reference and information services...19.1 reference tools: traditional and collaborative 368 19.2...

Reference and Information Services

A N I N T R O D U C T I O N

FO UR T H EDIT ION

Kay Ann Cassell Uma Hiremath

CHICAGO :: 2018

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© 2018 by the American Library Association

Extensive effort has gone into ensuring the reliability of the information in this book; however,

the publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.

ISBNs

978-0-8389-1568-4 (paper)

978-0-8389-1707-7 (PDF)

978-0-8389-1706-0 (ePub)

978-0-8389-1708-4 (Kindle)

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Names: Cassell, Kay Ann, author. | Hiremath, Uma, author.

Title: Reference and information services : an introduction / Kay Ann Cassell, Uma Hiremath.

Description: Fourth edition. | Chicago : ALA Neal-Schuman, an imprint of the American Library

Association, 2018. | Includes bibliographical references and indexes.

Identifiers: LCCN 2017056092| ISBN 9780838915684 (print : alk. paper) |

ISBN 9780838917060 (epub) | ISBN 9780838917077 (pdf ) | ISBN 9780838917084 (kindle)

Subjects: LCSH: Reference services (Libraries) | Electronic reference services (Libraries) |

Reference books—Bibliography. | Electronic reference sources—Directories.

Classification: LCC Z711 .C355 2018 | DDC 025.5/2—dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017056092

Cover design by Kimberly Thornton; imagery © Adobe Stock. Text design and composition

by Karen Sheets de Gracia in the Cardea and Acumin Pro typefaces.

This paper meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48–1992 (Permanence of Paper).

Printed in the United States of America

22 21 20 19 18 5 4 3 2 1

E D I T O R I A L A D V I S O R Y B O A R D

Anita Ondrusek, Retired Professor, Department of Library and Information Studies,

Dewar College of Education and Human Services, Valdosta State University

Amy VanScoy, Assistant Professor, Department of Library and Information Studies,

Graduate School of Education, University at Buffalo

David H. Ward, Reference Services Librarian and Associate Professor, Undergraduate Library,

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

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C ONT ENTS

List of figures and tabLes vii

Preface ix

acknowLedgments xv

PART I Fundamental Concepts

1 Introduction to Reference and Information Services 3

2 Determining the Question: In-Person, Telephone, and Virtual Reference Interviews 15

3 Finding the Answer: Basic Search Techniques 33

PART II Introduction to Major Reference Sources

4 Answering Questions about Books, Magazines, Newspapers, Libraries and Publishing, and Bibliographic Networks— Bibliographic Resources 59

5 Answering Questions about Anything and Everything— Encyclopedias 77

6 Answering Questions That Require Handy Facts— Ready Reference Sources 103

7 Answering Questions about Words— Dictionaries, Concordances, and Manuals 121

8 Answering Questions about Events and Issues, Past and Present— Databases (and Indexes) 147

9 Answering Questions about Health, Law, and Business— Special Guidelines and Sources 171

10 Answering Questions about Geography, Countries, and Travel— Atlases, Gazetteers, Maps, Geographic Information Systems, and Travel Guides 207

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/ CONTENTSvi

11 Answering Questions about the Lives of People— Biographical Information Sources 225

12 Answering Questions about Government and Related Issues— Government Information Sources 239

PART III Special Topics in Reference and Information Work

13 When and How to Use the Internet as a Reference Tool 259

14 Readers’ Advisory Services Cindy Orr 281

15 Reference Services for Children and Young AdultsSujin Huggins 301

16 Information Literacy in the Reference Department 319

PART IV Developing and Managing Reference Collections and Services

17 Ethics in ReferenceDiana Floegel 335

18 Selecting and Evaluating Reference Materials 347

19 Reference as Programming 361

20 Managing Reference Departments 381

21 Assessing and Improving Reference Services 397

22 Reference 2.0 419

23 The Future of Information Service 443

Appendix RUSA Outstanding Reference Sources 2007–2018 453

about the authors and contributors 461

index of reference resources 463

subject index 475

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F IGUR E S AND TAB L E S

FIGURES

3.1 Database Search Strategy Worksheet 47

3.2 Form Interface for a Database 48

3.3 Refining a Database Search 49

3.4 Screenshot of the LibGuide page for MacPhádín Library at Stonehill College 52

5.1 Venn Diagram: Oxford University Press “Reference Reimagined” 78

13.1 WWW Cyberguide Ratings for Content Evaluation 275

15.1 A Model of Young People’s Decision Making on the Web 303

19.1 Screenshot of “Classes & Workshops” at the New York Public Library 367

19.2 Queset House: A Learning Commons at the Ames Free Library

(North Easton, MA) 368

19.3 Screenshot of Fab Lab at the Fayetteville (NY) Free Library 371

19.4 Screenshot of YOUmedia’s Createch at Saint Paul (MN) Public Library 372

21.1 Example of a Survey Page on Reference Support at the MIT Libraries 401

21.2 Trigger Questions Used in a Protocol Analysis Study 404

21.3 Unobtrusive Observation Worksheet (Questions) 405

21.4 Desk Tracker Guide: Recording Reference Questions 407

21.5 Reference Desk Notebook, Sample Page 408

22.1 Screenshot of Reference Blog at the Yale Law Library 424

22.2 Readers’ Advisory Blog at the Bensenville Community Public Library 424

22.3 Blog as In-House Communication at Barnard College Library 425

22.4 Blog as News Bulletins at the University of Montana 425

22.5 Blog as Personal Statement 426

22.6 Twitter Account at the Library of Congress 427

22.7 Podcasts at Johns Hopkins Medicine 427

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22.8 Folksonomy of the University of British Columbia Graphics in Flickr 428

22.9 Cloud Tag for the Witkin State Law Library 429

22.10 Drill-Down of a Single Tag for the Witkin State Law Library 429

22.11 Facebook Account of Duke University Law Library 430

22.12 RSS Subject Feeds Offered by the MIT Libraries 432

22.13 Catalog Search Result Page at the University of Huddersfield 433

22.14 Mashup of SELCO Library Consortium Site 434

22.15 PDA Zone at the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada 436

22.16 Mobile Library at the Boston University Medical Center 436

22.17 Screenshot of Librarian 2.0 Position Announcement 438

TABLES

13.1 Sample General Search Engines 267

13.2 Sample Academic Search Engines 268

13.3 Sample Metasearch Engines 269

19.1 Reference Tools: Traditional and Collaborative 368

19.2 Framework for Programming Assessment 375

19.3 Logic Model for Reference Exhibit at University of Buffalo 377

20.1 Changing Paradigms in Reference Management 382

20.2 Select Examples of Collaborative Virtual Reference Services 386

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PR EFAC E

Reference and Information Services: An Introduction, Fourth Edition, is about skills, changing

resources, and best practices. Reference service has become much more complex as avail-

able resources expand and is in a constant state of flux.

The process of maturing into an experienced reference librarian, learning new skill

sets, is challenging, unending, hugely rewarding, and, yes, fun. In this book, we identify

these skill sets, analyze them, break them into their component parts, and present them

to you, the eternally maturing reference librarian, in ways that are reproducible. The first

and second editions of this book were dedicated to the intrepid librarian because the ref-

erence librarian at the start of the twenty-first century had to, above all else, be fearless in

the face of a technology revolution. The third edition was dedicated to the entrepreneurial

librarian who must continually think outside of the box and look for trends, new resources,

and technology that can be adapted to the library setting. This fourth edition is dedicated to

the digital explorer, the librarian who makes use of all the digital resources to assist library

users in their quest for information.

Ambiguity, never a stranger to the field of librarianship in general and information

studies in particular, seems particularly acute in the face of dramatic new technologies fos-

tering equally dramatic new ways of doing reference. Digitized books and other resourc-

es are available from many sources, including Google and HathiTrust. The solid old desk,

across which the static transaction of reference questions and answers was conducted, is

often entirely replaced by virtual reference, reference consultation services, roving librar-

ians, and mobile technology. Real-life librarians have spawned virtual reference librarians

within the dense proliferation of social networks like Facebook. Online searching skills,

techniques, and interpretation have overtaken resource-based reference and are impera-

tive to effective reference services in all libraries.

The increasingly fast pace of change has compelled us to write yet another new edition

to update and replace the sources listed in the third edition. Search skills required to locate

newly digitized government documents, for example, bear little resemblance to searches

through the voluminous GPO publications of a few years ago. An augural job listing by the

New York Public Library included this as one of its performance expectations: a knowledge

of the library as a “location where new and emerging information technologies and resourc-

es are combined with traditional sources of knowledge in a user-focused, service-rich en-

vironment that supports today’s social and educational patterns of learning, teaching, and

research.” No pressure intended.

