reflective practice: action learning sets for managers in social work

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Reflective practice: action learning setsfor managers in social workRobin C. BurgessPublished online: 09 Dec 2010.

To cite this article: Robin C. Burgess (1999) Reflective practice: action learning sets formanagers in social work, Social Work Education: The International Journal, 18:3, 257-270, DOI:10.1080/02615479911220261

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SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION~ VOL. 18~ NO. 3~ 1999 257

Reflect ive pract ice: act ion learning sets for m a n a g e r s in social work

ROBIN C. BURGESS

A b s t r a c t The author evaluates action learning sets, established as part of a management development programme, for managers in social work. The impact on management practice, the processes contributing to effectiveness and the elements of learning that participants viewed as making most difference to their management practice are identified. The issues brought for consultation are described, including working with contradiction and paradox. It is concluded that participants experience action learning to make a positive contribution to their development as managers in a challenging environment.

I n t r o d u c t i o n

Have you ever quest ioned whether management gurus necessarily offer the best solutions to your management challenges? A key premise underlying Care in the C o m m u n i t y is that service users themselves are bet ter than the professional 'exper ts ' at knowing what solutions are right for them. This principle was ant icipated by Reginald Revans in 1950, in the field of management development . He ques t ioned the effectiveness of himself and other academics in providing answers to the managemen t challenges of industries in the pos t -War recovery. I find similar tensions currently in publ ic sector management in relat ion to effective learning. Off-the-shelf answers do not fit.

Managers themselves, Revans believed, were best placed to develop op t imum solutions. Thei r learning and p rob lem solving were, he proposed, best achieved by focusing on their actual management activity: describing it and evaluating it. H e was innovating new designs which acknowledged the mental constructs of the managers he was working with (Mant , 1977). T o do this he simply got the managers together in a group or ' se t ' and facilitated a structure and model for co-consul ta t ion or explorat ion which tapped their expertise and empowered their creativity.

The action learning approach which he ini t iated has been taken up internat ionally by a wide variety of management groups: from miners to civil servants, f rom bankers to health and welfare professionals, f rom engineers to educators. T h e current renewal of interest within the publ ic sector reflects its applicabi l i ty to a somet imes chaotic, constant ly changing management environment. I t facilitates achieving an 'observer posi t ion from which to achieve new meaning in complexi ty or s tuckness ' (Burgess, 1994, p. 46). Act ion learning 's structure for reflection accentuates the tension for managers between the current demand for ever higher

Correspondence to: Robin Burgess, Lecturer in Social Work, (Continuing Professional Education), Department of Applied Social Science, University of Stifling, Stifling FK9 4LA, UK. Tel.: 01786 466312.

0261-5479/99/030257-14 © 1999 The Board of Social Work Education

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258 ROBIN C. BURGESS

rates of management task, and the wastefulness of doing the same thing, however fast, and expecting something different.

A f r a m e w o r k for innovat ive p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g

It is necessary to clarify the form used, as claims have been made to be action learning which bear little resemblance to the principles that Revans developed. Equally models like action research (Susman, 1983, pp. 95-113)--which involves subjects as researchers--and reflective learning (Schon, 1983; Kolb, 1984) have much in common with action learning (Morgan, 1993).

Revans predated Kolb in advocating learning from doing rather than from talking about. Theory is introduced when directly relevant to actual problems. This is an approach that has increasingly been mirrored in models of social work education (Burgess, 1992; Gould & Taylor, 1996). The structure for action learning sets (groups) that I have used acknowledges development within a group as integral to effective manager development (Gaunt, 1991).

A short definition of action learning is giving 'operational form' to the 'ideas of learning from experience, in the responsible here-and-now'. More simply: it is designed on the thesis that 'learning is a social process in which the parties learn with and from each other as they tackle problems of common interest or concern' (Revans, 1983).

For the purposes of this paper an action learning set is a group of managers, preferably representing several disciplines, who meet regularly to assist one another to develop solutions to actual management problems, dilemmas and projects. The main tool is open questioning. Advice or prescriptiveness is avoided, so as to assist an individual manager to fred the best solution to their challenge.

A set usually takes place over a 2-3 hour meeting which convenes at regular intervals of 4-6 weeks. The set is a group whose members have made a commitment to learn with and from one another. They can welcome new members, and attendance and punctuality are valued highly. The structure is definite, but flexible. The advisor/facilitator initially maintains the structure and culture. As a set becomes experienced, members increasingly take on this role.

