References

Abramson, L., Seligman, M., & Teasdale, J. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87,49-74.

Ankuta, G. (1981). Public and private self-consciousness, models, and entrapment. Unpublished manuscript, Tufts University.

Arkes, H.R, & Hackett, C. (1984). The psychology of sunk costs. Unpublished manuscript, Ohio University.

Aronson, E. (1980). The social animal (3rd ed.). San Francisco: W.H. Freeman. Asch, S.E. (1951). Effects of group pressure upon the modification and distortion of

judgment. In H. Guetzkow (Ed.), Groups, leadership, and men. Pittsburgh: Carnegie.

Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice­Hall.

Baron, RA., & Byrne, D. (1981). Social psychology: Understanding human inter­action (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Baumeister, R (1982). A self-presentational view of social phenomena. Psychological Bulletin, 91, 3-26.

Bazerman, M.H. (1983). Negotiator judgment: A critical look at the rationality assumption. American Behavioral Scientist, 27. 211-228.

Bazerman, M.H., Beekum, RI., & Schoorman, F.D. (1982). Performance evaluation in a dynamic context: A laboratory study of the impact of a prior commitment to the ratee. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67, 873-876.

Bazerman, M.H., Giuliano, T., & Appelman, A. (in press). Escalation in individual and group decision making. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance.

Bazerman, M.H., Schoorman, F.D., & Goodman, P. (1980). A cognitive evaluation of escalation processes in managerial decision making. Unpublished manuscript, Boston University.

Beck, A. (1967). Depression: Clinical, experimental, and theoretical aspects. New York: Harper & Row.

Bern, DJ., (1972). Self-perception theory. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 6). New York: Academic Press.

Bern, S. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of ConSUlting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155-162.

Bern, S., & Lenney, E. (1976). Sex and the avoidance of cross-sex behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 48-54.

262 References

Berkowitz, L., & LePage, A. (1967). Weapons as aggression-eliciting stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7, 202-207.

Brockner, J. (1977). The social psychology of entrapment in escalating conflicts. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Tufts University.

Brockner, J. (1983). Low self-esteem and behavioral plasticity: Some implications. In L. Wheeler & P.R Shaver (Eds.), Review of personality and social psychology (Vol. 4). Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications.

Brockner, J., Bazerman, M.H., & Rubin, J.Z. (1984). [Framing and entrapment]. Unpublished data, Tufts University.

Brockner, J., Gardner, A.M., Bierman, J., Mahan, T., Thomas, B., Weiss, W., Winters, L., & Mitchell, A. (1983). The roles of self-esteem and self-consciousness in the Wortman-Brehm model of reactance and learned helplessness. Journal of Person­ality and Social Psychology, 45, 199-209.

Brockner, J., Houser, RF., Lloyd, K. Nathanson, S., Deitcher, J., Birnbaum, G., & Rubin, J.Z. (1985). Self-diagnosticity and the escalation of commitment to afailing course of action. Manuscript under editorial review.

Brockner, J., & Hulton, A.J.B. (1978). How to reverse the vicious cycle of low self­esteem: The importance of attentional focus. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 14,564-578.

Brockner, J., & Mazel, L. (1981). Decision making and El Salvador: Another case of psychological entrapment? Unpublished manuscript, Tufts University.

Brockner, J., Nathanson, S., Friend, A., Harbeck, J., Samuelson, C., Houser, R., Bazerman, M.H., & Rubin, J.Z. (1984). The role of modeling processes in the 'knee deep in the big muddy' phenomenon. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 33,77-99.

Brockner, J., Rubin, J.Z., Fine, J., Hamilton, T., Thomas, B., & Turetsky, B. (1982). Factors affecting entrapment in escalating conflicts: The importance of timing. Journal of Research in Personality, 16, 247-266.

Brockner, J., Rubin, J.Z., & Lang, E. (1981). Face-saving and entrapment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 17, 68-79.

Brockner, J., Shaw, M.e., & Rubin, J.Z. (1979). Factors affecting withdrawal from an escalating conflict: Quitting before it's too late. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 492-503.

Brockner, J., & Wallnau, L.B. (1981). Self-esteem, anxiety, and the avoidance of self­focused attention. Journal of Research in Personality, 15,277-291.

Brown, B.R. (1968). The effects of need to maintain face on interpersonal bargaining. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 4, 107-122.

Buss, A.H. (1980). Self-consciousness and social anxiety. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.

Byrne, D. (1971) .. The attraction paradigm. New York: Academic Press. Caldwell, D.F., & O'Reilly, C.A. (1982). Response to failure: The effects of choice and

responsibility on impression management. Academy of Management Journal, 25, 121-136.

Campbell, D.T. (1969). Reforms as experiments. American Psychologist, 24, 409-429.