The professional reference librarian must commit to an ongoing understanding of the

fundamental concepts, essential resources, search techniques, and managerial tasks inher-

ent to reference, which are underwritten in large part by the wider social and educational

patterns of information and research. The chapters contained in this edition support that

commitment, even as they ease the pressure of trying to know too much without organized

skill sets. The larger universe, where the primacy of information has never been felt more

acutely, is kept in strict perspective throughout the text. The updated chapter on Reference

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2.0 tools now captures more of the restless mutability of emerging technologies and alerts

the reference professional to experimental trends and practices that are utilizing new tech-

nology in innovative ways. More important, it acknowledges the maturing of virtual refer-

ence and the continually rising expectations of the user to access information freely, instan-

taneously, and often using mobile devices. The chapter on reference work with children and

young adults, completely rewritten for this edition, reflects the importance of developmen-

tally appropriate reference resources, a timely mirror to the global emphasis being placed

on the relevance of information-seeking behavior at all stages of human development. An

expanded chapter on ethics adds a critical framework for reference librarians having to

function within the somewhat unseen but treacherous shoals of information copyright is-

sues and professional codes of conduct. The role of reference librarians as “information

trust agents” cannot be underestimated in a universe of unending and complex information

transactions. This chapter aims to anchor the expected rules of conduct and alert reference

librarians to areas of vulnerability. A new chapter on programming as reference explores

alternate ways of providing information to library users in timely acknowledgment of new

forms of information-seeking behavior.

While earlier editions provided a mix of print and e-resources, this fourth edition

emphasizes electronic resources, in deference to the primacy of online searching over re-

source-based reference. The book continues to provide free web resources of depth and

value useful for budget-conscious institutions faced with continuing global recession, along

with a listing of mobile apps available for smartphones, iPads, and other mobile technology.

This text also incorporates the valued suggestions of practitioners, including the adoption

of the suggestion by an LIS faculty member to provide the uninitiated student with a com-

prehensive idea of the immense diversity in reference resources through an accessible list

of RUSA “Outstanding Reference Sources,” so that a list of selected titles appears as an ap-

pendix. What worked effectively for the first three editions remains but is enhanced with

necessary updates. We have taken care to both cull and expand the hundreds of resources

listed in the text.

Each of the chapters on resources provides an important section on selection and keep-

ing current in the field. We have continued to treat reference transactions as an organic

process that involves understanding both the text and the subtext of a question, identifying

the best resources, and providing an optimal answer. Reference and Information Services: An

Introduction differed from traditional reference texts in consciously linking questions to

sources, rather than classifying resources and providing a general description of their use.

Our approach, firmly grounded in real-world practices, was a direct result of the oft-heard

remark from library school graduates who believed their experiences in real transactions

felt remote from what they had studied at school. The progression of question → reference

interview → search process → resource options → answer was deemed to be a truer repre-

sentation of what students would face in the real world, and this fourth edition continues

to uphold that structure.

ORGANIZATION

While this fourth edition of Reference and Information Services: An Introduction is aimed

at all reference librarians striving to acquire or affirm the necessary skill sets, it is orga-

nized to complement the syllabus of a typical library and information studies course. The

four sections that make up the text provide a well-rounded grounding in the fundamental

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PREFACE / xixi

concepts of reference, the arsenal of major resources with which every reference librarian

must become familiar to answer basic questions, special topics such as readers’ advisory

and user instruction (that fall within the purview of reference work), and tools to field the

ongoing responsibility of developing and skillfully managing reference departments in the

face of constant change and innovation.

Part I: Fundamental Concepts

Chapter 1, “Introduction to Reference and Information Services,” provides you with an

overview of the breadth of services housed under the reference rubric and discusses some

of the changes in reference service.

Chapter 2, “Determining the Question: In-Person, Telephone, and Virtual Reference

Interviews,” outlines the first and perhaps most critical step in the reference process. In or-

der to assist the reader, the librarian must skillfully determine the user’s question or need.

Given that reference is, and always will be, predicated on contact and communication, even

in times of change, this chapter takes into account in-person, telephone, and virtual refer-

ence interviews.

Chapter 3, “Finding the Answer: Basic Search Techniques,” is in many ways a conclu-

sion to part I and a prelude to part II. Having identified the question, the next step is to

construct an answer. This hands-on chapter trains you to organize your thoughts, develop a

strategy for the particular request, and find the optimal solution.

Part II: Introduction to Major Reference Sources

The nine chapters in this section focus on how, what, where, who, and when questions as

they correlate to authoritative resources, rather than describe types of resources. Included

in this section are these chapters:

Chapter 4, “Answering Questions about Books, Magazines, Newspapers,

Libraries and Publishing, and Bibliographic Networks—Bibliographic

Resources”

Chapter 5, “Answering Questions about Anything and Everything—

Encyclopedias”

Chapter 6, “Answering Questions That Require Handy Facts—Ready

Reference Sources”

Chapter 7, “Answering Questions about Words—Dictionaries, Concordances,

and Manuals”

Chapter 8, “Answering Questions about Events and Issues, Past and Present—

Databases (and Indexes)”

Chapter 9, “Answering Questions about Health, Law, and Business—Special

Guidelines and Sources”

Chapter 10, “Answering Questions about Geography, Countries, and Travel—

Atlases, Gazetteers, Maps, Geographic Information Systems, and Travel

Guides”

Chapter 11, “Answering Questions about the Lives of People—Biographical

Information Sources”

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Chapter 12, “Answering Questions about Government and Related Issues—

Government Information Sources”

Each of these chapters begins with an overview of materials and how they are used to answer

the particular type of question. We provide sample questions (and answers) for which those

sources are best used and describe the major print, electronic, and web-based materials avail-

able. Also included are guidance for collection development and maintenance practices; fur-

ther considerations and special information particular to the topic; a final list of the “top”

reference sources in the subject area; and a list of recommended free websites. The Recom-

mended Resources Discussed in This Chapter lists are standardized as title entries for easy

discovery. As each chapter is uniformly structured, you will find it conducive both to advanced

reading in preparation for service and as an effective reference source at the desk.

Part III: Special Topics in Reference and Information Work

Chapter 13, “When and How to Use the Internet as a Reference Tool,” addresses one of the

most challenging and ubiquitous reference resources to have emerged in our times. Out-

lining the strengths and weaknesses of the Internet as a reference source, this chapter also

contains a five-step approach to using the Internet in reference transactions.

Chapter 14, “Readers’ Advisory Services,” discusses both the history of readers’ adviso-

ry (RA) and its current practice. While RA is sometimes housed in departments other than

reference (Adult, Children’s, or Young Adult Services), the librarian sitting at the reference

desk should and often must be prepared to field all questions, including an RA question.

This chapter, authored by Cindy Orr, describes the most common types of RA queries, best

practices and common mistakes in RA, and a list of recommended resources.

Chapter 15, “Reference Services for Children and Young Adults,” authored by Sujin

Huggins, discusses a developmentally appropriate approach to reference work with chil-

dren and young adults. Librarians must be conscious of both reading and development lev-

els of children and young adults. The chapter also discusses reference service for children

with special needs and includes recommended titles for reference collections for children

and young adults.

Chapter 16, “Information Literacy in the Reference Department,” discusses the impor-

tance of information literacy in all types of libraries and offers suggestions for one-to-one

classroom instruction and distance learning. In the right transaction, instruction can be a

very appropriate and valued response to a query.

Part IV: Developing and Managing Reference Collections and Services

The selection of fast-disappearing or format-changing reference materials has never

required as much dexterity and flexibility as in the current climate. Management skills are

essential for the library professional, as is the development of assessment tools that contin-

ually measure the library’s success in cresting and controlling the ebb and flow of changing

reference collections and services.

Chapter 17, “Ethics in Reference,” authored by Diana Floegel, tackles the sometimes

difficult but very important issues of professional codes of ethics, plagiarism, copyright and

intellectual property, as well as access to information and censorship.

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PREFACE / xi i ix i i i

Chapter 18, “Selecting and Evaluating Reference Materials,” provides sources for re-

view and evaluation criteria. You will also find guidance for managing the materials budget,

assessing collections, weeding titles, writing policy, and marketing collections.

Chapter 19, “Reference as Programming,” introduces the idea of using collaboration,

interactivity, and crowdsourcing programming events as a timely way to connect users with

information.

Chapter 20, “Managing Reference Departments,” looks at staff, service, and depart-

ment organization. This chapter provides options for managers and considerations for de-

cision making. While aimed at the manager, it is also a helpful glimpse for any professional

into the form and function of today’s reference departments.

Chapter 21, “Assessing and Improving Reference Services,” moves from the day-to-day

practice of reference work to the vision and development of future services. In times of

budget stringency especially, there is heightened emphasis on assessment and accountabil-

ity. From why we should assess to what and how to assess to what we should do with our

findings, this chapter encourages a hands-on and proactive approach to improvement.

Chapter 22, “Reference 2.0,” provides a comprehensive snapshot of the many tools and

sites mined from Web 2.0 technology and used to enhance reference services by innovative

libraries across the United States, Great Britain, and Canada.

Finally, chapter 23, “The Future of Information Service,” looks ahead to the models,

materials, and services that will continue to evolve and define reference services in the

foreseeable future.

ROUND 4

Skills and best practices are anchors in a reference world that is in constant flux. In asking

you to absorb the skill sets provided in this book as a means to navigate fearlessly through

the shifting sands of reference, we have been rather fearless ourselves. We have invited

stringent critiques from theoreticians and practitioners, students and faculty, as well as

colleagues and friends on the ideas, organization, choices, and usability of the text. Our

personal egos have been temporarily suspended in the search for an objectively good prod-

uct. The members of the Advisory Board (listed on the verso of the title page) have been

invaluable in helping us toward this goal. We have been in safe hands and we hope to pass

that security on to you.