A typical set structure

The time-scales shown in the following structures are a guide for a 2.5 hour set.

1. Connect ing Up (20 mins). Members update on what they want to share, professionally and personally, and give feedback on previous consultations and subsequent developments.

2. Put t ing forward bids (10 mins). Management challenges are the grist of action learning. It is therefore expected (but not required) of each member to provide a bid to the group as their contribution to the learning potential of that meeting. This is a very brief description of a problem, project, dilemma or success from which to learn.

3. Negotiat ing which issue(s) will be the focus for the set ' s learning (15 mins). The group then takes responsibility to identify which will offer most learning potential. As members develop confidence in themselves and trust in colleagues, the negotiation to reach a decision is more effective. There is less avoidance under the guise of politeness. Determining the issue(s) which will provide optimum learning is achieved more efficiently by people saying what they think and feel. Where an issue causing distress is not chosen the group may identify alternative fora. The group's decision on which issue to work with mirrors the constant management dilemma of invidious choices within limited resources.

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REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 259

This in itself leads to learning. Once the issue(s) for that meeting has been agreed, this is the best time to break, so that the process of exploration is not interrupted.

B r e a k (15 mins).

4. Presentat ion o f the issue (20 mins ) - - ( 'She ' is used for both male and female). The process of 'a thoroughly good listening' can be very powerful in itself. While the presenter talks uninterrupted for as long as she needs to, her colleagues are committed to providing their full attention. The facilitator may ask at the end for the presenter to clarify what she wants from her colleagues by the end of the set.

5. I den t i f y ing feel ings (5 mins). Once the presenter has no more to add, each set member is asked to identify the feeling(s) they are aware of in response to the presentation. The presenter may also contribute. The discipline is to use one or two words, e.g. 'confusion, and anger' , 'anxiety', 'determination' , so as to allow the identified feeling to speak for itself. Any more than a couple of words becomes thinking or talking about. These do not serve the same purpose of connecting with an emotion that may be unacknowledged and possibly impeding the potential and energy required to move forward.

6. C la r i f i ca t ion o f fac ts (5 mins). Set members ask questions related to factual knowledge without which they would not be able to effectively explore the issue. This often blurs into the next section when exploratory questions creep in prematurely. It is effective to separate the two types of questions.

7. Option seeking (40 rains). Using Open Questions as a key tool, colleagues assist the presenter to explore her issue widely, and to develop options gradually. Advice or solutions that worked for others are not encouraged. They can short-circuit the process of the presenter developing the solution that is right for her. Some facilitators exclude statements allowing only questions. In the four sets used in this study, a technique developed from systemic thinking (Campbell et al., 1991) was introduced when either the group was stuck or the presenter was overly pressured. To assist the presenter to achieve an observer position to her problem, she would be invited to sit back, as if behind an invisible one-way screen, to listen and watch colleagues wrestling with her problem. This has proved highly effective in opening new perspectives.

8. Action planning (10 mins). The presenter is assisted to develop her action plan, and to be specific about what she will do within time-scales.

9. Rev iew of the group process (10 mins). The group identify what has helped and what has hindered their learning process (including the facilitation). Thus the process of reflective practice is also constantly applied to the process within the g r o u p as a mini-learning organisation. Future dates, arrangements and venues will also be finalised.

A regular review of a cluster of sets (often 4-6 sessions) is diaried in by each group to ensure the group process is scrutinised more formally. Individual commitment to the group is made from one review to the next.

The wider context

In a broader educational context, both government and employers have expressed concern that an emphasis on narrow academic content and the way this is taught can develop a passive approach to learning. The Enterprise in Higher Education Initiative identified 14 learning outcomes to improve the effectiveness of teaching and learning (Entwistle, 1992). Action learning sets have, I propose, the flexibility to produce no less than 10 of these, which I list in the conclusions.

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Action learning has produced a range of research from different contexts (e.g. Cortazzi & Basquer, 1972; EEC, 1978; Pedler, 1983; Rapier, 1976; Revans, 1963, 1966,1971; Weiland & Bradford, 1981). The varied quality reflects the dilemmas of proof around evaluation of learning generally, which continue to be grappled with in higher education and training (Entwistle, 1992; Keams & Miller, 1996).

