthesearebasedintheworkplace

422 Sean O’Toole

andnottheclassroom.Developmentisamorefluidconceptthantraining,andgenerallyhaslonger-termaims.Developmentactivitiesharnessexistingrolesandtheprocessofobservationandreflectiononrealworldsituations.Examplesofdevelopmentactivitiescanincludebuddying,coaching,mentoring,shadowing,actionlearningandimmersionexperiences.

Itisnotdirectlyrelatedtoajobbutinsteademphasisespersonalgrowthandaspirationsofindividualemployees.Developmentconcentratesongeneralsoftskills.Examplesofsuchskillswouldnormallyincludepersonalitytraits,leadershipskills,self-awareness,confidenceandcommunicationstyles.Itmayalsoincludemoreadvancedexposuretotechniquesofperformanceappraisal,goalsetting,andpolicyandproceduredevelopment.Developmentcanbeprocess-oriented,totheindividual(personaldevelopment)ortogroupsofemployeessuchasdevelopingpeopletoworkeffectivelyinteams.

Animportantdistinctionmustalsobemadewiththeconceptofprofessionaldevelopment,whichreferstoanorganisation’sethicalresponsibilitytoencouragestafftomeettheirpersonal,academicandprofessionalneeds.Thiscanoccurbyoptimisingthequalityofworkinglifeandpromotingexcellencebybuildingonexistingstrengths.Itprovidesacriticallinkbetweenindividualcareerneedsandorganisationalstrategy.Manyprofessions(law,architecture,engineering,medicine)havelong-establisheddevelopmentalprocessesandframeworkswhichtheirmembersfollowtomaintainregistrationorprofessionalassociation.

Organisation Development (OD)

ODfocusesonorganisationalbehaviourandfirstemergedconceptuallyaspartofthehumanrelationsmovementinthe1950s.Itwasfoundedontheprinciplethatorganisationscanbeunderstoodandthewaytheyshouldoperatecanbemeasured,adjusted,


influencedandimproved.AccordingtoGallos(2006),inthepost-WorldWarIIenvironmentofboththeUKandtheUS,separateandunrelatedprojectsweretakingplacewhichshapedtheemergingtheoryoforganisationdevelopment.Bothprojectsfocusedonwhatwasinitiallyreferredtoasorganisationalhealth.IntheUS,KurtLewinatMIThadsetupwhatwascalledsensitivitytrainingusingT-groups,afar-reaching,influentialeducationalvehiclewhichwasbeingadoptedasaformofeducationinarangeofindustrialsettings.

AtthesametimeintheUKattheTavistockInstitute,EricTrostandKenBamforthwereworkingwiththeBritishcoalminingindustrytomovefromanemploymentmodelthatinvolvedproductivitypaybasedonteamstoonewhichrewardedindividualoutputandefforts.Thisworkreflectedatrendinindustryatthattimetomoveawayfromgroupworktorecognisetheeffortsofindividualsandtheemergenceontheuseoftechnologyintheproductionandmanufacturingprocess.

PsychologistRensisLikertwasalsoundertakinginfluentialstudieswithinorganisationsforthefirsttime,diagnosinggroupdynamics,employeemoraleandattitudesand,inturn,usingthesedatafororganisationalimprovements.

Fromthesebeginnings,ODevolvedtofocusonorganisationalchange,buildingthecapacityofteams,andonorganisationalcommunicationchannelsandprocesses.Itisunderpinnedbyaconcernfororganisationaleffectiveness.OD’sroleistoworkonaprocessoforganisationalrenewaltoensureenvironmentsaresafe,efficientandsatisfyingplacestowork.

Itcanbedefinedastheuseofappliedbehaviouralscienceinasystemscontexttoeffectchangeandenhanceorganisationalperformanceandcapacity.TheODoperativeworkswiththeorganisationtoeffectchange,createsystemsandhelpitsolveitsownproblems.TheroleoftheODoperativeisnotanalysis,designand

424 Sean O’Toole

delivery(thetraditionalprovinceoflearning&development).ThefocusofODisthesystemororganisationasawholeandworkingwithteamsorgroupsoninterdependencies,systemsandculture,notonworkingwithindividuals.

EffectiveODinterventionswouldincludeimprovedcommunication,betterdecisionmaking,enhancedanddefinedleadershipstyleandbehaviours,conflictresolutionmechanisms,evidenceofeffective,functionalteams,andinterpersonalandgroupprocesses.

Unliketraininganddevelopment,itfocusesonbothemployeesandtheirworkinrecognitionthatbothmayneedtobechangedsimultaneouslytosustaineffectivechangesinindividualandorganisationalperformance.

Human Resource Development (HRD)

HumanResourceDevelopmentisthebroadestofalloftheseconcepts.ContemporarymodelsofHRDdescribeitasintegratinglearninganddevelopment,organisationdevelopmentandcareerdevelopment.AccordingtoSofo(2000),AmericanacademicLenNadlerisgenerallycreditedwithcreatingtheconceptofHRD.HRDtailorslearningtoindividualsinvariousrealworldsettingsandpromotessocialaspectsoflearninginthecontextoflearningcontracts,actionplansandperformancemeasures.Itensurespeoplehavethecompetenciestomeettheircurrentandfuturejobdemands.HRDinvolvesorganisedlearningexperiencesprovidedbyemployerswithinaspecifiedtimewiththeaimofimprovingperformanceandofpersonalgrowth.

Inthiscontext,itisresponsibleforbuildinglong-term,work-relatedlearningcapacityattheindividual,groupandorganisationallevels.Itencompassesknowledge,skillandvaluesbases.HRDhasthecapacitytosimultaneouslybuildorganisationalandindividualcapacity.


HRDsharesthedesiretobuildorganisationalandindividualproductivityandtheprinciplesofadultlearningwiththeseotherconcepts.Thenotionof‘development’includesbothchangeandgrowth.Itistiedtoasystemsapproachandtothemodelofthelearningorganisation.

Conclusion

Theadventofstrategicmanagementhasre-positionedorganisationlearninganddevelopmenttobecomeanenablerforbusinessgoals.Leveraginglearninganddevelopmenttoinfluenceattitudes,behaviourandorganisationalcultureisalsoseenasapowerfulleverinthechangemanagementprocess.Overthepasttwodecades,mostAustralianorganisationshavemovedbeyondthebasictrainingmodelandtheconceptofstafftraininginorganisationshashadtocontendwitharangeoffundamentalshiftsinfocus.Thisaspectofhumanresourcesdemandsaclearidentitysowecanpromoteagreaterunderstandingoftheintersectionofalloftheseconceptsandwhentheyarebestapplied

References

AustralianBureauofStatistics(2009).‘Directoryofeducationandtrainingstatistics’,www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/mf/1136.0[accessed28/6/2009].

AustralianBureauofStatistics(2008).‘EducationandworkinAustralia’,www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/mf/6227.0[accessed28/6/2009].

AustralianBureauofStatistics(2005).‘EducationandtrainingexperienceinAustralia’,www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/DetailsPage/6278.02005?OpenDocument[accessed28/6/2009].