David Lankes talks of libraries as facilitators of knowledge creation and reference as

conversation and participatory networking. Round 1 of this book was birthed through in-

tense conversation. We could see our fetal ideas gain bone, muscle, and tissue as we held

focus groups at ALA conferences, deconstructed scores of reference syllabi, poured through

publishers’ catalogs and websites, and immersed ourselves in “participatory networking”

with both aspiring students and grizzled practitioners. It was a heady experience. Round

2 was a process of fine-tuning, of quieter contemplation, of more in-depth questioning

and expanded experience. Comprehensiveness, currency, and readability were the ternion

values undergirding all additions, subtractions, and edits to the text. Round 3 focused on

tethering multiformat reference tools and services to the larger movements in society to

provide context to the choices we made. Round 4 has been updated and expanded within a

reference ecosystem where crowdsourcing, cloud computing, and the remarkable immedia-

cy of mobile technology are all feeding and being fed by a vigorous new style of information

seeking and reference research.

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The product you hold amalgamates the energetic fire of its birth; the controlling waters

of intensive calibration and expansion that marked Round 2; the recognition of reference

as part of a dynamically changed information universe in Round 3; and the acceptance of

continual flux and new forms of information-seeking behavior in Round 4. We hope the

evolution of our approach to best practices and resource anchors will find resonance in your

individual development as digital explorers of the twenty-first century.

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P A R T I

Fundamental Concepts

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C H A P T E R 1

Introduction to Reference and Information Services

A CHANGING REFERENCE landscape dominates the current conversation on reference

and information services. Although such services’ mission and goals remain steady, the way

they are provided is constantly changing. The development of subscription and free elec-

tronic resources has changed the sources of information available, while virtual reference

has made it possible to reach users no matter where they are. Librarians and library users

are constantly bombarded with a wide range of information choices that must be evaluated

for authenticity and accuracy. Whether at home on their computers or wandering through

the stacks, many people feel as though they are drowning in a sea of information. New

media and technologies link users to this new and growing body of global knowledge and

enable librarians to assist them virtually as well as face-to-face. Reference services are at

once a life raft, map, and compass to those who feel adrift. In providing users with a com-

bination of personalized services in a timely manner, libraries reaffirm their centrality as

twenty-first-century public institutions par excellence.

For all its contemporary relevance, the concept of reference service is over a century

old. In 1876, Samuel Green, librarian of the Worcester Free Public Library in Massachu-

setts, developed the idea of having librarians assist users in the selection of books to suit

their needs. This served a dual function, increasing the use of his library’s collection and

thereby demonstrating the need for the library. Green saw the role of the public library as

one of welcoming users by having a pleasant and cultivated female staff (Genz, 1998). Some

forty years later, in 1915, at the thirty-seventh meeting of the American Library Association,

a paper on reference work was delivered by William Warner Bishop, the superintendent of

the Reading Room of the Library of Congress. Bishop defined reference work as “the ser-

vice rendered by a librarian in aid of some sort of study,” claiming that it was “an organized

effort on the part of libraries in aid of the most expeditious and fruitful use of their books”

(Genz, 1998: 511).

Charles Williamson further developed the idea of reference service in his 1923 report

“Training for Library Service: A Report Prepared for the Carnegie Corporation of New

York,” which included a course description for reference work:

A study of the standard works of reference, general and special encyclopedias, dictionaries, an-nuals, indexes to periodicals, ready reference manuals of every kind, special bibliographies, and the more important newspapers and periodicals. Works of similar scope are compared, and the limitations of each pointed out. Lists of questions made up from practical experience are given, and the method of finding the answers discussed in the class. (Genz, 1998: 513)

More recently, several authors, including William A. Katz (2001) and Linda C. Smith and

Melissa A. Wong (2016), wrote reference texts in which they continued to refine the role of

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/ PART I : FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS4

the reference librarian over the subsequent decades.

Perhaps the most important point to remember is that reference service seeks to fulfill

the greater mission of the library by assisting individual users. Despite the many transfor-

mations that have been wrought on reference work by developments of our information

society and paradigm shifts in the self-understandings of the library, much has remained

the same. First and foremost, it is still a service in which the librarian interacts with the

patron on a one-to-one basis, whether in person or virtually. This level of personal service

has become even more important in the twenty-first century in light of the alienating and

depersonalizing effects of many information technologies. On the other hand, the way in

which librarians provide such service has changed considerably—it now extends beyond

face-to-face assistance thanks to the availability of the telephone, e-mail, and the technolo-

gy for chat and instant messaging (IM) reference. Even social media sites such as Facebook

and Twitter are now involved.

ETHICS

Ethical awareness and engagement is a crucial aspect of all library services, and the ideals

that have been established for the profession generally apply fully to those working in ref-

erence services. Just as therapists would do their patients little good if they did not keep

their patients’ information confidential, reference librarians must follow certain standards

of behavior if the service they provide is to be effective. The American Library Association’s

current Code of Ethics, last revised in 2008, provides a useful guide. This code upholds a

variety of the principles essential to the modern library.

The code encourages librarians to provide the same high level of service to all library

users and to provide information that is “accurate, unbiased and courteous.” This statement

is at the heart of good reference service, which strives to provide high-quality information

and information to all. Reference staff must understand what constitutes a good reference

interaction and must strive to meet that standard with each user query (Bunge, 1999).

The code calls for upholding the principles of intellectual freedom and resisting at-

tempts to censor library materials. Resource selection is reflected in this statement, as li-

brarians are encouraged to provide information on a subject from many points of view. The

code goes on to insist on the user’s right to privacy and confidentiality in requesting and

using library resources. Reference librarians must be particularly cognizant of this profes-

sional obligation. They must respect the privacy of users by keeping their reference inter-

views and the resources used confidential.

Intellectual property rights, addressed in the code, are of increasing importance in li-

braries. Librarians must keep current with changes in intellectual property laws—especially

copyright—and keep their users aware of these laws. Librarians must know when copying is

covered under the “fair use” provision of the law and when copying violates the copyright

law. This is more than good in itself; it also helps protect the institution, its employees, and

its users from claims of copyright infringement and intellectual dishonesty.

The relationship between personal interests and professional responsibilities is dis-

cussed in the code. The respectful treatment of coworkers and colleagues and the safeguard-

ing of the rights of all employees are encouraged. Library employees are cautioned not to

put private interests ahead of library interests. This means that employees should be cir-

cumspect in their dealings with library vendors and other outsiders so their decisions are

made on professional merit and are not influenced by personal interests.

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CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION TO REFERENCE AND INFORMATION SERVICES / 5

The code also cautions library employees not to put personal convictions or beliefs

ahead of library interests. This is of special significance to reference librarians. Sometimes

a librarian must help a user research an area that is personally against the librarian’s own

beliefs or philosophy. By putting professional duties first, the librarian can successfully as-

sist the user and provide the information needed.

Other professional library organizations have their own codes of ethics. These include,

among others, the Association for Information Science and Technology, the Society of

American Archivists, the Medical Library Association, and the American Association of Law

Libraries. A more in-depth discussion of ethics is presented in chapter 17.

KINDS OF INFORMATION SERVICE

Information service is the process of resolving information needs of users in response to a

particular question, interest, assignment, or problem and building positive relationships

with users (Radford, 1999). The Reference and User Services Association (RUSA) of the

American Library Association defines reference transactions, sometimes referred to as ref-

erence service, as “information consultations in which library staff recommend, interpret,

evaluate, and/or use information resources to help others to meet particular information

needs” (RUSA, 2008). These reference transactions can take place in person, on the tele-

phone, or virtually via e-mail, chat reference, instant messaging, social media, or videocon-

ferencing. Librarians are also creating websites, answer archives, and links to “frequently

asked questions”—all of which are designed to anticipate user questions and help people

independently find information. Traditional reference desk service continues to be highly

valued by library users in many settings, but newer forms of virtual communication such as

e-mail, chat reference, and texting have become extremely popular. Consequently, it is all

the more important for librarians to understand the range of inquiries that can be expected,

allowing them to provide a full and ready answer, regardless of the form through which the

query arises or through which the answer is delivered.

Answering Reference Questions

In light of the immense diversity and range of possible questions, being approached by

a patron with an information need can seem like a daunting prospect. Indeed, much of

the difficulty of information services arises from uncertainty about the kind of service or

breadth of information called for by a given question. Categorizing reference questions by

type is a useful way to make sense of such concerns. Three common types of reference

questions are ready reference questions, research questions, and bibliographic verification.

Ready reference questions such as “Where is Jimmy Carter’s Presidential Library?,”

“Who won the 2014 World Series?,” “What is the capital of Cambodia?,” or “What coun-

tries use the Euro?” can be readily answered using a general reference source. The librarian

may be tempted to tell the user the answer to simple ready reference questions. Yet here

the saying “Giving a man a fish feeds him for a day while teaching him to fish feeds him

for a lifetime” helps to explain the importance of providing instruction when possible. No

matter how simple they initially seem, ready reference questions provide the opportunity

for teachable moments. Taking into consideration users’ needs and willingness to engage in

instruction, librarians should lead users through the process of looking up the information

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rather than simply provide the solution.