Campbell, D.T. (1977). Keeping the data honest in the experimenting society. In H.W. Melton & D.J. Watson (Eds.), Interdisciplinary dimensions of accounting for social goals and social organizations. Columbia, Ohio: Grid.

Carismith, J.M., Ellsworth, P., & Aronson, E. (1976). Methods of research in social psychology. Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley.

Carver, e.S. (1974). Facilitation of physical aggression through objective self­awareness. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 10, 365-370.

Carver, C.S. (1975). Physical aggression as a function of objective self-awareness and attitudes toward punishment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 11, 510-519.

References 263

Carver, C.S. (1979). A cybernetic model of self-attention processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1251-1281.

Christensen-Szalanski, J.1.1., & Northcraft, G.B. (1984). Patient compliance behavior: The effects of time on patients' values of treatment regimens. Manuscript under editorial review, University of Arizona.

Christie, R, & Geis, F.L. (1970). Studies in machiavellianism. New York: Academic Press.

Cialdini, R.B., Cacioppo, J.T., Bassett, R, & Miller, J. (1978). Low-ball procedure for producing compliance: Commitment then cost. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 463-476.

Conlon, E.J., & Wolf, G. (1980). The moderating effects of strategy, visibility, and involvement on allocation behavior: An extension of Staw's escalation paradigm. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 26, 172-192.

Darley, J.M., & Latane, B. (1968), Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 377-383.

Deaux, K. (1976). The behavior of men and women. Belmont, California: Brooks! Cole.

Deci, E.L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum. Deutsch, M. (1973). The resolution of conflict. New Haven: Yale University Press. Dion, K., Baron, RS., & Miller, N. (1970). Why do groups make riskier decisions than

individuals? In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 5). New York: Academic Press.

Duval, S., & Wicklund, R.A. (1972). A theory of objective self-awareness. New York: Academic Press.

Dweck, C.S., & Gilliard, D. (1975). Expectancy statements as determinants of reactions to failure: Sex differences in persistence and expectancy change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 1077-1084.

Eagly, A. (1967). Involvement as a determinant of response to favorable and unfavorable information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7, 1-15 (Monograph).

Easterbrook, J.A., (1959). The effect of emotion on cue utilization and the organization of behavior. Psychological Review, 66, 183-201.

Farrell, D., & Rusbult, C.E. (1981). Exchange variables as predictors of job satisfaction, job commitment, and turnover: The impact of rewards, costs, alternatives, and investments. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 27, 78-95.

Fenigstein, A., Scheier, M., & Buss, A. (1975). Public and private self-consciousness: Assessment and theory, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 522-527.

Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117-140.

Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston, Ill.: Row, Peterson.

Festinger, L. (1964). Conflict, decision, and dissonance. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press.

Festinger, L., Riecken, H.W., & Schachter, S. (1956). When prophecy fails. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Fischhoff, B. (1975). Hindsight ~ foresight: The effect of outcome knowledge on judgment under uncertainty. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Per­ception and Performance, 1, 288-299.

Fischhoff, B. (1982). Debiasing. In D. Kahneman, P. Slovic, & A. Tversky (Eds.), Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. New York: Cambridge Uni­versity Press.

Fox, F .V., & Straw, B.M. (1979). The trapped administrator: Effects of job insecurity and policy resistance upon commitment to a course of action. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24,449-471.

264 References

Frost, J.H., & Wilmot, W.W. (1978). Interpersonal conflict. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown.

Gaes, G.G., Kalle, R.J., & Tedeschi, J.T. (1978). Impression management in the forced compliance situation: Two studies using the bogus pipeline. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 14, 493-510.

Gallup, G. (1978). The Gallup opinion index. Princeton, New Jersey: American Institute of Public Opinion.

Geen, RG., & Gange, J.J. (1977). Drive theory of social facilitation: Twelve years of theory and research. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 1267-1288.

Gerard, H.B., & Rabbie, J.M. (1961). Fear and social comparison. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62,586-592.

Gibbons, F.X. (1978). Sexual standards and reactions to pornography: Enhancing behavioral consistency through self-focused attention. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 976-987.

Gibbons, F.X., & Wicklund, RA. (1976). Selective exposure to the self. Journal of Research in Personality, 10, 98-106.

Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. New York: Doubleday­Anchor.

Halberstam, D. (1969). The best and the brightest. Greenwich, Connecticut: Fawcett.

Harrison, S., & Nathanson, S. (1982). [Toward the development of an individual difference measure of entrapment-proneness]. Unpublished data. Tufts University.

Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley. Hirschman, A.O. (1970). Exit, voice, and loyalty: Responses to decline in firms,

organizations, and states. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Holmes, D.S., & Bennett, D.H. (1974). Experiments to answer the question raised by

the use of deception in psychological research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, 358-367.

