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Industry as a partner forsustainable development

International Institute of Refrigeration/Institut International du Froid (IIR/IIF)

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This report is released by the International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR) and the United NationsEnvironment Programme. Unless otherwise stated, all the interpretation and findings set forth in thispublication are those of the International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR).

The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply theexpression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the International Institute of Refrigeration(IIR) or the United Nations Environment Programme concerning the legal status of any country,territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.The contents of this volume do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the United NationsEnvironment Programme, nor does citing of trade names or commercial processes constituteendorsement.

This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holders, provided acknowledgementof the source is made.The International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR) and the United NationsEnvironment Programme would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this reportas a source.

First published in the United Kingdom in 2002.

Copyright © 2002 International Institute of Refrigeration andUnited Nations Environment Programme

ISBN: 92-807-2191-5

1

A report prepared by:International Institute of Refrigeration/Institut International du Froid (IIR/IIF)177 boulevard Malesherbes75017 ParisFrance

Tel: +33 1 42 27 32 35Fax: +33 1 47 63 17 98 E-mail: [email protected] site: http://www.iifiir.org

DisclaimerIn a multi-stakeholder consultation facilitated by the United Nations Environment Programme, anumber of groups (including representatives from non-governmental organisations, labour unions,research institutes and national governments) provided comments on a preliminary draft of thisreport prepared by the International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR).The report was then revised,benefiting from stakeholder perspectives and input. The views expressed in the report remain thoseof the authors, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme or the individuals and organisations that participated in the consultation.

Refrigeration

Industry as a partner for sustainable development

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http://www.iifiir.org


2 Refrigeration

Contents 3

4 Acknowledgements

5 Part 1: Foreword and executive summary5 1.1 Foreword6 1.2 Executive summary

13 Part 2: The three dimensions of sustainable development13 2.1 Introduction13 2.2 Refrigeration stakeholders: Categories15 2.3 The social dimension21 2.4 The economic dimension24 2.5 The environmental dimension

29 Part 3: Means of implementation: Strategies, achievements and limits29 3.1 Introduction30 3.2 General approach43 3.3 Approach on a per-sector basis

45 Part 4: Challenges45 4.1 General challenges45 4.2 Industrialised countries58 4.3. Developing countries61 Conclusion64 References

66 Annexe 1: Figures70 Annexe 2: Developing countries and territories – DAC list72 Annexe 3: Achievements and limits: Approach on a per-sector basis77 Annexe 4: Presentation of the International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR)

Contents

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Acknowledgements

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Part 1: Foreword and executive summary

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1.1 Foreword

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1.2 Executive summary

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Part 2: The three dimensions of sustainable development

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2.1 Introduction

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2.2 Refrigeration stakeholders: Categories

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2.3 The social dimension

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2.4 The economic dimension

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2.5 The environmental dimension

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Part 3: Means of implementation: Strategies, achievements and limits

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3.1 Introduction

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3.2 General approach

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3.3 Approach on a per-sector basis

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Part 4: Challenges

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4.1 General challenges

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4.2 Industrialised countries

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4.3. Developing countries

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Conclusion

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References

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Annexe 1: Figures

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Annexe 2: Developing countries and territories – DAC

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DAC list

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Annexe 3: Achievements and limits: Approach on a per-sector basis

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Annexe 4: Presentation of the International Institute of Refrigeration

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Refrigeration (IIR)

The report has been prepared by FrançoisBillard and Jean-Luc Dupont. IIR would like tothank the following people for their valuablecontributions to this report:

Writers:J. Bouma,The NetherlandsR. E. Critoph, United KingdomH. Halozan, AustriaH. M. Henning, GermanyJ. P. Homasson, FranceW. Long, ChinaC. Marvillet, FranceM. Menzer, United StatesN. Mitchell, United KingdomI. Pilatowski, MexicoW. Ryan, USI. Sanankoua, Côte d’IvoireF. Steimle, GermanyS.White, AustraliaJ.Wurm, United StatesF. Ziegler, Germany

Participants to the preparatory meeting of 3 October 2001, organised by UNEP and heldat the IIR head office:D. Clodic, France (representing ASHRAE*)J. Itini, Burkina FasoB. Kariko-Buhwezi, UgandaL. Kuijpers,The Netherlands (representingUNEP**)P. Roy, France (representing AREA***)

