“It is the function of creative men to perceive the relations between thoughts, or things, or forms of expression that may seem utterly different, and to be able to combine them into some new forms – the power to connect the seemingly unconnected.”

William Plomer, 1903 – 1973

F “FormFollowsFunction”isthethemeofthisyear’sReflectionsmagazine. IntheCollegeofAgriculture,theformofthetripartitemissionofinstruction,research, andextension/outreach followsan identified function to serve the edu-cationalinformationneedsofstudents,Wyomingcitizens,andtheglobalscientificcommunity. The college’s research and outreachprograms are issue-oriented andfocusonagriculturalsustainabilityandprofitability,naturalresourcemanagement,andfamilyandcommunityresources. Witheightundergraduateand20graduatedegreeprograms,thecollege’sarrayofeducationalopportunitiesisimpressiveandtakesonmanyformsandfunctions.Thechoicesincludeoptionsrangingfromproductionagriculturetohumannutritiontomolecularbiologytorangelandecologyandwatershedmanagement.Checkitoutyourselfbycontactinganyofthedepartmentslistedinsidethebackcover. ThisissueofReflectionscontainsarticlesonsuchtopicsasinvasiveweeds,humannutrition,sainfoin,garbanzobeans,rabies,anelkdie-off,andseedpredation.ItagainillustratesthediversityofprojectsunderwayintheCollegeofAgriculturetomeettheinformationneedsofourstakeholders.Theseeffortsareconductedinlaboratories,onprivatefarmsandranches,oratthreeresearchandextensioncenterslocatedaroundthestate.ThenewestcenternearLingleisdesignedtointegratecrop/livestock/naturalresourcesintosustainableproductionsystems.Withpersonnelineverycounty,theCollegeofAgricultureisworkingtoprovideresearchandoutreachoutcomesthatareresponsivetotheneedsofourstakeholders. FacultymembersintheCollegeofAgriculturewereagainverysuccessfulinob-tainingextramuralfundingtosupportthetripartitemissionofthecollege.Externalgrantawards thispastyear totaledmore than$10millionandranked thecollegesecondthroughouttheentireuniversity.Duetooursmallfacultynumbersrelativetoothercolleges,dollarsperfacultymemberwastopsintheuniversity. Thenexttimeyouvisitourcampus,stopbytheCollegeofAgriculturetowitnessfacultyandstudenteffortsfirsthand.Seehowtheformofthecollege’stripartitemis-sionofinstruction,research,andextension/outreachfollowsanidentifiedfunctiontoserveourstakeholderneeds.Tolearnmoreaboutthecollegeanditsfunctions,pleasevisitourWebsiteatwww.uwyo.edu/UWAG. WehopeyouenjoythisissueofReflectionsandtheassortmentofopportunitiesandinformationthecollegeprovides.

StephenD.MillerAssociateDeanandDirectorCollegeofAgriculture,AgriculturalExperimentStation

Still glides the stream, and shall for ever glide;

The form remains, the function never dies.William Wordsworth, 1770 – 1850

The Wyoming Agricultural Experiment

Station (AES) team at the University

of Wyoming’s College of Agriculture

coordinates the publication of

Reflections with the Office of

Communications and Technology.

AES staff members include, from

left, Kathleen Bertoncelj, senior

office associate; Stephen D. Miller,

director; Gail Lamb, senior accounting

associate; Joleen Pantier, accounting

associate; and Jeani Walker, student

office assistant.

Two years later: What killed the Red Rim elk? 1

Cent$ible Nutrition: Making sense to change lives for the better 5

What’s for dinner? Rodents and rabbits partake in jointed goatgrass seed buffet in wheat/fallow fields 8

Sustainable Ranching: Improving the chances of staying in business 12

Science, education keeps human rabies cases at bay 16

Triple-threat approach by researchers swats Russian knapweed 20

New genetic sequencer revs up research at the College of Agriculture 22

Did somebody say Gar-baaaaaa-nzo? 24

Sustainable Agriculture Research and Extension Center: Anything but business as usual 27

‘Shoshone’ sainfoin shuns northern root-knot nematode 29

Biocontrol and spatial technology in the fight against weeds 32

‘Think Big’ — Think agriculture 34

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3432 2927

Diana Dean, Graduate Student Alexandre Latchininsky, Assistant Professor Department of Renewable Resources

1

L2What killed the Red Rim elk?Two years later

Likemanyinvestigationsintoakiller,thereareoftentimesmorequestionsthatresultthananswers. ThediscoverytwoyearsagoofarecumbentcowelkontheDaleyWildlifeHabitatManagementAreaintheRedRimareasouthwestofRawlinssignaledthebeginningofthelargestspontaneouselkmortalityinWyominghistory. Within sixweeks, an estimated350animals,mostly cowsand calves,becameparalyzedanddiedofeitherstarvationorpredation(Figure1).Fac-ultyandstaffmembersfromtheWyomingStateVeterinaryLaboratoryintheCollegeofAgricultureworkedwithWyomingGameandFishDepartmentpersonnelforseveralweeksbeforeultimatelyidentifyingthecausativeagentasXanthoparmelia chlorochroa(Figure2),afree-livinglichencommontomanypartsofthestate. Thissimpleanswergeneratedmanymorequestions.Forexample:Howdidsuchacommonforagespeciespoisonsuchahugenumberofanimals?Isthereanywayofpredicting(andhopefullypreventing)poisoningunderanygivensetofcircumstancesinthefuture?Isitsafetoruncattleorsheeponlichen-infestedareas? Is itsafetoeatgameanimalsthathavebeeneatinglichen?

Merl Raisbeck Professor

Rebecca Dailey Graduate student

Donald Montgomery Associate Professor

Roger Siemion Laboratory Technician II

Marce Joseph Vasquez Laboratory Technician I,

Department of Veterinary Sciences, College of Agriculture, University of Wyoming

James Ingram Professor Emeritus,

Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado

2 reflections 2006

Nosingleexperimentcouldpossiblyanswerallofthesequestions.Therewas,however,onelineofinvestigationcentraltoalltheothers:“Whatis(are)the actual toxin(s) in X. chlorochroa?” Seventy five yearsago, Professor O. A.Beath investigated live-stock poisoning by asoutheastern Wyominglichen he identified asParmelia molliuscula.We believe Beath’s P. molliusculawasactuallyX. chlorochroa.Beathsug-gestedthetoxicprinciple

was usnic acid (Figures3a and 3b), a “lichensubstance”orsecondarymetabolitethathasbeenusedinfolkmedicineforcenturies. AlthoughBeathnev-erprovedhisclaim,thereis indirect evidence thatbothsupportsandrefuteshis hypothesis. Shortlyafter we demonstratedthe lichen was toxic toelk, we identified usnicacid in samples of toxiclichen collected on theRed Rim. This wasn’tterriblysurprisingasthepresence of usnic acid

is one of the taxonomiccriteria that defines X. chlorochroa;however,themere presence of a sub-stancedoesnotproveit’sa toxin. Usnic acid poi-soninginothermammalsdoes not result in signseven vaguely similar tothoseseenintheRedRimelk.Mayberuminantsre-sponddifferentlytousnicacidthandogs,cats,mice,andpeopledo–ormaybethere’ssomethingelseweneedtobeworryingaboutinX. chlorochroa. We decided to findout.

Figure 2. Xanthoparmelia chlorochroa collected from the Red Rim area southwest of Rawlins. The lichen is relatively small (the specimen pictured is about the size of a quarter) and non-descript, but those looking closely can find it growing practically in every desert and many montane areas of the state.

Figure 1. Cow elk stricken by lichen on the Daley Wildlife Habitat Management Area February, 2004. This particular animal had been down for two days at the time the picture was taken. Although she couldn’t rise, she remained alert and hungry and had eaten everything she could reach. She was given the alfalfa, left, to see if she would recover given time and food.

Thebasicexperimen-taldesignwasverysimple:feedsheep(asasurrogatefor elk) purified usnicacidandseeifitproducedclinicalsignsandlesionssimilartowhatwasseenintheRedRimelk.Sheepwerechosenasanexperi-mental model for elk astheyaresmaller (requir-ing less dosages of theexpensive usnic acid),theirphysiologyisbetterunderstood (i.e. there islessquestionaboutwhatis “normal”), and, mostimportantly, they couldbe handled frequentlywithout triggering “cap-turemyopathy,”astress-inducedconditionofwildcervids that very closelyresembles the signs andlesions of X. chlorochroapoisoning. Old-timerswho ranched in south-ernWyomingduringtheDustBowlyearsindicatedsheepdevelopedthesameclinical signs as the RedRim elk when they atelichen.Justtobesure,wefedlichencollectedontheRed Rim to a couple ofewes.Althoughtheywerenot as severely affected,theyexhibitedexactlythesamesignsastheelk. The next step wasto determine how muchusnicacidtouse.Wehadaprettygoodideaoftheconcentration of usnic

acid in Red Rim lichenfromanalyseswe’ddoneduringthecrisis(Figure4), and these numberswere later confirmed byJohn Roach, a researchchemist with the U.S.Food and Drug Admin-istrationinCollegePark,Maryland.Unfortunately,usnicacidoccursintwodifferentchemicalforms,or enantiomers, whicharequitedifferentbiologi-cally.Anenantiomerisei-therofapairofchemicalcompoundsthataremir-ror imagestoeachotherbutarenotidentical.Re-beccaDaileyofCheyenne,a graduate student inthe Department of Vet-erinarySciences,workedtwomonthsdetermininghow to differentiate en-antiomersinlichen.Herresearch demonstratedthe usnic acid in toxiclichenfromtheRedRimareawasthe“+”isomer,sothatformofacidwasused. Sheepwerefedusnicacid,startingwithadosecalculated from the con-centration in the toxiclichen that produced re-cumbencyinelkfedRedRim lichen. The intentwas to feed increasingamountsofusnicacidun-tilthesheepshowedclini-cal or sub-clinical signsofpoisoning, thenruna

comprehensivebatteryofteststodetermine1)ifthesyndrome was the sameas seen in the Red Rimelk in 2004 and 2) themechanism of action ofthetoxin.However,evenafterthedoseofusnicacidwas increased to severaltimes that contained in

theRedRimlichen,therewere no clinical effects.Finally,dosingwithmorethan 700 milligrams/ki-logram/day for five daysproducedpoisoning. Theclinicalsignsofusnicacidpoisoningareverydifferentfromthoseof lichen intoxication.Inthelatter,animalsbe-comeprogressivelymoreataxicandweakeroveraone- to two-day period,eventuallyeitherbecom-ingrecumbentorrecov-ering. With usnic acid,animals are asymptom-aticuntiltheydropdeadwithout any premoni-tory signs. Usnic acidproduced marked bloodchemistry changes thatsuggested ongoing dam-agetokidneyandskeletalmuscle.Lichenpoisoningresults in blood chemis-triesthatsuggestmuscledamagebutnowherenearthemagnitudeseenwithusnic acid, nor is thereany evidence of damagetootherorgans,suchaskidneys.

3

Figure 3a. Usnic acid is extracted from a number of different lichens in Asia for use as an antibacterial and preservative agent in a variety of consumer products in Europe.