Librarians who assist users with ready reference inquiries on a regular basis sometimes

choose to create a “ready reference” section of the most commonly used resources—either

in print or on the library’s website—to answer quick questions. Typically, such sections

include a general all-purpose encyclopedia, dictionaries, almanacs, and handbooks. Librari-

ans should keep the sources up-to-date and also avoid depending so heavily on this subset of

the collection that other sources are overlooked by library users and librarians. Ready refer-

ence questions have diminished due to the ease of answering basic questions through search

engines such as Google, though a study found that for chat reference about 30 percent of

the questions were ready reference (Connaway and Radford, 2011). Thus, ready reference

remains a cornerstone of information services, and librarians should be poised to provide

it at any time.

Research questions are more complex, may take much longer to answer, and typical-

ly require multiple sources of information. These are often the questions that require the

user to consider a variety of sources and viewpoints and to subsequently draw conclusions.

Sometimes questions that initially seem like ready reference questions are found to be far

more complex, as previously hidden facets of the user’s inquiry are revealed. Here, the vari-

ety of possible sources increases with the complexity of users’ questions. Librarians should,

for example, guide users in the use of bibliographic sources, databases, and other reference

materials. Likewise, users with complex questions may need guidance as to how to find or

request the full text of articles for which electronic databases offer only citations, allowing

them to move beyond cursory surveys of the literature.

Research questions, especially if users are unable to fully articulate the nature of their

queries, require librarians to ask additional questions through the reference interview as a

means of understanding the nature of the requests before setting out to help the patrons

answer them. The librarian will need to determine how much information is needed, what

level of information is needed, and what other sources have already been consulted. As is

discussed in chapter 3, information services call for mutual engagement, especially with

more complex questions. Reference librarians should never be passive participants, point-

ing the way to an answer. Instead, they should play the part of dynamic guides, collaborat-

ing with users on their search for information and knowledge.

Naturally, the extent of such engagement may vary from one circumstance to another.

Different types of libraries tend to have their own standards for how long librarians should

spend with users on research questions. Many public libraries recommend that users be

given five or ten minutes of personal assistance and then asked to return if more help is

needed. A university library may have a similar standard, or depending on the institution,

the librarian may invite the user to make an appointment for more in-depth research as-

sistance. Some libraries may suggest that patrons call or e-mail ahead of their visit so the

librarian can be prepared to offer the best possible assistance. Many libraries now offer

consultation services for which the enquirer may make an appointment in advance, which

allows for longer reference sessions. Librarians may also refer users to other institutions

with more specialized materials in the area of their research or offer to call back or e-mail

if additional information is found.

Finally, library users may seek bibliographic verification when they have already ob-

tained the information needed but must verify the sources. Sometimes this service is a mat-

ter of fact checking, while on other occasions users may have completed their research but

lack full citation information. As researchers increasingly depend on electronic databases

for information, compiling and formatting bibliographic citations becomes easier. Verifying

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and citing material found on webpages is more difficult since the information needed for

the citation is not always easy to find.

Readers’ Advisory Service

Readers’ advisory service, sometimes considered a type of information service, is the quest

to put the right resources in the right reader’s hands. Public and school librarians especially

are increasingly expected to provide an answer to the question “Can you help me find a

good book?” Fortunately, as demand has increased, so too has the ease of providing this

service. While there is no substitute for a librarian’s own knowledge or experience, many

new technologies serve to make readers’ advisory far easier than it was in the past. Many

online databases, for example, have functions that automatically recommend other books

to those who like a given title. Others have searchable lists of works by genre, helping read-

ers match their favorite books to similar material. As always, however, it is important to

remember that readers’ advisory, like other reference work, is predicated on the interaction

between a librarian and a library user. Asking directed questions, listening carefully to the

user’s responses, and tailoring assistance accordingly are the basis of excellent, truly helpful

service.

Readers’ advisory service is generally associated with public libraries and school librar-

ies and may be employed by those looking for fiction or sometimes literary nonfiction. In

academic libraries, it is far less common as users rarely come in searching for a good book

to read. Even so, readers’ advisory may be needed in academic settings to help researchers

looking to deepen their knowledge of a particular field. For example, a patron who has read

and enjoyed Stephen Ambrose’s Undaunted Courage but is troubled by allegations about

Ambrose’s questionable accuracy and academic honesty may want to know the titles of

books about the Lewis and Clark expedition that are both reputable and engaging. Success-

ful readers’ advisory librarians are skilled at asking users questions that enable them to as-

sist in finding books of interest. They must know a great deal about various genres of fiction

and nonfiction and be intimately familiar with their libraries’ collections. Significantly, it is

important that they be able to convey their expertise in a friendly and conversational man-

ner. Truly mastering readers’ advisory service requires a great deal of skill and practice. The

basics are explored in more detail in chapter 14.

Information Literacy Instruction

Information literacy, formerly often referred to as user instruction, may range from showing

an individual how to use the library’s online catalog and basic print and electronic reference

sources to teaching formal classroom sessions about conducting research in the library. The

basic component of information literacy includes demonstrating how, when, and why to

use various reference sources in an integrated way that will capture the user’s attention at

a teachable moment.

In today’s educational settings, the ease of using electronic resources often results in a

failure to teach more traditional research strategies. While finding superficial information

has grown easier, in-depth information using specialized resources has become increasingly

difficult to find for many students. In the library, too, approaches to instruction may vary.

Librarians often question whether to simply answer questions posed by users or to teach us-

ers how to employ the available resources. This may be contingent on the library’s mission

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or purpose. Academic institutions may call on their librarians to help students understand

how to engage effectively and independently in the research and information evaluation

process. Public librarians, by contrast, may try to teach users about reference sources in

a more informal manner as they lead users to the answers they seek. Thus, while instruc-

tion is always an important part of reference work, the degree to which librarians go about

providing it is highly contingent on the type of library and the way it has defined its role in

library instruction.

In any case, all reference librarians must be skilled at helping users find information

and answers quickly, and they must be ready to teach users how to use the reference sources

that are available. The best reference librarians develop an intuition for when to be infor-

mation providers and when to be information literacy instructors. In some libraries, only

specific, designated librarians are charged with conducting library instruction courses. Nev-

ertheless, an increasing number of librarians are required to participate in their libraries’

information literacy programs, and library school graduates are expected to be capable of

teaching basic classes on the use of library resources. As should be clear, even those infor-

mation professionals not charged with providing formal instruction have the opportunity

to informally teach those they assist. The various aspects of information literacy are cov-

ered in greater depth in chapter 16.

SELECTING AND EVALUATING PRINT AND ELECTRONIC RESOURCES

Selecting and evaluating print and electronic information for the library’s collection can be

as professionally rewarding as providing expert information service. Reference librarians’

involvement in selecting and evaluating titles for the collection helps them develop rich

knowledge of the sources at their disposal, increasing their effectiveness.

The responsibility for selecting reference materials depends largely on the size and

scope of the library. In large academic libraries, selecting reference materials may be as-

signed to subject bibliographers whose job descriptions stipulate collection development

responsibilities. On the other side of the continuum, the evaluation and purchase of re-

sources in very small libraries may be the work of a single reference librarian or coordinator

of reference. A range of shared selection and evaluation possibilities between these points

include reference materials selection committees or group assignments.

The question “What makes a resource a reference source?” has long been debated

in the library profession. For the purpose of this discussion, reference sources are those

resources set aside to be consulted for specific information rather than to be read as a

whole. In other words, reference sources contain content meant to be “looked up.” Typi-

cally, one examines a particular section of a reference source rather than its entire text.

Reference collections are always on hand either in the library or electronically, making for

a consistently available body of knowledge that comes from many parts of the world. Note

that labeling narrative or nonreference resources as “reference” to ensure that a popular

volume is always available may lead to bloated reference collections, and, thus, this is

not generally recommended. Finally, with the addition of electronic reference sources

that have become increasingly available to remote library users from their homes, dorm

rooms, offices, and elsewhere, reference collections encompass fewer print books and are

available twenty-four hours a day.

As the present trends toward shrinking budgets for reference collections, lean refer-

ence collections, and the elimination of duplication among print and electronic collections

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continue, the careful evaluation and selection of reference materials is essential. Libraries

should determine the criteria that will be used in selecting sources for their reference col-

lections. The following criteria may help determine whether a print or an electronic re-

source is a worthy addition to a library’s collection: scope, quality of content, appropriate-

ness for audience, format, arrangement, authority, currency, accuracy, ease of use, unique

coverage, and cost.

Some libraries select reference materials by reading reviews in the library professional

literature, such as Library Journal, Choice, and Booklist. Other institutions insist on phys-

ically reviewing reference sources displayed at library association conferences or through

special arrangements with publishers for trials of the electronic versions. Most libraries

employ a combination of these two. A more extensive discussion of selection and evaluation

takes place in chapter 18.