Hornstein, H. (1970). The influence of social models on helping. In J. Macauley & L. Berkowitz (Eds.), Altruism and helping behavior. New York: Academic Press.

Hornstein, H., Fisch, E ,and Holmes, M. (1968). Influence of a model's feelings about his behavior and his relevance as comparison other on observers' helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10, 222-226.

Hottes, J.H., & Kahn, A. (1974). Sex differences in a mixed-motive conflict situation. Journal of Personality, 42, 260-275.

Houser, RF. (1982). The effects of self-esteem, self-consciousness, and performance attribution on psychological entrapment. Unpublished master's thesis, Tufts Uni­versity.

James, W. (1890/1952). The principles of psychology. In RM. Hutchinson (Ed.), Great books of the Western World. Chicago: Encyclopedia Brittanica, 1952. (Originally published, 1890).

Janis, I.L. (1982). Groupthink (2nd Ed.). Boston: Houghton-Miffiin. Janis, I.L., & King, B. (1954). The influence of role-playing on opinion change. Journal

of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 49,211-218. Janis, I.L., & Mann, L. (1977). Decision making: A psychological analysis of conflict,

choice, and commitment. New York: Free Press. Janoff-Bulman, R & Brickman, P. (1980). Expectations and what people learn from

failure. In N.T. Feather (Ed.), Expectancy, incentive, and action. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum.

Jones, E.E., & Davis, K.E. (1965). From acts to dispositions: The attribution process in person perception. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psy­chology (Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press, 1965.

Kahn, A., Hottes, J., & Davis, W.L. (1971). Cooperation and optimal responding in the prisoner's dilemma game: Effects of sex and physical attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17,267-279.

References 265

Kahneman, D., Slovic, P., & Tversky, A. (1982). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decisions under risk. Econometrica, 47, 263-291.

Kelley, H.H. (1967). Attribution theory in social psychology. In D. Levine (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Kiesler, C.A. (1971). The psychology of commitment. New York: Academic Press. Lamm, H., & Myers, D.G. (1978). Group-induced polarization of attitudes and

behavior. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology. New York: Academic Press, 1978.

Latane, B., & Darley, J.M. (1970). The unresponsive bystander: Why doesn't he help? New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Latham, G.P., Wexley, K.N., & Pursell, E.D., (1975). Training managers to minimize rating errors in the observation of behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60,550-555.

Levi, A. (1982). Escalating commitment and risk taking in dynamic decision behavior. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Yale University.

Levitin, T.E. (1979). Children of divorce. Journal of Social Issues, 35, 1-25. Lewicki, RJ. (1980). "Bad loan psychology": Entrapment and commitment in

financial lending. Unpublished manuscript, Duke University. Lewin, K. (1938). The conceptual representation and measurement of psychological

forces. Contributions to Psychological Theory, 1. Lewin, K. (1947). Group decision and social change. In T. Newcomb & E. Hartley

(Eds.), Readings in social psychology. New York: Holt. Lingle, J.H., Brock, T.C., & Cialdini, R.B. (1977). Surveillance instigates entrapment

when violations are observed, when personal involvement is high, and when sanctions are severe. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 419-429.

Louis, M.R. (1980). Surprise and sense making: What newcomers experience in entering unfamiliar organizational settings. Administrative Science Quarterly, 25, 226-251.

Maccoby, E.E., & Jacklin, C.N. (1974). The psychology of sex differences. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Mann, L. (1971). Effects of a commitment warning on children's decision behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17, 74-80.

Mann, L., & Taylor, V. (1970). The effects of commitment and choice difficulty on predecision processes. Journal of Social Psychology, 82,221-230.

Manz, C.C., & Sims, H.P. (1981). Vicarious learning: The influence of modeling on organizational behavior. Academy of Management Review, 6, 105-113.

McFarlin, D.B., Baumeister, R.F., & Blascovich, J. (in press). On knowing when to quit: Task failure, self-esteem, advice, and nonproductive persistence. Journal of Person­ality.

Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority. New York: Harper. Miller, I.W., & Norman, W.H. (1979). Learned helplessness in humans: A review and

attribution-theory model. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 93-118. Mischel, W. (1968). Personality assessment. New York: Wiley. Mischel, W. (1973). Toward a cognitive social learning reconceptualization of

personality. Psychological Review, 80, 252-283. Myers, D.G. (1978). Polarizing effects of social comparison. Journal of Experimental

Social Psychology, 14, 554-563. Mynatt, C., & Sherman, SJ. (1975). Responsibility attribution in groups and

individuals: A direct test of the diffusion of responsibility hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 1111-1118.

Nathanson, S., Brockner, J., Brenner, D., Samuelson, C., Countryman, M., Lloyd, M., & Rubin, J.Z. (1982). Toward the reduction of entrapment. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 12, 193-208.