Gallos,J.V.(ed.)(2006).Organisation development,SanFrancisco,CA:Jossey-Bass.

Smith,A.(1993).Training and development in Australia,NorthRyde:Butterworths.

Sofo,F.(2000).Human resource development,Sydney:BusinessandProfessionalPublishing.

426 Sean O’Toole

About the author

Sean O’Toole is the author of four books and numerous articles on crime, criminology and adult learning. He is the Director of Learning and Development for the NSW Department of Community Services. Previously he was the Director of the NSW Corrective Services Academy. He has worked as a journalist and as a designated detective with the Australian Federal Police. Sean has also worked part-time as a lecturer for NSW TAFE, Southern Cross University, University of Western Sydney and the University of Sydney. He has Masters degrees in Australian Studies and Education and post-graduate qualifications in management.

Contact details

Sean O’Toole, Director, Learning & Development, NSW Department of Community Services, Locked Bag 4028, Ashfield, NSW 2131Tel: (02) 9716 2222 Fax: (02) 9716 2999Email: [email protected]


BOOK REVIEW

The case for God: What religion really means

Karen Armstrong

London: The Bodley Head Ltd., July 2009 ISBN: 978-18-4792-034-8, 384 pages, $32.95

TheremaybeargumentaboutwhetherGodisomnipresent,buttherecanbenoargumentaboutRichardDawkins.The God delusion isarunawaybestselleranditsauthorisonradioandtelevisionandinallsortsofnewspapers,magazinesandjournals,learnedandotherwise.SofarIhavemanagedtoavoidreadingthebook.Ihavespentenoughtimeescapingfromonekindoffundamentalismsothatreplacingitwithanotherdoesnotfeellikeprogress.For,asIunderstandit,Dawkinsdoesnotmerelyadvanceahypothesisorofferasuggestion—heknows.HeisonethirdofacontemporarytrinitythatalsoincludesChristopherHitchens,authorofGod is not great,andSamHarris,authorofThe end of faith,alsobestsellers.

428 Don Meadows

Buttheverypopularityofthesebooksshowsthattheirauthorshavetouchedanerve.Theyareobviouslynotspeakingsimplyforthemselvesbuttoandonbehalfofthemanythousandsofdisillusioned,fed-up,bitterlydisappointed,betrayedandjustplainangrypeoplewhohavehadituptoherewithpaedophileclergy,creationscience,infalliblepopes,infallibleBiblesandallmannerofbigotedGod-botherers.Thepersonwhosenervehasnotbeentouchedbyoneormoreoftheseitemsshouldprobablybecheckedforsignsoflife.TherealityanddepthofthegripesmeanthatitisnotadequatetorespondbylabellingDawkinset al.as‘undergraduateatheists’,asMarkJohnstonhasdoneinSaving God,ortosaytheyshoulddoPhilosophyIandhaveanotherthink.Howevervalidsuchcommentsmightbe—andIsuspecttheyare—theydonotgettothedeepestissues,whicharequestionssuchas:Howdidreligiongetitselfintosuchafix?Andisthereawayofunderstandingandpractisingafaithwhich,ifnotbeyondcriticism,isatleastsufficientlytruthfultoourlifeexperiencetosurviveandrespondtosuchattacks?

ThesefundamentalquestionsarewhatKarenArmstrongsetsherselftoanswerinThe case for God: What religion really means.Shereturnstoourhumanbeginningsandconstructsahistoryoffaith,thedifferentformsithastakenatdifferenttimesandindifferentplaces.ForalthoughthefocusismainlythemonotheisticreligionsofJudaism,ChristianityandIslam,sheincludesHinduismandBuddhisminherpicture,togetherwiththephilosophicaltraditionthatemergedveryearlyinthestoryandhasintertwinedwithreligioneversince.

Armstrong’sbasicthesisisthatinthemodernera—roughly1500CEonwards—wehavecometothinkandspeakaboutGodverydifferentlyfromearliercivilizations.Inlanguagesheusesoften,ourculturehasbeentakenoverbylogos,whichisaboutpragmaticmasteryoftheworld,andhasabandonedmythos,whichisabouttheconcernformeaninginlife.Theresulthasbeen‘twodistinctively

Book review 429

modernphenomena:fundamentalismandatheism.Thetwoarerelated.’(p.7)Thesecondmainsectionofthebook,‘ThemodernGod’,showshowtheseill-assortedpartnerscametoclimbintobedtogether,mirrorimagestoeachotherwith‘theviolentandintolerantstrainthathasalwaysbeeninherentnotonlyinmonotheismbutalsointhemodernscientificethos’(p.9).

Butthisistoanticipate.Thefirstmajorsectionofthebookis‘TheunknownGod’,coveringfrom30,000BCEto1500CE.Inthesechapters,hermainconcernistoshowhowdifferentsocieties,withdifferentapproachestoreligion,preservedabalanceoflogosandmythosintheirencounterwithlife’srealitiesandmysteries.

Religionseemstobeasoldashumankind.Fromthecavedrawingsofthehunter-gatherersofLascauxthroughtheriseofpastoralandagriculturalsocietiesinEgypt,IndiaandtheAncientMiddleEast,shetracesthesenseofthesacred.IneachcasetheultimaterealitythatwasreveredcametobeunderstoodnotasabeingbutasBeingitself.Itisimpossibletoexaggeratetheimportanceofthisdistinction,andArmstrongreturnstoitthroughoutthebook.Oneofhermaincontentionsisthatthosemismatchedpartners,fundamentalismandmodernatheism,sharetheviewthatGodorultimaterealityisabeing,anassumptionthatshapestheentireunderstandingofeachparty.

Tothissheaddsthesecondprincipleofpre-modernreligion:‘Religiousdiscoursewasnottobeunderstoodliterallybecauseitwasonlypossibletospeakaboutarealitythattranscendedlanguageinsymbolicterms.’(p.24)Thisistheroleofmythosandatthispointlogosdoesbettertowaitinsilence.Ofcentralimportancehereisthatmythosisexpressedinritualasajointlycreatedreality.Toseparateonefromtheotheristorendermythosincredibleandaritualalien,anoutcomethatwillsoundfamiliartomany.

430 Don Meadows

Chapter2,titledsimply‘God’,takesusintotheOldTestamentworld.SomemayfeeldauntedbythediscussionoftheOldTestamentsources,famouslylabelledJ,E,PandD,butArmstrong’sclearthoughtandevocativewritinglinksthetextwithitshistoricalandritualsettingandenablesustoseeaprogressiverevelationunfold.‘TheBibletracesthelongprocesswherebythisconfusingdeitybecomesIsrael’sonlyiconofthesacred.’(p.43)ThestoryistakentothetimeofEzraandtheemergenceof‘classicalJudaism’withitsemphasisonmidrash,interpretivediscoveryasanongoingprocessoffaith.