Figure 3b. Molecular structure of usnic acid. The enantiomers differ by the orientation of the methyl group. All that is presently known about the toxic properties of usnic acid comes from a few old experiments in laboratory animals and accidental poisonings in people.

Figure 3a

Figure 3b

H3CH3C

CH3

CH3

HO

O

O OH

OOOH

9a

5a5

9

8

7

6 4

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4 reflections 2006

Post-mortem exam-ination of usnic acid-treatedanimalsrevealedmassive necrosis of themuscles of locomotion(Figure5).Asimilar le-sionwasseeninsomeofthe lichen-poisoned elkbut only in those thathadbeenrecumbent fortwo to three days. Mostlichen-poisoned elk ex-hibited only mild or nomuscle damage, at leastas far as could be deter-mined microscopically.Since elk are prone tostress-induced muscledamage, we believe themildmusclelesionsintheelkrepresenttheprimary

effect of the lichen, andthemassivedamageseeninafewismorelikelytheresultofstrugglingtoriseafterthey’dgonedown. Atpresent,itappearsusnicacidisonlypartofthestorybehindtheRedRimdie-off.Theamountof usnic acid in lichenfrom the Red Rim wasseveral-foldlessthandos-esthatcausedabsolutelyno measurable effectsin this experiment. Theamountoflichenitwouldtaketoyieldatoxicdoseofusnicacidismorethaneven a starving animalcan eat in a day. Theclinical signs and bloodchemistry profiles of us-nicacidpoisoningaresig-nificantly different thanthoseassociatedwiththelichen.Evenallowingforinterspeciesandindivid-ual-to-individual varia-tion between animals, itdoesnotappeartherewasenoughusnicacidintheRedRimlichentocausepoisoningbyitself.Ontheotherhand,althoughthelesions caused by usnicacid are quite differentquantitatively, they aresimilarqualitatively.Itisprobable that usnic acidacted in synergy withsome other, as yet un-identified, toxin in X. chlorochroa to cause the

specificsyndromeseeninthefield. There are a numberof questions we hope toinvestigatesoon.Acom-monmisconception,oftenpromoted by the massmedia, is that merelyidentifying a given com-poundinatoxicfoodstuffsomehowprovesitispoi-sonous. Plants containthousands,ifnotmillions,of different compounds,most of which are in-nocuous or even ben-eficial.Othercompounds,harmless by themselves,may act synergisticallytobecomequite toxic incombination. One ques-tionwehopetoaddressistheidentityofthismiss-ing link. This is impor-tant to more than just

Figure 4. Gas chromatographic trace of lichen sample collected in February 2004. Usnic acid is the large peak on the right. This methodology does not differentiate between enantiomers so this peak represents the total amount of usnic acid present in the sample. Note also the many smaller peaks to the left of the usnic acid peak. At present, these compounds have not been identified but represent a small fraction of the possible synergists in the lichen.

Wyoming’slivestockandwildlife–Xanthoparmeliaspecies are marketed aseverything from herbal‘Viagra’ to weight losssupplementsontheWeb. We have receivedfunding from the Wyo-ming Wildlife/LivestockDisease Partnership tocharacterizethepathologyofX. chlorochroapoison-ing.Understandingwhattheplantdoesinvariousorganswilllikelygiveussome clues as to whatother toxin(s) is (are)presentinthelichen.Thisstudywillhopefullyalsorevealsubtlelesionsthatwillallowustodifferenti-atelichenpoisoningfromother forms of paralysisand muscle necrosis infuturefieldcases.

Figure 5. Muscle from an usnic acid-treated sheep. Note the extensive calcification (arrow) and pale, necrotic appearing muscle (just above ruler). The ewe behaved normally until the morning she died despite the apparent damage to the muscle.

H

Mary Kay Wardlaw, Food Stamp Nutrition Education Specialist and Director,

Department of Family and Consumer Sciences “Helpingfamilieseatbetterforless.”

ThatisthemissionoftheCent$ibleNutri-tionProgram(CNP)inWyoming. TheCNPprovidesfamiliesandindi-vidualshavinglimitedfinancialresourceswitheducationinbasicnutrition,food-re-sourcemanagement,mealplanning,foodpreparation,foodsafety,andsanitation. CNPisfundedfromtheU.S.Depart-mentofAgriculture’s(USDA)FoodStampNutrition Education (FSNE) and theExpandedFoodandNutritionEducationProgram(EFNEP). TheWyomingDepartmentofFamilyServicescontractswiththeUniversityofWyomingtodelivertheCNP.Avarietyofassessmenttoolstrackthepositiveimpactsoftheprogram.

History Wyoming EFNEP in 1969 beganprovidingnutritioneducationtofamilieswithlimitedresourcesinthreecounties.In1997, funding for theFSNEprogramfromtheUSDAFoodandNutritionSer-

“I am saving about $90 on my food bill. My husband and I are on a fixed

income and I have specific dietary needs, and now we are both eating better

for less money. The money we save every month we have spent on paint

for the house, clothing, and other things we could not afford before.”

5

vice allowed expansion to 11 counties.AdditionalFSNEfundingin2000allowedstatewide delivery of the program. Thename Cent$ible Nutrition Program wasadopted to include FSNE and EFNEPfundingwhilecreatingaseamlessnutritioneducationeffortforparticipantsatthelocallevel. Theprogramoperatesona$3.5mil-lionannualbudgetwithnearlyhalfofthatamount from matching in-kind support.Thisin-kindmatchcomesfromcounties,tribal governments, the University ofWyoming,andothercollaboratingpublicagencies. Currently,30nutritioneducatorsteachthe program. Many recently completedCNP certification by participating in anon-linetrainingcurriculumdevelopedbyLouisianaStateUniversity.County-basededucatorsareresponsibleforrecruitment,documentationofimpactsandlocalmatch-ing funds, and teaching the curriculum.Classesenableparticipantstodevelopnewskillsandgainknowledgeto:

6 reflections 2006

• Improve nutritionaland physical well-being of the totalfamily.

• Increase knowledgeof the essentials ofhumannutritionandphysicalactivity.

• Increasetheabilitytoselect and buy foodthat satisfies nutri-tionalneeds.

• Improveskillsinfoodproduction, prepara-tion, storage, safety,sanitation,andmeal-timepractices.

• Increasetheabilitytomanagefoodbudgetsandrelatedresourcessuchasfoodstamps.

A typical CNP classincludeshands-onlearn-ingwithparticipantshelp-ingtoprepareandsamplerecipes from the CNPcookbook.Classesarenotonly participatory, theyincorporate a dialogueapproachtolearningthat

draws on participants’experiences and appliestheinformationintotheirownlives.CNPpromoteshealthy lifestyle changesfor improved nutritionandfoodsafetywhilesav-ingmoney.Smallchangesover a lifetime are moresustainable and moreeffective. This past programyear,CNPeducatorsgrad-uated1,717adultsintheprogramwithanaverageof8.3lessonsperpartici-pant.Agraduateisapar-ticipantwhocompletesatleastfivelessons. Of the adult partici-pants,79percentwereator below 125 percent ofpovertyandmorethan90percentbelow185percentofpoverty,asdefinedbyfederalguidelines.Nearlyone in five participantsenrolled in one or morefoodassistanceprogramsasaresultofparticipation

in CNP. Most partici-pants, 68 percent, werefemale.Ofthoseenrolled,93percentreceivedgroupinstructionand6percentone-on-onelessons,while1 percent participatedin home-study lessons.Of enrolled adults, 23percent were minorities,with8percentAmericanIndian and 12 percentHispanic.

Impact Documentation AdultparticipantsinCNP programs completeasurveyand24-hourdietrecall at entry and exit.The survey assesses avarietyofnutrition,foodresource management,andfoodsafetypractices.Thesurveyanddietrecallare used to customizeprogramsfor individualsand to assess impacts oftheprogram. Data is entered intotheEvaluation/ReportingSystem(ERS),aprogramdesigned by the EFNEPprogramtomeasurenutri-tion education impacts.ERSincludesavarietyofreportsusefulformanage-mentpurposes,diagnosticassessmentsofparticipantneeds,andsummarydataforstateandnationalas-sessmentoftheprogram’simpact. Documentationabout the program canbe foundatwww.csrees.usda.gov/nea/food/efnep/ers/ers4.html.

Thenutrientcontentinformation was drawnprimarily from the data-base used by the USDAfortheNationwideFoodConsumption Survey,withadditionalitemsonthe nutrient content offoods from the USDA’sAgricultureHandbook8.Foodswereassignedfoodgroup servings based ona paper that translatedtheFoodGuidePyramidrecommendations intomeasurablequantities.

Adult Impacts The entry and exitdietrecallsprovidecom-parative data on con-sumption of foods fromfive food groups: breadsandcereals,fruits,vege-tables,dairy,andmeatormeatalternatives.Ofthe1,717 graduates, 1,602or 93 percent showedpositive changes in anyfoodgroup.Forexample,graduatesreportedeating1.2fruitsperdayatentryand1.9fruitsperdayatexit.Thisisanimprove-mentofmore thanone-halfservingperdayandisneartherecommenda-tion of at least two perday. An additional foodgroup, called “other,”includesfoodshighinfat,sugar, and calories andgenerally low in nutri-ents.One“otherserving”is approximately equiva-lentto35caloriesorone

0%

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Food ResourceManagement

NutritionPractices

Food Safety All

Entry Exit

Behavior change in food resource management, nutrition practices, and food safety.

teaspoon of fat or twoteaspoons of sugar. Formostparticipants,anim-provementisnotedwithadecreaseinthenumberofotherservingsfromentrytoexit.CNPparticipantsreported an average of23.3 servings at entryand16.5servingsatexit.This reflects an averagereductionof238caloriesfrom high-fat and high-sugarfoods.Thisfindingisreinforcedbythemea-surementofactualgramsof fat consumed, whichdecreased from 90.3 to75.7perday. The ERS programcomputes a nutrientadequacy ratio (NAR).This is based on nutri-entintakedividedbytheRecommended DietaryAllowanceforthenutri-entwiththelimitof1or100percent.Sixnutrientsare measured: protein,iron,calcium,vitaminA,vitamin C, and vitaminB6.The mean combinedNARforthesixnutrientsincreased from 0.76 to0.82 for program gradu-ates.Thegoalfora“per-fect” diet would be anNARof1.Thisincreaserepresents a 6-percentimprovementforthosesixnutrientscombined.Thisis a significant changethatcanleadtoimprovedhealthinthelongterm. Finalreportsofgrad-uatesrevealed:

• 89percentofgradu-atesshowedimprove-mentinoneormorenutritionpractices

• 83percentof gradu-atesshowedimprove-ment inoneormorefoodresourcemanage-mentpractices,and

• 59percentofgradu-ates showed im-provement in oneor more food-safetypractices.

• 58 percent more of-ten planned mealsin advance, and 63percent more oftenused the “NutritionFacts”onfoodlabelstomakefoodchoicescompared to whentheyfirstenrolledintheprogram.

Graduates reportedsaving an average of$43.50 per month ontheirfamilies’fooddol-larsthispastyearwhilestillprovidingtheirfam-iliesnutritiousfood. Inadditiontotheen-rolled participants, CNPeducators shared nutri-tion information with19,580adultsinone-timeeducational settings inthe past program year,which ended in Septem-ber,2005.Evaluatingone-timecontactwithadultsinvolves a post-lessonmeasurementofintendedbehavior change,and79percent reported intenttoimprovehealth-relatedbehavior.

