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327© Th e Author(s) 2016T. Kirchengast, Victims and the Criminal Trial, DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-51000-6

A Accessory prosecutor , 29, 31, 33,

150 . See also Inquisitorial justice

Adhesive prosecutor , 29, 31, 33, 44, 150–1, 156, 257 . See also Inquisitorial justice

Ad hoc courts and tribunals , 15, 18–19

Administrative Appeals Chamber (AAC) , 247–8, 250

Administrative law , 5, 239–42, 270

Adversarial criminal trial , 1, 8, 15, 41, 45, 80, 126, 160–1, 267, 291–2, 295–300, 305–7

Adversarial justice , 4, 11, 135, 151, 267, 295, 303

African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights , 22

African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights , 22

African Court of Justice and Human Rights , 23

African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights , 22

African Human Rights Court , 23 Agency , 55, 297, 301–2 Agency Agreement , 4, 216, 236, 269 Alternative pathways to justice , 11,

42–3, 220, 296 American Convention on Human

Rights , 22 American Declaration of the Rights

and Duties of Man , 22 Amicus curiae , 29 Appeals , 205–13

Consultation regarding , 207–8 Information and consultation

regarding , 206–13

Index

328 Index

Lack of victim rights in , 206 As to pre-trial outcomes , 209–11 Substantive victim rights and ,

207–11 VIS during appeal , 211–12

Apprehended Violence Orders , 4, 158–9 . See also Domestic violence

B Bail , 3, 4, 41, 42, 48, 60–2, 80, 81,

121, 122, 195–7, 217, 272, 296

C Canadian Criminal Code , 56, 77, 190 Canadian Victims Bill of Rights , 32,

56 Canadian Victims Bill of Rights 2015.

See Canadian Victims Bill of Rights

Charge-bargaining , 66, 68 . See also Plea-bargaining

Charging , 48, 55–60, 64, 65, 69, 70, 81 . See also Police

Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act 2006 (Vic) , 149

Charters of rights , 4, 269–3 Child Sex Off ender Disclosure

Scheme , 54 Child victims , 17, 73, 145, 261, 294 Circle sentencing , 6, 86–7, 104–8,

110–11, 115 Citizen’s arrest , 50

Civil Claims Alien Tort Claims Act , 23

Civil Law , 3–7, 29–34, 44, 126–30, 150–7, 160, 297 . See also Inquisitorial justice

Code for Criminal Procedure (Italy) , 151–7

Commissioner of Victims’ Rights , 279–86

Crime Victims’ Rights Act , 286–90

Dispute resolution and , 279–80 Functions of offi ce , 280–3 Independence of offi ce and ,

283–6 Legal counsel and , 275, 282,

289–90 Mandamus, writ of , 287–90 Non-enforceable standing and ,

272, 278–9 Powers generally , 270–2 Power to compel and , 275, 278,

286 Prosecutions and , 207, 275–7 Representational powers for

victims , 127, 273, 276, 277, 285

Rights and powers granted and , 267–9

Right to consult , 272–3, 275–6 Statutory reforms and , 270–2

Committals , 41, 71–6, 80, 116, 149, 151

Community Impact Statement (CIS) , 43, 172, 187–92, 194

Community justice , 42, 86, 115–18 Compensation , 235–65 . See also

Restitution

Appeals (cont.)

Index 329

As answer to criminal act , 22, 237–8, 251–5

Character of the victim , 245–51 Civil and Administrative Tribunal

(NSW) , 245 Compensation and sentencing ,

251–5 Counselling and medical treatment ,

236–8, 243–4, 264 Court based compensation , 251–5 Crime of violence requirement

(UK) , 246–8 Criminal injuries compensation ,

239–41 Criminal Injuries Compensation

Appeals Pane , 241 Development in NSW , 242–5 Development in UK , 240–1 Eligibility criteria and , 245–51;

255–257 EU obligations , 241, 257 Ex gratia payments , 235–6, 239 French law and procedure , 257–9 Good citizen (UK) , 250–1 History of compensation , 239–40 ICC and , 259–62 Immediate payments and , 240,