‘Reason’isthetitleofchapter3,whichpicksupthestrandofphilosophy,beginningwiththepre-SocraticsofMiletusandconcludingwithAristotle’saimofthecontemplativelife.OnthewayArmstrongdiscussestheEleusinianMysterieswiththeirblendingofmythosandlogos,andintroducestheimportantconceptsofekstasis,steppingoutoftheself,andkenosis,theprocessofself-emptying.

Inchapter4,‘Faith’,ArmstrongoutlinestheparallelchangestakingplaceinJudaismandtheemergingChristianityofthefirstcoupleofcenturiesCE.AswellasahelpfultreatmentoftheNewTestamentmiraclestories,shediscussestheuseofsuchtermsas‘faith’and‘belief/believe’.‘Thecry[“Ibelieve”]wasmorelike“Iwill”inthemarriageservice.’(p.100)ShealsopointsoutthattheArabicjihadmeansstruggleforinsightandcommitment,notarmedaggression,andbringsoutthesharedemphasisinJudaismandIslamonorthopraxy,truebehaviour,atatimewhen‘ChristianityhadbeguntomoveinaslightlydifferentdirectionanddevelopedapreoccupationwithdoctrinalcorrectnessthatwouldbecomeitsAchillesheel.’(104)

‘Silence’tacklesthefourthandfifthcenturyargumentsaboutthenatureofChristandtheTrinity.Withoutbecomingboggeddowninthetheologicaltechnicalities,shegivesanexcellent,briefaccountofhowtheEasternChurchapproachedthesemysteries.InamannerreminiscentofZenpractice,Armstrongshowsthat

Book review 431

for‘theCappadocianFathers…thewholepointofthedoctrine[oftheTrinity]wastostopChristiansthinkingaboutGodinrationalterms…animagethatChristiansweresupposedtocontemplateinaparticularway.Itwasamythos,becauseitspokeofatruththatwasnotaccessibletologos,and,likeanymyth,itonlymadesensewhenyoutranslateditintopracticalaction…itwasameditativedevicetocountertheidolatroustendencyofpeoplelikeArius,whohadseenGodasamerebeing.’(p.116)

TheachievementoftheEasternChurchwaspresentedtotheWesternChurchbyAugustine.Armstrongpointsoutthathisnovelviewoforiginalsin,andespeciallyitslinkingwithsexuality,wasoneofthelessdesirableitemshebequeathedtoposterity,anditisnotsharedbytheEast.ButhisportrayaloftheTrinityintermsofhisownmythosofthehumanpersonenabledtheEasternandWesternChurchestoreachcommonground.Atthesametime,throughthewritingofDenystheAreopagite,Westernspiritualitykeptpacewiththetheologicalshifts,sothatinEastandWesttheapophaticspirituality,highlyconsciousofthelimitsoflanguageandtheparadoxicalpowerofsilence,becameacommonhabitatalllevelsofchurchandsociety.

‘FaithandReason’(chapter6)iscrucialtothestoryArmstrongistelling,andshowsacriticalturningpointinthedevelopmentofWesternthought.BytheendoftheeleventhcenturyasChristianitybegantore-establishitselfastheWestclimbedoutoftheDarkAges,philosophersandtheologiansplacedanewemphasisonrationality.InthistheywerestimulatedbytherediscoveryofAristotlethroughtheJewsandMuslims.

ArmstrongpointsoutthatIslam,guidedbyfiguressuchasal-Ghazzali,waswellawareoftheinadequacyoffalsafah(philosophy).Insteadtheiremphasisfell,inamannerstronglyreminiscentofrecentdescriptionsofCelticspirituality,ontheawarenessofGodineverydaylife.Sufism,themysticalexpressionofIslam,wasthedominantstyleofspiritualityandremainedsountil

432 Don Meadows

thenineteenthcentury.SimilarlytheJews,stronglyinfluencedbyMosesMaimonides,developedtheirownapophaticspiritualityintheKabbalah,whichbecameamassmovement.

AtthispointArmstrongpausestodenouncethespiritualblasphemy,moralevilandmaterialdisasteroftheCrusades.

TheapophatictraditionintheWestreachedaclimaxinThomasAquinas,butitbegantocomeapartwithaculturalandphilosophicalchangeexpressedmostnotablybyJohnDunsScotusandWilliamofOckham.Their‘abstrusespeculations…ledtoariftbetweentheologyandspiritualitythatpersiststothepresentday.’(p.149)Spiritualityincreasinglybecameamatterofpsychologicalstates,asArmstrongshowsintheinstanceoftheEnglishmonkRichardRolle.OthermysticssuchastheDominicanMeisterEckhartwereuneasyaboutthisdevelopment.Hewascriticalofsuchattachmenttoemotionalexperiences,asistheanonymousauthorofThe cloud of unknowing.Butthesplithadgonetoofarandaffectedtoomanytobeeasilyhealed.

‘Scienceandreligion’introducesthebeginningsofthemodernworld:theriseofthenationstate,absolutemonarchy,theSpanishInquisitionandstatepersecutionoftheJews,whoasaresultbecame,insomecases,Europe’sfirstfreethinkers.BycontrastwiththeSpanishmodel,theDutchmodelwasmuchmoreopenandtolerant.

Threesixteenthcenturymovementsreducedthechurch’sinfluenceinsociety:therenaissanceoflearningandthearts,thereformationofreligionandtheriseofscience.Armstrong’sapproachhereismainlybybriefsketchesofthemaincharactersinthedifferentmovementsandtheircontributions.Thus,thereaderisintroducedinturntoErasmus,Luther,Zwingli,Calvin,Shakespeare,Montaigne,Copernicus,Brahe,KeplerandGalileo.ThetheologianRobertBellarmineistheexampleoftheVatican’schangingapproachtotheology.ThequestinallformsofChristianityfollowedtheexample

Book review 433

ofscience:‘they…wouldseekarationalcertaintythatJewish,ChristianandMuslimphilosophershadlongheldtobeimpossibleinmattersoffaith.’(p.183)

‘Scientificreligion’isthenthefocusofchapter8.ThehistoricalbackgroundisthehorrificupheavalofEuropeintheThirtyYearsWar,anexperiencethatprofoundlyinfluencedthephilosopherRenéDescartes.Armstrongbrieflyoutlineshisideas,includinghisbeliefthatquestionsaboutGodandthesouloughttobedemonstratedbyscientificratherthanbytheologicalargument.Sheadds:‘Andthetheologianswerealltoohappytoagree.Itwasafatefulmove.Henceforth,increasingly,theologywouldbetranslatedintoa‘philosophical’or‘scientific’idiomthatwasalientoit.’(p.193)

Locke,Pascal,SpinozaandNewtonarealsobrieflyhighlighted.Bythistimetheterm‘belief’ishabituallybeingusedinitsmodernsense.ThetheologianSamuelClarkeclaimedtohaveshownthatGod’swill‘couldbecharted,measuredanddefinitivelyprovedintwelveclearanddistinctpropositions.’(p.202)Butthiscertaintywouldsoonbetroubled.