Educatorsalsoprovideprogramming for youthsfromfamilieshavinglim-itedincomes.Nearly6,800youngpeopleinWyomingparticipatedinaseriesoflessons,andanadditional7,300youthsparticipatedin one-time educationalprogramslastyear. TheCNPaffectsfam-iliesthroughoutWyomingby giving them a handup,notahandout,dur-ing challenging financialtimes.Withtheprogram’shistory and consistentdelivery, future research– qualitative and quan-titative – on long-termimpactsshouldyieldsig-nificant data about howpeople have improvedtheirlives.

A participant learns from Cent$ible Nutrition Program educator Helen Gregorio how to use the new USDA MyPyramid to plan “cent$ible” menus that include a variety of colorful foods from the five food groups. (Photo by Karen Hruby)

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10 reflections8 reflections 2006

11

Rodents and rabbits partakein jointed goatgrass seed buffetin wheat/fallow fields

Gustavo Sbatella Graduate Student

Andrew Kniss Temporary Associate Research Scientist

David Wilson Associate Lecturer,

Department of Plant Sciences

Stephen Miller Associate Dean and Director,

Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station

9

PProducerseyeingtheirwheatandfallowsystemsmaynoticemiceandrabbitsasonlysecondarytotheirfield’slandscape.Researchnowindicatestheycouldbealliesincombatingjointedgoatgrass.

Jointed goatgrass is a troublesomewinter annual grass that continuestoincreaseinwinterwheat/fallowsystemsoftheCentralGreatPlainsandPacificNorthwest.

Producersincurlossesthroughyieldreduction,competition,andgraincon-taminationthatresultsindockage.MorethanfivemillionacresofwinterwheatinthewesternUnitedStatesareinfestedwiththisweed.Jointedgoatgrasscontrolinawheatandfallowrotationisparticularlydifficultbecausemostherbicidesthatareeffectiveonjointedgoatgrassalsoinjurewheatbecausethetwospeciesarecloselyrelated.Toimplementeffectivemanagementpractices,factorsaffectingseednumbersandseedviabilitymustbeinvestigated.

Weedshavethepotentialtoproducealargenumberofseeds,andjointedgoatgrassisnoexception.Oneplantcanproduceupto1,800viableseeds.Sincejointedgoatgrassisprimarilydispersedbyseeds,itsfateinagriculturalfieldswilldeterminethesizeofthefuturepopulation.

Manyweed-controlpracticesareaimedatreducingthenumberofseedsinthesoil.Deeptillageisatoolfarmersfrequentlyusetoreducejointedgoatgrassseedpopulationsnearthesurface;however,tillagedecreasesmoisture,whichcanleadtoerosion,especiallyindryyears.Profoundchangesintheamountofseedsonthesurfacecanalsobeexpectedunderno-tillsystemsandorgani-callygrownfieldscomparedtoconventionallymanagedfields.

Asgrowersshiftfromintensivetillagetono-tillproductionsystems,seedsonthesurfacewillincrease.Willthisincreasepredationoftheseedbyinsects,birds,andsmallmammals?

Althoughseedpredatorsaloneareunlikelytobeeffectivebiologicalagents,theymaybeabletostressweedpopulationssufficientlytoreduceseedbankswhencombinedwithothermanagementtechniques.

10 reflections 2006

In preliminary stud-ies conducted in south-eastern Wyoming andwestern Nebraska, sig-nificant seed predationby small rodents wasreported. Field studieswere established at theUniversity of WyomingSustainable AgricultureResearch and ExtensionCenternearLingletode-terminejointedgoatgrassseed predation in wheatandfallowsystems.Thisresearch was supportedby the National Joint-ed Goatgrass ResearchProgram.

Jointed goatgrassseeds were placed on 3-inchby3½-inchsandpa-

per cards and offered topredators in both fallowandwheatstrips.Woodenexclosures covered withaluminum screens wereplaced over one set ofcards to quantify the ef-fectsoftheenvironmenton predation cards andpreventpredation.

Thestudywas initi-ated May 26, 2005, andcontinued to October 3,2005. Predation cardswere replaced weekly.Two factors were evalu-ated – background seeddensity and distancefrom field edge. Motionsensitive, infrared cam-eraswereusedtoidentifypredators.

Figure 1: Seed predation in wheat. Lingle, Wyoming

Figure 2: Seed predation in fallow. Lingle, Wyoming

Figure 3: Seed predation in wheat-fallow. Lingle, Wyoming.

Wooden exclosures covered with aluminum screens in wheat shelter special seed-bearing cards to prevent predation and quantify the effects of the environment.

Neitherdistancefromfield margin or jointedgoatgrassseeddensityin-fluencedpredation,whichwasobservedinboththewheat and fallow strips,although seed predationpatternsdifferedbetweenthe twostrips.Seedpre-dation started in weektwo on the wheat strip(Figure 1) and reachedlevelscloseto80percentthefollowingfourweeks.A steady decrease oc-curred from weeks sixthroughnineuntilwheatwasharvested.Declineinseedpredationduringthesix- tonine-weekperiodprobably resulted fromlossof favorablehabitat.Thewheatcropwaslos-ing leaves, the canopybecame more open, androdents were more ex-posed to their enemies.Atthesametime,wheatgrains became available,resultinginanalternativefoodsource.

Afterthewheatwasharvested, seed removalfluctuated from 0 to 30percent. Feces found onthe predation cards sug-gested that mice werethemainpredatorswhenwheat was on the field,while rabbits predomi-natedafterharvest.

There was no seedpredation the first sixweeksinthefallowstrip(Figure2).The soil sur-face at the beginning ofthe study was coveredby dead Russian thistle.When seed removal wasobserved,vegetationcov-eragehadgrown12inch-es tall. Seed predationlevels near 100 percentremainedfairlyconstantfromweekseightto14.Toestablish the importanceofvegetativecoverage,allplots were mowed, andseed removal decreasedto 20 percent after thedisturbance.

Twoweekslater,pre-dation returned to thesame levelsbeforemow-ing.Theseresultssuggestthat rodents were moreaffected by the distur-bancecreatedbymowingthantothechangeinsoilcoverage.

The overlap of thewheatandfallowgraphs(Figure 3) suggest pre-dation shifted betweenstrips. The dramaticchanges caused by the

wheat harvest combinedwithincreasedvegetationcoverageinthefallowarepossibleexplanationsforthisbehavior.

Studies on seed pre-dationbyinsectsindicatepredationusuallyoccursforashortperiod.Incon-trast,thisstudyindicatesthat jointed goatgrassseeds can remain partof a rodent’s diet for anextendedperiod.

Thisstudyconfirmedmiceandrabbitsaspreda-tors of jointed goatgrassseedsandthatsuchseedscanbepartoftherodent’sdietforlongperiods.Fur-ther, the methodology

developed proved usefulin quantifying seed re-moval. Future researchshouldfocusonhowveg-etationcoveraffectsseedpredation and levels ofseedremovalwhenotherfood sources are readilyavailable.

Jointed goatgrass seeds were placed on 3-inch by 3½-inch sandpaper cards and placed in fallow and wheat strips.

Doctoral student Gustavo Sbatella

places jointed goatgrass seeds

on sandpaper cards.

Rabbits were the predominant predator of jointed goatgrass seeds following wheat harvest. Motion sensitive, infrared cameras identified predators.

Seed predators may be able to stress weed populations sufficiently to reduce seed banks

when combined with other management techniques.

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12 reflections 2006

Techniques can lasso risks attemptingto fencein producersMichael A. Smith Professor

James W. Waggoner Jr. Associate Professor,

Department of Renewable Resources

Improving the

W While cattle prices may be at historic highs, thecattle price cycles of the last century suggest priceswill decrease, economists point out. Meanwhile, op-erationcostscontinuetoincrease,squeezingpotentialprofitability. A clear understanding of objectives and costsof alternative management systems can be used tominimize capital, operating, and labor expenses inmost operations. Ranching can be made easier forboththecattleandrancherwithoutadverselyaffect-ingprofitability. Sustainabilityismaintainingorimprovingprofits,reducing vulnerability to risks such as unpredictableweatherormarkets,andmaintainingorimprovingthequalityoftheresourcebaseandenvironment. Severalresearchprojectsoverthe lastdecadead-dressmajorissuesinsustainingaranchingoperation.PerspectivesonsustainableranchingderivedfromthoseeffortsandexperiencewithWyomingranchesareof-feredhere. Rethinkingthestructureofaranchingoperation,whentheonlycertaintyisanuncertainfuture,iseasierwhennotstrugglingtostay inbusiness.Alternativestocurrentpracticescanbeevaluatedand tested,andobjectivesforthefamilyandranchcanbeconsidered. A ranch, even those with substantive agronomicenterprises, is in the business of producing forageandconvertingthatresourcetoamarketableproductthroughcattle. Profitabilitywouldappeartofollowhowefficientlythat forage is converted toamarketableproduct.Allthe latest breeding, animal health, and managementtechnologycanbeconsideredandperhapsadoptedifthepracticemeetstheoperators’objectivesforprofit,

risk, and quality of the resource; however, there areseveralpracticesthatmayimprovetheenvironmentforconsideringnewtechnologies. Reducingproductioncostsandaddingflexibilitytoaranchoperationarethemostlikelypathstogreaterincomestabilityandreducingrisksduetolowerprices.Thereisalesserlikelihoodproducerscanincreasepro-ductionandgrossincomemorethantheycanreducecosts.Therelativemagnitudeofimpactstocostsandreturns favors cost-reduction practices compared tocommonlyavailableincome-generatingpractices. Herearemanagementstrategiesthat,takenaloneorasawhole,shouldfavorablyaddressoneoralloftheelementsofsustainability.Allthesepractices,unconven-tionalastheymayseemtosome,havebeenfavorablytestedbyafewproducersinWyoming,andpublishedresearchisavailabletosupportothers ManyWyomingrancherscalveinwinterorveryearlyspring,butalatercalvingseasonmatchesthepe-riodofhighernutrientdemandbythecowtotheperiodofgreateravailabilityofnutrientsfromgrazinglands.Thispractice cangreatly reduce feedcostsby lettinggrazingsupplythehigh-qualityfeedsneededduringlatepregnancyandlactationwhilereducingthequantityandqualityrequiredinwinterduringmid-pregnancy.