243–4 Innocent victim (UK) , 248–9 Lump sum payments , 243–55, 264 New Zealand and , 239 NSW 2013 reforms , 243–5 NSW 2015 reforms , 255–7 Partie civile and , 257–9 Policy intervention and , 240–4 PricewaterhoueCoopers report ,

243–4

Property recoverable by the victim , 237, 245, 251–2, 255

Quantum of damages , 239 Recognition payments , 239,

244–5, 255–7 Rehabilitation of victim and ,

259–62 Social security and , 241, 263 Statutory thresholds and , 242,

245 Tariff s , 236, 241–2, 262 Tort and , 239–40 Tribunal system (UK) , 241 Victim mobilisation, 2015

Regulation and , 255–7 Victim’s Compensation Tribunal

(NSW) , 242 Conference , 6, 86–7, 91–2, 95–6,

102–4, 108–15, 297 . See also Restorative justice

Constable, common law , 49 Corrections , 1–2, 13, 117, 206, 216,

218, 219, 226, 228, 230 Council of Europe , 19, 21–2 Counsel for victims , 4, 6, 8, 24–5,

29–30, 43, 64, 76–80, 101, 208–9, 296, 301

Charter of rights and , 275, 282, 289

Civil law systems and , 33–4, 153–5, 258

ICC and , 29–30, 119–20, 259–62

Pre-trial rights to counsel , 76–80, 296, 301

Restorative justice and , 101, 116

Compensation (cont.)

330 Index

Vulnerable victims and , 148 Counselling communications , 77,

80, 207, 209 . See also Discovery

Courts Central Criminal Court , 69 Court of Appeal (Civil Division) ,

247 Court of Appeal (Vic) , 149 Court of Appeal of England and

Wales (Criminal Division) , 67, 69, 142

Crown Court , 72, 90, 91, 212, 213

Federal District Courts (US) , 67, 72

High Court of Australia , 222 High Court of England and

Wales , 68, 70 Local Court (NSW) , 6, 104, 109,

115, 122, 157–9, 242, 297, 298

Magistrates’ Court (England and Wales) , 70, 91, 115, 157, 212

Magistrates’ Courts (Vic) , 116 Neighbourhood Justice Court

(Vic) , 116–18 New South Wales Court of

Criminal Appeal , 77, 174–5, 184, 196–8, 209, 221

New York State Problem-Solving Courts , 115

Crime prevention , 39, 117 Crime Victim Compensation

Commission , 258 Criminal Injuries Compensation

Authority , 248

Cross-examination , 73, 142–50 Crown , 12–13, 31, 49

D Decision of the European Union

2001 (2001/220/JHA) (CFU FD) , 19, 21–2

Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power (PJVC) , 4–5, 8–9, 16, 17, 32, 35, 267, 273, 299, 303 . See also United Nations

Declarations of rights , 270–2 Administrative law and , 278–9 Commissioner of Victims’ Rights

and , 279–86 Cultural change and , 273–6 Illusionary rights , 286–90 NSW and , 269–71, 274, 277–9,

281, 285–6 Policy development and , 272–6 Procedural rights and , 56, 59, 65 Reintegrating victims in criminal

law , 276–9 South Australia and , 271, 276–7,

282, 284–5 Substantive rights and , 273–6 Support services and , 267–8 UK and , 270, 273, 279–80, 284 Victims’ Code and , 9–10, 57–8,

62, 68, 88 Welfare state, In the , 262–4

Directive of the European Union 2012 (2012/29/EU) (CEU DVC) , 20–1, 67–8, 80, 82

Discovery , 4, 21, 41, 48, 76–80, 296

Counsel for victims (cont.)