Pedler (1991) includes project-oriented sets and those which include programmed knowledge towards academic qualifications. The differences between organisation-sponsored and independently formed sets are examined by McGiU & Beaty (1995), who differentiate sets for personal development and those which are geared to the organisation's needs. (The two are not exclusive.)

Weinstein (1995) draws from public and private sector participants' views and explores factors limiting uptake. Mumford (1994) gives a comprehensive picture of 15 years of integrating action learning, while Inglis (1994) is concerned with implementation, offering numerous case examples.

Because action learning promotes reflective learning from practice experience, it includes evaluation in the structure of each set. While it is not easy to identify outcomes attributable solely to its use, participants have no difficulty citing specific challenges which they brought to a set and consequently were helped in managing. Though not easily quantifiable, these are outcome related (Meador, 1997).

T h e s u r v e y

Particular claims regarding the effectiveness of action learning, and which models or theories were most helpful, were being made by individuals and sets that I facilitated. These were part of an optional management development programme supported by the Senior Management Team. To test out whether such experiences were more general I developed a survey.

The managers participating in the survey included a cross section of all social work and social care services, except Criminal Justice. They represented field work, day care, residential, developmental and administrative roles for both purchasing and provider services for learning disability, older people, disability, and children and families.

While 45 managers participated in the five action learning sets over a 4-year period, the opportunity to involve all of them in a survey had been lost. Twenty-four were active set members at the time of the study. Of these, 17 (71%) completed and returned the 54-question survey on time. The completion rate was affected by coinciding with the Christmas break.

The questions were developed from specific learning identified within sets and from observations made by participants over the 4 years. A smaller survey which they were encouraged to give to their line manager was also devised. Very few of these were returned. A line manager who responded, but did not complete it, identified difficulty in relating development and learning in their supervisee to their action learning activity. Those line managers who did complete it were themselves members of sets. I determined that this did not provide a sufficient representation to be included.

The format of the questions also reflected both time constraints on respondents and the need to combine it with a review of learning. Each consisted of a statement next to four tick boxes:

1- -Not at all. 2--Somewhat. 3 - -A lot. 4--Very significantly.

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I n fou r q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e p a r t i c i p a n t ' s d e v e l o p m e n t t h e r e was a n i n v i t a t i o n to

p r o v i d e example s . A b o u t h a l f u s e d th i s o p p o r t u n i t y .

T h e k e y i n d i c a t i o n s

T h e fo l lowing t h r e e sec t ions s h o w key issues a r i s ing f r o m the su rvey in r e l a t i o n to:

(1) p e r f o r m a n c e a n d d e v e l o p m e n t ; (2) se t p roces s ; a n d (3) t h e o r y a n d p r inc ip l e s w h i c h i m p a c t

o n m a n a g e m e n t p rac t i ce . T h e w o r d i n g is t a k e n f r o m the su rvey q u e s t i o n s . T h e r e s p o n s e s are

co l l a t ed w i t h t h e m o s t pos i t ive first.

TABLE 1. The impact of action learning on manager performance and development

Total Not Very responses at all Somewhat A lot significantly

1. The theory that I learn I apply in my 15 0 3 8 4 work, supervision and problem solving

2. I have learned to trust my in tu i t ion 15 0 4 7 4 more, experiencing it as a key partner to logical (left brain) analysis

3. I have developed as a manager because 16 0 5 6 5 of my participation in action learning

4. Action learning helps me to hold 16 0 6 5 5 c learer boundar i e s with myself and others I manage, or who manage me

5. Action learning helps me to be clearer 15 0 5 6 4 on my goals and m o r e effective in my operational role of service to customers

6. I have developed new ways of seeing 16 0 8 4 4 p rob lems as l ea rn ing opportunities

7. My practice as a m a n a g e r has 16 0 8 4 4 benefited from action learning

8. By participating in action learning I am 16 1 5 6 4 more posit ive in my job

9. Action learning helps me to be clearer 15 1 5 7 2 on the o rgan isa t ion ' s goals and on my contribution to the department's service

10. By participating in action learning I 16 1 8 5 2 am less dependent and m o r e proact ive

Respondents" additional comments

P a r t i c i p a n t s were c a u t i o u s a b o u t a f f i rming t h e i r o w n d e v e l o p m e n t a n d e f fec t iveness

c o m p a r e d to t h e i r m a r k i n g o f o t h e r e l e m e n t s o f t h e survey. T h i s m a y b e d u e to: (a) m o d e s t y ;

(b) di f f icul ty in exc lus ive a t t r i b u t i o n to ac t ion l e a rn ing ; a n d (c) t he m u l t i p l e n a t u r e o f s o m e

q u e s t i o n s , w h i c h w o u l d h a v e l ow er ed scores .