chances of staying in business

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Winterfeedhasbeenrecognizedasthegreatestcostinmostcattleoperations.Anadequate,qualitydietmaybeavailablesolelyfromrangelandorstockpiledforagesontamepastures,thoselandsprimarilyconsistingofnon-native plant species or domesticated cultivars ofnative species. Compensation for smaller weanlingcalvesmaybeobtainedthroughdelayedsalecombinedwiththenormallyhigherunitpriceofsmallercalvesorretainingcalvesthroughyearlingage.Weightsoflong-yearlingcattle,thosebetween19monthsand2yearsof age, have not been significantly affected by birthdatesofeitherMarchorJune.Latercalvinggenerallyincreasesthepercentofcowsexposedthatweancalvesandreducesthedeathlossesassociatedwithdystocia(difficultorslowlabor)andenteritis(inflammationoftheintestinaltract). Providingwaterinwinterforcattlemaybeacon-cern;however,theamountsrequiredaresmaller,andCanadiancattlemenprovideassurancethatcattlewilleatenoughsnowtobehealthyduringmid-pregnancy.Morewintergrazing,especiallyonrangeland,tendstomaximize grass yields and associated environmentalbenefitsbecausetheplantsaredormant. Winterfeedingofenergyorproteinmaybemini-mized.Shrubsinmanyplantcommunitiesmayprovideaproteinsource.Short-termwinternutrientdeficitmaynot be detrimental to animal production if time forrecoveryofbodyconditionbeforecalving isallowed.Providingsomenutrientsupplementmaybeadvanta-

geous.Liquidfeedtubsanddehydratedmolasses-basedblockshavebeenshowntosignificantlyshiftcattleusetoareasotherwiseinfrequentlygrazed. Havingaplanfordroughtisacriticalrisk-reduc-tion strategy. A culling plan may be required. Whenstockercattlearenormallyretained,theymaybesoldearlierwhenpricesaremorefavorableandbeforetheforage shortagehasoccurred.Earlyweaning reducescow-nutrientrequirements.Cullingprioritiesshouldbedevelopedforwhatcowsaretobesoldifaforageshort-ageislooming.Forageyieldintheupcomingseasoncanbe predicted by spring precipitation across Wyomingandmuchofthenorthernplains/intermountainareawherecool-seasongrassesdominatetheforagebase.Thisprovidestheopportunitytoimplementanydestockingbeforepricestypicallyfall. Droughtthatcausesreservoirs,springs,orstreamstogodrymaylimitforagesupplies.Haulingwaterorin-stallingshallowburiedorunburiedpipelinesarewidelyusedsolutions.Alternativeforagesourcesaredifficulttofindinthemiddleofaforage-supplyshortage.Earlyrecognitionofimpendingshortagesmayprovidetheop-portunitytofindreasonablypricedadditionalgrazing. Irrigatedcropsorotherimprovedforages,bothan-nualandperennial,canbeharvestedthroughgrazingani-malsatmuchlesscostthanmechanicalharvesting.Whentousetheseforagesourcesmosteffectivelydependsonthetypeofoperationandotherforagesupplies.Retainedyearlingswillgainoveralongerperiodofthesummerif grazedonnormallyhigherquality irrigated forages.Wheresnowcover isnormally low,nativerangelandsmayprovideadequatewintergrazingandallowuseofhigherqualitypasturesinsummerwhenacow’snutrientrequirementsaregreater.Standingorwindrowedforagesontame(includingirrigated)pasturecanprovidelow-costforagestobegrazedeveninsnowycountry. Optimizingthegrazinganimaltofittheenviron-mentmustbeconsidered.Smallercowsoptimize the

A later calving season matches the period

of higher nutrient demand by the cow

to the period of greater availability of

nutrients from grazing lands. This practice

can greatly reduce feed costs.

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useofvariablequalityforagesuppliesinadryclimatetoproduceproportionallygreatercalfyieldsthanlargercows. Smaller cows can be more selective for higherqualitydietaryitemsamongvariablequalityforagesandrequirealesseramount. Heiferdevelopmentischallenging.Iflow-costfor-agesareusedtoformthebasisforheifergrowth,thenageoffirstbreedingmaybemovedlatertoallowmoregrowth. Range-raised, forage-adapted, smaller bullsmore closely match a range herd they are bought toservice.Forage-adapted,smallerbullsmaintainbetteronrangelandsandtraveltoorwithacowherd.Smallerbullsshouldresultinlessdystociainfemalesandheif-ers.Smallercattleshouldfinishinthefeedlotearlieratsizesyieldingmeatcutsmoreintunewithcontemporaryconsumertastes. Marketing provides an opportunity to improvegrossreturnstoaranchoperationandreceivebenefitsfrominvestmentinbreedingtoimprovecarcassquali-ties.Retainingownershipofyearlingcattleofferstheopportunitytoconvertmoreoftheforageresourceintoamarketedproductandminimizestheforagerequiredformaintenanceofthecowherd. Evenifretainedownershipwererevenueneutral,the increasedflexibilityassociatedwithbeingable tomarketnon-breedinganimalsearlierinresponsetoex-pectedforageshortageswouldbevaluable.Netreturnsto an operation may be improved by only buying orretainingreplacementswhenpricesarelowerandthenetpresentvaluegreater. Recent observations indicate that producers en-teringintonichemarketing(suchaswithorganically

grownor“natural”animalsormarketingintoabrandedproductline)maymorereliablycapitalizeonbreedingprogramsemphasizingcarcassqualityorotherranchmanagementapproachesthatarenotroutinelyrewardedintypicalmarketing. Grazingmanagementforcattlemightbesummedupinthreegeneralprinciples.Theseincludemaintainingforageavailableforadequateanimalproductionandsoilsurfaceprotectionthroughmonitoringresidualforage,improving distribution of grazing over the landscapeto harvest more of the forage resource, and avoidingrepeatedsame-seasonuseofthesamearea,especiallyinspring. Animalsperformbetteriftheycanminimizesearch-ingforadequateamountsorqualityforageevenifthismaymeanleavingmoreresidualforagethanisneededforsoil-surfaceprotectionfromwindorwatererosion.Monitoringofresidualforageamountsallowsamanagertooptimizetheuseofrangelandresourcesbythetimelymoving of cattle within or between pastures. Springuse,whenmostgrasses,forbs,andshrubsaregrowing,hasthegreatestpotentialtoadverselyaffectthegrowthpotentialofplants.Summerusetendstoconcentrategrazinganimalsonriparianareas.Fallorwinteruseminimizesimpactongrassesandforbsbutmayresultinhigheruseofshrubs. Grazingsystemswithoutfencesmaynotbefeasibleeverywhere but, where fencing can be minimized, alargeexpenseincapitalandmaintenancecostscanbeavoided.Moreintensivegrazingmanagementgenerallymeansthatmorewaterforlivestockhastobeprovidedregardlessofthedevelopmentofpastures.Regulatingtheavailabilityofwatertograzinganimalstospecifictimesandlocationswouldaccomplishthesamemove-mentpatternasaccomplishedwithpasturesassumingthatallwatercouldberegulated. Herdingusinglow-stressmethodscanbeusedtooptimizetheeffectivenessofoff-streamwatersourcesforagrazingsystemorminimizeuseonriparianzones.Low-stresslivestockhandlingreferstoanapproachtoherdingandhandlinganimalsthatminimizesstressandlaborthroughapplicationofanimalbehaviorprinciples.Oneorafewpeoplecanmovemanyhundredsofcattlewithpropertrainingofbothpeopleandcattle.

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M Mentioning rabiesalmost always elicits aresponse from peoplebecause of its near 100-percent fatality rate inhumans. Worldwide, thou-sands of people die ofrabies annually, yet inthe United States, deathoccursataverylowrate.The number of rabies-relateddeathsintheU.S.has declined from morethan100annuallyintheearly 1900s to one or

two per year in the1990s, according totheWyomingDepart-mentofHealth.This

is because modern-daypreventionandtreatmentprograms have provenn e a r l y 10 0 - p e rc e n tsuccessful. We were unable tofind records of the lasthuman rabies fatality inWyoming, and the statehealth department hasno confirmed case onrecord. The lack of humanfatalities is interestingsincetherearetwolargewildlifepopulationpoolsthatareinfected. Whyaretherenohu-manfatalities? Itisadirectresultofstateand local lawsgov-erningrabiesvaccinationofpetsalongwithreliableandeffectivesurveillanceby the Wyoming StateVeterinary Laboratory

(WSVL). Rabies haschanged over the

last few decadesfromadiseaseofdogs, cats, anddomestic spe-

Kenneth Mills, Professor; Kenji Sato, Assistant Professor; and Amy Boerger-Fields, Laboratory Technician; Department of Veterinary Sciences

ciestoawildlifedisease. Therearetwogeneralrabies cycles. Bat rabiescirculates in bat popula-tions and, on rare occa-sions,infectsmanyotherspecies.Thesecond,andlarger pool, is terrestrialrabies, which circulatesindifferentspeciesindif-ferentpartsoftheUnitedStates(Figure1). We know there aredifferent cycles becauselaboratory techniquesdistinguish viral strainscomingfromvariousspe-cies. An example is arelativesimplemoleculartest allowing veterinarydiagnosticianstoidentifywhether rabies virus in-fectingahorseoriginatedinabatoraskunk. Wyoming geographyoffersauniqueopportu-nitytostudythedynam-ics of rabies over timeand its spread into pre-viously free areas. Thisarticle focusesonterres-trialrabiesbecauserabid

batscanshowupalmostanywhere. Trackingthedistribu-tionofrabiesintimeandspace within Wyomingmeanstrackingthe loca-tionofinfectedskunks. Anytime a signifi-cantlevelofrabiesoccursin skunk populations,thereisthepotentialforspillover into domesticspecies and for humanexposure. Luckily, mostpeople avoid skunks sotherearenotmanydirectexposures.Yet,Wyomingcitizens are occasionallyattackedbyrabidskunks,andtherewasonecaseinwhichWyomingchildrenwereattackedbyarabidskunkwhilesleepinginatent. Mostpeopleconsiderdogsandcatswhentheythink of rabies, but re-searchers the past twodecades have identifiedmore horses and cattlethat tested positive thancatsanddogs.

16 reflections 2006

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Thespreadofterres-trial rabies in Wyomingtends to be along riverdrainagesandotherripar-ianareas,whichprovidethe best skunk habitatin Wyoming. The virusitself has nothing to dowith water. Wyoming isaheadwatersstate.Figure2isadepictionofthema-jor drainages and showswhere rabid skunks aremost likely to be found;therefore,drainagesflow-ingnorthoutofWyominginto Montana and even-

tually into the MissouriRiverarelikelytohavera-bidskunksbecausethosestateshaverabiescirculat-ingintheirskunks. DrainagesinwesternWyoming, such as theSnakeortheGreenrivers,leadtostateswherethereisnorabiesviruspresentintheskunkpopulations.The four maps seen infigures3through6showareas where terrestrialrabies have been foundthe past two decades.WSVL researchers di-

agnosed the first case inJohnsonCountyin1984.Rabiesoverthenextfouryears spread throughoutnortheastern Wyoming.Infected skunks in the1990sbegantobeidenti-fiedintheBigHornBasinand, in the late 1990s,casesweredetectedintheRiverton-Landerarea.Inlate2000andearly2001,researchers were sur-prisedandalittlealarmedtofindinfectedskunksintheFarsonareainsouth-western Wyoming. This

suggestedanewfocusofrabies-infected skunksmight be establishing it-self in the upper GreenRiver Basin that mighteventuallyspreadintotheColoradoRiverBasin. Good, continuousskunkhabitatisnotpreva-lent in theareabetweenLanderandFarson,whichareseparatedbytheWindRiverMountains.Contin-uedsurveillanceofskunksintheFarsonareafailedtodetectanymorecases,andit appears the outbreak

Figure 2. Drainages of major rivers in Wyoming. Figure 1. Distribution of major terrestrial reservoirs of rabies in the United States.