Index 331

Domestic instruments . See also Victims’ Charter (UK)

Canadian Victims Bill of Rights 2015 (Can) , 32, 56, 189, 190

Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act 2004 (UK) , 10, 53, 270, 279, 280, 284

Victims Rights and Support Act 2013 (NSW) , 56, 59, 65, 244, 271, 274, 277, 278, 281, 285, 286

Domestic violence Apprehended Violence Orders , 4,

158–9 Clare Wood , 54 Protection Orders , 53

Due process , 67, 127, 133, 136, 139, 155, 260, 272, 292, 295, 301

ECtHR, In the , 135–9 European Court of Justice, In the ,

139–40 ICC, In the , 260

E East Timor (Timor Leste) . See

Special Panels of East Timor (Timor Leste)

ECtHR processes , 135–9 Enforceable Rights . See Victim rights Equality of arms , 21, 29–30, 128 European Convention of Human

Rights Article 2 , 132, 134 Article 3 , 134 Article 6 , 132, 135, 136, 138–9,

141–2, 160

Article 8 , 132, 135 Deprivation of liberty and , 134 Equality of arms , 21, 135–9 Hard law and , 135–9 Positive obligations and , 68, 134 Proportionality requirement , 135–9 Right to life and , 132–3 Victim’s right to anonymity , 135

European Court of Human Rights , 6–7, 21–2, 68, 127–39, 141–2, 297

European law . See Civil Law; Inquisitorial justice

Evidence Committals and , 73–5 Cross-examination , 73, 142–50 Cross-examination by accused , 156 Discovery , 4, 21, 41, 48, 76–80,

296 Evidence in chief , 143, 147, 158 In camera proceedings , 78, 147 Interests of justice requirements ,

73–5 Intermediaries , 150 Intimidated witnesses , 143 Jury warnings , 147 Narrative evidence , 156 Parole hearings and , 226–30 Preventative detention hearings

and , 222–5 Procedural protections , 135–9;

141–150 Sensitive evidence , 42, 48, 147 Special measures , 160–1 Victim led evidence , 12, 22–3,

30, 45, 112, 119, 129, 154, 174, 206, 212, 219, 223–30, 258, 289

332 Index

Victim’s right to anonymity , 135 Vulnerable witnesses , 4, 10, 14,

19, 24, 33, 42, 52–3, 62, 63, 75, 78–81, 127–50, 159, 175, 213, 220, 241, 294, 296–7, 305

Witness statements , 142, 194 Evidentiary hearing , 78, 289 Experimental justice , 293 Extra-curial or adjunctive rights ,

267–72 Extraordinary Chambers in the

Courts of Cambodia , 24

F Fair trial , 38, 45, 67, 82, 127,

131–40, 155, 160, 303 . See also Due process

Family victims , 62, 187, 243 Fonds de Garantie , 258 Forum sentencing , 108–15 France , 7, 33, 151, 257–9 Future developments, Victims and ,

295–307

G Geneva Conventions , 18 Germany , 33, 151 Global framework , 292 Graffi ti , 102–4 Grand jury , 72 Grassroots movements , 5, 82, 256 Gross violations of human

rights , 15–16, 19, 22–3, 260

H Habitual criminals , 222 Hard law , 140 Harm (including trauma) , 76, 100,

108, 137, 149, 161, 172, 175–6, 188, 192, 212, 239, 244, 248, 250, 258 . See also Injuries

History of the criminal trial , 12–15 Homicide , 33, 62, 98, 186, 193,

214, 221, 245, 258, 298 Human Rights Act 1998 (UK) , 54,

68, 132, 293 Hybrid adversarial systems , 34, 43,

122, 130, 151, 297–8

I ICC processes , 28–30 Illusionary rights of victims , 286–90 Indictable process , 49–50, 71, 106,

109, 172 Informant , 12, 49–51, 55, 157 Injuries

Foetal alcohol spectrum disorder , 247

HIV , 249 Sadomasochist acts , 249

Inquisitorial justice , 3, 33–4, 43, 130–1, 151, 157, 161, 297

Inter-American Commission of Human Rights , 22

Intermediaries , 150 International Criminal Court

Adversarial processes , 28–30 Appeals Chamber , 28, 30, 128–30 Legal representation , 29–30 Pre-trial Chamber , 26, 28, 259

Evidence (cont.)