CREATING DIGITAL FINDING TOOLS

Another strategy employed by many reference departments is the creation of finding tools,

subject or research guides, and pathfinders for library users. Here, librarians act as guides,

mapping out the best routes through familiar territory and pointing out interesting sites

along the way. Subject or research guides are often prepared by academic libraries using

LibGuides (www.springshare.com/libguides) as a template for frequently requested sub-

jects, such as African studies, criminal justice, and intellectual property. Similarly, public

libraries may prepare guides that address frequently asked questions of a quotidian nature,

such as finding job information, checking the credentials of a health care provider, or

researching a family tree. Depending on the topic, audience, and needs, these guides may

assist the user to identify a selection of appropriate reference books, relevant databases and

search terms, a selection of current and authoritative websites, and/or tips for searching the

library’s catalog for additional materials.

Librarians also create websites of carefully evaluated links and other resources orga-

nized by topic. Who better than a librarian to organize information, pointing users to “the

best” sources and helping them steer clear of the dubious? Web-based finding tools are

available to users 24/7, they can be updated as often as needed, and they can include direct

links to websites and electronic reference tools. Depending on the circumstance and the

nature of a library’s web presence, such resource guides can be either general, providing

direction to broadly targeted reference resources, or subject specific. Examples of library

subject-specific guides include the Chicago Public Library’s “Explore: Chicago’s History”

(www.chipublib.org/#/filter/explore/explore-chicago-history) and the Rutgers University

Libraries’ “New Jerseyana” (https://libguides.rutgers.edu/sb/newjersey). Larger libraries,

whether academic or public, often produce these guides. Smaller libraries may be better

served by developing bibliographies for specific areas in which they have subject specialists.

PROMOTION AND MARKETING

Promotion and marketing of libraries and reference service is becoming more important

than ever. With expanding e-resource collections and e-services, library collections may

be less visible to the public, so it is even more important for libraries to call attention to

them in order to encourage use by their communities. Promoting reference service among

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individual library users can go a long way toward achieving this goal, especially insofar as it

demonstrates how the library can serve them. In large communities—urban public librar-

ies, for example—promoting the library through individual users is not enough to attract

new users, and major marketing or publicity campaigns become important. In academic,

school, and special libraries, promotion and marketing are equally essential. Use of print

and online newsletters, websites, information literacy instruction, and meetings with fac-

ulty and staff can provide opportunities to promote the library’s resources.

EVALUATING STAFF AND SERVICES

Libraries may seek to routinely evaluate their reference collections or reference service. In

Assessing Service Quality, Peter Hernon, Ellen Altman, and Robert E. Dugan (2015) empha-

size that “it is becoming increasingly important to have measures that reflect some aspects

of quality—that is, service quality—and indicate how customers respond to services and

functions” (51). The focus of measurement from the customer or external perspective can

involve questions such as “How responsive?,” “How accurate?,” “How reliable?,” “How cour-

teous?,” and “How satisfied?”

Assessing the quality of the reference interaction from the user’s perspective will help

determine the service’s effectiveness. Evaluating reference staff is another way to do this

that will also help to ensure quality reference service. The American Library Association’s

Reference and User Services Association (RUSA, 2013) has developed “Guidelines for Be-

havioral Performance of Reference and Information Service Providers” that are intended

to be used in the training, development, or evaluation of library professionals and staff. The

reference librarian’s performance is typically evaluated on both the information conveyed

to the user and the library user’s satisfaction with the interaction.

The following factors are covered by the RUSA guidelines:

• Approachability: The reference librarian must be visible to the user either

physically or virtually.

• Interest: The librarian should demonstrate a high degree of interest in the

reference transaction.

• Listening/inquiring: The librarian should demonstrate good listening and

questioning skills.

• Searching: Searching is at the intersection of an accurate search process and

good interpersonal skills.

• Follow-up: The librarian must determine if the user is satisfied with the

results of the search/interaction. (RUSA, 2013)

These performance guidelines may form the backbone of a library’s staff evaluation instru-

ment, whether the instrument is a simple self-evaluation checklist, a peer-evaluation tool

or a formal evaluation system influencing earning potential.

In addition to evaluating staff, the library may measure its productivity or efficiency

with quantitative measures that include the number of questions answered and the fre-

quency with which print and/or electronic sources are consulted. Smaller libraries may

count the number and type of all in-person questions answered by the reference staff. Larg-

er libraries frequently rely on quarterly one-week periods to estimate the number of ques-

tions answered over the course of a year. Depending on the available resources, data may

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be recorded using hand-held computers, by making hash marks on a form, or by any means

in between.

A variety of other evaluation strategies are also available to libraries. For example, an-

other useful measurement is assessing the quality of the resources available. Departmen-

tal evaluations can include issues of resource allocation such as how the library’s budget

allocates for library staff, print and electronic resources, computers and networks, and

buildings. Evaluation methods frequently used to gauge users’ satisfaction with reference

services and sources include questionnaires, surveys, focus groups, observation, and inter-

views.

It is crucial that library administrators determine what is to be measured and against

what standards before choosing the preferred method of evaluation. There are many sourc-

es available for detailed information on designing evaluation instruments for libraries. Li-

brarians should carefully consider these aspects: selecting the best method; developing and

field-testing the instrument; administering the survey, questionnaire, or interview; plan-

ning the observation; avoiding interviewer bias; and scores of ethical issues. Analyzing data

and developing conclusions and recommendations may require advanced training, and in

some cases libraries may need to hire evaluation experts. These and other questions are

considered in greater depth in chapter 21.

THE CHANGING NATURE OF REFERENCE

As the form of the library has evolved in the years since Samuel Green’s pronouncements in

1876, so, too, has the nature of reference services. Today, reference stretches far beyond the

walls of the library and has loftier goals than welcoming users to the library with a “culti-

vated female staff.” Academic libraries and some special libraries in particular have already

seen a slowing of traffic to the physical library and an increasing use of the library’s online

resources. Users can ask questions 24/7 through virtual reference and expect an immediate

response. Likewise, they can access electronic resources that the library provides through

its website. Virtual reference is growing quickly; the appeal of chat, instant messaging,

social media, and other technology-based services such as mobile technology point to a gen-

erational paradigm shift ahead. These online reference services have the advantage of being

convenient and necessary in this fast-paced world.

In numerous forms and fashions, technology continues to change reference services.

Librarians must be ready to learn new technology and adapt to the needs of users unable

to imagine a world without electronic resources. Like few other professionals, librarians

must be willing to ride the waves of such change, adapting to meet the needs of their users.

Whether it is a smartphone, an iPad, or a laptop, users will want to receive and read their

information via the technology of their choice.

New models of reference are also developing to meet different user needs. Libraries are

adding more points of service such as an information desk near the front of the library, a

reference service point combined with other library services, or an in-depth reference cen-

ter where a user can sit down with a librarian and work out a plan for researching a paper. In

other situations, librarians rove the library to help users who do not approach the reference

desk, may meet individually with users to discuss their reference or research needs, or work

as an embedded librarian in an online course.

These and other new strategies are changing the way libraries offer information ser-

vices. Looking ahead, librarians must be aware that reference work will no doubt be based

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increasingly on electronic means of communication. At the same time, it will continue to

be a personal service, although not necessarily face-to-face. There will be more emphasis on

electronic materials, while some older materials will still need to be consulted in print for-

mat. Even so, the way librarians and users find and convey information is as fundamental

today as it ever was. The chapters ahead explore the cutting edge of contemporary refer-

ence, demonstrating how to keep this crucial service central to the modern library.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER READING

Agosto, Denise E., Lily Rozakis, Craig MacDonald, and Eileen G. Abels. 2011. “A Model of the Reference and

Information Service Process: An Educators’ Perspective.” Reference and User Services Quarterly 50,

no. 3: 235–244.

This article provides an overview of current trends in the delivery of information services,

models of practice, and the role of the librarian in education. Reference today is found to be

a more collaborative, evaluative process than in the past.

Alexander, Laurie, Jane Blumenthal, Karen Downing, Barbara MacAdam, K. Rana Gurpreet, Karen Reiman-

Sendi, Nicole Scholtz, and Laurie A. Sutch. 2011. “Mlibrary: Concepts for Redefining Reference.”

Journal of Library Administration 51, no. 4 (April 22): 326–342.

The authors examine the evolution of library reference services over the course of ten years

at the University of Michigan Library. This study of one library provides general insights

into how reference has changed during this period, including the reconfiguration of space

in the reference room, reference inquiry trends, shifts in the role of academic librarians, as

well as the emergence of new information needs and new technology.

Buss, Stephen P. 2016. “Do We Still Need Reference Services in the Age of Google and Wikipedia?” The

Reference Librarian 57, no. 4: 265–271.

Buss argues that even as reference services and the role of the information professional

change, the user’s need for assistance will still be there.

Connaway, Lynn S., Timothy J. Dickey, and Marie L. Radford. 2011. “‘If It Is Too Inconvenient I’m Not

Going After It’: Convenience as a Critical Factor in Information-Seeking Behaviors.” Library and

Information Science Research 33, no. 3: 179–190.

This article presents the findings of two multiyear empirical studies on how perceived con-

venience affects information-seeking behavior. The findings are put in the context of grati-

fication theory. Convenience is shown to affect users’ choice of resources, their satisfaction

with the resources, and the time horizon of the search process.