People who provided valuable information and figures:J. Baker, United StatesR. Berckmans, BelgiumR. Heap, United KingdomB.Valentin, France

Reviewers:R.S. Agarwal, IndiaJ. Bouma,The NetherlandsA. Cleland, New ZealandD. Colbourne, United KingdomE. Granryd, SwedenH. Halozan, AustriaR. Heap, United KingdomL. Kuijpers,The NetherlandsL. Lucas, FranceA. Pilatte, BelgiumF. Steimle, Germany

* ASHRAE: American Society of Heating,Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers** UNEP: United Nations EnvironmentProgramme***AREA: Air-conditioning and RefrigerationEuropean Association

Acknowledgements

4 Ackmowledgements

1.1 ForewordThe scope of refrigeration is far-reaching. It hasapplications embracing a huge range of fieldswe all encounter in our everyday lives.Refrigeration:

• reduces post-harvest losses, preservesfoods and makes it possible to provide thesafe, wholesome food all consumers havethe right to expect;

• plays a key role in the healthcare sector,safe vaccine storage, cryosurgery andcryotherapy have been made possible bythe advent of advanced refrigerationtechnology;

• promotes economic and social developmentin hot countries thanks to air-conditioning,

• is used in many industrial processes in thefood, chemical, plastics and many otherindustries;

• heat pump technology can in fact be usedfor heating, heat pumps provide energy-efficient heating using renewable energysources and waste heat;

• enables liquid natural gas, anenvironmentally friendly source of energy,to be transported and stored;

• enables superconductivity to be applied inthe medical field and other importantapplications.

During the World Conference onRefrigeration for Development organised bythe International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR)in 1986, Prof Gustav Lorentzen, one ofrefrigeration’s greatest innovators, aptlydescribed refrigeration as an ‘invisible industry’,adding that ‘very few have an idea of theimmense importance of refrigeration to ourquality of life’. He highlighted the importanceof refrigeration using three figures:

• annual production of compressors around70 million units;

• annual investment in refrigeratingequipment around USD100 billion;

• The value of refrigerated foodstuffs:USD500 billion to USD1,000 billion.

Today, annual investment in refrigeratingequipment totals about USD200 billion andthe value of refrigerated foodstuffs at leastUSD1,200 billion.

Unfortunately, these figures mask a huge gap,in terms of equipment, knowledge andtraining, between developed and developingcountries.The sheer size of this gap hasdictated the need to divide the key sectionsof this report into two parts in order toenhance its clarity: developed and developingcountries. In some cases, specific issuesaffecting least developed countries are alsoaddressed in this report.

The refrigeration sector expanded fast indeveloped countries after the Second WorldWar. Cold chains were set up at that time.However, evolution of technologies andrefrigerants was far less striking. It was only in1987, when the Montreal Protocol became adriving force that the refrigeration sectorbegan undergoing the profound changes thathave given rise to today’s broad range of newrefrigerants and alternative technologies.

The aim of this report is to examine how therefrigeration sector fits into overall sustainabledevelopment and to what extent the aims setout in Agenda 21 are implemented within therefrigeration sector. It reviews progressachieved within the framework of Agenda 21,the key challenges to be met and actions tobe implemented.

IIR invited to write this report by the UnitedNations Environment Programme (UNEP), isan intergovernmental organisation linking 61member countries, accounting for 80% of the

Foreword and executive summary 5

Part 1: Foreword and executive summary

global population. Its mission is to promoteprogress and expansion of knowledge onrefrigeration technology and all its applicationson a worldwide scale. Annexe 4 provides afuller description of the IIR.

In this report, the term ‘refrigeration’, whenused alone, covers all refrigerationtechnologies (all refrigerating equipmentincluding heat pumps) and all refrigerationapplications, including air-conditioning.

1.2 Executive summary1 ForewordThe scope of refrigeration is far-reaching.Refrigeration has applications embracing ahuge range of fields we all encounter in ourdaily lives, particularly in the food, health andindoor environment fields. Refrigeration playsan essential role in sustainable development.However, there is a wide gap betweenindustrialised and developing countries interms of the availability of refrigeratingequipment, knowledge and training.