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18 reflections

has faded. It is generallyassumedthat,oncerabiesisestablished inaskunkpopulation,itpersistsatalevelthatfollowsacyclicpatterndependingonthenumberofskunks. Rabiesappears tobea permanent ecologicalfeatureamongskunks innortheastern Wyoming.InotherareaslikeFarson,Lander,Riverton,andtheBigHornBasin, thedis-easehas, for reasonsnotfully understood, disap-peared.Figure6showsthelastfewyearswheretherehasbeenageneraldeclineincasesstatewide.

Interesting cases:

Rabies in the schoolyard: Thegreatestnumberof human exposures oc-curred in1992 innorth-easternWyomingafterayoungdogwastakentoagradeschoolforshow-and-tell.Thisoccurredseveralweeks after theunvacci-natedanimalhadbeeninafightwithaskunk.Rabies

symptomscantakesevendaystoseveralmonthstomanifestthemselves.Theanimal began to showsigns of rabies shortlyaftertheschoolvisit,andrabies was confirmed bythe WSVL. About 100received post-exposuretreatmentforrabies.Theanimalwas tooyoung toreceiverabiesvaccine,butitshouldhavebeeneutha-nizedonceaknownexpo-suretoawildanimalhadtakenplace.ItisimportanttorealizethattheCentersfor Disease Control andPrevention recommendsan unvaccinated pet ex-posedtoarabidanimalorawildanimalthatcan’tbetestedbeeuthanized.Thekeypointhereistokeeppetsvaccinated!

Rabid horses: Thereweretwoverydifferent cases of rabiesinhorsesnearSheridan.In one case in 1997, aminiature horse becameaggressive and chasedotheranimals.Itshowed

no impairment of loco-motion, demonstratednofear,andevenchasedbulls on the ranch. Theanimal was euthanized,submitted to the WSVLand tested positive forrabies.Asecond,andverydifferent, case in 1999involvedahorsethatwasbecominglameand,whilebeingexaminedbyavet-erinarian, stumbled andsat down like a dog. Itwas not aggressive andappearedbrightandalert.Luckily,theveterinarianhadworkedattheWSVLand remembered a com-ment about associatingdog-sitting behavior inhorses with a possiblediagnosisofrabies. The horse was putdown,and itsbrainwassubmitted along with apieceofspinalcordfromthelumbarregion(lowerback).Thebrainwasneg-ative,butthespinalcordwas positive for rabies.These twocasesdemon-strate several importantpoints.Thereisnotypical

presentationofrabies inanimals. Our laboratory ad-vises veterinarians andanimal owners who liveintherabiesendemicpartsofthestatetofirsttestandruleoutrabiesinanyani-malshowingneurologicaldisease. The two horsesweremostlikelyexposedinverydifferentareasofthebody.Theminiaturehorsewasprobablybittenonthefacesincetheviruswentdirectlytothebrain.By contrast, the dog-sit-ting horse was probablyinfected by a bite on arearlegsothattheinitialinfectionwasinthespinalcord.Rabiesvirusspreadsthrough thenervoussys-tem by traveling alongnerves.

Rabies in unexpected places: In 1991, there werethree known positiveskunks in the Star Val-ley in extreme westernWyoming. Skunk rabieshadneverbeenseenthere.A similar situation with

Figure 3. Rabies positives (terrestrial) 1984–1988. Figure 4. Rabies positives (terrestrial) 1989–1994.

onepositive skunk fromTeton County occurredin 2000. Typing of thevirusesshowedtheywerethe bat origin virus andnottheskunkvirus.Pre-sumably,abathadbittenaskunk.Fortunately,thisexampleoftransferofbatrabies to skunksdidnotresult in the establish-ment of an outbreak ofrabiesinanewarea.Itwasoncethoughtthebatviruscouldnotestablishacon-tinuing cycle in skunks.Unfortunately, this wasproven wrong a coupleyears ago in Flagstaff,Arizona,whenthatexactprocess occurred; there-fore, even if anareahasnothadskunkrabies,itisnotimmunefromhavingrabies-infectedskunks. Dealing with rabiesin Wyoming involvesmultiple agencies. TheWSVL performs all the

rabies testing and pro-videsresultsanddatatoother agencies. Rabiesexaminations,except forthesurveillancesamples,are performed free as aservicetothestate. The Wyoming De-partmentofAgriculture,through the AnimalDamage ManagementBoard, provides moneyforanactivesurveillanceprogram. The state health de-partment is responsiblefor all issues involvinghumanexposures. TheU.S.Departmentof Agriculture’s WildlifeServices is the collectorof animals from mostWyoming counties forsubmissiontotheWSVLaspartofthesurveillance.The Wyoming HighwayPatrol(WHP)alsoplaysarole.Whensomeoneisbittenbyapotentiallyra-

bidanimalandhisorherphysician wants to starttreatment (such a pro-gram costs from $1,200to$1,500),WHPtroopershaverelayedanimalheadstothelaboratoryfortest-ingthesameday. Predictingtheskunkrabies situation in Wyo-ming is at present moreartthanscience.Thekeyvariableisthesizeoftheskunk population. Goodhabitat and the rightclimate conditions willproduce lots of skunkscausingtheeasyspreadofthevirusfromoneanimalto another. Because thestatehasanactivesurveil-

lanceprogram, research-ers hope to determinethe first few cases in anareaandthenusepubliceducation to reduce thenumber of human andanimalexposures. Theingredientsthathave kept rabies out ofthe human populationin Wyoming are the ac-tivemonitoringofskunkpopulations, the veteri-narians and wildlife bi-ologists who are alertto neurological signs inanimals,andaproactiveeducationprogrambytheWyomingDepartmentofHealth–agooddiagnosticprogram.

Figure 5. Rabies positives (terrestrial) 1995–2001. Figure 6. Rabies positives (terrestrial) 2002–2005.

Department of Veterinary Sciences Professor Ken Mills, and bacteriology and rabies section leader with

the Wyoming State Veterinary Laboratory, uses a fluorescent microscope to visualize virus or bacterial

infected tissues by directly labeling them with a specific antibody that has a fluorescent tag.

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20 reflections 2006

Sarah Tyrer Graduate Student

Brian Mealor Graduate Student

Ann Hild Associate Professor,

Department of Renewable Resources

extensive root growth,vegetative reproduction,lack of North Americanpredators, an ability toproducechemicalsthatin-hibitthegrowthofneigh-boringplants,andpossiblesoilnutrientalteration. Department of Re-newableResourcesgradu-atestudentsSarahTyrerand Brian Mealor, un-der the direction of As-sociate Professor AnnHild, use an approachintegrating moleculargenomics, greenhouseexperiments, and fieldresearchtoexaminehowRussian knapweed inva-sions affect native plantcommunities and findnative plants capable ofcompeting against Rus-sian knapweed. Toughnativecompetitionwouldaidinthestruggleagainstknapweed’s expansioninto rangelands wherechemical or mechanicalcontrolmaybedifficult. Theteam’sgoalistounderstandifnativegrass-es develop the ability to

co-existandcompetewithRussianknapweedandifnative forbs and shrubscansurviveinsoilswhereknapweedhasbeen. BecauseRussianknap-weedandsoilsurroundingthe weed may containchemicalsthatnegativelyaffectthegrowthofotherplants, Tyrer examinedhownativeforbandshrubseedlings emerged andgrew in soils afterknap-weed was removed. Ina greenhouse study, sheexaminedtwonativeforbsand two native shrubsusing soils fromRussianknapweed invasionsandadjacentnon-invadedar-eas.Soilswerecollectedattwo rangeland sitesnearGreybullandRivertonandone abandoned pasturenearGreeley,Colorado. All fourspecieswereabletogerminateandestab-lishinsoilsfromknapweedinvasions,andplantgrowthwasgreater in soils fromtheinvasion.Soilchemicaltesting indicated highernutrientlevelsinsoilsfrom

Brian Mealor collects native grasses from old Russian knapweed invasions to determine if plants from long-term invasions were better competitors than those from non-invaded areas.

W Wyoming can be adifficultplaceforaplantto survive, especially ifthesurroundingcommu-nity is dominated by anexoticinvader. Invasive plant spe-ciesmayactasecosystemtransformers by alter-ingnutrientcycling,ero-sion,fireregimes,andsoilchemistry. In Wyoming,one invader of range-lands is Russian knap-weed, a perennial thatformsdensecolonies. Native to Eurasia,Russian knapweed wasprobably introduced inNorth America in thelate1890s,anditnowoc-cupiesmillionsofacresofwesternNorthAmericanrangelands. Its success isattributed,atleastinpart,tocharacteristicssuchas

inside the invasionat theGreybull and Rivertonsites, suggestingRussianknapweedpositivelyalterssoilnutrientproperties. Because soil nutri-entsand forband shrubgrowth were greater insoils from the invasion,it appears that in areaswhereRussianknapweedhas been removed, soilproperties should notlimit the emergence andestablishment of nativeforbsandshrubs. Ifknapweedchangessomanygroundrules,can

nativegrassesadapttolifeinsideinvasions? Mealor’s goals wereto collect native grassesfrom old Russian knap-weed invasions and de-termine if they differedgeneticallyfromgrassesinneighboring,non-invadedareas. He also examinedhow well those grassescompete with Russianknapweed. He collectednative grasses from in-vadedsites inWyoming,Colorado, and Idaho toassess whether nativeplant populations have

the ability to adjust toinvasive-dominatedcom-munities(onemeasureoftheirresilience). Mealor conductedDNAfingerprintinganal-ysestosearchforsignsofselection between popu-lations of grasses insideandoutsideofknapweedinvasionsandfoundthattheweedmayexertselec-tive pressure on nativegrasspopulations.Healsoplanted seeds from thenativegrassalkalisacatonwith Russian knapweedto determine if plantsfromlong-terminvasionswere better competitorsthan those from non-in-vadedareas.Preliminaryresultssuggestthatsaca-tonfrominvadedareasislessaffectedbyknapweedcompetitionandmaysup-press knapweed growthmore than sacaton fromnon-invadedareas.

Although Russianknapweedishighlycom-petitive,ourstudiesindi-catetheremaybenativespeciesthatcancompetewithRussianknapweed.Planting native grassesthatout-competeRussianknapweed may provideland managers anothermeansbywhichtobettercontrolthisweed. The struggle to con-trol Russian knapweedis an uphill battle forlandmanagers,butcom-petitivenativeplantsmayproveanimportantally.

Russian knapweed dominates a field near the Laramie Regional Airport.

Sarah Tyrer examines how native forb and

shrub seedlings emerge and grow in soils after Russian knapweed is

removed.

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22 reflections 2006

Botany Professor Steve Miller, director of the Nucleic Acid Exploration Facility, holds a package containing 16 glass capillaries used in the new genetic analyzers in the College of Agriculture. Individual gel samples move down the separate capillaries in the new machines and about 300 to 400 samples can be processed per day.

2) Whathistoricandbiogeographicfactorsmightex-plainwhyblackbearpopulationsacrossWyominghave diverged more than Canadian populationsseparatedbyalmost10timesthegeographicdistance?