Chapter9,‘Enlightenment’,movesintotheeighteenthandearlynineteenthcentury.Thepoliticalupheavalsofthetime—theAmericanandFrenchRevolutionsandtheNapoleonicWars—formthebackgroundtotherevolutioninthought.AgainArmstrongpicksoutsignificantindividualstocarrythestoryforward,andweareintroducedtoVoltaire,BenjaminFranklinandThomasJefferson,aswellasAdamSmithandEdwardGibbon.Shenotesacharacteristicoftheage:‘Thepolarityofnaturalversussupernaturalwasjustoneofthedualisms—mind/matter;church/state;reason/emotion—thatwouldcharacterisemodernconsciousnessasitstruggledtomastertheparadoxesofreality.’(p.207)

Thereligionofreasonhaditsopponents.‘Pietistswhooptedfor‘thereligionoftheheart’werenotinrevoltfromreason;theywere

434 Don Meadows

simplyrefusingtoreducefaithtomerelyintellectualconviction.’(p.208)JohnWesleywasacaseinpoint,andalthoughnotapietist,GiambattistaVicowasanother.

ReligionconsolidateditsplaceinAmericabutinFrancewasabandonedbythephilosophes,the‘enlightened’leadersofthought.TheimpactofDavidHumeandImmanuelKantissurveyed,thentheRomanticmovementwithparticularreferencetoBlake,WordsworthandKeatswithhisconceptof‘negativecapability’,seenbyArmstrongasaformofekstasis:‘whenamaniscapableofbeinginuncertainties,Mysteries,doubts,withoutanyirritablereachingafterfact&reason.’(p.223)ShelooksbrieflyattheGermantheologianFriedrichSchleiermacher’sSpeeches on religion to its cultured despisers,andconcludesthechapterwithHegel,who,whileapprovingofscience,insistedthatultimaterealitywasnotabeingbutBeingitself.

‘Atheism’(chapter10)beginswithanaccountoftheriseoftheEvangelicalmovementintheUnitedStates,showingitsappealtodifferentsocialclasseswithanemphasisonfreedomandaninsistencethatGodwastobeunderstoodandworshippedinrationalways.

Meanwhile,inEurope,anewkindofatheismwastakingshape.Insteadofbeingatermofabuseanddisapprovalofthedifferentbeliefsofone’sopponents,itacquireditscurrentmeaningofadenialofGod’sexistence.ThemainnameshereareLudwigFeuerbach,KarlMarxandAugusteComte.

Theriseofprofessionalsciencebroughtdoubtsinitstrain.SomefoundtouchingexpressioninAlfredTennyson’shugelypopularpoemIn memoriam.CharlesDarwin’sOrigin of speciescontributedfurthertochangingthought,butinEnglandthebiggestimpactwasmadebyEssays and reviews,publishedthenextyear.WrittenbysevenAnglicanclergy,itsold22,000copiesintwoyears,morethanOrigin

Book review 435

initsfirst20years.Itstirredhugecontroversy,especiallyBenjaminJowett’sessayonbiblicalinterpretation.

ArmstrongseesMarx,NietzscheandFreudasthemainarchitectsofmodernatheism,althoughmuchofpopularatheismwaspromotedbyothers.FormostpopularChristianity,especiallyintheUnitedStates,themainissuewasnotevolutionbuttheinspirationandinfallibilityoftheBible.Asonotherissuesbefore,thecombatantsoneithersideattackedeachotherwithzeal:noplaceforSocraticdialoguehere.MostoftheconflictinmodernChristianityhasitsoriginsinlatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturyarguments.

‘Unknowing’(chapter11)isconcernedmainlywiththechangesinscientificthoughtinthetwentiethcentury.Itisanappropriatetitle,fordespitethehubrisoftheViennaCircleofphilosophers,theemphasiscametofallveryheavilyonwhatwedonotknow.Planck,EinsteinandHeisenbergfeature,asdoestheriseofU.S.fundamentalismandtheScopes‘MonkeyTrial’inTennessee.

HereArmstrongdrawsclosetocontemporarytroubles.‘EverysinglefundamentalistmovementthatIhavestudiedinJudaism,ChristianityandIslamisrootedinprofoundfear.’(p.260)Andalittlefurtheron:‘Subsequenthistorywouldshowthatwhenafundamentalistmovementisattacked,italmostinvariablybecomesmoreaggressive,bitterandexcessive.’(p.263)

ShediscussestheimpactoftheHolocaust,includingthefamousstoryoftheJewswho,intheirconcentrationcamp,putGodontrial,foundHimguilty,andthenadjournedforprayers.ShesetsthecurrentmajorityviewofGodincontext:

ThemodernGod—conceivedaspowerfulCreator,FirstCause,supernaturalpersonalityrealisticallyunderstoodandrationallydemonstrable—isarecentphenomenon.Itwasborninamoreoptimisticerathanourownandreflectsthefirmexpectation

436 Don Meadows

thatscientificrationalitycouldbringtheapparentlyinexplicableaspectsoflifeunderthecontrolofreason.(pp.266–7)

Therearesomenotabletheologiansandphilosopherswhohavetakenadifferentview.ArmstrongdiscussesWittgensteinonlanguage,HeideggeronBeing,aswellasPaulTillich,KarlRahnerandBernardLonerganamongothers.

Thefinalchapteris‘DeathofGod?’.Afterreviewingtheoutburstsofthe1960sinThe secular cityand‘DeathofGod’theology,Armstrongsketchestheunforeseen(intheWest)revivalofreligion,especiallyintheformoffundamentalistreligion.‘Inallitsforms,fundamentalismisafiercelyreductivefaith.Intheiranxietyandfear,fundamentalistsoftendistortthetraditiontheyaretryingtodefend.’(p.282)SheintroducesafigurewhoshouldbemorewidelyknownintheWest,SayyidQutb,anEgyptianMuslimpersecutedbythewould-bemodernistEgyptianpresidentofthetime.

Armstrongcommentsthat:‘Manyformsofwhatwecall“fundamentalism”shouldbeseenasessentiallypoliticaldiscourse—areligiouslyarticulatedformofnationalismorethnicity.’(p.286)HerfirstexampleisZionistfundamentalism,butthereareothers.SheseesRichardDawkinsasakindofsecularfundamentalistanddiscusseshisapproachatsomelength,muchmoretemperatelythan,apparently,doesDawkinshimself.

Otherscientistsaremuchlessdogmatic,muchmorereadytorecognisethatthereisagreatdealthatwesimplydonotknow.