2 The three dimensions of sustainabledevelopmentThe goals that are defined by Agenda 21cover three dimensions: social, economic andenvironmental.

The impact of the refrigeration and air-conditioning sector on the social dimensionhas numerous facets: In industrialisedcountries, the following aspects can bestressed:

• the refrigeration sector generates jobs,particularly in the industrial, commercialand service fields;

• by making it possible to preserveperishable foods at all stages fromproduction to distribution, refrigerationvastly improves food supply topopulations;

• thanks to improved food safety, to thedevelopment of new equipment and tools

in the medical sector (such as MRI,cryosurgery and cryotherapy) this sectorpromotes health;

• air-conditioning makes it possible to createworking environments with the desiredtemperature and humidity levels.

In developing countries, the impact ofrefrigeration, even if less marked than inindustrialised countries, notably due to a lackof equipment and insufficient technologytransfer, is nevertheless significant in thefollowing fields:

• in the health field, the role of refrigerationin the immunisation of populations againstinfectious diseases thanks to refrigeratorsfor vaccine storage can be highlighted andlinked to increasing life expectancy. Astriking example is the contribution ofrefrigeration to the eradication ofpoliomyelitis: in 2000, the number of casesof poliomyelitis occurring worldwide wasless than 3,500, which is a 99% decrease incomparison with the 350,000 casesregistered in 1988;

• Air-conditioning contributes to social andeconomic development in hot, humidregions;

• Refrigeration technologies have a vital roleto play in many spheres, notably in thefood field where reduction of post-harvestlosses, improved food safety and hygiene,promotion of international trade, andimproved food supply to the cities must beconsidered as top-priority objectives.Thesame is true in the health field wherefoodborne diseases caused by pathogenicmicro-organisms must be prevented.

From an economic point of view, the followingfigures summarise and highlight refrigeration’srole: today, there are 700 million to 1,000million household refrigerators, 240 million air-conditioning units, 300,000,000 m3 of cold-storage facilities operating worldwide.

6 Foreword and executive summary

A tentative table showing the annual sales ofrefrigeration, air-conditioning and heat-pumpequipment (which had not been publishedpreviously) has been prepared by IIR and isprovided in this report. It shows that totalannual sales are around USD200 billion(average figures for 2000), this being roughlyone third of the automobile industry’s annualsales (excluding commercial vehicles).

However, the gap between developed anddeveloping countries remains wide.A strikingexample is the number of domestic refrigeratorsmanufactured annually. In 1996, only 33% ofthese appliances were for developing countrymarkets, even though 80% of the globalpopulation lived in developing countries.

From an environmental viewpoint,refrigeration-related activities, in a sustainabledevelopmental framework, have two maincomponents: atmospheric emissions of certainrefrigerant gases used in refrigerating plantsand the CO2 emitted in generating the energyrequired to operate these plants.

CFC emissions, and to a lesser extent HCFCemissions, exert ozone-depleting effects.Thesetwo refrigerant families also exert global-warming effects. HFCs were developed inorder to replace CFCs and HCFCs and haveno ozone-depleting potential. However, theyalso have direct global-warming effects.Via theMontreal Protocol that was adopted in 1987,177 countries (as of 31 July 2001) committedthemselves to measures designed to protectthe ozone layer.This protocol calls for thegradual phase-out and total banning of CFCsfollowed by HCFCs, with a longer time framefor Article 5 (developing) countries.

The objective of the Kyoto Protocol, which hasyet to be ratified by a sufficiently large numberof countries in order to enter into force, is toreduce, in 39 developed countries, emissionsof six greenhouse gases by at least 5%between 1990 and 2008 to 2012. HFCs areamong these six greenhouse gases.

The improvement of the energy efficiency ofrefrigerating plants is a vital process, since itreduces the main contribution of therefrigeration sector to global warming, that is.indirect emissions of CO2 induced by theproduction and the consumption of theenergy needed to operate the refrigeratingplants. Emissions of CO2 are evaluated asbeing 80% of the total contribution of therefrigeration sector to global warming.