266 References

Northcraft, G.B., & Wolf, G. (1984). Dollars, sense, and sunk costs: A life cycle model of resource allocation decisions. Academy of Management Review, 9, 225-234.

Orne, M. (1962). On the social psychology of the psychological experiment. American Psychologist, 17, 776-783.

Platt, J. (1973). Social traps. American Psychologist, 28,641-651. Porter, L.W., Crampon, W.J., & Smith, FJ. (1976). Organizational commitment and

managerial turnover: A longitudinal study. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 15, 87-98.

Pruitt, D.G., & Johnson, D.F. (1970). Mediation as an aid to face saving in negotiation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 14, 239-246.

Pruitt, D.G., & Rubin, J.Z. (in press). Conflict: Processes of escalation and de­escalation. Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley.

Regan, D.T., & Fazio, R (1977). On the consistency between attitudes and behavior: Look to the method of attitude formation. Journal of Experimental Social Psy­chology, 13, 28-45.

Reibstein, O.J., Youngblood, S.A., & Fromkin, H.L. (1975). Number of choices and perceived decision freedom as determinants of satisfaction and consumer behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60,434-437.

Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Rosenthal, R, & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.

Rotter, J.B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80, (1, Whole No. 609).

Rubin, J.Z. (1978a). [Magnitude of incentive and entrapment]. Unpublished data, Tufts University.

Rubin, J.Z. (1978b). [Effect of income source on entrapment]. Unpublished data, Tufts University.

Rubin, J.Z. (1981). Psychological traps. Psychology Today, March, 52-63. Rubin, J.Z. (1985). The book of traps. Unpublished manuscript. Rubin, J.Z., & Brockner, J. (1975). Factors affecting entrapment in waiting situations:

The rosencrantz and guildenstern effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psy­chology, 31, 1054-1063.

Rubin, J.Z., Brockner, J., Small-Weil, S., & Nathanson, S. (l980). Factors affecting entry into psychological traps. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 24, 405-426.

Rubin, J.Z., & Brown, B.R (l975). The social psychology of bargaining and negotiation. New York: Academic Press.

Rubin, J.Z., & Samuelson, C. (1980). [Effect of perceived attractiveness on en­trapment]. Unpublished data, Tufts University.

Rusbult, C.E. (1980). Commitment and satisfaction in romantic associations: A test of the investment model. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 16, 172-186.

Rusbult, C.E., & Farrell, D. (1983). A longitudinal test of the investment model: The impact on job satisfaction, job committment, and turnover of variations in rewards, costs, alternatives, and investments. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68, 429-438.

Rusbult, C.E., Zembrodt, I.M., & Gunn, L.K. (1982). Exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect: Responses to dissatisfaction in romantic involvements. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 1230-1242.

Salancik, G.R (1977). Commitment and the control of organizational behavior and belief. In B.M. Staw & G.R. Salanick (Eds.), New directions in organizational behavior. Malabar, Florida: Robert E. Krieger.

Sarason, I.G., Smith, RE., & Diener, E. (1975). Personality research: Components of variance attributable to the person and the situation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 199-204.

Scheier, M.F., (1976). Self-awareness, self-consciousness, and angry aggression. Journal of Personality, 44, 627-644.

Scheier, M.F., Buss, A.H., & Buss, D.M. (1978). Self-consciousness, self-report of

References 267

aggressiveness, and aggression. Journal of Research in Personality, 12, 133-140. Scheier, M.F., & Carver, C.S. (1977). Self-focused attention and the experience of

emotion: Attraction, repulsion, elation, and depression. Journal of Personality and

SlJ~il11 P§y~hlJIlJgy • . H, 625-636. Schelling, T.C. (1960). The strategy of conflict. New York: Oxford Press. Schlenker, B.R. (1980). Impression management: The self-concept, social identity, and

interpersonal relations. Monterey, California: Brooks/Cole. Schoorman, F.D. (1984). The escalation bias in performance appraisal judgments.

Unpublished manuscript, University of Maryland. Seligman, M.E.P. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development, and death. San

Francisco: Freeman. Shaw, M.E. (1976). Group dynamics: The psychology of small group behavior (2nd

ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Shubik, M. (1971). The dollar auction game: A paradox in noncooperative behavior and

escalation. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 15, 109-111. Sjoberg, L. (1983). Value change and relapse following a decision to quit or reduce

smoking. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 24, 137-148. Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Macmillan. Snyder, M. (1981). Impression management: The self in social interaction. In L.

Wrightsman & K. Deaux, Social psychology in the 80s (3rd ed.). Monterey, California: Brooks/Cole.

Spence, J.T., & Helmreich, R. (1972). The attitudes toward women scale. Journal Supplement Abstract Service Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 2, 66-67.