N B : D i r e c t q u o t e s f r o m r e s p o n d e n t s are in i n v e r t e d c o m m a s .

R e s p o n d e n t s f o u n d t h e effect o f a c t i o n l e a r n i n g o n the s e r v i c e t o c u s t o m e r s t h e m o s t

d i f f icul t to eva lua te . O n e c o m m e n t e d ' I t ' s h a r d to see d i rec t c o n n e c t i o n s h e r e ' . E x a m p l e s

g iven were :

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• 'model l ing the use of l istening and open questions with staff who pass on this empowering process to cus tomers '

• ' enabl ing staff to have clear goals ' • 'ownership o f issues and problems as well as request ing and valuing input from staff' • 'facilitates my staff learning through model l ing '

Commen t s on contr ibut ion to effectiveness in one ' s job were more straightforward:

• 'get results where felt s tuck in the past, e.g. issues involving o ther depar tments or agencies and people with very different management styles'

• 'able to a t tend management meetings feeling more empowered , and able to resolve issues without getting into a power struggle '

• 'using models discussed in sets ' • ' I know it influenced my thinking and approach in many s i tuat ions ' • 'has helped to clarify role and purpose and extent of personal responsibili t ies in part icular

projects" • 'has enabled me to leave behind some of the "baggage" prevent ing effective, objective

management ' • ' to do the best and get the most from even small opportuni t ies , ra ther than give up and

blame external forces and people for my (sic) s i tuat ion ' • 'crucial in moving people on , - -cha l lenge not to be direct ive ' (in role of facilitator).

Similarly comments on how management practice had benefi ted gave a sense of the group dynamic. Fo r one the connect ion was a struggle:

• ' I ' m not sure how it fits into my management practice, o ther than suppor t '

Others wrote:

• 'created lateral thinking approach to problems ' • ' I 've benefi ted as a person, (I don ' t know as a manager) , i t 's space to speak out loud my

thoughts, where those issues are taken seriously' • 'off-loading followed by distance from the issue' • ' i t ' s support from women ' • ' i t ' s the peer group I don ' t have ' • ' the very process helps shed excess baggage ' (i.e. unresolved past experiences) • 'negotiat ion skills improved, more positive results '

Paradox and contradiction

On the challenge of being bet ter able to work with paradox, contradic t ion and ambiguity, the struggle was evident:

• ' the area that requires most work; the benefit is I now recognise the need to think through the p rob lem and no t be reactive '

• 'not really clear about this yet. Does not fit easily into my frame of reference. Budget cuts, lack of staff in an Investors in People framework, I find difficult to accept '

• 'he lped to deal with an experience of "failure" which was having a negative impact on other areas of work, and was very demotivating; by unders tand ing the wider influencing (political) factors as well as personal e lements '

• ' cus tomer care and service reali t ies ' (i.e. can be integrated despi te contradict ions) .

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It was in this area of paradox that some of the most demanding and significant work was done. Individuals experienced discomfort in the tensions between, for example:

• client need and politically driven cuts on resources; • the organisations' high profile commitment to external customer care, and the sometimes

brutal experiences of internal customers (staff); • the personal vision to help others and the pressure towards increasingly administrative

assessments; • the heightened customer expectation resulting from assessment of need and the increasing

disappointment resulting from cuts and changing criteria; • the demand to be tough on poor performance and the lack of support from above when

proactive.

At times the struggle towards some form of resolution, from which a manager could continue to function effectively, required stepping beyond Western linear logic, where contradictions tend to be rejected rather than explored. Systemic concepts (Campbell et al., 1991) and management approaches that bridge Eastern philosophy with Western developments (Parikh, 1991), were helpful. Working with unsolvable contradictions even drew on Buddhist responses to paradox, as managers searched for paradigms that could give meaning and direction. Here the difference between a solution and resolution became transparent (see below).