Inanepilogueoftenpages,Armstrongpullstogetherthethreadsshehasfollowedthroughthebook.Amongthemostimportantisthatthe’existence’ofGod,understoodintermsofscientificrationality,openedthewaytocontemporaryatheism;inthephilosophers’terms,Christianityfellintopositivismandlostthevia negativa.WehavedonetoreligionwhatDescartesdidtophilosophy:wehaveattemptedtofindarealitybeyondalldoubt.Wehaverefusedthepossibility

Book review 437

oflaunchingourselvesintodoubtandrediscoveringourcapacitytowonder.‘Aboveall,manyofusforgotthatreligiousteachingwaswhattherabbiscalledmiqra.…Youhadtoengagewithasymbolimaginatively,becomerituallyandethicallyinvolvedwithit,andallowittoeffectaprofoundchangeinyou…Ifyouheldaloof,asymbolwouldremainopaqueandimplausible.’(p.308,emphasisoriginal)

Weneedtorelearnwhattheancientsandothersinourowntimehaveunderstood.‘Insteadofseekingoutexoticraptures,Schleiermacher,Bultmann,RahnerandLonerganhaveallsuggestedthatweshouldexplorethenormalworkingsofourmindandnoticehowfrequentlythesepropelusquitenaturallyintotranscendence.InsteadoflookingforwhatwecallGod“outsideourselves”…inthecosmos,weshould,likeAugustine,turnwithinandbecomeawareofthewayquiteordinaryresponsessegueinto“otherness”.’(p.313)

Weneedtoretrainourmindsinthedifferencebetweenmythosandlogos;perhaps,tousecurrentjargon,toreunitethetwosidesofourbrains.

Weneedtopractiseourfaith,ofwhateverkind,inordertogrow.‘Aboveall,thehabitualpracticeofcompassionandtheGoldenRule‘alldayandeveryday’demandsperpetualkenosis.Theconstant‘steppingoutside’ofourownpreferences,convictionsandprejudicesisanekstasisthatisnotaglamorousrapture,but…isitselfthetranscendenceweseek.’(p.314)Suchapracticeistoogroundedinrealitytotakeusastrayforlong.

Lestpeoplebeputoffbytherepeateduseoftechnicalterms,especiallyinotherlanguages,thereisaglossarythatIfoundmosthelpfulbothinreadingthebookandwritingthisreview.EspeciallyIfoundhelpfulthehistoricalframeworkthatundergirdsthestoryArmstrongtells.Youcouldreadtheintroductionandtheepilogueandgetaverygoodideaofwhatshehastosay,butthepowerofher

438 Don Meadows

messageisgreatlyamplifiedbyattendingtotheparticularpeopleandeventsinhernarrative.

ItisevidentthatIthinkthisisanoutstandingbook.IhavereadmostofKarenArmstrong’sbooksandaminclinedtoseethisas,atpresent,thepinnacleofheralreadyconsiderableachievement.Ialsofounditinterestingtodiscover,inanonlinearticle,thatshefindsekstasisinherworkofresearchandwriting,inmuchthesamewayastherabbiswhofinditinthestudyofTorah.Insum,Iwouldgosofarastosaythatthisonebook,betterthananyotherIknow,presentstheessenceofthequestforspiritualreality,whichistograspordinaryexperienceatitsfulldepth.

Don MeadowsDonMeadowsformerlyworkedasanAnglicanpriestinSydneyandMelbournebeforetrainingasapsychotherapist.Heisnowasemi-

retiredpsychotherapistinMelbourne.HewasoneofthefoundersofEremos,ajournalofAustralianspirituality(www.eremos.org.au),in

whichanearlierversionofthisreviewappeared.


BOOK REVIEW

Liberating praxis—Paulo Freire’s legacy for radical education and politics

Peter Mayo

Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers, 2009 ISBN: 978-90- 8790-580-4

160 pages, price: $39

PeterMayoisbothascholaranddiscipleofPaoloFreire.Hisacademicwritingsfocusprimarilyonadulteducationandeducationalsociologyandincludeover80paperspublishedininternationalrefereedjournalsoraschaptersineditedbooks.Heidentifieshimselfasateacher,citizenandresearcher.Eachoftheseaspectsofhislifeisframedandtouched,however,throughtheideologyofFreire.Asherelates,Freiretaughthiscolonisedmindaboutthesocialdimensionsofeducationandgavehimapathwayfromwhichtocriticallyanalysereality.HispositionasheadoftheDepartmentofEducationStudiesattheUniversityofMaltagivesMayoopportunitytopractisehisbeliefsandexplorethecentralthemeexpressedinthisbook—that

440 Michael Atkinson

ofreconstructingFreire’sconceptsindiverselearningsettingsandfurtherthepossibilitiesofresistance,struggleandchange.

ThepracticalintentionofthebookisbothtobringthesubstantialwritingsofFreiretogetherintoacoherentvolumeanddemonstratetherelevanceofhisideasinaspecificcontext—thatofthesouthernMediterraneanregion.Beyondthisdeclaredpurpose,however,liesbotharallyingcallandanappealtoreconstructtheworkofFreireinordertochallengethepresentissuesofourtime.AsMayostates,‘oneofthegreatestchallengesFreirehasposedtothoseofuswhosubscribetohispedagogicalapproach…istoreinventhiminthecontextsinwhichtheyareoperating’(p.95).OnesensesinthereadingofthisbookthatMayoviewsFreire’slegacyasanongoing,organicconstructdependentupontheworkofpresentcriticalscholarstorevealbothitsdepthanditsvision.

Thebookisarrangedinsixchapters.TheinitialfocusdeliversabriefbiographyofFreire.Thisisnotarehashofearlierbiographicaltextsbutratheraportraitcapturingkeyelementsofhislife,interspersedwiththeauthor’sownexperiencesandreflectionsdevelopedthroughpersonallyquestioningthoseclosetoFreire.ThisisborneoutinparticularbyhisretakeonthewritingofFreireintermsofbeautyandemotionalresonancewhichstands,accordingtoMayo,incontrasttopastcriticismsthatFreireistoorationalandexclusiveofotherdomainsofknowing.IwillreturntothispointbelowasIfeelthatthistextsuffersfromtheverycriticismthatMayoisrefutingintheworkofFreire.

AsystematicandextensivelistandreviewofthemajorworksonFreirefollowsandreflectsboththeknowledgeandscholarlyfocusoftheauthorandthesustainedinterestinFreirehimselfandhistheoriesasacriticaleducator.Themiddlesectionsofthebook(Chapters3and4)focusonthelegacyleftbyFreire,particularlyintermsofunderstandingoppressionandcounter-hegemonicpathwaysfromwhichtocreatetheclimateforsocialchange.Much

Book review 441

ofthismaterialisoldgroundalreadycoveredbyothers,nottomentionFreirehimself.Freire’smethodology,forexample,hasbeeneloquentlypresentedinEducation for critical consciousness(Freire1973).Inaddition,IvaShorhasadaptedFreireanmethodologyforthewesterncontextinanaccessibletext(1987),whileRoberts,whomMayoalsopraises,providesaneminentlyholisticreading(2000)ofFreire.WhatisnewinthistextisMayo’scomparisonsbetweentheideologyofFreireandthoseofothersocialtheorists,includingMarx,EnglesandFrommandcriticaleducatorssuchasMcClarenandGramsci.

FromtheperspectiveofmyworkasanadulteducatorinAustralia’stertiarysector,thesectiononneo-liberalismandeducationattheendofChapterFourisawelcomeaddition.AsMayomentions,‘[oppression]takesondifferentformsandtheoneitisassumingatpresentispredictedonneo-liberalismwithitsconcomitantideologyofthemarketplace’(p.89).Ifeelthatabroaderexpositiononthistopicwouldhaveaddedtothevalueofthischapterhowever,giventhegeneralisedandpervasiveinfluenceofneo-liberalismoncurrenteducationpolicyandthestatedaimsofthebook.