Staw, B.M. (1976). Knee-deep in the big muddy: A study of escalating commitment to a chosen course of action. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16,27-44.

Staw, B.M. (1979). Rationality and justification in organizational life. In B.M. Staw & L.L. Cummings (eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 2). Greenwich, Connecticut: JAI Press.

Staw, B.M. (1982). Counterforces to change: Escalation and commitment as sources of administrative inflexibility. In P. Goodman (Ed.), Change in organizations. Jossey­Bass.

Staw, B.M., (1984). Escalation at the credit window: Bank decisions on non­performing loans. Unpublished manuscript, University of California.

Staw, B.M., & Ross, J. (1978). Commitment to a policy decision: A multitheoretical perspective. Administratice Science Quarterly, 23,40-64.

Staw, B.M., & Ross, J. (1980). Commitment in an experimenting society: An experiment on the attribution of leadership from administrative scenarios. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65,249-260.

Staw, B.M., Sandelands, L.E., & Dutton, J.E. (1981). Threat-rigidity effects in organizational behavior. A multi-level analysis. Administrative Science Quarterly, 26,501-524.

Stoner, J.A.F. (1962). A comparison of individual and group decisions involving risk. Unpublished master's thesis, Massachusets Institute of Technology.

Strodtbeck, F., & Mann, R. (1956). Sex-role differentiation in jury deliberations. Sociometry, 19,3-11.

Swap, W.e., & Rubin, J.Z. (1983). Measurement of interpersonal orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 208-219.

Tedeschi, J.T., Schlenker, B.R., & Bonoma, T.V. (1971). Cognitive dissonance: Private ratiocination or public spectacle? American Psychologist, 26, 685-695.

Teger, A. (1980). Too much invested to quit. New York: Pergamon Press. Tesser, A., & Rosen, S. (1975). The reluctance to transmit bad news. In L. Berkowitz

(Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 8). New York: Academic Press.

Tropper, R. (1972). The effects of conflict structure and relative strength on escalation. Unpublished manuscript, Boston University.

268 References

Turner, RG. (1977). Self-consciousness and anticipatory belief change. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 3, 438-441.

Tyler, T.R, & Sears, D.O. (1977). Coming to like obnoxious people when we must live with them. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 200-211.

Vandivier, K. (1972). Why should my conscience bother me. In A. Heilbroner (ed.), In the name of profit. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.

Vroom, V. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley. Wanous, J. (1980). Organizational entry: Recruitment, selection, and socialization of

newcomers. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley. Weiner, B. (1974). Achievement motivation and attribution theory. Morristown, New

Jersey: General Learning Press. Weiss, H.M. (1977). Subordinate imitation of supervisory behavior. Organizational

Behavior and Human Performance, 19,89-105. Wicklund, RA. (1975). Objective self-awareness. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in

experimental social psychology (Vol. 8). New York: Academic Press. Wicklund, R.A., & Frey, D. (1980). Self-awareness theory: When the self makes a

difference. In D.M. Wegner & R.R Vallacher (Eds.), The self in social psychology. New York: Oxford.

Winer, BJ. (1971). Statistical principles in experimental design (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Wolf, G., & Conlon, E.J. (1984). The ecology of sunk cost problems. Unpublished manuscript, University of Arizona.

Wortman, C.B., & Brehm, J.W. (1975). Responses to uncontrollable outcomes: An integration of reactance theory and the learned helplessness model. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 8). New York: Academic Press.

Wortman, C.B., & Dintzer, L. (1978). Is an attributional analysis of the learned helplessness phenomenon viable? A critique of the Abramson-Seligman-Teasdale reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 75-90.

Younger, J.C., & Doob, A. (1978). Attribution and aggression: The misattribution of anger. Journal of Research in Personality, 12, 164-171.

Zajonc, RB. (1965). Social facilitation. Science, 149,269-274. Zanna, M.P., & Pack, S.J. (1975). On the self-fulfilling nature of apparent sex

differences in behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 11, 583-591. Zimbardo, P.G. (1970). The human choice: Individuation, reason, and order versus

deindividuation, impulse, and chaos. In W.J. Arnold & D. Levine (Eds.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol. 17). Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press.

Zimbardo, P.G. (1972). Pathology of imprisonment. Society, 9,4-8.