Index 333

Prosecutor v Katanga and Chui , 30, 129–30

Prosecutor v Lubanga , 128, 130, 260–1

Restorative justice and , 119–20 Rome Statute , 28–30, 119–20,

128, 259 Rules of Procedure and Evidence ,

29, 119, 130, 259 Trial Chamber , 25, 26, 28, 129,

259–60 Victim-driven prosecution , 28–30 Victim participation , 28–30

International Criminal Procedure Ratifi cation and , 3, 16, 69, 128 Standardising domestic states , 16

International Criminal Tribunals for Rwanda (ICTR) , 19, 23, 119

International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) , 19, 23, 119

International human rights norms , 15–16; 127–140

International instruments . See International Criminal Tribunals for Rwanda; International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia; Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals; United Nations

Internationalised Panels in Kosovo , 27

International law , 15–30 Intervention orders , 118, 122, 195 Intimidated witnesses , 143 . See also

Evidence-Vulnerable witnesses

Intoxicated off ending , 39–41, 184–5

Investigative magistrate or judge , 33, 151

Ireland , 7, 62, 78–80, 296 Italian Constitution , 155 Italian courts , 152 Italy , 150–7

J Jill Meagher , 63, 227 Jury trial , 141–50

K Katrina Keshishian , 256 Kosovo . See Internationalised Panels

in Kosovo

L Law Reform Commission of Western

Australia , 75 Law reform processes , vi, 34, 36–41,

44, 48, 63, 75, 106, 126, 146, 160, 184

Legal profession , 293 Legal representation . See Counsel for

victims

M Making amends , 86, 102–4 Mandamus, Writ of , 287–90 Manslaughter, One-punch assault ,

39–41, 184 Mediation , 42–3, 116, 220–2

International Criminal Court (cont.)

334 Index

Mediation and restorative intervention in prison , 220–2

Minimum mandatory term . See Sentencing–Non-parole period

N National Parole Service , 94–5 Neighbourhood Justice Centre (Vic) ,

87, 116–18, 122 New South Wales Law Reform

Commission , 106 New Zealand , 7, 76, 91, 239 Non-enforceable rights . See Victim

rights Non-Government Organisation

(NGO) , 274–5, 282–3 Non-parole period . See Sentencing-

Non- parole period Normative rights , 300–2 Normative theory , 38–41 North Atlantic Treaty Organisation ,

27 Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals , 19

O Offi ce of Public Counsel for Victims

(ICC) , 261 Out-of-court evidence , 4, 42, 125–6,

146, 148–50

P Parole

Adrian Bayley and , 233 Adult Parole Board of Victoria ,

229

Callinan Report and , 227–8 ECHR and , 173–4, 227 Evidence during , 226 Jill Meagher and , 63, 227 NPS , 94–5 Reforms in Victoria , 229–30 Release on licence , 180, 200,

215 VIS during , 226 Written submission of victim and ,

229–30 Partie civile , 21, 24–6, 29–31, 33,

150–1, 160, 257–9 Plea-bargaining , 55, 60, 63, 66, 154,

278, 296 . See also Charge-bargaining

Police Apprehension of felons , 50 Arrest on warrant , 52–3 Arrest without warrant , 49 Cautions , 57–8, 97 Charging , 55–60 Decision-making , 55–60 Investigation , 48–60 Warnings , 97

Policy transfer , 3, 7, 11, 15–16, 31, 43, 82, 126–7, 161, 291, 293, 297, 300

Post-conviction rights , 205, 295 Pre-trial rights , 47, 80 Preventative detention , 222–30 Prison-based off ender mediation ,

220–2 Private prosecution , 20, 50, 305 Problem-solving courts , 11, 42, 86,

87, 115–18 Procedural fairness . See Due process Procedural rights . See Victim rights

Index 335

Procedure English criminal procedure ,

141–6 Italian criminal procedure , 150–7 NSW criminal procedure , 147–8

Proportionality Requirement under ECHR , 132 Sentencing , 180, 193

Prosecutorial guidelines , 9, 32, 65 Public interest , 13, 31, 55, 57–8,

64–5, 68, 81–2, 207, 267, 296

Public Prosecution Appeals , 206–14 Code for Crown Prosecutors , 64 CPS complaints procedure , 69,

83 ( see also Victims Right to Review )