Thefinaltwochaptersinmyviewarethemostinteresting.ChapterFiveexplorestherelevanceofFreireanpedagogyinmulti-ethnicenvironmentscontextualisedthroughsocialclassanddrivenbytheforcesofglobalization.ChapterSix,theconcludingchapter,discussestheapplicationandimplementationofFreireanideologyintwodifferentprojectsinwhichtheauthorwaspersonallyinvolved.IappreciatedhisdescriptionoftheongoingdevelopmentofMalteseschoolsascommunitylearningcentresandthefurtherconsequencesthatsuchdevelopmenthaveintermsofgivinglegitimacytotheknowledgeofallstudents.Asectiononviewingmuseumsasspacesfordifferentandmultiplevoices,andtherebydemocratisingsuchspaces,exhibitedtheadaptabilityoftheFreireanapproachtodiversepedagogicalspaces.

442 Michael Atkinson

OverallIfoundthetexttobeanauthoritativeaccountofthelifeofFreireandthevalueofFreireanpedagogyforthediversepedagogicalchallengesofourtime.FortheFreireanscholar,itisaninvaluabletextcoveringgroundthatonlyadiscipleofFreirewithadeepunderstandingofhisworkandideologycouldbringtogether.Fortheadulteducatorlookingforinsightintowaysofmeetingthediverseprofessionalchallengesofourtime,thebookisattimesdifficulttodigestandpedanticintermsofansweringthekeychallengesitinitiallyposes.IamremindedbyMayo’sperception,notedabove,concerningthefusionbetweentheemotionalandtheintellectualinFreire’swork.InmyopiniontheendeavourforintellectualaccuracyandinsightwhichcharacterisesthisbookdiminishesitsaccessibilityandgivesinsufficientregardtotheimportanceofemotionalresonancebetweenwriterandreaderwhichMayohimselfarguesispresentinFreire’swork.Inanagewhenweareassailedbythedominanthegemonicdiscourseoftechnicalrationalityandmarketability,touseMayo’sownwords(p.8)thisbookiscertainlythought-provokingbutfallsshortintermsofimaginationandcreativeinsight.

References

Freire,P.(1973).Education for critical consciousness, NewYork:SeaburyPress.

Shor,I.(1987).Freire for the classroom: A sourcebook for liberator teaching,Portsmouth,NH:Heinemann/Boynton/Cook.

Roberts,P.(2000).Literacy and humanization. Exploring the work of Paulo Freire, Westport,CT:Bergin&Garvey.

Michael AtkinsonUniversity of New England

Armidale, NSW


BOOK REVIEW

The quest for meaning: Narratives of teaching, learning and the arts

Mary Beattie (ed.)

Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers, August 2009 http://www.sensepublishers.com

ISBN: 978-94-6091-035-7 284 pages, pbk A$79.59, hbk: A$198.00

Ipickedupthebook,openeditrandomlyandIwaslostinthestory.Icouldnotputitdown,atleastnotuntilIhadfinishedMichellePereira’sstoryinchaptertwoofthepowerofmusicinherlife.Shegivesanemotionalaccountofadifficultpassagetobecomingaprofessionalsinger.Iexpectedadry,academictext;insteadofwhich,Ifoundatreatforthereader.Thebookisacontributiontothecollaborativefieldsofpedagogicandarts-basedcreationofnewknowledgebyusingqualitativeinquiry.

MaryBeattieistheeditorofthisbookthatisgroundedinherspecificbrandofinterconnectednessofpedagogyandthearts.SheisProfessorofEducationintheDepartmentofCurriculum,Teaching

444 Susan Bardy

andLearningatTheUniversityofToronto.Sheteachescoursesinnarrativeandarts-basedresearch,iswinnerofanumberofteachingawards,andhasauthoredthreebooks.This,herlatest,isaproductofherlifelonginterestintheartsandeducation.Beattieadmitstoapassionforbookssinceearlychildhoodthatledhertoteachotherstobecomecommittedreadersandwriters.

InthisanthologyBeattiecollectsaneclecticgroupoftwelveauthorswhoseworksofself-narratedexperiencereflectthewaytheycametoteachingandtheartsasadultlearners,nowoccupyingvariousrolesinprofessionallife.WhattheyhaveincommonisastrongaffinitytolearningandhavingTheUniversityofTorontoastheiralma mater.

Structurallythebook’schaptersfitintofourdistinctsectionsanddealwithpersonalandcollaborativeinquiry.ThefirstpartisanintroductionbyBeattie.Here,shereflectsonherlonginvolvementwithgraduateeducationdescribinganongoingquestformeaningwhileconnectingthepersonal,professionalandthescholarly.Thesectionsthatfollowconsistoffourchapterseach.Theindividuallyauthoredtextsinareflectivemoodtakethereadertotheuniquenessofprofessionalexperienceinlearningandteaching.

InParttwo—‘Dialoguewiththeself’—authorsaskthemselveswhereitallstarted,theloveofmusic,passionforstoriesandsharingitbyteaching.

Partthree—‘Dialoguewithothers’—concentratesonnewvoicesthatencourageandhelpformnewperspectivesandinterpretations

Partfour—‘Dialoguewiththedialogues’—isdirectedathownewnarrativescanbecreatedthroughobservinghumaninteractionandintegration.Here,Beattiebringstogetherfourverydifferentartistswhotellofthewaymusicstartedtheirlifeandhowtheyspreadtheirartisticwingsintotheeducationalsystemandlovedit.

Thebook’scollectivestoriesspanawidefieldofartistic/teaching/learningendeavours,individuallyenergeticandcommittedtoa

Book review 445

craft.Authorswriteinthefirstpersonusingstylesthatprojectwell-developedinsightintotheimportanceofknowingyourselftosucceedinlife.

Whileindividualsectionscarryheadingsthatrefertoadifferentmanneroftextpresentation,Iwouldliketoaddthateachchapterisfirstlyadialoguebetweenthewriter’sinnerselfhighlightingtheroleofpersonalexperienceinadultlearning.Conceptsof‘connectingpast,presentandfuture’,using‘insightandimagination’tocreatenew‘narrativesthroughinterpretation,interactionandintegration’arebackgroundstothedialogues(p.xi).

Shouldyouaskmetonameanauthorwholeadsineloquence,honestyandwritingcraft,Iwouldfinditdifficulttocomeupwithananswer.Whyso?

Thestoriesarewrittenfromindividualperspectivesandhaveatheoreticalqualityoftheirownthatisvalidandvaluable.Itmaynotyetbetheseminalacademictextforqualitativeinquiry,butitcanholditsheadupasaremarkableachievementinbringingthewholebeingofthewriterintoplayinaninterconnectedhumanestory-tellingexercise.Isaywelcometoacollectionofpedagogicalwisdomwrittenbythosewhoexperiencedit.Asagraduatestudent,Ivaluetheinsightfullywrittenchaptersthatareeasytoreadandidentifywith.