Author Index

Abramson, L., 40 Ankuta, G., 91 Appleman, A., 18,94,95,98,99, 189,

235 Arkes, H.R., 53 Aronson, E., 10,38, 108,244 Asch, S.E., 181,234

Bandura, A., 57, 67, 75, 84 Baron, R.A., 93 Baron, R.S., 57 Bassett, R., 167 Baumeister, R., 101,217 Bazerman, M.H., 18,54,94,95,98,99,

122, 155, 188, 189, 190, 229, 230, 232,235

Beck, A., 182 Beekum, R.I., 229, 230 Bern, OJ., 125 Bern, S., 69 Bennett, D.H., 18 Berkowitz, L., 75 Bierman, 1., 142 Birnbaum, G., 127, 184 Blascovich, 1., 217 Bonoma, T.V., 125 Brehm, 1.W., 127, 141, 143 Brickman, P., 185,217 Brock, T.C., 6

Brockner, 1., 22, 24, 27, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34,37,43,45,46,47,48,49,51, 52,54,61,63,65,66,71,78,81, 83,86,89, 103, 107, 109, 113, 116, 123, 125, 127, 134, 142, 146, 147, 159, 163, 164, 166, 170, 184, 187, 188, 190, 191, 197, 198,200, 202,211,214,215,216,217,246

Brown, B.R., 61, 66, 67, 68, 70, 101, 217

Buss, A.H., 91, 104, 170, 174 Buss, D.M., 174 Byrne, D., 19, 93

Cacioppo, 1., 167 Caldwell, D.F., 121, 122, 123, 231 Campbell, D.T., 110 Carlsmith, 1.M., 10,38, 108 Carver, C.S., 143, 174,212 Christensen-Szalanski, 1.1.1., 195, 225 Christie, R., 74, 88 Cialdini, R.B., 6, 167, 168 Conlon, EJ., 40,115,116,117,118,

119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 125, 187, 188, 190,237

Crampon, W.l., 226

Darley, 1.M., 1,94, 181,234

270

Davis, K.E., 39 Davis, W.L., 68 Deaux, K., 67, 72 Deci, E.L., 41 Deitcher, J., 127, 184 Deutsch, M., 145 Diener, E., 181 Dintzer, L., 41 Dion, K., 57 Doob, A., 73, 74 Dutton, J.E., 132, 183 Duval, S., 214 Dweck, C.S., 152

Eagly, A., 160,213 Easterbrook, J.A., 157 Ellsworth, P., 10, 38, 108

Farrell, D., 225, 226, 227, 240 Fazio, R., 209 Fenigstein, A., 91,104, 105, 170, 172 Festinger, L., 75, 87, 92, 125, 143, 151,

254 Fine, 1., 163 Fisch, E., 87 Fischhoff, B., 114,208 Fox, F.V., 21, 97,110,111,113,114,

115, 123, 124, 125, 246 Frey, D., 174,212 Fromkin, H.L., 42 Frost, J.H., 66

Gaes, G.G., 125 Gallup, G., 217 Gange, J.J., 63 Gardner, A.M., 142 Geen, R.G., 63 Geis, F.L., 74, 88 Gerard, H.B., 75 Gibbons, F.X., 174, 214 Gilliard, D., 152 Giuliano, T., 18,94,95,98,99, 189,

235 Goffman, E., 101 Goodman, P.S., 188 Gunn, L.K., 240

Hackett, c., 53 Halberstam, D., 245 Hamilton, T., 163 Harrison, S., 188, 191 Heider, F., 39 Helmreich, R., 69 Hirschman, A.O., 241 Holmes, D., 18 Holmes, M., 87

Author Index

Hornstein, H., 84, 87, 90, 91 Hottes, J., 68 Houser, R.F., 127, 184, 188, 191 Hulton, A.J.B., 214

Jacklin, C.N., 66, 67 Jacobson, L., 245 James, W., 101 Janis, I.L., 93, 96, 97, 98, 114, 154,

155, 156, 157, 175, 196,208,209, 232, 238, 245

Janoff-Bulman, R., 185, 217 Johnson, D.F., 217 Jones, E.E., 39

Kahn, A., 68 Kahneman, D., 52, 55, 56,156,219,

239 Kalle, R.J., 125 Kelley, H.H., 39 Kiesler, C.A., 42,154,198,201,238,

242,254 King, B., 209

Lamm, H., 96 Lang, E., 103, 107, 109, 113, 116, 123,

125, 163, 164, 166, 170, 188, 216 Latane, B., 1,94, 181,234 Latham, G.P., 229 Lenney, E., 69 LePage, A., 75 Levi, A., 18,40,114,116,123, 125,

155, 177, 178, 179, 182, 185, 188, 190

Levitin, T.E., 243 Lewicki, R.J., 236 Lewin, K., 5, 168, 181

Author Index

Lingle, J.H., 6 Lloyd, K., 127, 184 Louis, M.R., 124

Maccoby, E.E., 66, 67 Mahan, T., 142 Mann, L., 67, 154, 155, 156, 157, 196,

207,208 Manz, C.C., 75 Mazel, L., 246 McFarlin, D.B., 185,217 Milgram, S., 1, 181 Miller, I.W., 40 Miller, J., 167 Miller, N., 57 Mischel, W., 182, 183, 185, 188 Mitchell, A., 142 Myers, D.G., 96, 97 Mynatt, C., 94