Equally clear was the need for personal paradigms to shift in order to address 'professional' distress (Burgess, 1993). What was exciting was the way, once this shift had happened, the same individual who was behaving like a casualty could flourish in the most difficult of circumstances. When this happened the process was shared by colleagues whose involvement was evidenced by their own fatigue and exhilaration once the 'birth' they had assisted at was completed.

Rarely was additional time required beyond the agreed time. Sometimes the extent of an individual's shift would become fully apparent at the next set when reporting back, not just through what they said, but through how they were. Needless to say, not every set consultation had quite such an impact.

Reflections

Intuition was ranked highly by participants. It reflected a developing value held within the sets. This related to experiencing the limitations of a rational, logical approach in isolation, and to the contribution of women managers, who comprised the majority of participants. From Buzan's (1988) perspective, the combination of left and right brain activity was experienced as most effective.

Judi Marshall develops the concepts of 'agent' and 'communion' strategies in relation to gender styles in management. The impact of 'seeking union and cooperation' in 'coming to terms with uncertainty' (Marshall, 1984, p. 65) was evident in enhancing effective group learning. While 'agentic' focus was an asset in sets, other agent tendencies to closedness and separation or self-assertion were shown to be ineffective. Marshall's perspective on inte- gration and wholeness as a way forward for women managers is far from straightforward and involves very individual paths. It reflects the challenge to personal growth experienced in action learning by both female and male: growth that defies limitations of conceptual models, and in which understanding follows on, eventually, from acknowledging and valuing experience, together.

With other managers in action learning sets I have learned that to grasp at quick solutions

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can shor t -c i rcui t the requis i te process o f exper ienc ing con t rad ic t ion and pa radox and evolv ing

to a resolu t ion . S u c h reso lu t ions have the capaci ty to in tegrate wi th a longer t e rm, hol is t ic

perspect ive . T h e y are less likely to b r ing up solut ions that just create n e w prob lems .

I t was a surprise to m e that r e sponden t s m a r k e d low on the difficulty o f keep ing space for

a t t end ing sets. I n the face o f a task cul ture tha t does no t faci l i tate reflect ive prac t ice I

had o the r ev idence o f this s truggle. T h e response m a y reflect d e t e r m i n a t i o n ra ther t han

exper ience .

TABLE 2. What works in the process of action learning


1. The facili tator is important for 16 0 0 3 13 keeping to the s t r u c t u r e

2. Open questions can be worth more 17 0 0 7 10 than any amount of advice, in enabling someone to find their solution

3. Making t ime to re f l ec t on and review 17 0 3 6 8 practice, increases effectiveness and is more economical in the longer term

4. The fact that set members represent 16 0 0 10 6 di f ferent s erv i ce s makes for richer and more creative solutions

5. The facil i tator 's comments on the 17 0 0 12 5 process and questions to the group can add to learning potential

6. The d i s c i p l i n e d f r a m e w o r k of the 17 0 2 9 6 action learning set is essential for maximum learning

7. Letting someone sit back and become 17 0 3 7 7 o b s e r v e r to t h e i r o w n p r o b l e m , removes (temporarily) responsibility and opens up new perspectives for them

8. Thinking open questions for 16 0 4 6 6 colleagues can contribute to my own learning

9. The facilitator role can be s h a r e d by 16 0 4 6 6 experienced members, increasing the learning potential and expertise to lead

10. Talking through an issue 17 0 2 11 4 uninterrupted, in a listening, supportive group, already gives rise to solutions

T h i s sect ion on process was no tab le for the h ighes t overall mark ing . T h e flexible set

s t ruc ture , the discipl ine m a i n t a i n e d by the facil i tator, and the effect iveness o f l i s tening and

o p e n ques t ions are va lued highly. Space to express and have feel ings va l ida ted is key,

and rarely offered in any o the r context . A safe, conf ident ia l , and suppor t ive e n v i r o n m e n t

enabl ing i nadequacy and vulnerab i l i ty to be expressed is conduc ive to learn ing and persona l

and profess ional change .