3) Howhasanintroducedfish,genusCatosto-mus (sucker),impactedthegeneticstructureofnativefishesinwesternWyoming?

4) Howdidtheradiationoftreesfollowingthelastglaciationaffectthegeneticstructureofobligaterootsymbioticfungi?Mychorrhizaearefungithatformasymbioticrelationshipwiththerootsoflivingtrees.Theyprovideprotec-tionfromrootpathogenicbacteriaandfungiandfunctioninwaterandnutrientsuptakeforthetreeinexchangeforphotosynthatefromthetree.

5) Should the three currently recognized speciesof rosy-finches (genus Leucosticte) in NorthAmericabeconsideredasinglemorphologicallydiversespecies?

6) HaveriverottersinYellowstoneLakedeclinedsincetheintroductionoflaketrout?

The facility improves the research infrastructureatUWandmayenablemoregrantsandprojectstobefunded because of the availability of the sequencingfacility. Students, whether graduate or advanced un-dergraduates,willbeabletobetrainedatUW.

G GeneticsequencersintheNucleicAcidExplorationFacility(NAEF)andinstalledintheCollegeofAgricul-turewillenablefastertestingandprovideaworld-classpreparationandtrainingfacility. Funded by $380,000 from the National ScienceFoundation’sExperimentalProgramtoStimulateCom-petitiveResearch,themachinescanprocess400to600samplesaday.Nucleicacidmoleculesstoregeneticin-formation.Thebasicnucleotidesarethesameforeveryorganism–thedifferenceisinthesequencingororder.ThemachinesdeterminethesequenceofnucleotidesintheDNAfromdifferentorganismsandmuchmore.Researcherscanlookatwhatcharacteristicsaparticularorganismhasandhowtheyarepassedfromonegen-erationtothenext,buttheycanalsodomuchmore.Researchers can examine crime scenes, how similarorganismsaretootherorganisms,thegeneticstructureofpopulations,orthemacroeveolutionaryforcesthataffectapopulationoforganisms.Collegedepartmentstradedspacetohousethefacility.Therearetworooms–oneforthesequencingfacilityandtheotherforthepreparation/traininglaboratory. Current research supported by the NAEF at theUniversityofWyomingincludes:1) WhatisthegeneticrelationshipbetweenWyoming’s

only federally listedendangeredplantspecies,Pen-stemon haydenii (blowoutbeardtongue),andisolatedpopulationsofthesamespeciesinNebraska?

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Steven L. Miller, Senior Editor, Office of Agricultural Communications and Technology

24 reflections 2006

Can crop believed mentioned in Homer’s Iliad successfully sail in Wyoming?Andrew Kniss Research Scientist

Ryan Rapp Temporary Research Assistant

Jim Krall Professor, Department of Plant Sciences

Stephen D. Miller Associate Dean and Director, Agricultural Experiment Station

G

“As black beans or pulse come pattering down on to a threshing-floor from the broad winnowing-shovel...”

~ The Iliad by Homer Garbanzobeans,morecommonlyknownaschickpeas,areacommonitemonmanysaladbarsinfinerestaurants. Chickpeasareanexcellentsourceoflow-purineproteins(particularlyhelpfulforthosewhosufferfromgout).TheycanbeusedinstewsorasacoffeesubstituteandprovidethemainingredientforcommondishesintheMiddleEastsuchashummus,asmooth,thickmixtureusedasadip,andfalafel,groundspicedchickpeasshapedintoballsandfried. Consumerscanfindchickpeasinthecannedgoodssectionofagrocerystoreandsometimesasroasteditemsinthesnackaisle. GarbanzobeansmayalsosoonbegrowinginsoutheasternWyomingfields. MajorworldproducersofchickpeasareIndia,Pakistan,Turkey,andCanada.In2001,Indiaaccountedfor60percentofworldproduction.CanadaexportsmuchofitschickpeacroptomajorimportingcountriesincludingSpain,India,andPakistan.EightypercentofU.S.productionisalsoexported.

Can crop believed mentioned in Homer’s Iliad successfully sail in Wyoming?

Two types of chickpeas are recognized and arenamed kabuli and desi. The pods of both typicallycontainonetothreeseeds.Kabulitypesarelargerandareusuallywhatoneseesonasaladbarandingrocerystores. Most of the chickpeas grown in the U.S. arekabuli,butkabulionlyaccountsfor15percentoftheworldchickpeaproduction.Thedesitypesaresmallerandcanhavearedtobrowncolorinadditiontothemoretypicalbeige. AlthoughnotcommonlyusedinAmericankitch-ens, chickpeas are the world’s third most importantpulsecrop(afterdrybeansandpeas),andtheyaccountfor15percentofworldpulseproduction.SomeexpertsbelievetheRomanpoliticianCiceroderivedhisnamefromCicer,theLatinwordforchickpea(duetoanun-fortunateancestorwhohadagrowthonhisnosethatlookedlikeachickpea).Thespecificname,C. arietinum,isthoughttobederivedfromAriestheram,becausetheshapeoftheseedresemblesaram’shead.

Firstdomesticatedinpresent-dayTurkey,chickpeasbeingusedasafoodsourcemaydateback7,500years.MentionofthecrophasbeenfoundonEgyptianpapy-russcrolltextsdatingtoapproximately1,500to1,100B.C.ChickpeasarethoughttobethepulsementionedinHomer’sIliad. Sowhy,afterseveralthousandyears,isthiscropfinallymakingitswaytoWyoming? SeveralappealingagronomictraitshaveledUniver-sityofWyomingCollegeofAgricultureresearcherstoinvestigatewhetherchickpeascanbesuccessfullygrowninsoutheastWyoming. Pulsecropsarelegumesandarecapableoffixingtheir own nitrogen. This means less farmer-appliedfertilizer requirements and more “natural” nitrogenpresent inthesoil forsubsequentcrops inarotationsuch as wheat. Under optimal conditions, chickpeascanproduceupto80poundsofnitrogenperacre.

Chickpeas are also quite efficient water consum-ers.Afterharvest,chickpeasleavebehindmorewaterinthesoilthanwheat,makingthemagoodrotationalcrop.Chickpeashaveagreaterrootingdepthandshowahigherresponsetoadditionalwaterthanotherpulsecrops.Inyearsofgoodsoilmositure,theyieldpotentialwillbegreater. Chickpeascanalsotoleratelightfrostsinthespring–agoodtraitforanycropinWyoming. Managementofachickpeacropcanbecomparedto growing dry beans, a crop familiar to many Wyo-minggrowers.Chickpeascanbeplantedandharvestedusingdrybeanequipmentwithminormodifications.Themaindifferenceistheplantingdate;insoutheastWyoming,chickpeasshouldbeplantedinlateApriltoearlyMay,muchearlierthanthedrybeancrop. Oneofthechallengeswhenaddinganewcroptoanyrotationisweedmanagement.Controllingweedsisacriticalfactorinchickpeaproductionbecauseheavy

infestationscanreduceyieldsby100percent.Fewher-bicide options are available for chickpea production,leading researchers to look at more unconventionalwaysofdealingwithweeds. ChickpeashaveonemoreinterestingtraitgrowersinAustraliahaveexploitedtoachievenon-chemicalweedcontrol.Theleafsurfaceofthechickpeaplantsecretesseveralacids,which,inIndia,aresometimescollectedandusedmedicinallyorasavinegar.InAustralia,theacidisleftontheleavestomakechickpeaplantsunpal-atabletosheep.Consequently,sheepcanroamthroughafieldmunchingonweedswhileleavingthecroprela-tivelyundisturbed.Thesheeparethenremovedfromthefieldsbeforefloweringbeginssothechickpeascanrecoverandproduceacceptableyields. ResearchwasinitiatedinWyomingtodetermineifthissamesystemwouldworkunderitsclimateandweedspectrum.Resultsfromadrylandsitein2003looked

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26 reflections 2006

quitepromisingasthesheepseemedtoprefertheweedstothechickpeas;however,droughtconditionsandahailstormpreventedthecollectionofanyyielddata. In2004,thegrazingstudywasrepeatedondrylandandirrigatedgroundwithmixedresults.Underdrylandconditions,thesheeponceagainspentmostoftheirtimegrazingontheweeds. Theirrigatedplotprovidedmuchdifferentresults.Thepredominantweedspecieintheirrigatedtrialwascommonlambsquarters,whichhasa relativelyhigh feedvaluebut isunpalat-abletosheep.Ratherthaneatingtheweeds,thesheepseemedcontenttotraveldowntherowsofchickpeas,leavingthelambsquartersuntouched.Anychickpeasleftbehindweresoonchokedoutbytheoverwhelmingweedpressure. In addition to grazing studies, morethan40differentherbicidetreatmentswereevaluated for weed control in 2003. Onlythose showing promise were used in 2004and2005.Severaltreatmentsprovidedcon-sistentweedcontrolacrossallthreeyearsofresearch. In particular, Spartan® herbicidetank-mixed with either Prowl®, Outlook®,or Dual Magnum® applied pre-emergenceseemedtoprovideseason-longweedcontrol.Nopromisingpost-emergenceherbicideop-tionswereidentified. Anotherfactorthataidsinweedcontrolisnarrowrowspacing.Sincenopost-emer-

genceherbicideisavailable,itisimportanttogetagoodstandofweed-freechickpeasearlyintheseason.Thelargerthespacingbetweencroprows,themoretimethecropwilltaketoshadeoutthegroundbetweenrows,allowingweedstoemergeandgrowuninhibited. Thebeststandsofchickpeasareachievedwhenthespacebetweenrows isnomore than12 inches.Thisnarrowrowspacingalsoaidsinharvestingthechickpea

cropasitwillhelpkeepplantsupright,allowingdirectcuttingwithacombinerather than cutting and windrowingpriortoharvest.Althoughgrazingchick-peasforweedcontrolmaynotalwaysbeaviableoptioninWyoming,acceptableweedcontrolmaybeobtainedthroughacombinationofherbicidesandplantingpractices. Marketsareavailableforchickpeasnear southeast Wyoming, and theyare being successfully produced andmarketed in western Nebraska. Underirrigated conditions, yields of 1,800 to2,400-poundsperacrehavebeendem-onstratedinGoshenCounty.Thiscouldtranslatetoaneteconomicreturnofupto$70peracreatasellingpriceof$17percwt,comparedtoatypicalirrigateddrybeancropthatwillprovidenetre-turnsof$16to$38peracre.Andthereisnothingbaaaa-adaboutthat.

Pre-emergence herbi-cides provided season-long weed control. No post-emergence herbi-cides were successful.