Crown Prosecution Service , 57–8 Decision-making , 6, 41, 47–8,

76, 80, 82, 269, 296 Directors Guidance on Charging ,

57 Duty to confer with victim , 67,

81, 231, 278, 287–90 Plea-bargaining , 55, 60, 63, 66,

154, 278, 296 Prosecutorial guidelines , 9, 32,

65 Section 35A certifi cate , 66, 278

Punishment , 9, 12, 18, 36–9, 43, 68, 104, 108, 132, 156, 187, 191, 193, 220–6, 257

R Recidivist off enders , 222–5 Regional instruments

African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights , 22

African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights , 22

African Court of Justice and Human Rights , 23

African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights , 22

African Human Rights Court , 22 American Convention on Human

Rights , 22 American Declaration of the

Rights and Duties of Man , 22 Council of Europe , 19, 21–2 European Convention of Human

Rights , 21, 135–9 European Court of Human

Rights , 6, 135–9 Framework decisions , 19, 21–2 Framework directives , 20–1,

67–8, 80, 82 Inter-American Commission of

Human Rights , 22 Registers, Victim , 214–20 Rehabilitation of off ender , 54, 88–9,

93–5 Reintegrating victims in criminal

law , 300–2 Reparations

Civil law (European) and , 257–9 Domestic courts and , 113,

241 ECtHR and , 22 ICC and , 29, 120, 238, 259–62,

299 International courts and , 25–6 Non-pecuniary reparations , 260–2 Types of reparation , 261–2

336 Index

Restitution , 22, 44, 235, 237–8, 243, 251–5, 259, 260, 287, 293, 299

Restorative justice Aboriginal Justice Advisory

Council , 105 Apology , 42, 71, 86, 101, 102,

109, 141 Circle and Forum Sentencing ,

104–15 Community justice , 115–19 Conference facilitator , 89, 91–2,

95, 96, 99, 108, 109, 111–14 Counselling , 113, 115, 116, 118 Graffi ti control , 102–4 ICC and , 119–20 Intervention orders , 118, 122,

195 Intervention Plan , 108, 109,

112–14 Making amends , 86, 102–4 Outcomes and orders of Circle

Sentencing , 108 Outcomes and orders of

conferences , 100–1 Outcomes and orders of Forum

Sentencing , 112–14 Participants , 90, 99, 107 Post-sentence , 92–6 Pre-sentence , 89–92 Prison-based off ender mediation ,

220–2 Rehabilitation activity

requirement , 93, 95 Relationship to trial , 85–7 Relevant off ences , 97–8, 102,

106–7, 109 Reparations , 119–20

Resumption of court action , 85–7 Review and assessment , 108 Supervision requirement , 92–3 Victim-off ender conference ,

99–102 Youth Justice Conferencing ,

96–102 Retribution , 171, 192–3 Re-victimisation . See Secondary

victimisation Rights groups . See Non-Government

Organisation (NGO) Rome Statute , 28–30, 119–20, 128,

259

S Scotland , 7, 58, 78–9, 145, 236,

296 Secondary victimisation , 96, 135–40 Sentencing

Aggravation of sentence , 175, 177–80

Circle sentencing , 104–8 CIS , 187–92 Common law considerations ,

174–5 Compensation and sentencing ,

251–5 Custodial sentences , 181–3 Deferral of sentence , 173, 195–8,

201 Forum sentencing , 108–15 Guilty plea , 95, 253 Harm to the community , 43,

188–93 Harm to the victim , 43, 173–80 Intoxicated off ending and , 184–5

Index 337

Mediation (post-conviction) , 222–5

Mitigation of sentence , 171 Non-custodial sentences , 85, 95,

110 Non-parole period , 180–3 Objective seriousness , 176 Procedure generally , 171–3 Proportionality , 180, 193, 202 Section 35A certifi cate , 66, 278 Statutory amendment of

sentencing law , 175–85 Th erapeutic intervention , 186,

195–9 Truth in sentencing , 175, 180 VIS , 186–7

Service rights . See Victim rights Sex off ences , 4, 6, 19, 23, 24, 27, 33,

45, 54, 60, 61, 65, 69, 73–80, 95–6, 109, 115, 124, 141–50, 158–9, 163–9, 172, 173, 177, 186, 192, 205–12, 221–2, 244–5