T h e lowest scores he re were for in tent ional ly p rovoca t ive ques t ions , tes t ing c o m m e n t s

m a d e by set m e m b e r s abou t the compara t ive va lue o f act ion learning. T a k i n g into accoun t

the posi t ive bias o f this g roup , ac t ion learn ing was pe rce ived as ' s o m e w h a t ' m o r e effective

than r e sponden t s ' exper iences o f conven t iona l supervis ion, m a n y w o r k mee t ings and learn ing t h rough conven t iona l t ra ining.

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TABLE 3. What learning took place? (Theories, models, principals and values). Respondents marked the following in relation to the statement: 'I have understood and value the following models (which have been developed in

set consultations) and they influence my work as a manager'


17 0 1 6 10 1. Setting clear goals, roles and t ime- scales will greatly increase success in a project

2. Feelings need to be recognised, 17 0 1 8 8 expressed, and validated, otherwise they can stop progress and distort interactions

3. Stimulating a positive approach 17 0 1 9 7 means acknowledging the obstacles and setbacks, and maintaining a clear focus on the vision and goals

4. Ownersh ip in a project is increased 17 0 2 8 7 greatly by getting the people involved to set and agree the goals

5. If people in the organisation are 16 0 3 7 6 assisted to be clear on what they want from their work, they give more enthusiasm and commitment

6. Listening and clarifying: seek first to 16 0 3 7 6 understand the other person, only then seek to be understood yonrself:--you will influence others and elicit cooperation

7. Feedback on the outcomes, and 17 0 3 7 7 recognising and celebrating success, energises further successes

8. If I try to change another, I will meet 16 0 4 5 7 with increasing resistance. If I change what I a m doing/ thinking, and give others choices, they will contribute

9. Proaetively making time for the 16 0 4 6 6 IMPORTANT over the U R G E N T I will be less likely to bum out

10. Though achieving a WIN/WIN 16 0 3 10 3 outcome is more demanding and tough, it leads to results that will work

Discussion

Ref lec t ion o n p r ac t i c e is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h v a l u i n g co l l abora t ive , pa r t i c ipa t i ve a n d e m p o w e r i n g

m a n a g e m e n t a p p r o a c h e s . T h e i n c r e a s i n g p r e s su re s o n m a n a g e r s to t ake o n m o r e roles , tasks

a n d respons ib i l i t i e s dr ives t h e m i n t o reac t iv i ty in w h i c h t h e y b e c o m e de fens ive a n d o f t en

aggressive. I n the h u r l y - b u r l y o f m a n a g i n g , p a r t i c i p a n t s j u m p e d in to m o r e c o n t r o l l i n g styles

w h e n the se were less a p p r o p r i a t e for l o n g t e r m effec t iveness . O n t he o t h e r h a n d , t h o s e w h o

were i nc l i ned to avo id c o n f r o n t a t i o n a n d d i r ec t iveness w h e n it was n e e d e d , b e c a m e m o r e

c o n f i d e n t to deve l op th i s style, w h i c h t hey ini t ia l ly p e r c e i v e d as a l ien to t h e i r social ca re

values .

I n a p p r o p r i a t e c o n t r o l l i n g or d i r ec t ive styles were also e x p e r i e n c e d as leas t effect ive f r o m

the i r o w n m a n a g e r s . I n a n o r g a n i s a t i o n a l cu l t u r e t h a t f a v o u r e d t a sk over p roces s , t h e a u t h o r

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observed an increased affirmation o f a more integrated approach, combining bo th task and process skills. Whe the r action learning sets contr ibuted to or reflected this change is not evidenced.

T h e struggle with boundar ies over responsibil i ty-taking was a consistent theme. A tr iangu- lar model of victim, persecutor , rescuer contrasted with vulnerable, assertive and caring was used so frequently that set members had their own handout . I t was therefore a surprise that this did not show more highly. T h e mult ip le nature o f the initial quest ion was a weakness and is likely to have lowered scores.

Despi te much work on paradox and contradict ion, many respondents did not conceptu- alise this in relat ion to the frequently used models of the Sigmoid Curve (Handy, 1994) or 'Both ... And ' (as opposed to 'E i t he r . . . Or ' ) . Both were marked at halfway comparat ive to other models/principles.

The more complex or specific the model or theory, the lower the score, often, as above, despite the author ' s observations of a much higher profile in learning sets. Managers appear to hold models in their minds that can be evoked by a label, e.g. 'Win -win ' , 'Be posit ive ' , or 'Change yourself first ' . Another facilitator suggested ' these sound bites operate in a similar way to visual images - - t hey are a hook or trigger that aids memory and may make it more likely that a set of complex ideas will be re-called in the hur ly-burly of work ' (Meador , 1997).