Ismail, Lizah. 2010. “What Net Generation Students Really Want: Determining Library Help-Seeking

Preferences of Undergraduates.” Reference Services Review 38, no. 1: 10–27.

Ismail discusses the results of a survey of undergraduates at Marywood University, which,

to the surprise of the university’s librarians, indicated that students preferred in-person

reference encounters to virtual reference. Findings underscore the benefit of assessing the

needs and preferences of users before investing too exclusively in new models of service.

Kilzer, Rebekah. 2011. “Reference as Service, Reference as Place: A View of Reference in the Academic

Library.” The Reference Librarian 52, no. 4: 291–299.

Kilzer examines how reference and research models are trending toward a distributed vari-

ety of services at point of need. She explores the traditional concept of “reference as place”

and reinterprets this concept in light of reference services as they exist today. Kilzer shows

that proactive methods and collaboration between universities and campus entities are

increasing in importance.

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Nunn, Brent, and Elizabeth Ruane. 2011. “Marketing Gets Personal: Promoting Reference Staff to Reach

Users.” Journal of Library Administration 51, no. 3 (March 24): 291–300.

Nunn and Ruane suggest an outreach campaign to address the lack of awareness of ref-

erence services by promoting the personal aspect of reference through person-to-person

interactions, word-of-mouth recommendations, and establishing relationships with faculty

and students.

O’Connor, Lisa, and Kacy Lundstrom. 2011. “The Impact of Social Marketing Strategies on the Information

Seeking Behaviors of College Students.” Reference and User Services Quarterly 50, no. 4: 351–365.

The authors apply social marketing, “the application of commercial marketing techniques

to the resolution of social and health problems,” to academic library outreach. Their work

shows how social marketing strategy results in some positive changes in information-seek-

ing behavior among college students, specifically a reduction in procrastination and an

increase in help seeking. However, it does not show an effect on the selection of materials.

Smith, Debbi A., and Victor T. Oliva. 2010. “Becoming a Renaissance Reference Librarian in Academe:

Attitudes toward Generalist and Subject Specific Reference and Related Profession Development.”

Reference Services Review 38, no. 1: 125–151.

Smith and Oliva discuss librarians’ attitudes about general and specialized reference ques-

tions and the level of subject-area preparation needed by academic librarians at the refer-

ence desk. They also address professional development and confidence level.

Stoddart, Rick, and Beth R. Hendrix. 2016. “Learning at the Reference Desk: A Pilot Project to Align

Reference Transactions with University Learning Outcomes.” Journal of Academic Librarianship 43,

no. 1: 3–7.

This article reports on a project designed to measure the educational impact of reference

services on students.

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND WORKS CITED

American Library Association. 2008. “Code of Ethics of the American Library Association.” American

Library Association. www.ala.org/tools/ethics.

Bunge, Charles A. 1999. “Ethics and the Reference Librarian.” The Reference Librarian, no. 66: 25–33.

Connaway, Lynn S., and Marie L. Radford. 2011. Seeking Synchronicity: Revelations and Recommendations for

Virtual Reference. Dublin, OH: OCLC Research. www.oclc.org/en/reports/synchronicity.html.

Genz, Marcella D. 1998. “Working the Reference Desk.” Library Trends 46, no. 3 (Winter): 505–525.

Hernon, Peter, Ellen Altman, and Robert E. Dugan. 2015. Assessing Service Quality: Satisfying the

Expectations of Library Customers. 3rd ed. Chicago: American Library Association.

Katz, William A. 2001. Introduction to Reference Work. 2 vols. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Radford, Marie L. 1999. The Reference Encounter: Interpersonal Communication in the Academic Library.

Chicago: Association of College and Research Libraries.

RUSA (Reference and User Services Association). 2008. “Definitions of Reference.” American Library

Association. www.ala.org/rusa/guidelines/definitionsreference.

——— . 2013. “Guidelines for Behavioral Performance of Reference and Information Service Providers.”

American Library Association. www.ala.org/rusa/resources/guidelines/guidelinesbehavioral.

Smith, Linda C., and Melissa A. Wong, eds. 2016. Reference and Information Services: An Introduction. 5th ed.

Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.

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/ 475 /

SUB J EC T INDE X

AAAD (acronyms and abbreviations dictionaries),

128

Aber, Jeremy Ward, 216

Aber, Susan Elizabeth Ward, 216

academic libraries, 322, 347

access, equitable, 339

active listening, 27

almanacs, 106

alternative facts, 264

Altman, Ellen, 10

American Association of School Librarians (AASL),

320

appeal factors, 285–286, 287, 290

approachability

guidelines on, 26

as performance guideline, 10

Arp, Lori, 323

assessments

acting on, 411–413

focus of, 398–399

future of, 448

methods for, 399–410

ongoing, 413–414

reasons for, 397–398

Association for Library Service to Children

(ALSC), 272

Association of College and Research Libraries

(ACRL), 320–321, 323, 327, 328, 389

Association of Educational Communications and

Technology (AECT), 320

atlases, 209, 210–214, 217

Aulisio, George J., 338, 341, 342

authority headings, 44

availability, 17

Avery, Susan, 324

avoidance, 50–51

BBaker, Nicolson, 355

Barnhart, Charles Lewis, 130

Barnum, P. T., 372

Barsh, Adele, 335, 343

Bartlett, John, 133

Bay Area Community Colleges Information

Competency Assessment Project, 328

Beard, David, 295

Beck, Susan E., 324

behaviors to avoid during reference interview,

22–24

Bent, Moira J., 373

Berkowitz, Robert. E., 321

Besterman, Theodore, 66

bias, 339, 340

bibliographic control, 67–68

bibliographic instruction (BI), 319, 364

bibliographic management software, 135

bibliographic resources

bibliographic control and, 67

bibliographies of, 66

collection development and maintenance and,

68–69

evaluating, 69

free websites for, 71

further considerations for, 69–70

national catalogs and bibliographies, 61–63

nonprint materials, 66

overview of, 59–60

periodicals and newspapers, 65–66

publishing and library resources, 67

questions answered by, 60–61

top, 70

trade bibliographies, 63

uses for, 60

U.S. retrospective bibliography, 63–65

bibliographic verification, 6–7

“Big 6”, 321

biographical information resources


232–234

evaluating, 233–234



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/ SUBJECT INDE X476

biographical information resources (cont.)