However,Iamreluctanttosuggestthebookforprivateconsumptionasthepriceisprohibitivefortheindividualpurse,butuniversitylibrariesshouldcertainlypurchaseitwherenodoubtitwouldfindanenthusiasticreadershipamongstudentsinthefacultyofeducationandthearts.

Susan BardyPhD candidate

University of South AustraliaSchool of Education

Mawson Lakes Campus


BOOK REVIEW

Poetry, consciousness and community

Christopher (Kit) Kelen

New York, NY: Rodopi, October 2009 ISBN: 978-90-420-2724-4

200 pages; retail price: online at US$56, €40

Christopher(Kit)Kelenisaprolificandwidelypublishedpoetandacademic.HeisanAssociateProfessorofLiteratureandCreativeWritingattheUniversityofMacau,China.HisearliervolumesofpoetryhavebeenpublishedintheUSAandChina,whilehisforthcomingpoemswillbepublishedinAustralia.Inaddition,hepublishesinarangeoftheoreticalareas.Poetry, consciousness and communitydrawsupontheauthor’srichresourcesaspoetandtheoriserofpoeticmeanings.

Kelen’sbookisVolume23oftheseriesConsciousness, literature and the art,ascholarlycollectionofmonographssupportedbyaninternationaleditorialboard.Thisvolumeisaneruditeessay,athesis,anargument—abouttheongoinginterrelationshipsbetweenpoetry,

Book review 447

consciousnessandcommunity.Theopening‘Scopeofthework’preparesthereaderforadeepandcomplexexaminationofspacesbetweentherelationships,andinterrelationships,ofthethreefoci.Itispresentedasanessay,notapoem,withtheacknowledgementthatitisnotreallypossibletobeunpoeticinaworkaboutpoetry!Thankfully,Kelen’swritingiswonderfullypoeticandcreative.Theinclusionofacknowledgedpoemswithinhisownquestioningthesisencouragesthereadertoreadandre-readparticularpassages—therearemanylevelstothisintensewriting.

Thisisatextrequiringaslowscrutiny,accompaniedbyagentleacceptanceofanargumentillustratedbypoetrysourcedacrosstime,geographyandculture.Itmightbewisetokeepthetextnearby,inordertodelveagain.Thereaderisencouragedtomaketimetoabsorbandquestiontheargumentthatunfoldswiththereferencestoahostofpoetsandpoemsandtodwellonthequotedpoems—forexample,onewritteninaconcentrationcampbyMikosRadnoti,oranotherbytheSufipoetRumi,orthemanybyAustralia’sLesMurray,orthehaikubyOsakiHosai.

Thedetailedbibliographyisamostusefulendnotetowhatisessentiallyabeautifullycraftedanderuditeessaybyaneminentpoet,academicandwordsmith.Poetry, consciousness and community willbereadbymanyofusinourartsworldsasweseektobeenergised,challengedandreassuredbyawriterwhosepoeticcompassleadsusthroughourhistory,dailyroutinesandvisionsofafuture.

Thequestionof‘whatispoetry?’isposedandrevisited,yetremainsapathonwhichtheauthoriscontent/excitedtotravelwithpleasure.Kelentakesthereaderonthisinterwovenjourney,finallyencouraginginhisownwords,to“letuscontinuetheconversation!”

John HolmesAdjunct Associate Professor

School of EducationUniversity of South Australia


BOOK REVIEW

Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions

Donald A. Schon

San Francisco, Jossey-Bass, 1987 ISBN: 978-15-5542-220-2, 355 pages

DonaldA.SchonwasFordProfessorofUrbanStudiesandEducationattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology(MIT)atthetimeofthepublicationofthisbook.HehadbeenaresearcherandconsultantonorganisationallearningandprofessionaleffectivenessandwasactiveinanumberofAmericanprofessionalorganisations.EarlierpublicationsincludedThe reflective practitioner(1983),Organizational learning: A theory of action perspective(1978,withChrisArgyris),andTheory in practice: Increasing professional effectiveness(1974,withChrisArgyris).

ThecommentsharedwhenIreceivedthisbookforreviewwas,‘I’d forgotten how good this is’, andsoinreviewingthisbook,I

Book review 449

embarkedonajourneybacktomyearliestpostgraduatecourseworkandthenemploymentasaTAFEteacher.SchonhadbegunhisquestinThe reflective practitionertoanswerthequestion:Whatkindofprofessionaleducationwouldbeappropriatetoanepistemologyofpracticebasedonreflection-in-action?Educating the reflective practitionerseekstoanswerthisquestioninmoredetail.

Schonproposesthathighereducationprofessionalundergraduateandpostgraduateprogramsneedtolearnfromtherichhistoryof(deviant)educationforpracticeinthestudiosofartanddesign,conservatoriesofmusic,athleticscoachingandapprenticeshipsinthecrafts.Hearguesthattheteachingofappliedsciencesinmanydisciplinesneedstobecombinedwith‘coachingintheartistryofreflection-in-action’.

Schonillustrateshisthesisbystudyingarchitecturaleducationviatheteachingofarchitecturaldesigninstudiosasprototypesofreflection-in-action.Hecoinstheterm‘reflectivepracticum’astheframeworkforstudentslearningbydoingwiththeassistanceofprofessionalsascoaches.Thedesignstudioisexploredasablueprintforthedevelopmentofathree-foldmodelofprofessionalcoaching:‘followme!’,‘jointexperimentation’and‘hallofmirrors’.Thesearestagesofalearningprocessthatcreateslearningrelationshipswhichgraduallyincreasetheexperientiallearningofthelearnerwithinaframeworkofknowledgeandskilldevelopment.

Schonseekstorevealthepositivenatureofreflectivepracticumbychoosingexampleswherecoachingandlearninghavebeenimplementedasbestpractice,particularlyincoachinginmusicalperformance,psychoanalyticpractice,andcounsellingandconsultingskills.Someoftheseexamplesmaynowseemdatedbuttheframeworksofcoachingforprofessionalpracticeareasrelevantaseverbefore.

450 Rob Townsend

PartOneofthebookexploresarchitecturaleducationasacaseexampleforthereflectivepracticum.PartTwodescribesthedynamicsofdesignstudies,theritualofinstructionandthevariedstylesofcoaching.PartThreeexploresthethreevariationsofreflectivepracticuminmusic,psychoanalyticsupervisionandseminarsoncounsellingandconsulting.PartFourexplorestheimplicationsofthestudyexamplesandtheideasthatariseforredesigningprofessionaleducationinmanyotherdisciplines.