Other indirect impacts should be mentionedsuch as pollutants (SO2, nitrous oxide)emissions related to components productionand waste products associated with thedestruction of refrigerants, oils and theequipment itself.

3 Means of implementation: Strategies,achievements and limitsAmong refrigeration stakeholders’ recentachievements within the framework ofsustainable development, the most significant isthe industry’s landmark contribution to theimplementation of the Montreal Protocol onthe substances that deplete the ozone layer.Therefrigeration industry, over a decade, hascompletely changed the refrigerants from CFCsand HCFCs to ozone-friendly substances toprotect the global environment.This contributedto lowering the chlorine concentration in thestratosphere and reducing ozone layerdepletion that threatened life on Earth.

Industries also took the opportunity ofchanging over to second generation and moreenergy-efficient technology over the last tenyears. Refrigeration is one of the uniquesectors that witnessed complete technologyoverhaul that was environmentally friendly.Thishas been made possible through co-operationbetween developing and developed countriesthrough the Montreal Protocol, throughfunding of new technology by the MultilateralFund, and through international co-operationbetween organisations like IIR, UNDP, UNEP,UNIDO, the World Bank,WHO and manyothers.


The industry is now gearing up to faceanother environmental challenge of the nextmillennium: global warming. In order tocombat global warming the main strategies arereductions in energy consumption, reductionsin refrigerant emissions, research anddevelopment on new refrigerants and not-in-kind (NIK) technologies, new developments inthe cold chain and new developments in air-conditioning and heating systems.

The environmental benefits of the strategiesimplemented have to be evaluated using anobjective measure of environmental merit.This measure must be based on a ‘true lifecycle’ assessment: it must take into accountthe overall environmental impact throughoutthe life cycle of the refrigeration or air-conditioning system.Thus, concerning thegreenhouse effect, Life Cycle ClimatePerformance (LCCP), which is a measure oftotal greenhouse emissions (‘from cradle tograve’), is no doubt the most objectivecriterion.

In industrialised countries, initiatives aimed atreducing energy consumption have led tomeasures that cover all phases in the life cycleof refrigerating equipment:

• during the design phase, features enablingrefrigerating system and componentperformance to be enhanced;

• during installation and commissioning,application of stringent plant acceptanceprocedures taking into accountmeasurement of the energy consumptionof a plant;

• during maintenance and servicing,application of stringent operatingprocedures.

Standardisation provides a means of obtainingobjective benchmark performances ofequipment. Quality procedures are increasinglyincluding training followed by proficiency-basedcertification of technicians and installers.Thisprocess needs to be more widely applied and

the harmonisation of standards also needs tobe expanded.

Several figures provide striking evidence ofachievements in the field of energy savings.Thecoefficients of performance (COPs) ofrefrigerating equipment are constantly beingenhanced, but much remains to be done inthis field.

Emissions-reducing initiatives are appliedthroughout the life cycle of a plant:

• during the design and manufacturingphases, manufacturers’ Research andDevelopment (R&D) departments focuson optimising plant tightness and reducingthe refrigerant charge and the length ofpiping used in the circuits in order toreduce emissions and to facilitatemaintenance and servicing during plantoperation;

• during installation of the plant, stringentqualitative procedures are applied to anincreasing extent, particularly with regardto containment of the refrigerant;

• during maintenance and servicing, theemphasis is on plant tightness, thanks toregular controls and systematic refrigerantrecovery whenever maintenance or repairsare performed.Thanks to training ofinstallers, owners and operators in thehandling of new refrigerants and raising oftheir awareness of the environmentaldimension, considerable progress has beenachieved, but much remains to be done;

• During disposal of equipment, recovery ofthe refrigerant, and recycling or reclaimingwhenever possible (or destruction if this isnot possible).

In terms of achievements, the impact of CFCs,HCFCs and HFCs on ozone depletion andglobal warming has` decreased in a strikingmanner, as demonstrated by several indicators:decreased production of these refrigerants(weighted according to their respectiveimpacts on these two phenomena) starting in


1988 and 1989, and the diminishingpercentage of these refrigerants in totalgreenhouse-gas emissions.