Case studies

M u c h problem solving done by managers in social services is done in a reactive environment that rarely accommodates the reflection needed for outcomes that do not merely create new problems. T o illustrate the difference reflective learning in a group can offer I include some case studies, al tered only to ensure confidentiality. They exemplify p rob lem solving around paradox, paradigm shift, personal change, professional deve lopment and reframing in practical, real situations.

1. Breaking an historical pattern

Over a number of years several very able subordinates of a line manager had left the service, saying they could not cope with his undermin ing and defensive style. De te rmined not to replicate this a set m e m b e r became increasingly locked into a batt le of at tr i t ion with her manager.

Explor ing this with her set, she gradually recognised that she could not win irt such a struggle within a hierarchy. I f she d ropped her crusade to change her middle manager it could provide the space for h im to be careless, with potential for being 'hoist on his own petard ' . Or it could open areas in which it was possible to collaborate to achieve positive outcomes for the service. Adopt ing this T ' a i Chi model , as opposed to Sumo wrestling with a giant, freed her to s tand back, focus her energies on the deve lopment of the service for customers, and defuse avoidable conflict.

2. Developing a group

T h e harder a manager tr ied to ensure 'her ' staff supervision group succeeded, the more jeopardised it seemed. W h e n she recognised that she would have to let go of the group, being willing to risk that it fold, o ther staff members found space to contr ibute and take responsibil i ty for the group ' s objectives. I t flourished.

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3. Failing in order to succeed

A manager with a quality assurance role for a private sector residential home, was frustrated with the home owner, who would never co-operate with his recommendations, and made complaints about him. In the set, it transpired that he carried an image of himself as having to be helpful and collaborative, and felt he had failed if he was confrontative. Yet the home owner responded to directiveness. By 'failing' his image of himself, in becoming more directive, the home owner responded and he was able to change a pattern of pointless conflict.

4. Project management

Carrying responsibility for a project with impending deadlines that were unlikely to be met, a set member shared her panic. She was freezing from fear of failure, making failure a certainty. Questioned on her powerlessness she stood back enough to see that trying to renegotiate the time-scales could not be worse than the current inevitable failure. She succeeded, and later had her contract extended, to develop the work resulting from the success of the initial project. Risking her job had given her a new one.

5. Staff development

A trainer was hopeless in the face of negativity from staff about changes to the service. She was trying harder and harder, and facing more disheartening resistance. She was asked whether she was responsible for the service implementation or for delivering the training, and what the effect of trying so hard was on her trainees. She was able to let go of some of the responsibility she held beyond her role, and to respond more accurately to where staff were. This enabled trainees to express their frustrations more openly, instead of sabotaging her efforts and to take more responsibility for what they wanted to achieve.

6. The person is the manager and vice-versa

A set member applied her learning from a colleague's consultation by making changes in a personal relationship. This freed up her assertiveness, and gave new vitality to the relationship. Her effectiveness in her work role was equally considerably enhanced by this newly found assertiveness.

7. Risking expressing the inexpressible

Increasingly everything in a manager's work experience was being dominated by feeling undermined by her own manager. She eventually expressed in her set the feelings that she feared would overwhelm her. This freed her to respond to open questions which indicated that her feelings were only one part of the relationship to which she contributed. Viewing the experience from a different perspective enabled her to make changes. She defined specific issues that she could develop with her manager, to change the previous pattern.

8. Carrying the can

A deputy manager was increasingly taking an authoritative role with staff, but felt she was failing, and becoming unpopular. She was doubting her abilities as a manager. In the set it became apparent that she was protecting the unit manager who avoided being directive with

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her staff. Realising that she could not succeed in filling this vacuum, as she d id not have the authori ty nor the backing, she saw that she had to risk being 'dis loyal ' to her manager , in order to stop being disloyal to herself. By not s tepping into the gap, she could more accurately gauge her own real ability as a manager against the criteria of her p roper role as deputy.