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TheUniversityofWyomingCollegeofAgriculture’snewSustainableAgricul-tureResearchandExtensionCenter(SAREC)nearLingleisaworkinprogresswithpotentialfortremendousresearchopportunities. SARECisnot“businessasusual”forthecollegeandtheWyomingAgriculturalExperimentStation(AES).TheemphasisonsystemsorholisticresearchwillbenefitWyomingproducersandwillalsoprovideauniqueopportunityforresearcherstoworkonlarge-scale,long-termprojects. ThemostuniqueaspectofthesoutheastWyomingcenteristheemphasisonintegratedresearchsystems.Amanagementcommitteeoffarmer-rancherrepre-sentatives and UW faculty members developed the control research system forSAREC.TheemphasisonsystemsresearchwillfostercollaborativerelationshipsamongresearchersandresultinuniqueandpositiveresearchresultsthatwillbenefitWyomingagriculturalproducers.TheintegratedsystemisreflectiveofsoutheastWyoming. “This facility isdesigned to serve thepeopleof southeastWyomingand toprovidethemwithcurrent,relevant,cutting-edgeinformationonintegratedcropandlivestocksystems,”saysStephenD.Miller,associatedeananddirectoroftheWyomingAES. “Withthecurrentpushforbiofuelsresearchinthestate,thiswillallowageconomics, animal, plant, and renew-ableresourcesfacultymemberstoworktogethertodevelopthesenewcrops.” SAREC’s size and assets offermultipleresearchopportunitiesinonelocation.SAREChas1,522acresofdryland cropland, 349 acres of irrigatedcropland,1,880acresofrangeland,19acresofirrigatedorganiccropland,and40acresofdrylandorganiccropland. Construction at SAREC is settingthestageformanyresearchopportuni-ties.Atleastfivedifferentprojectswere

Integrating research systems is a focus of SAREC throughout its 3,800 acres of crop and rangeland.

SAREC’s combination of irrigated and dry land cropland will provide research applicable to growers in diverse Wyoming.

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Jim Freeburn, Director, Sustainable Agriculture Research and Extension Center

underconstructionearli-erthisyear.Anew5,700-plussquare-footbuildingisthecornerstoneofthefacilitiesandincludes10offices,aresearchprepa-ration room, and a seedlaboratory. The office buildingwillalsohavetwomeet-ing rooms – one with acapacity of 65 for com-

munity education andanotherforsmallgroupsofupto15. Alsounderconstruc-tionisalivestockresearchbuilding,ashop,ahazard-ousmaterialsfacility,andafeedlot. Thelivestockfacilitywill have an office anda small laboratory alongwith a processing area

for taking research datafrom cattle and sheep.Theshopwillbeusedtosupport research effortsat SAREC and will en-able UW employees tocomplete work on plotequipmentandmore. The hazardous ma-terials facility will storepesticides and fuels andwill meet or exceed allfederalstandards. Construction on thefeedlotbeganearlier thisyear. It will feature 28pensdesignedbyNaturalResources ConservationServicepersonneltodem-onstratehow it canbeamodel forenvironmentalstewardshipandsafety. Eightofthepensaredesignedformultiplespe-

ciesandmaybeusedforcattleorsheep,andotheranimals. The remainingpens are for cattle onlywith a capacity of morethan400head. Information aboutSAREC can be accessedat www.uwyo.edu/uw-expstn/Centers/SAREC.asp

AnumberofprojectsareunderwayorplannedatthenewSustainableAgricultureResearchandExten-sionCenter. Theirrigatedportionofthefarmiscomprisedofalateralmovesprinkler,twocenterpivots,andgravityirrigation.Smallplotscanbeplantedunderthelateralsprinkler.Theseprojectsincludeplantpathologyworkin potatoes, sugar beets, and dry beans; and weedresearch in corn, small grains, sugar beets, and drybeans. Thereisalsoresearchinvolvingalternativecrops,biofuels,andalternativeforages.Oneofthetwocen-terpivotshasbeendesignatedtobeusedasirrigatedpasture,ofwhichone-thirdwasdrilledtopermanentvegetationconsistingofamixofalfalfa,Regarmeadowbrome,andorchardgrass.

One large-scale project on the irrigated farm in-cludeslookingatirondeficiencyingrainsorghumonland that had been leveled. Many soil samples weretaken,alongwithleafsamples,toanalyzetheextentofthedeficienciesinhopesofsolvingtheproblem. Drylandprojectsincludeweedcontrolinsunflow-ers,winterwheat,andmillet,alongwithvarietytrialsinalternativecrops,oilseeds,andmedics. Large-scaleworkisunderwaywithno-tillwheat-fallowrotationsandafour-yearcroprotationofwheat,millet,sunflowers,andfallow. Ontherangeland,amodelingprojectisanalyzingavailable water, timing of moisture, and temperaturetohelppredicthowmuchforagewillbeproducedinacertaingrowingseasongiventheamountofmoistureandtiming.

SAREC’s dry land, irrigation, range, and cropland options offer great potential to harvest data

The 5,700-square-foot office building at SAREC will have two meeting rooms, seed and plant processing laboratories, and 10 offices.

SAREC facilities provide tremendous opportunities for crop and livestock research in one location.

28 reflections 2006

S31

‘Shoshone,’anewvarietyofsainfoinjointlyreleasedbytheuniversitiesofWyomingandMontanaandthefederalNaturalResourcesConservationService,iswell-adaptedtobothdrylandandirrigatedconditionsinWyomingandMontana. ItshouldalsoadaptnicelytootherareasinthenorthernRockyMoun-tainsandpossiblyinthenorthernGreatPlains. ‘Shoshone’wasreleasedinJanuary2005bytheUniversityofWyoming’sAgriculturalExperimentStation(AES),headquarteredinLaramie,theUni-versityofMontanaAESinBozeman,Montana,andtheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture’sNRCSBridgerPlantMaterialsCenternearBridger,Montana.ItwillbeavailabletoproducersinJuly.Thevarietywasnamed‘Shoshone’inhonorofChiefWashakieoftheEasternShoshoneTribe. Breederseed,whichwasproducedin1994,wasplantedattheUWPowellResearchandExtension(R&E)Centerin2003.Foundationseedwasfirstharvestedin2004,andcertifiedseedobtainedfromthefoundationwasfirstproducedin2005. Sainfoin–alsoknownasholygrassorholyhay–isadeep-rootedperen-nialherbwithstout,erectstemsarisingfromacrown.Shootsfromtheplant

Researchers develop, release variety adapted to dry land and irrigated conditions

Root system of the sainfoin plant showing severe galling

due to multiple parasitism by the northern root-knot nematode. The northern root-knot nematode was first reported

as a parasite of sainfoin in the United States by the authors in 1986.

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Fred Gray, Professor, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Wyoming; David Wofford, Professor, University of Florida, Gainesville; David Koch, Professor Emeritus, Department of Plant Sciences, UW; Toshiro Shigaki, Research Associate, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas; Ronald Delaney, Professor Emeritus, Department of Plant Sciences, UW; Alan Gray, Director, Powell Research and Extension Center, UW; Mark Majerus, Research Scientist, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Bridger Plant Materials Center, Bridger, Montana; Dennis Cash, Animal and Range Sciences Department, Montana State University; David Wichman, Central Agricultural Research Center, Montana State University, Moccasin, Montana; Katherine Keeney, Senior Office Assistant, Department of Plant Sciences, UW.

30 reflections 2006

arehighlynutritiousandextremely palatable asfeedforall typesof live-stockandwildlife. Leaves are pinnatewith13to21leafletsperstem. Flowers are borneonanerectracemeandarepinktoroseincolor.Seedsare kidney-shaped andproducedinabean-shapedspinypod,whichaids indissemination.Unlikeal-falfa,seedsremaininthepodswhenharvested. Sainfoin has beencultivated in Europe formore than 450 years. Amember of the Fabaceae(Leguminosae)plantfam-ily, sainfoin traces backto regions around theMediterranean,BlackandCaspian seas, and northintoRussia. Onobrychis viciifolia wasfirstintroducedintothenorthernGreatPlainsof the United States inMontanaandNorthDa-kota in the 1960s. SeedfromTurkeywasplanted,andselectionsweremadefor adaptability to the

regionfollowedbyforage-yieldandanimal-feedingtrials. Similar plantingsand selections were alsomade in Canada. Fromtheseintroductions,vari-etiesofsainfoinreleasedincludeEskiin1964andRemontin1971byMon-tana State University,Melrosein1972andNovain 1980 by Agricultureand Agri-Food Canada,and Renumex in 1979by New Mexico StateUniversity. When consumed,freshsainfoin,unlikeal-

falfa,whichisinthesameplant family, does notcause gas formationandbloating,whichcan leadtodeathinruminantani-mals.Itcanbehayedforwinterfeedorgrazeddur-ingthegrowingseason.Inaddition,sainfoincanbeused for wildlife habitatrestoration, as a compo-nent in “food plots” toattract wildlife, and asa legume component inConservation ReserveProgram plantings. Bee-keepers indicate honeyyields with sainfoin are

much greater than withalfalfa. Since sainfoin ma-turesearlierthanalfalfa,it provides early springforage for animals. Atsimilar stages of matu-rity,sainfoinhasslightlylower crude protein buthigher digestible nutri-entscomparedtoalfalfa.Likeotherlegumeplants,sainfoinfixesatmospher-icnitrogenandprovidesextra nitrogen for non-leguminous companionforagespecies. In 1981, an experi-ment was established inLaramieat theUWlive-stockfacilitiestocomparetheperformanceofLadakalfalfaandRemontsain-foin. After four years,during which time plotswere harvested twiceeach year, forage yieldswere 10.7 tons per acreforsainfoinand9.9tonsperacreforalfalfa.Plantstandsremainedgoodforbothforagespecies. Inthespringof1981,a sainfoin variety trialwas established at theformer UW TorringtonR&E Center. Unlike thetrial at Laramie, severestand decline occurredbythefollowingsummer.Roots of stunted plantswere heavily galled bythe northern root-knotnematode, Meloidogyne hapla, a root parasitecommon to much of theUnited States. Overallstand reduction in sain-

Sainfoin plant showing symptoms of die-back caused by severe parasitism of roots by the northern root-knot nematode.

Life cycle of Meloidogyne hapla on sainfoin showing the adult male and female, eggs, and four juvenile stages (J1-J4). When temperatures are favorable, this endoparasitic nematode can produce up to 350 eggs and may complete up to three cycles during the growing season in Wyoming. Drawing by C. S. Papp.

foinentriesbythespringof1983was91.5percent.Allsixentriesappearedtobeequally susceptible tothenematode. Roots of an alfalfavarietyincludedasacom-parative check had onlya low level of galling,which did not adverselyaffectplantstands.Afterthestuntedandchloroticsainfoin plants were re-moved, the remaining,healthy-appearing plantswere allowed to inter-crosswithnativepollina-tors;however,beforethiscould be accomplished,a10-foothigh fencehadto be erected to preventdeerpredation.Seedwasproduced from the open pollination of the 176

surviving plants in thesummerof1984. From the seed col-lected, several experi-mentswereconductedintheUWResearchGreen-houseinLaramietoeval-uatereactiontothisrootparasite. T h e ex p e r i m e n -tal seed line expresseda higher level of toler-ance to M. hapla thanRemont sainfoin. Thiswas expressedbyhighershoot and root weightsandlowerplantmortality.AnexhaustivesearchforresistancetoM. haplaintheworldcollectionofO. viciifolia,aswellasincol-lectionsofotherspeciesofOnobrychis,provedfutile,indicatingapossiblelackofco-evolution.