TheessenceofSchon’sstudyexamplesistherelationshipbetweencoachandstudent,whocoordinatedemonstratingandimitating,tellingandlistening,witheachcomponentaddressingthegapsinherentineachoftheotherprocesses.Learningandcoachingthenbecomeexperimentsintheworkofprofessionaleducationandhowcommunicationfacilitatesthiseducation.Experimentationinprofessionalproblem-solvingcanthengeneratenewproblemsandconfusionswhichbecomematerialforreciprocalreflectionbetweenthestudentandcoach.Thismodelofcommunicationaslearning,challengesthedidacticlectureandinstructionaltutorialasprocessesthatcannotcreatemeaninginprofessionaleducation.Professionalsneedtobeabletosolvereal-worldproblemswhichcanonlybeexploredinthecontextofhighereducationthroughaprocessof‘studio’orreflectivepracticum.

Schondoesn’tglossovertheproblemsthatcanariseinthedesignandpracticeofreflectiveeducation.Theoutcomesofareflectivepracticumcanbeasvariedasthepossibleevolutionsofanylearningprocess.Thepracticumorstudiocanproducehighqualitylearningoutcomesviathesearchformeaning,aconvergenceofmeaningbetweenthestudentandthecoach.Iftheessentialelementsofcoachingandexperimentationarefrozeninmiscommunication,thereflectivepracticecanthenproducecounter-learning(givingcoacheswhattheywant)orover-learning(thereisonlyoneway),whichis

Book review 451

oftenanoutcomeofmoretraditionalacademicandprofessionaleducation.

Theauthorconcludesthisstudybyacknowledgingtheissuesinherentinintroducingreflectivepracticumintocomplexintellectual,institutionalandpoliticalcontextsofcontemporaryhighereducationprofessionaleducation.Questionsareexplored,suchas:Whatformdoesthepracticumorprojectstake?Atwhatpointsinthecurriculummightreflectivepracticumbeintroduced?Whoshouldbeinvolvedinbeingacoach?Whatkindofresearchandresearchersareessentialtothedevelopmentofreflectivepracticum?

MyownexperiencewhilereadingandreviewingSchon’sseminalpublicationwasofbeingimmersedinacurriculumrenewalprocessbasedonthevariousinterpretationsofEnquiryBasedLearning(EBL)atLaTrobeUniversity.ThephilosophicalandpracticaldiscussionsaboutprofessionaleducationandtrainingarenowbeingwagedandasIremindedonegroupIwastraininginadulteducationprinciples:‘wealreadyhavethestudiesandtoolstoassistusinourendeavours’—Schon’sbookoneducatingthereflectivepractitionerisonesuchimportantstudy.IwouldrecommendthatallhighereducationpractitionersinAustraliare-visitordiscoverthisbookanddevouritsstudyofprofessionaleducationbecauseitisprobablyonlyinrecentyearsthatmanyormostAustralianuniversitieshavebegunengagingincurriculumreviewandrenewalthatisbasedcovertlyontheprinciplesoutlinedbySchon.

Dr Rob TownsendLa Trobe Rural Health SchoolLa Trobe University, Bendigo

NOTES FOR INTENDING CONTRIBUTORS

1 PapersaretobesenttotheEditor,ProfessorRogerHarris,AdultandVocationalEducation,SchoolofEducation,UniversityofSouthAustralia,MawsonLakesBoulevard,MawsonLakes,SouthAustralia5095.Phone:0883026246.Fax:0883026239.Email:[email protected]

2 Submissionofanelectroniccopyofacontributionispreferred,withonepapercopyposted,againstwhichtheelectronicprint-outmaybecheckedforaccuratelayout.

3 Thepapershouldnotexceed5,500wordsinlength.Thepaper(anditstitle)istobeclearlytypedononesideonlyofA4paper.

4 Authorsarealsotosubmit,separatelyfromthepaper:(a) thetitleofthearticle(repeated),name(s)oftheauthor(s)andyourinstitutional

affiliation(s);(b) anabstractofbetween100and150words;(c) afive-linebiographicalnoteonpresentpositionandanyinformationofspecial

relevancesuchasresearchinterests;(d) completecontactdetails,includingpostalandemailaddresses,andtelephoneand

faxnumbers;and(e) aclearindicationofwhetheryouwantyourpapertoberefereed(thatis,blindpeer

reviewedbyatleasttwospecialistreviewersfromAustraliaand/oroverseas)–ifthereisnoindication,thepaperwillbeconsideredasanon-refereedcontribution.

5 Anycomplextables,figuresanddiagramsaretobesuppliedincamera-readycopy,onseparatesheetswithanindicationoftheappropriatelocationinthetext.

6 AuthorsaretofollowthestyleusedinthisissueoftheJournal.Footnotesshouldnotbeused.Referencesshouldbeindicatedintextwiththeauthor(s),theyearofpublicationandpagination,wherenecessary,inparentheses;forexample,Jones(1998),or(Collins1999:101).Referencesarethenlistedinfull,includingpages,attheendofthepaperinconsistentform;forexample,forbooks: Athanasou,J.(ed.)(2008).Adult education and training,Terrigal,

NSW:DavidBarlowPublishing.forarticles: Hamer,J.(2010).‘Recognitionofpriorlearning–Normativeassessment

orco-constructionofpreferredidentities?’,Australian Journal of Adult Learning,50(1):98-113.

forchapters: Newman,M.(2009).‘Educatingforasustainabledemocracy’,inWillis,P,McKenzie,S&Harris,R(eds.)(2009),Rethinking work and learning: Adult and vocational education for social sustainability,Dordrecht,Netherlands:Springer:83-91.

7 Papersareacceptedontheunderstandingthattheyarenotbeingconsideredforpublicationelsewhere.AuthorsofmainpapersacceptedforpublicationintheJournalwillreceiveonecopyoftheJournal andfivereprintsoftheirpaper.Otherauthorswillreceivetworeprintsoftheircontribution.

8 Briefresearchreportsandbookreviews(ofapproximately800words)relatingtoadultlearningwouldbewelcomed.

9 SomeissuesoftheJournalarethematic.Whilepaperspublishedinaparticularissuearenotrestrictedtothetheme,intendingcontributorsareencouragedtosubmitpapersonthemesannouncedfromtimetotime.

AJALisindexedandabstractedintheThomsonReutersproductandcustominformationservices:• SocialSciencesCitationIndex®• SocialScisearch®• JournalCitationReports/SocialSciencesEdition

AustrAliAN JourNAl ofADult lEArNiNGVolume 50 n Number 2 n JulY 2010

AU

ST

RA

LIA

N J

OU

RN

AL

OF

AD

ULT

LE

AR

NIN

G J

ulY

20

10

AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF ADULT LEARNINGVolume 50, Number 2, July 2010



Tim Pitman, Sue Broomhall, Joanne McEwan and Elzbieta Majocha239 Shallwedance?ThestoryoftheRadianceDanceProject

Lisa Ehrich260 Literacypractitioners’perspectivesonadultlearningneedsandtechnology

approachesinIndigenouscommunitiesMichelle Eady, Anthony Herrington and Caroline Jones







Mary Brennan, Mark Brophy419 Training,OD,L&D,HRD—What’sinaname?

Sean O’Toole



439 Liberatingpraxis—PauloFreire’slegacyforradicaleducationandpolitics(PeterMayo)Michael Atkinson




refereed articles - adult learning australia · pdf filepharmaceutical society of ......

Documents