The refrigeration sector’s initiatives in the fieldof NIK technologies and alternativerefrigerants (new HFC refrigerants andalternative refrigerants to fluorocarbons) arealso an important breakthrough since theylead to reduced adverse effects on theenvironment.

Among non-HFC refrigerants developed toreplace fluorocarbon refrigerants, the focus isabove all on ammonia, hydrocarbons andcarbon dioxide (CO2).

In the field of NIK technologies that providesuitable alternatives to vapour compression,key research focuses include advancedabsorption and adsorption technology, solarrefrigeration, desiccant cooling, air cycles, theStirling cycle, thermoelectric cooling, etc.

New developments in the cold chain can behighlighted: increasing importance is nowattached to cleanability in order to preventcontamination of foods, flexibility ofequipment, regulation of ambient conditions,traceability of foods, consumer informationand interface management.

New developments in air-conditioning andheating systems can also be stressed. Indoorair quality (IAQ) and its relationship withoccupant comfort, health and productivity hasreceived increased attention in recent years.New developments related to ventilation,source control, humidity management andfiltration/air cleaning have been achieved.Energy efficiency is becoming increasinglyimportant within the sustainable buildingapproach, and several developments such as‘low-temperature heating’ and ‘high-temperature cooling’ are taking place.Developing countries joined the industrialisedcountries in the last decade to phase-outozone depleting substances. Among the several

positive activities that have been carried out torespond to the challenges of the sustainabledevelopment are:

• The financial and technical resources thatwere made available through theMultilateral Fund of the Montreal Protocolwere leveraged to transfer ozone-friendlytechnologies to the developing countries.Of USD1.3 billion spent by the fund so far,nearly 60% is used for refrigeration sector;

• Through the collaborative efforts likeUNEP’s OzonAction Programme and IIR’sworld wide networks of experts,Refrigerant Management Plans (RMPs) havebeen set up in many countries. Each RMPinvolves an initial diagnosis phase that is anessential prerequisite to actions and traininginitiatives designed to achieve sustainabledevelopment; implementation of trainingprogrammes addressing refrigerationtechnicians’ and custom officers’ needs.

However, the development of the refrigerationsector in developing countries has limits thatshould be emphasised:

• education for refrigeration technicians ingood practices and installers is not availableto all;

• insufficient maintenance, causing highleakage of refrigerant and other plantanomalies;

• regeneration and refrigerant destructionplants are too few and scattered.

A per-sector approach (detailed in Annexe 3)(domestic refrigeration, commercialrefrigeration, cold storage, industrialrefrigeration, unitary air-conditioning, waterchillers, transport, mobile air-conditioning)makes it possible to identify the actionsimplemented, in each sector, in order to meetthe defined objectives: emissions reductions,energy-efficiency measures, development ofnew technologies and new refrigerants,retroconversion of plants in order to use newrefrigerants.


4 ChallengesSustainable development-driven challengesconfronting the refrigeration sector in years tocome will be numerous; they include theaddressing of issues that require sustainablesolutions (covered in Part 2) and theexpanding of actions that have already beenimplemented (focused on in Part 3).

Industrialised countriesMost specialists are of the opinion that vapour-compression systems are likely to be thedominating trend over the next 20 years.Thechallenge to be met is to develop vapour-compression systems that are environmentallyfriendly, energy-efficient, robust and sustainable,cost-effective and safe for users. Bearing inmind these challenges, here are someobjective challenges for the next 20 years, with2000 as baseline year :

• to reduce energy consumption by 30%to 50%,

• to halve refrigerant leakage,• to improve LCCP (Life Cycle Climate

Performance) by 30% to 50%,• to reduce the refrigerant charge by 30%

to 50%.

However, defining quantitative objectives isuseful only if reliable benchmarks are definedand validated. Some technologies andapplications using vapour-compression systemshave an important role to play in order tomeet these objectives, for example:

• sustainable building. Sustainable building canonly be achieved if energy efficiency istaken into account right from the outset ofthe building design process;

• mobile air-conditioning. It is forecast that in2010 emissions of refrigerants from vehicleair-conditioning equipment in Europe willrepresent about 50% of all refrigerantemissions. In order to reduce CO2

emissions, means of reducing fuelconsumption related to air-conditioningshould also be given serious consideration.