9. A life change

A unit manager was experiencing being scapegoat for a s i tuat ion that had developed over years within the managemen t system and for which she was only part ly responsible. Compe n- satory ' ad jus tments ' were complete ly d isempowering her. Explor ing this painful s i tuat ion with her set, raised the quest ion as to whether she could ever get out of this posit ion. Fac ing this tough truth, with support , she was able to raise her focus to look at her life as a whole. She decided to resign and move home and career, to develop her long dorman t dreams. T h e t ransformation from depressed victim to an empowered individual with direct ion was dramatic. Both organisation and individual were in a win-win.

10. Mirror images of work relationships

A set member was so oppressed by her relationship with her teenage son that her work life was being affected. She explored her struggle so she could stand back, and leave more responsibil i ty with him. She decided to stop trying to get him to change and to focus on changes in her behaviour that he would respond to. Her colleagues found this explorat ion powerful in casting light on their own stuck relationships with staff they managed. The i r determinat ion to get a staff m e m b e r to change was an avoidance of changing their own behaviour first.

Conclusions

Managers who part icipate in act ion learning sets place a high value on the impact this has on their ability to respond to challenges, to become more proactive, positive and effective. They extend this to their service to customers. Yet difficulty in making this link reflects the evaluative challenge of l inking manager effectiveness with cus tomer experience, in a service where much management activity is increasingly focused on saying no to customers.

The flexible discipline provided by the action learning structure is seen as key to learning. Being enabled to express feelings is requisite to moving on and for many the act ion learning forum is unique in offering this. T h e role of the facilitator is perceived as crucial, a l though experienced members can increasingly take on this role, with coaching. T h e experience of being proper ly listened to and val idated, which action learning encourages, is perceived as a powerful component , and was rare in the respondents ' experience of supervisory relat ionships within a hierarchy. I t contr ibutes to a learning rather than a b lame culture.

Reflectivity in act ion learning sets is exper ienced as s trengthening collaborative and empowering models of managemen t as against maladapt ive use of control and directiveness. T h e lat ter is more likely to occur when managers are reactive and do not make space to reflect. I t is not iceable that women managers easily respond to and affirm the collaborative process of action learning. Whe the r in mixed or women ' s groups is a mat ter of personal choice and does not appear to inhibit it. There is a balance between process and task, reflecting the balance of tough accountabi l i ty and supportive val idat ion that are par t of act ion learning.

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The very struggle to make space to attend an action learning set replicates the management tension between task completion and reflection. Those who invest in this opportunity for reflective practice are positive about its impact on their long term effectiveness as managers.

This study is small scale and of a pilot nature, and reflects self-evaluation by those with an investment in the process. The development of an instrument to elicit the evaluations of participants' line managers and possibly peers and subordinates, is still a challenge to be surmounted.

The perceptions of participants and my observations of five sets over 4 years indicate that action learning with social services managers achieves an impressive 10 of the 14 learning outcomes set by the Higher Education Initiative (Entwistle, 1992). The four in brackets cannot be claimed by action learning as I know it, but can be part of a larger programme where action learning is the hub.

1. Problem solving skills

• Applying concepts and principles to analysis of problems. • Producing original or imaginative products or ideas. • {Using numerical or statistical analysis to solve problems.}

2. Initiative and efficiency

• Using initiative and carrying out one's own ideas. • Achieving results within realistic constraints of time and money. • Showing greater self-confidence. • Taking responsibility for one's own development.

3. Interactional skills

• Working co-operatively with others in groups or teams. • Interpreting and understanding people's feelings and behaviour. • Leading and organising group activities.

4. Communica t ion skills

• Making effective oral presentations in {demanding if not} formal situations. • {Producing effective written presentations, including desigruqayout.} • {Demonstrating computer literacy.} • {Making oneself understood in a foreign language.}

I have indicated that action learning replicates characteristics of reflective learning models being developed in education generally and in social work education in particular. I regret that I have skirted the rich material on group dynamics and facilitation which is available from set interaction. This could justify another paper, as it has been an abundant source of learning for myself and colleagues.

In summary, managers, educators and researchers involved in management learning in social work have in action learning:

a) a readily available and flexible structure, b) through which to develop the reflective processes that contribute to effective adult

learning,

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c) which can be applied in day-to-day social work management practice within an

organisational environment , and d) which participants experience as making a very positive contr ibut ion to their development

and effectiveness as managers in a particularly challenging environment .

References

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reflective practice: action learning sets for managers in social work

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