Nathanson, S., 47, 48, 61, 63, 65, 71, 78,86,89, 127, 184, 188, 191, 204,207,208,213,239

Norman, W.H., 40 Northcraft, G.B., 195,220,221,222,

255

O'Reilly, C.A., 121, 122, 123,231 Orne, M., 104

Pack, SJ., 245 Platt, 1., 6 Porter, L. W ., 226 Pruitt, D.G., 217, 259 Pursell, E.D., 229

Rabbie, I.M., 75 Regan, D.T., 209 Reibstein, 0.1., 42 Riecken, H.W., 151 Rosen, S., 234 Rosenberg, M., 135, 182 Rosenthal, R., 245 Ross, J., 21, 40,111,116,117,118,

271

1\9, 123, 125, 182, 183, 188, 190, 217,218,239

Rotter, J.B., 41, 182, 185 Rubin, J.Z., 6, 22, 24, 27, 29, 30, 31,

33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48,49,50,51,52,54,61,62,63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 74, 78, 100, 103, 107, 109, 113, 116, 123, 125, 127, 146, 159, 163, 164, 166, 170, 184, 187, 188, 197, 198, 200,202,211,216,217,224,225, 231, 239, 244, 255, 257, 259

Rusbult, C.E., 225, 226, 227, 240, 241, 249

Salancik, G.R., 41, 122, 198,238 Samuelson, C., 74 Sandelands, L.E., 132, 183 Sarason, I.G., 181 Schachter, S., 151 Scheier, M.F., 91, 104, 170, 174 Schelling, T.C., 31,41 Schlenker, B.R., 101, 125 Schoorman, F.D., 188,229,230,236 Sears, D.O., 74 Seligman, M.E.P., 40, 41, 185,217 Shaw, M.C., 43, 45, 49, 66, 198,200,

202 Shaw, M.E., 98 Sherman, S.J., 94 Shubik, M., 10 Sims, H.P., 75 Sjoberg, L., 256 Skinner, B.F., 210 Slovic, P., 55, 239 Small-Wei!, S., 47, 48, 61, 63, 65, 71 Smith, F.J., 226 Smith, R.E., 181 Snyder, M., 101 Spence, J.T., 69 Staw, B.M., 16, 18,21,23,24,31,40,

93,94,96,97,102,110, Ill, II3, 114,115,116,117,118,119,122, 123, 124, 125, 127, 132, 182, 183, 188, 189, 190,217,218,224,233, 234,235,237,238,239,245,246

Stoner, J .A.F., 93 Strodtbeck, F., 67

272

Swap, w.e., 70, 72, 100, 187

Taylor, V., 207, 208 Teasdale, J., 40 Tedeschi, J.T., 125 Teger, A., 10, 11, 19,21,22,26,29,

31,32,37,45,59,60,61,62,65, 72, 73, 74, 92, 95, 96, 97, 100, 102, 125, 145, 148, 150, 152, 155, 157, 158, 165, 177, 182, 183, 185, 188,195, 196, 197, 198,209,210, 245

Tesser, A., 234 Thomas B., 142, 163 Tropper, R., 39 Turetsky, B., 163 Tumer, R.G., 104, 108, 170 Tversky, A., 52, 55, 56,156,219,239 Tyler, T.R., 74

Vandivier, K., 233 Vroom, V., 226

Wallnau, L.B., 214 Wanous, 1., 124 Weiner, B., 40 Weiss, H.M., 91 Weiss, W., 142 Wexley, K.N., 229

Author Index

Wicklund, R.A., 174,212,214 Wilmot, W.W., 66 Winer, B.J., 55, 142 Winters, L., 142 Wolf, G., 40, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119,

120, 121, 123, 124, 125, 187, 188, 190, 195,220,221,222,237

Wortman, e.B., 41, 127, 141, 143

Youngblood, S.A., 42 Younger, J.e., 73, 74

Zajonc, R.B., 63 Zanna, M.P., 245 Zembrodt, I.M., 240 Zimbardo, P.G., 94, 181

Subject Index

Adams & Smith simulation, 16-17, lIl, 188

Aggression, 67, 72-75 Altruism, 87 Anxiety, 212-216 Attraction, 72-75 Attribution processes, 39-42, 116, 117,

118, 119, 120, 121 Audience effects, 104-109, 169-173,

175-176, 215

Bad-loan psychology, 236-237 Bargaining, 66, 67, 68

third party intervention in, 217 Behavioral decision theory (see Prospect

theory) Buck-passing, 233-236

Carnival Game, 14-15, 128, 138, 149, 150, 153, 157, 184

Choice, 4, 253-254 Cognitive dissonance, 92, 125, 143, 253,

254 Commitment, 41,154-156, 198, 199,

200,201,220,225,226,238,256 effect of forewarning, 207-208

Competency traps, 231-232

Competition (see Entrapment, social vs. nonsocial)