This area represents one of the biggestfuture challenges in the sector underconsideration;

• heat pumps are an efficient tool to reduceCO2 emissions.The potential for reducingCO2 emissions assuming a 30% share inthe building sector using technologypresently (1997) available is about 6% ofthe total worldwide CO2 emissions of22,000 mt/y.With future technologies upto 16% seem possible in residential,commercial and industrial applications.

This report also explores promisingrefrigeration technologies and applicationsusing non-vapour-compression technology thatwill undoubtedly also play important roles inensuring sustainable development.

• absorption and adsorption cooling systems,which quite often are fuel-fired, are apractical means of providing bothcommercial and industrial cooling withoutimposing a major drain on a developingelectric infrastructure and therefore amajor drain on the limited developmentalcapital available to most developingcountries. Absorption-based air-conditioning, in the form of largeabsorption chillers for major commercial-building or industrial applications, is themost widespread application of thesetechnologies today. Low energy efficiency isstill the major drawback of this technology.Further development and simplificationsare needed in order to enable thistechnology to be more widely applied;

• solar refrigeration is technology that shouldbe given priority when choosing sustainabledevelopment options in developingcountries.The growing demand for ice forthe conservation and transportation ofperishable products, the development ofcold storage for food storage, the freezingof fresh and cooked products, space air-conditioning, among other refrigerationapplications, are only a sample of thepotential applications of this technology.


The establishment of the infrastructurerequired for the production of solarrefrigeration units and the setting up ofeducational programmes and training in theoperation and maintenance of solar plantsas well as in the design andinstrumentation aspects are priorityactions;

• desiccant technology includes a broadspectrum of systems providing cooling,dehumidification, and ventilation in order tocontrol the quality of the indoorenvironment in the industrial andcommercial sectors. But many productionand technical issues still have to beaddressed;

• trigeneration (combined cooling, heat andpower) has considerable benefits from anenergy standpoint. It makes it possible tototally or partially utilise the heat rejectedto ambient as waste heat generated duringelectrical power production and use partof it in refrigerating applications.Thedevelopment of high-performanceabsorption plants will enhance the benefitsof trigeneration plants;

• cryogenics is a field encompassing allrefrigeration technology used to achievetemperatures below 120K (-150°C) downto 4.2K, and has paved the way to a hugerange of sustainable-development-promoting applications. Superconductivity isone of the most promising cryogenictechnologies. Cryomedicine and itscryosurgical component are making andwill continue to make a valuablecontribution to sustainable development;

• many other technologies that will promotesustainable development are beingdeveloped or are the focus of researchprojects, notably air-cycle and Stirling-cyclerefrigeration, and thermoelectric cooling;

The priority actions to implement indeveloping countries are:

• reduction of post-harvest losses. Perishablefoodstuffs represent 31% of the total

volume of foods consumed in developingcountries. In developing countries, onlyone-fifth of perishable foodstuffs isrefrigerated, meaning that high losses areincurred following harvest, slaughter, fishing,milking, then during transportation andfinally during sale. Refrigeration is one ofthe most effective tools enabling lossreduction to be achieved. However,economic aspects should be dealt with;

• development of cold chains. Ensuring bothfood quality and safety to five billioninhabitants of developing countries thanksto the setting up of effective cold chains isa major challenge for the refrigerationsector;

• technology transfer. One avenue forenhancing developing country initiatives isthrough the sharing of developed-countryindustrial technology, know-how andinformation, including standards andcertification programmes;

• strengthening of structures. It is importantto define a ministry in charge of handlingrefrigeration policy at national level.Tradeorganisations and associations play anindispensable role in federatingrefrigeration stakeholders. A state-approved, neutral, authoritative nationalrefrigeration association is also necessary.An interministerial and interprofessionalorganisation such as a national refrigerationcouncil can play an important role indefining refrigeration plans that includeinventories of existing equipment and along-term developmental plan;

• data collection. A precise inventory of theneeds of developing countries is anessential preliminary step in order tofacilitate the design of focused programmesand activities in the various fieldsconcerned: structures, technologies, training.

In industrialised countries as well as indeveloping countries, education is thecornerstone of development in all aspects ofrefrigeration: design, installation, running andmaintenance of refrigerating equipment.