major resources used, 226–232

overview of, 225

questions answered by, 226

top, 234

biographies

of contemporary people, 226–228

retrospective, 228–230

Bishop, Corinne, 386

Bishop, William Warner, 3, 364

Black, Henry Campbell, 183

Blanchat, Kelly Marie, 389

blogs, 293, 423–426

book blogs, 293

Bradley, Phil, 270

Branch, Benjamin Dewayne, 215

Brown, Nancy, 281, 294, 295

browsing, creative, 38

BRS, 147

budget management, 354

Burgess, John T. F., 343

Burke, Susan K., 294

business resources


192–195

evaluating, 195






top, 199

Buss, Stephen, 444, 446

Butcher, Karyle, 383

CCanada

almanacs for, 106

bibliographic resources in, 63

dictionaries for, 126

government publications from, 249

law resources in, 187

maps for, 214

Caro, Susanne, 241

case studies, 409–410

catalog, library, 44–45, 68

categorizing answer, 34–36

category mistakes, 15–16

censorship, 340–341

Chan, Wai Sze, 411

chatbots, 437

chat reference, 24–25, 385–386, 387, 431, 444

Children’s Internet Protection Act (CIPA), 341

children’s reference service


311

current trends in, 310–311

databases for, 160–161

dictionaries for, 129–130

encyclopedias for, 92

information needs and behaviors for, 301–303

introduction to, 301

managing, 311–312

online searching process and, 303–306

reference process and, 306

types of services for, 306–310

citation indexes, 159

clarifying informational need, 42–43

clarifying questions, 16, 19

Clark, Amanda, 16

close-ended questions, 19

closing interviews, 21

collaboration, 41–42, 420–429, 448

collaborative expertise, 366–369

collection development and maintenance

bibliographic resources and, 68–69

biographical information resources and,

232–234

budget management and, 354

business resources and, 192–195

children’s reference service and, 311

databases and, 161–163

encyclopedias and, 92–96

ethics in, 340–342

evaluation criteria for, 350–353

geographic information resources and, 215–217

government information services and, 250

health resources and, 192–195

identifying, selecting, and evaluating materials

for, 349–353

law resources and, 192–195

ongoing assessment and, 354


print versus electronic resources, 353

promotion and marketing and, 357

ready reference sources and, 114–115

weeding and, 354–355

word resources and, 136

writing policy on, 355–357

Committee on Information Technology Literacy,

320

Committee on Institutional Cooperation, 62

communications trap, 22

alastore.ala.org

SUBJECT INDE X / 47 7

community experts, 365–366

competencies, new, 446–448

competency, sense of, 43–44

computer instruction, 364

concordances, 121, 133–134

confidentiality, 4, 173, 335, 338–339

Connaway, Lynn S., 16

consortial initiatives, 389, 445

content evaluation tool, 274, 275–276

copyright, 4, 341–342

Côté, Maryvon, 16

Crawford, Walt, 420

creative browsing, 38

criticality, 172

cross-disciplinary questions, 36

crowdsourcing, 369–370

Crowdsourcing Consortium for Libraries and

Archives (CCLA), 369

Crowley, Bill, 282–283, 294–295

culture, communication and, 16

Cunningham, Thomas H., 321

current awareness services, 114

current questions, 35–36

customization, 420–421, 431–434

DDali, Keren, 295

D’Angelo, Barbara J., 326

databases

for art and architecture, 157

business, 159, 191–192

for children and young adults, 160–161


161–163

for education, 154

electronic, 45–50

for ethnic studies, 158


final thoughts on, 164



history of, 147–148

for humanities, 155–156

for language and literature, 156

legal, 185–186

for library and information science, 157–158


medical, 159, 180–181

mobile access for, 164

multidisciplinary periodical, 150–151

for music, 156–157

newspaper, 152

overview of, 147

for psychology, 158


for science and technology, 152–154

for social sciences, 154–155

for special types of materials, 159–160

subject-based, 152–159

top, 164

uses for, 148

depository libraries, 240–241

Dervin, Brenda, 16, 18

Dewdney, Patricia, 16, 18, 21, 22, 23

Dewey, John, 370

dictionaries

abridged, 124–126

acronyms and abbreviations, 128

bilingual, 130–131

biographical, 230

business, 188

children’s, 129–130


“gated” word, 127–128

general, 123–126

geographical, 209–210

learners’, 126

legal, 183–184


medical, 175–176

metadictionaries, 129



rhyming, 128–129

sign language, 132

slang, 127–128

speaking, 132

special constituency, 129–132

specialized, 126–129

subject, 131

top, 140

unabridged, 124

usage of, 121–122

visual, 127

for visually and hearing impaired, 131–132

digital and online encyclopedias, 88–90

digital finding tools, creating, 9

digital literacy, 365

Dimsdale, Denise, 340

direct observations, 403–404

directories

business, 188

legal, 184–185

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directories (cont.)

medical, 179–180

subject, 268–269

U.S. government information, 242

Dishno, Richard, 213

dismissive behavior, 23

Dogpile, 268, 269

Drupal, 116–117

Dugan, Robert E., 10, 241

Ee-books, 338, 339, 342

EBSCO, 150

e-government, 248

E-Government Act (2002), 240, 244

Eisenberg, Michael B., 321

election information, 247–248

electronic databases, 45–50

electronic discussion lists and alerts, 194–195

electronic resources. See also Internet reference;

individual resource types

bundling of, 89–90

changes due to, 445

management of, 389–390, 446–447

selecting and evaluating, 8–9

elementary answers, 41–42

Ellis, Lisa A., 324

e-mailed questionnaires, 402

e-mail reference, 444

embedded programming, 373

encyclopedia.com, 99

encyclopedias

for children and young adults, 92


92–96

digital and online, 88–90



general, 82–90

legal, 184


medical, 176–178



specialized, 82–83, 90–92

structure and use of, 78–79

top, 98

weeding and, 355

entrepreneurship aids, 191

equitable access, 339

ethical literacy, 343

ethics

ALA policies on, 336–338

among librarians, 342–343

business, legal, and medical reference and, 173

in collection development and management,

340–342

introduction to, 4–5, 335

library patrons and, 342

in reference service, 338–339

sample considerations involving, 335–336

evaluating information, 20–21

Evans, Charles, 64

executive branch publications, 243–246

exhibits, 371–373

experts, programming with, 364–366

F“fair use” provision, 4, 341–342

fake news, 264

familiarity, 17

Farber, Evan, 319

Fichter, Darlene, 437

FIT (fluent with information technology), 320

Flaspohler, Molly R., 325, 327

focus groups, 407–409

folksonomies, 428–429

follow-up

guidelines on, 26


providing, 43

reference interviews and, 21

form subdivisions, 44–45

Forte, Eric J., 241

Fosmire, Michael, 215

Frank, Donald G., 16

Franklin, Benjamin, 106

future of information service, 443–450

GGalvin, Jeanne, 324

Garnar, Martin, 383

Gausted, Edwin, 213

gazetteers, 208, 209–210

Gee, M., 373

gender, 17

general encyclopedias, 82–90

Genovese, Michael, 243

genre, 286

geographic information resources


215–217

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top, 218

Gers, Ralph, 21

Gibbons, Susan, 433

Ginsparg, Paul, 262

GIS sources, 215

globes, 209

Glose, Mary B., 65

government information services


250

evaluating, 250





top, 251

Government Performance and Results Act (1993),

397

Granville, Bartholomew de, 93–94

Green, Samuel, 3, 443

Gregory, Vicki L., 16

Gross, Melissa, 21–22

Hhandbooks and manuals

business, 188–190

medical, 178–179

Harris, John, 78

Hartnett, Cassandra J., 241

Hayes, Derek, 213

HB2165 (Arizona), 339

health information sites, 181–182

health resources


192–195

evaluating, 195






top, 197

health statistics, 181–182

Hensley, Randy Burke, 320

Hernon, Peter, 10, 241, 400

hidden observations, 405–406

hierarchy of needs, 172

Hoffert, Barbara, 293

Houston, Anne, 361–362

“how” facts, 112–114

Hurst-Wahl, Jill, 435

Huwe, Terence K., 448

Iimposed query, 21–22, 36

IM reference, 24–25, 387, 444

indexes

biographical, 226

business, 191–192

citation, 159

history of, 147–148

legal, 185–186

medical, 180–181

newspaper, 152

overview of, 147

subject-based, 152–159

top, 165

uses for, 148

informational need, clarifying, 42–43

information literacy

approaches to, 321–322

assessment and evaluation of, 327–328

in classroom setting, 325–326

ethics and, 323–324


future of, 447

information-seeking behavior and, 328

instruction in, 7–8

by library type, 322–323

one-on-one instruction for, 324–325, 364


standards for, 320–321

technology and, 326–327

virtual reference and, 325

information service, kinds of, 5–8

in-house surveys, 400–401

initiation, 17

intellectual freedom, 340–341

intellectual property rights, 4

interactivity, 262

intercultural communication, 16

interest, 10, 18, 26

interest groups, 369

International ICT (Information and Communica-

tions Technology) Literacy Panel, 328

Internet

filtering of, 341

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Internet (cont.)

as full-fledged reference tool, 259–260

growth of, 259

Internet reference. See also electronic resources;