In a separate trialnear Bozeman, Mon-tana, having 16 entries,including alfalfa, cicermilkvetch, birdsfoot tre-foil, and sainfoin, theWyoming experimentallinerankedsecondinto-talforageyieldafterfourharvest years. No dam-aging insect or disease,other than the northernroot-knotnematode,wasobservedonthesainfoinlineduringtheeightyearsoffieldtesting. Sainfoin requires adifferent strainof rhizo-biathanalfalfa,whichiscommercially available.SeedofShoshonewillbeavailableforpurchasethisJuly from the WyomingSeedCertificationService(http://www.wyseedcert.com)atthePowellR&ECenter.

Breeder seed of theexperimental sainfoinlinewasproducedat theformerUWArcherR&ECenternearCheyennein1994.Thisseedwasusedto establish eight fieldtrials in Wyoming andMontanaunderbothdrylandand irrigatedcondi-tions.Forageyieldswerecollectedforfourormoreyearsateachsite.Allplotswereharvestedtwiceeachyear. Results from thesetrials showed the Wyo-mingexperimentlinehadyieldsequaltoorslightlybetterthanRemontwhenplanted alone or whenintercroppedwithaforagegrassspecies.Plantstandsremained good in bothentriesinallexperimentsindicating good winterhardiness.

Seed of ‘Shoshone’ sainfoin showing a single shelled seed and several unshelled seeds. Note the occasional spines, which aid in dissemination from attachment to furry animals such as sheep and goats. Photo by R. Spence.

Breeder seed field of ‘Shoshone’ sainfoin at the former University of Wyoming’s Archer Research and Extension Center.

Lambs feeding on sainfoin plants in a grass-legume pasture.

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Darrell Freeman Graduate Research Associate

Angel Ferrero-Serrano Graduate Assistant

Ann Hild Associate Professor

Tim Collier Assistant Professor

Scott Miller Assistant Professor,

Department of Renewable Resources

solutions for the controlof Canada thistle, a des-ignated noxious weedin Wyoming. At least200,000acresacrossWy-oming are infested withthis perennial, broad-leaved weed originallyfromEurasia.Thisweedis unpalatable to mostlivestock,competeswith

desirableplantspeciesforwaterandnutrients,andforms thickpatches thataredifficulttoeradicate. Onepotentialcontrolstrategyinvolvestheuseof a stem-boring weevil(Ceutorhynchus litura)that may reduce weednumbers to acceptablelevels.AngelFerrero-Ser-rano, a master’s student

H Herbicides are oftenthebesttoollandownershavetocontrolweed in-festations.Useofchemi-cals,however,maynotbeappropriatealongwater-waysthatsupplydrinkingwaterorwhereprotectionofrareandvaluableplantspeciesisagoal. What can be doneto control troublesomeweeds when the useof chemicals is not anoption? Researchers in theCollege of Agriculture’sDepartmentofRenewableResourcesareworkingon

32 reflections 2006

under the guidance ofAssistant Professor TimCollier and AssociateProfessor Ann Hild, isconducting an experi-ment to determine theeffectivenessoftheweevilin controlling Canadathistle. Ferrero-Serranois testing the weevil’seffectontheweedaloneandincombinationwithtworangegrasses–nee-dle-and-threadandalkalisacaton.Competitionbe-tween the grass and thethistleappearstoincreasestress from stem-boringactivities of the weevilandleadstogreaterthistlemortality. Knowledge gainedfrom this experimentwillassistinrevegetationprojects that would failif aggressive weeds likeCanada thistle were notcontrolled.Useofbiocon-trolagentsliketheweevilwill allow restorationpractitioners to incorpo-rate grasses and forbs,mimicking natural plantpopulations. Herbicidesused to control Canadathistle,whichwouldkillforbs and other broad-leaved plants, would beunnecessary. Canadathistleisalsoabigproblem in thena-tive tallgrass prairies inNorth Dakota, particu-larly the Tewaukon Na-

tional Wildlife Refuge(NWR), where use ofherbicides is restricted.UWresearchersareusingGeographic InformationSystems (GIS) technol-ogy to understand whythe weed heavily infestssome sites and is not aproblem in other, simi-lar-looking areas. Theyhopetorelatethespatialpatternsofweedinfesta-tions with underlyingsoils, slope, hydrology,andmanagementactionssuch as prescribed fire,haying, andgrazing.Forexample, Canada thistleseems to readily infestrich,loamysoils,buttheseasonal timing and fre-quencyofprescribedfiresinfluencesthedensityandspreadof theweed.Theanalysis should revealhowthehistoryofman-agementinputsandother

factors,suchasslopeandaspect,determinetowhatdegree thistle infests agivenarea.DepartmentofRenewableResourcesre-searchersplantodevelopadecision-supportsystemfor use by the managersof the Tewaukon NWR,whichismanagedbytheU.S. Fish and WildlifeService.Thesystemwillhelpprioritizeweed-con-troleffortsaswellasas-sistintheplanningfortheeffects of future burns,hay leases, and grazingplans. Noxious weeds costlandownersandmanagers

billions of dollars annu-allyintheUnitedStates.Although herbicides areoftenthebesttoolforcon-trollingweedinfestations,non-chemical methodsare sometimes needed.Biocontrol organismssuch as the stem-boringweevil provide a directtooltotargetCanadathis-tle infestations. GIS andspatialtechnologiesofferabroad-scaleapproachtoprioritizing weed-con-trol efforts. Both toolsmayincreaseourabilityto address weed prob-lems in Wyoming andelsewhere.Canada thistle infestation in a North Dakota tallgrass

prairie site. Photo by Darrell Freeman.

Noxious weeds cost landowners and managers billions of dollars annually in the United States. Biocontrol organisms such as the stem-boring weevil provide a direct tool to target Canada thistle infestations.

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A stem-boring weevil, Ceutorhynchus litura, is a biocontrol method being studied in strategies against Canada thistle.

34 reflections 2006

our research labs giv-ing students the oppor-tunity to gain valuablepracticalexperience.Alldegreeprogramsofferin-valuable research, studyabroad, and internshipexperience in the stu-dent’s area of interest.The Beyond the Class-room program learn-ing experiences includestudy-abroadprogramsinFrance,fieldtripsofferedthroughtheDepartmentofRenewableResources,opportunities to workwith faculty membersonresearchprojects,andeducational experiences

through the NationalWesternLivestockLead-ershipInternship. Undergraduate stu-dentsworkdirectlywithfaculty members on avarietyoflaboratoryandfieldresearchprojects.In2005,thecollegebroughtinmorethan$10millionin research grants withprojects ranging fromimprovingthewatersup-ply and lives of peopleinAfricatothestudyofnematodesasamodeltofurther understand hu-man diseases. Many ofourresearchprojectsareinterdisciplinary, giving

Pepper Jo Six, Recruitment Coordinator, and Kelly Wiseman, Staff Assistant, Office of Academic and Student Programs

T “Think Big” – ThisisthethemeoftheOfficeofAcademicandStudentPrograms when educat-ing the public about theUniversity of WyomingCollegeofAgriculture. Thecollegeisamixoftraditionalandnon-tradi-tional opportunities andprograms.Thecollegehaseightdiverseprogramsin-cludingrangelandecologyand watershed manage-ment,molecularbiology,microbiology,familyandconsumer sciences, agri-culturalbusiness,animaland veterinary sciences,agricultural communica-tions, and agroecology.Students have a widerangeofcareeropportuni-tiesavailableupongradu-ation,includingfinancialadvisers,publicrelationsprofessionals, crop con-sultants,microbiologists,andnutritionists. Researchopportuni-ties for undergraduatessets the college apartfrom many institutions.Approximately 40 un-dergraduatestudentsareemployed annually in

College of Agriculture undergraduate and graduate students have opportunities for many types of field research.

studentsanevengreaterlearningexperience. The college is smallbutmightyinstudentsup-port.Thecollegeawardsapproximately180schol-arshipsannuallytotaling$250,000. Scholarshipdonorsandrecipientsarerecognizedeachfallatthecollege’sannualBrandofExcellence scholarshipbanquet. Thediversityof ourcollegestudentpopulationcontinuestobeanimpor-tant theme. Female stu-dentsmakeup56percentoftheCollegeofAgriculturestudentbody.Out-of-statestudentnumberscontinuetogrow,andthecollegeisbuckingthenationaltrendwithsignificant increasesinenrollment.Enrollmenthasincreasedfrom784in2002to876forthe2005-2006year. Associate Dean andDirector of Academicand Student ProgramsJim Wangberg is teach-ing a new course titled“Agriculture: Rooted inDiversity.” The coursedevelopmentwasacollab-

orative effort between ateamofUWfacultymem-bersandhasbeenofferedtwoprevioussemestersasatopicscourse. The class features aseries of guest lecturersspeaking on a variety ofdiversitytopics.Studentscompletearesearchproj-ect, ending the semesterwith a presentation oftheir final projects anda public reception. Pasttopics have includedMexicansheepherdersinWyoming,blackcowboys,andwomeninagriculture.FundedbygrantsfromtheUWPresident’sAdvisoryCouncil on Minorities’and Women’s Affairs,theWyomingCouncilfortheHumanities,and the

UW American HeritageCenter,thecoursefulfillstwo core general educa-tionrequirements. The college offersa variety of activitiesandservices tohelpstu-dents get the most fromtheir college experience.A personal counseloron staff helps studentsbuildacademicskills,de-velop career paths, andadjust to the campusenvironment. The college has afully equipped studentcomputerlabandstudentlounge. There are morethan 20 college clubs,teams, honoraries, andorganizations to engagestudents in campus life.AgCouncil,representingallofthecollege’sstudentclubs,meetsandorganiz-es college-wideactivitiesthroughouttheyear. UW graduates, cur-rent students, or friendsof UW can become in-volved in recruiting byusingUW’sOnDeckStu-dent Referral Program.By following this link,http://www.uwyo.edu/admissions/on_deck/,prospectivestudentscanbe referred to the UWAdmissionsOffice. The goal is to ac-tively seek and recruitstudents who will makeapositiveimpactoncam-pus. The Academic andStudent Programs Websiteishttp://www.uwyo.edu/AGPROGRAMS.

The more than $10 million in research grants received by the College of Agriculture in 2005 was used to fund research ranging from improving water supplies to using caterpillars to produce “humanized” proteins.

Frank D. Galey — Dean

Stephen D. Miller — Associate Dean and Director, Agricultural Experiment Station

Kathleen Bertoncelj — Office Associate, Senior, Agricultural Experiment Station

James K. Wangberg — Associate Dean and Director, Academic and Student Programs

Glen Whipple — Associate Dean and Director, Cooperative Extension Service

is published by the University of Wyoming College of Agriculture.

The University of Wyoming is an equal opportunity/affirmative action institution.

Reflections

EditorsSteven L. Miller—SeniorEditor,

OfficeofCommunicationsandTechnology

Robert Waggener — Editor,

OfficeofCommunicationsandTechnology

Design and LayoutTana Stith—GraphicDesigner,

OfficeofCommunicationsandTechnology

Departments AgriculturalandAppliedEconomics:(307)766-2386

AnimalScience:(307)766-2224

FamilyandConsumerSciences:(307)766-4145

MolecularBiology:(307)766-3300

PlantSciences:(307)766-3103

RenewableResources:(307)766-2263

VeterinarySciences:(307)742-6638

Please visit our World Wide Web site at www.uwyo.edu/UWAG/

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