In conclusion, the major challenges to be metby the refrigeration sector can be summarisedas follows.

Developed countries:

• to address the environmental impact ofrefrigerating systems by using the LCCPconcept and standardising its calculationand to promote application of this conceptamong all stakeholders;

• to consider the whole system and not justthe refrigerant;

• to design equipment with a reducedrefrigerating capacity as far as practicable,for instance by attaching great importanceto well-calculated and efficient insulation;

• to bear in mind that the primary goal of arefrigerating plant is to make it possible tosupply high-quality foodstuffs or to ensurehigh indoor air quality;

• to give top priority to proper maintenance:such practice reduces leakage andimproves energy efficiency;

• to recover, recycle, regenerate or destroy,following standardised procedures,refrigerants, lubricants and materials used inrefrigerating plants;

• to further improve energy efficiency andperformance;

• to use the capabilities of heat-pumptechnologies for reducing energyconsumption by utilising renewable energysources and waste heat.

Developing countries:

• to make refrigeration available in thedeveloping countries, particularly in theleast developed countries for foodpreservation, industry and air-conditioningpurposes;

• to set as a rule that developing countrieshave the same rights to refrigerationtechnology as developed countries;

• to take advantage of current technologicalachievements in order to enable ‘leap-frogging’ to environmentally friendly,

reliable, robust and cost-effective practicesthrough promotion of technology transferand increased training and education;

• to avoid dumping old polluting, high-energy-consuming technology indeveloping countries, even if initial costsappear to be attractively low.


2.1 IntroductionAgenda 21 was adopted by more than 178countries at the United Nations Conferenceon Environment and Development (UNCED)held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on 3 to 14 June1992. It addresses the pressing problems oftoday and aims at preparing the world for thechallenges of the 21st century thanks tosustainable-development strategy.

Sustainable development has been defined asthe fulfilment of current needs withoutcompromising the ability of future generationsto fulfil their own needs.The goals that aredefined by Agenda 21 cover 3 dimensions:social, economic and environmental.

The refrigeration sector is actively involved inmany issues inherent in each of thesedimensions.This report highlights keyrefrigeration sector actions with respect toeach dimension. In this report, we point outthe most significant ones for each dimension.

A distinction has been made betweendeveloping countries and industrialised (or‘developed’) countries due to the gap in termsof equipment and knowledge. In some cases,specific issues affecting ‘least developedcountries’ have been addressed.The list ofdeveloping countries is provided in Annexe 2.

Before examining the challenges to be met bythe refrigeration sector, it is useful to identifythe stakeholders in this sector.

2.2 Refrigerationstakeholders: CategoriesIn order to gain an insight into the social andeconomic impacts of the refrigeration sector, itis essential to consider refrigerationstakeholder categories.

There are four main categories of refrigerationstakeholders.

1. Manufacturers of refrigerating equipmentand refrigerants

Stakeholders falling into this category increasingly tend to be multinational corporations.• refrigerant manufacturers (which

manufacture refrigerants, secondaryrefrigerants, lubricants, etc.) are very largecorporations. Refrigerants are manufacturedby 15 to 20 very large firms. Firms based indeveloped countries have combined forceswithin AFEAS (Alternative FluorocarbonEnvironmental Acceptability Study) in orderto conduct research and to provide globalfigures on production and consumption;

• because of the very costly infrastructuresrequired, liquefied gas, and particularlyliquefied natural gas, manufacturers tend tobe multinational corporations;

• component (compressors, exchangers)manufacturers tend to be multinationalswith manufacturing plants in various partsof the world but can also be small andmedium-sized enterprises (SMEs);

• assemblers of components used tomanufacture refrigerators and air-conditioning equipment also tend to belarge corporations, but SMEs are alsoinvolved;

• assemblers of more specialised equipment(refrigerated display cabinets, milk chillers,insulated refrigerated-vehicle bodies,vending machines) may be multinationals,but tend to be SMEs.They cover a broadcompany-size range.