individual resource types

evaluating, 264

evaluating results of, 272–276

nature of, 260–266

strengths of, 260–263

successful, 266–276

weaknesses of, 263–266

interviews, 403

investment guides, 190

JJackson, Pamela Alexondra, 327

Jacobson, Trudi E., 321

Janes, Joseph W., 16, 25, 38, 444

Jennerich, Edward J., 16

Jennerich, Elaine Z., 16

Johnson, Samuel, 137, 139

Johnson, Sarah, 293

judicial branch publications, 246

KKatz, William A., 3–4

Katzer, Jeffrey, 16

Kazlauskas, Edward, 17

Kelly, James, 64

Kern, Kathleen, 27

Kleckner, Karen, 293

Klinefelter, Ann, 338

Knapp, Patricia, 319

knowledge, professional, 172–173

knowledge bases, 50, 103, 388

known-item search, 44

Kobelski, Pamela, 321

Kochkina, Svetlana, 16

Kong, Ningning, 215

Kuhlthau, Carol Collier, 284, 321, 328

Kwon, Nahyun, 16

LLampert, Lynn D., 323

Lankes, David R., 420

Lanning, Scott, 321

Larsgaard, Mary Lynette, 217

law resources


192–195

evaluating, 195

free websites for, 200–201





top, 198

learning styles, 381, 392

learning triangle, 363

legislative branch publications, 242–243

Leip, Dave, 248

library catalogs, 44–45, 62, 68, 194

Library of Congress, 61–62

Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH),

44–45, 162

library orientation tours, 364

Lisewski, Amy, 335, 343

listening/inquiring, 10, 26

list skills, 270–271

local facts, 107

locating information, 20–21

logic models, 376

Luban, John, 399

Luo, Lili, 16, 343

Lupien, Pascal, 25

Lynch, Mary Jo, 16

MMachine Readable Cataloging (MARC) records, 68

Mackey, Thomas P., 321

Maid, Barry M., 326

mailed questionnaires, 402

makerspaces, 370–371

management

department organization and, 382–383

learning styles and, 381

of new roles, 388–392

of staff and service delivery, 383–388

team-based, 382

Mann, Thomas, 264

manuals, overview of, 121

Map and Geospatial Information Round Table

(MAGIRT), 216

maps, 208–209, 210–214, 247

marketing, reference, 9–10, 390–391, 447–448,

449–450

mashups, 432–434

Maslow, Abraham, 172

Mawhinney, Tara, 16

May, Anne, 289

McClure, Charles R., 400

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metadictionaries, 129

metasearch engines, 268

Michell, Gillian, 22

microblogs, 423, 426–427

mobile services, 164, 384–385, 435–437

Molnar, John Edgar, 64

Mon, Lorri, 16, 25

Montessori, Maria, 363

mood preferences, 286

Moran, Barbara B., 392

Morgan, Kathleen O’Leary, 248

Morgan, Scott E., 248

Morrison, Andrea M., 241

Moyer, Jessica, 285

Nnational catalogs and bibliographies, 61–63

National Forum on Information Literacy, 319–320

National Higher Education ICT Literacy Initiative,

328

negative closures, 23

Nelson, Michael, 243–244

neutral questioning model, 16, 18–19

newspapers. See periodicals and newspapers

next-generation information access systems (NGI-

ASs), 264

Nicholson, Scott, 420

Nilsen, Kirsti, 259

Nolan, Christopher W., 21

nonprint materials, 66

Oobituaries, 230

observations, 403–406

OCLC (Online Computer Library Center), 68

Ohe, Kevin, 89–90

Ojala, Marydee, 104

one-on-one instruction, 324–325, 364–366

online catalogs, 68, 194

online resources, legal, 186–187. See also electronic

resources; Internet reference

online surveys, 402–403

open-access journals, 159

open-ended questions, 19

open source encyclopedias, 91

O’Sullivan, Carmel, 323

outreach, 371–373, 447

overviews, 38–39

Overy, Richard, 212

Owen, Tim, 37

Ppartnership programs, 365–366, 371–373, 388

Patriot Act, 335, 339

Pearl, Nancy, 288

peer-to-peer exchanges, 362

periodicals and newspapers

as bibliographic resources, 65–66

databases for, 149–150, 151

multidisciplinary databases for, 150–151

Peters, Gerhard, 243–244

plagiarism, 323–324

planning, future, 448–449

podcasts, 423, 427

portals, 91–92

Presidential Task Force on Information Literacy,

319

Printing Act (1895), 240–241

print resources, selecting and evaluating, 8–9

privacy, 4, 173, 335, 338–339

programming. See reference as programming

promotion and marketing. See marketing,

reference

providing appropriate information, 43

proximity, 17

public libraries, 322–323, 347

publisher sites, 193–194

publishing and library resources, 67

QQayyum, M. Asin, 16

QR codes, 434

question negotiation, 16, 18–20

questions

follow-up, 21

improving skills for, 27

open-ended versus close-ended, 19

quotations, 133

RRadford, Gary P., 21

Radford, Marie L., 16, 17, 21

Ranganathan, S. R., 137, 138

rapport with user, establishing, 17–18

read-alike lists, 288

Reader Privacy Act (New Jersey), 335, 339

readers’ advisory service, 7

readers’ advisory services

best practices for, 289–290

blogs and, 423–424

current status and importance of, 282–285

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readers’ advisory services (cont.)

future of, 447

how to conduct conversation for, 285–290

indirect, 292–293

introduction to, 281–282

keeping current for, 293–294

key works and tools for, 290–292

mistakes and, 289

new trends in, 294–295

research on, 284–285

summary of, 296

READ Scale, 35

ready reference questions, 5–6

ready reference sources


114–115





top, 116

wikis, 421–422

Reference 2.0

collaboration, 420–429

concluding remarks on, 437–439

customization, 420–421, 431–434

description of, 419–421

development of, 444–445

introduction to, 419

seamlessness, 420–421, 434–437

social networking, 420–421, 429–431

reference and information services

assessing and improving, 397–414

changing nature of, 11–12


new roles for, 388–392

organizing, 382–383

staff and service delivery, 383–388

Reference and User Services Association (RUSA),

5, 10, 25, 282

reference as programming

assessment and evaluation of, 374–376


learning triangle and, 363

strengths and challenges of, 374

types of, 363–373

reference blogs, 423–426

reference collection development. See collection

development and maintenance

reference desk, managing, 383–384

reference interviews

conducting, 17–21

cultural differences and, 26

improving skills for, 26–27

problematic strategies in, 21–24

purpose of, 15–16

research on, 16

RUSA Guidelines for, 25–26

by telephone, 24

virtual, 24–25

reference questions, answering, 5–6

reference wikis, 421–423

referral sheets, 196

Reichel, Mary, 321

rejection factors, 287

relationship marketing, 391

research data services (RDS), 388–389

research guides, 9

research questions, 6

Resource Description and Access (RDA), 68

resource selection and evaluation, 8–9.

See also collection development and

maintenance

restraint, 173

results, saving, 49–50

retrospective questions, 35–36

Rettig, James, 449

reviews

published, 192–193

sources of, 349

road atlases, 213–214

Roget, Peter, 132

Roorbach, Orville, 64

Rosenberg, Betty, 282

Ross, Catherine Sheldrick, 16, 21, 23, 259, 284–285,

286

Rourke, Lorna, 25

roving reference, 384–385, 446

RSS (really simple syndication) feeds, 114, 388,

431–432

SSabin, Joseph, 64

Saricks, Joyce, 281, 285–286, 294, 295

school media centers, 322

Schweitzer, Albert, 178

SCIS (social and collaborative information

seeking), 361

seamlessness, 420–421, 434–437

search engine optimization (SEO), 264–265

search engines

academic, 267–268

general, 266–267

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searching

guidelines on, 26


practicing art of, 44

search operators, 271–272

search results, evaluating, 272–276

search strategy

developing successful, 20

worksheets for, 46, 47

search techniques

answer types and, 39–42

gameplan for, 42–51

introduction to, 33

tools for, 34–39

search terms, 270–271

Seavey, Charles A., 241

self-imposed observations, 406

sense-making, 18

service delivery, 383–388

services, evaluating, 10–11

Sevetson, Andrea L., 241

Seward, Lilli J., 21

Shah, Chirag, 362

Shaw, Ralph R., 64

Shoemaker, Richard H., 64

Shuler, John A., 241

Silverstein, Joanne, 420

single source questions, 36

skilled answers, 40–41

Skype-based services, 388

smartphones, 263, 282, 435–436

Smellie, William, 83

Smith, Duncan, 295

Smith, Linda C., 3–4

SMS reference, 387

social media/networking, 269–270, 387–388,

420–421, 429–431

social tagging, 45

specialized encyclopedias, 82–83, 90–92

special libraries, 323, 347–348

specific questions, 36

Spratford, Becky, 293

SQA (social question and answer), 361, 366, 369

SQUIN (single question aimed at inducing

narrative) technique, 295

staff, 10–11, 383–388

state governments, 248

statistical resources, 246–247

strategizing, 42

Straw, Joseph E., 25

Strong, James, 134

Strothmann, Molly, 294

study groups, 369

Stueart, Robert D., 392

style guides, 134–135

subcategorizing, 38

subject experts, 366

subject guides, 9, 422

subject headings, 162

suggestion boxes, 399–400

surveys, 400–403

Swope, Mary Jane, 16

TTalbert, Richard J. A., 213

Taylor, Robert S., 16

team-based management, 382

technology. See also electronic resources; Internet

reference; Reference 2.0

impact of, 11

reference interviews and, 16

telephone directories, 116

telephone interviews, 24

telephone surveys, 401–402

Tennant, Roy, 40

testing direction, 37–39, 444

text messaging, 24–25, 387

Theroux, Alexander, 121

thesauri, 132–133

Thi-Beard, Kate Vo, 295

Thiry, Christopher J. J., 216

Thorndike, Edward Lee, 130

time frame, 34–35

Toomy, Alice F., 66

trade bibliographies, 63–65

travel guides, 209, 215

Tronier, Suzanne, 384–385

Trott, Barry, 343

Trump, Donald J., 437

trust, 361

Tuohy, Patricia, 371–372

Turner, Nancy B., 324

Twain, Mark, 132

21st Century Information Fluency Project, 276

Tyckoson, David, 443–444

Uunion catalogs, 62

United Kingdom

almanacs for, 106

bibliographic resources in, 62–63

dictionaries for, 125–126

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United Kingdom (cont.)

government publications from, 249

health resources in, 182

law resources in, 185, 187

United Nations documents, 252

United Nations publications, 248–249

University of California, 62

usage guides, 134–135

user appropriate resources, 36

user instruction. See information literacy

U.S. government, guides to, 241–242

U.S. retrospective bibliography, 63–65

utility, levels of, 39

UX (user experience) librarians, 397, 410

Vvalue-added answers, 39–40

Verminski, Alana, 389

video sharing, 428

virtual reference, 24, 385–387, 391–392

virtual worlds, 435

visualizing answer, 37

Vnuk, Rebecca, 293

VoIP (voice-over Internet protocol), 388

WWalker, Claire, 16

Wang, Jian, 16

Warf, Barney, 209

web management, 389

Webster, Noah, 124

weeding, 354–355

“what” facts, 109–110

“when” facts, 111–112

“where” facts, 112

“which” facts, 110–111

“who” facts, 107–109

Whyte, Susan Barnes, 321

widgets, 431

wikis, 421–423

Wikoff, Nora, 25

Williamson, Charles, 3

Wilson, H. W., 64, 185

Wisniewski, Jeff, 437

Wong, Melissa A., 3–4

Woodward, Beth S., 323

Wooley, John T., 243–244

word resources. See also concordances;

dictionaries; style guides; thesauri;

usage guides

acquisition of, 137–138


136


final thoughts on, 139–140


overview of, 121

referral and, 138–139

top, 140

Wyatt, Neal, 281, 287, 290, 294

XXing, 108

YYelton, Andromeda, 338

Young, Jeffrey, 435

ZZhang, Ying, 386

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