Compliance (see Low-balling) Conflict, 145

escalation of, 6, 258-260 Conformity, 234 Consistency

self-presentation strategy, 217-218 Counter game, 12-13,44,47,61,66,

84, 88, 105, 109, 164, 198, 215 Cybernetic theory, 143

Decision making entrapment in politics, 245-248 irrationality in, 7 mindfulness in, 203-211 stress and, 156-158 vigilance in, 159, 196, 197,207, 21I

Decision structure, 34, 42-56 active vs. passive, 42-52, 203, 211,

219,235,241,243,252 Decisional duality, 251-253 Demand characteristics, 38-39, 108, 169,

174 Dependency traps, 245 Depression, 182 Dissatisfaction traps, 225, 228 Dissonance (see Cognitive dissonance) Dogmatism, 182

274

Dollar Auction game, 10-11, 22, 59, 60, 65,72,73,74,81,95, 100, 146, 147, 148, 152, 157, 177, 182, 183, 197,209

El Salvador, 246-248 Entrapment

administrative, 113-114 cognitive changes accompanying, 146-

158, 179 cognitive deterrents of, 196-211 defining characteristics of, 4-5 effect of cost salience on, 26-28, 103-

110, 163-167,210-211 effect of cost value on, 35-38 effect of goal value on, 34-35, 103-

110 effect of job insecurity on, 111-112,

124, 125 effect of prior experience on, 209-210 effect of prior resistance on, 111-112,

124 examples of, 1-3, 223, 236 interpersonal expectations, 245 interpersonal relationships, 239-245 legal usage of, 5-6 motivational deterrents of, 211-218 nonsocial antecedents of, 33-56 practical applications, 223-249 preliminary experimental analysis of,

21-32 psychological process of, 145-180 reduction of, 193-222 relationship to other traps, 6, 257, 258 social influence and, 57-143 social vs. nonsocial, 58-65 timing and, 159-179,252 variability in, 31-32 virtues of, 254-256 work organizations, 224-239

Expectancy value theory, 33-39, 174 Exxon Corporation, 193

Face-saving (see Self-presentation theory) Framing (see Prospect theory)

Gambling, 93

Subject Index

Group cohesiveness (see Groupthink) Group decision making, 1J3-99

diffusion of responsibility and, 94-96, 234

Groupthink, 93, 96, 97-99, 114, 232, 238

Identity crisis, 143-144 Individual differences, 70-72, 104-105,

107-109, 119-121, 170, 172-173, 177, 181-192

Interpersonal orientation, 70-72, 187 Intimacy traps, 240-244 Investment model, 227-228, 240

Jigsaw puzzle procedure, 13-14, 76, 78, 79, 149

Job satisfaction, 226, 227

Learned helplessness, 141, 143, 185 Life-cycle model, 221-222 Limit setting, 197-203, 255 Lockheed Corporation, 193 Locus of control, 182, 185 Low-balling, 167-169

Machiavellianism, 182 Mania, 182 Modeling, 63-64, 75-93, 210 MUM effect, 234

Organizational behavior (see Entrapment, work organizations)

Organizational change, 237-239

Performance appraisal, 229-231 Personality-situation interactionism, 181,

182, 185-188 Procrastination traps, 228 Prospect theory, 52-55, 156, 219 Publicity, 142, 198, 199, 200, 242, 256

Subject Index

Reactance, 127, 141, 143 Reactivity, 152-153 Research methods, 9-19, 236 Risk-taking, 182, 183, 186 Risky shift, 93 Role-playing simulations, 16-17,23,

110, 114, 116, 121, 229

Self-awareness, 174, 212, 213, 214 Self-consciousness

private, 91, 172, 173, 174 public, 91, 170, 172, 173, 174, 175,

217 Self-diagnosticity, 126-144 Self-esteem, 134, 135, 136, 138, 142,

162,175, 182, 184, 191,213,214-215

Self-fulfilling prophecy, 259 Self-presentation, 10 1-144

individual differences in, 104-105, 107-109,170, 172,217

275

Sex differences, 35, 62-72, 95-96, 106, 187

Social anxiety (see Self-presentation, in-dividual differences in)

Social comparison (see Modeling) Social facilitation, 63 Social traps, 6

Tolerance for ambiguity, 182, 183, 186 Tunnel vision, 151-152 Turnover, 226-227

Vietnam war, 98, 245-246 Volition, 41-42, 201

Waiting game, 15-16, 160, 213

Zero-based budgeting, 219