Sexual history, reputation and character , 126, 164, 207–10

Special Court for Sierra Leone , 23 Special Panels of East Timor (Timor

Leste) , 26 Stakeholders of justice , 37, 40, 85,

87, 115, 117, 139, 268, 276, 291–5

State , 2–6 Statement evidence . See Out-of-court

evidence Statutory reform , vi, 34, 36–41, 44,

48, 63, 75, 106, 126, 146, 160, 184

Subsidiary prosecutor . See Accessory prosecutor; Inquisitorial justice

Substantive rights . See Victim rights

Summary off ences , 106 Summary process , 3, 157–9 Sweden , 7, 33, 151

T Th e Netherlands , 7, 137 Th erapeutic justice , 195–9 Th omas Kelly , 39–41, 184, 202 Treaty monitoring bodies , 16–18 Trial rights , 127–57 Trust Fund for Victims (ICC) , 259–61

U United Nations

Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law (RRRVGV) , 16–17

Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT) , 18

Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power (PJVC) , 4–5, 8–9, 16, 17, 32, 35, 267, 273, 299, 303

338 Index

Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance , 17

Guidelines on Justice in Matters involving Child Victims and Witnesses of Crime (UNESC Guideline) , 17

International Convention on the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance , 17

United States Code , 44, 78 Upper Tribunal (AAC) , 247–51

V Victim Impact Statement (VIS) , 5,

10, 186–7 Victim lawyers . See Counsel for

victims Victim personal statement . See

Victim Impact Statement Victim rights

Access to justice , 8–11, 47–8, 214–20

Apology to the victim , 42, 71, 86, 101, 102, 109, 141

CIS and , 43, 172, 187–92, 194 CIS in Canada , 190 CIS in England and Wales , 191 CIS in SA , 188 Commissioner of Victims’ Rights ,

270–3 Compensation and reparation ,

235–9 Consultative rights , 55–60,

272–3, 275–6

Deterrence and denunciation , 187, 190–4

Dignity , 17, 76, 119, 140, 187, 287 Enforceable Rights , 1–8, 302–5 Fourth phase rights , 34–7, 300–2 Information , 3, 10, 12, 17, 20,

32, 37, 47, 54, 56–9, 61, 65, 71, 81, 110, 120, 130, 214–20

Information sharing arrangement , 53–4

Mendelsohn’s typology , 34 Non-enforceable rights , 272,

278–9 Phases of , 34–7 Privacy , 17, 37, 76, 132, 163,

210, 287 Procedural rights , 9 Recidivism and , 106, 194 Rehabilitation of off ender , 54,

88–9, 93–5 Restorative intervention and (see

Restorative justice ) Retribution (see Retribution ) Right to know , 53–4 Safety , 17, 54, 59, 60, 118, 135,

190, 222 Service rights , 8–11 Substantive rights , 8–11 Victimology , 34–8 VIS and , 5, 10, 186–7 VIS in NSW , 186–7

Victims’ Code (UK) , 9–10, 57–8, 62, 68, 212–14, 219, 270, 273, 274

Victims, multiple , 180, 238 Victims of Crime Assistance

Tribunal , 116, 118

United Nations (cont.)

Index 339

Victims Participation and Reparations Section (ICC) , 259

Victims Right to Review , 6, 58, 70, 82, 83, 296

Victims Services NSW , 231, 243–5, 257, 271, 274–5, 286

Victim support , vi, 25, 36, 237, 244, 305

Victim Support Scheme (NSW) , 244

Victorian Law Reform Commission , vi, 127, 147, 160

Vulnerable victims and witnesses . See Counsel for victims–

Vulnerable victims; Evidence–Vulnerable witnesses

W Witness Care Units , 212–14, 219,

273 Witnesses . See Evidence–Victim led

evidence Witness statements . See Out-of-court

evidence

Y Youth Justice Conferencing , 96–102