2. Refrigeration contractors This group comprises many smallerstakeholders.These are generally small familybusinesses employing up to 20 persons.Refrigeration contractors play a vital role in

The three dimensions of sustainable development 13

Part 2: The three dimensions of sustainable development

ensuring sustainable development: they areresponsible for the correct installation of plant,including initial reception following a suitableprocedure, for maintenance according to goodpractice and for disposal at the end of the plantlife cycle, again in compliance with goodpractice.These measures reduce refrigerantemissions and energy consumption. Contractorsalso play a key role as end-user advisers.

3. UsersUsers comprise a broad range of economicplayers including the following among manyothers.

3.1 The food sector (from producer to consumer):

• users of agricultural equipment, milkchillers, dairy-farm cold rooms;

• fishermen, cold rooms on ships, ice boxes;• food processors, dairy, meat, fish, fruit and

vegetable processing, bread and pastrymanufacturing, the canning industry,winemaking, breweries, fruit-juicemanufacturing, freeze-drying plants, etc;

• food cold-storage operators, refrigeratedstorage facilities used for chilled and frozenfoods, fruit-packing stations, abattoirs, etc;

• ice manufacturers;• refrigerated-transport operators, road, rail,

marine, air and intermodal transport;• small-scale commercial equipment, small

businesses (butcheries, bakeries, fish shops)and supermarkets (convenience stores,supermarkets, hypermarkets), vendingmachines;

• restaurants, cold rooms, display cabinets,wine-storage equipment, beverage chillers;

• users of domestic appliances, domesticrefrigerators and freezers, wine-storageappliances.

3.2 In the food-processing, the chemical, andthe mechanical-engineering industries:

• processing industries;• the mechanical-engineering industry

(hooping and dipping of parts, surfacetreatment);

• the rubber industry (deburring of parts);• the plastics industry (cooling of moulds,

hydraulic presses and extruded parts);• the building industry and public works

sector (ground stabilisation using freezing,freezing of concrete);

• waste treatment (solvent-vapour collection,purification of aqueous waste usingcrystallisation or freezing processes).

3.3 In the health and biological sectors:• vaccine storage;• air-conditioning in hospitals (operating

suites, patients’ rooms);• cryosurgery and cryotherapy;• conservation of sperm, gametes and

embryos (endangered species);• blood conservation;• organ conservation.

3.4 In the indoor-air quality field:

• air-conditioning in the tertiary (offices,computer rooms) and residential sectors,

• air-conditioning of industrial premises,• mobile air-conditioning (vehicles, ships,

planes),• clean rooms.

3.5 In the leisure sector:

• skating rinks,• artificial snow.

4. Other players in the refrigeration sectorThese players have key roles in theimplementation of measures ensuringsustainable development, in design, in trainingand in the promotion of enhanced awarenessof sustainable development.

• refrigerating equipment and installationdesigners. Designers must provide ownersof installations with sound advice in orderto ensure that sustainable technology (thatis reliable, robust, energy-efficient and

14 The three dimensions of sustainable development

environmentally friendly) is selected andinstalled;

• researchers. A great deal of researchremains to be performed on traditionalvapour-compression systems, refrigerantsand non-vapour-compression technologies;

• university professors and teachers.Thetraining of young people is primordial.Priority must be given to theimplementation of training programmes indeveloping countries;

• international organisations (FAO, UNDP,UNEP, UNFCCC, UNICEF, UNIDO,WorldBank,WHO);

• non-governmental organisations (NGOs),especially environmental organisations, havean undeniable influence: they considerablyraise awareness of the need for sustainabledevelopment.

• ministerial departments and agencieshandling the preparation of regulations andresponsible for controlling their application;

• standardisation organisations in charge ofdeveloping standards and publishing goodpractice manuals;

• testing laboratories and certificationorganisations that test, classify, label, certifyequipment and personnel, and promotetransparency from user and manufacturerviewpoints;

• trade organisations and associations thatplay an important role in examiningindustry concerns and spreadingknowledge among their members.

2.3 The social dimension2.3.1 Industrialised countriesThe impact of the refrigeration and air-conditioning sector on the social dimensionhas numerous facets:

• this sector generates jobs, particularly inthe industrial, commercial and service fields;

• by making it possible to preserveperishable foods at all stages fromproduction to distribution, refrigerationvastly improves food supply to populations;

• thanks to improved food safety, this sectorpromotes health;

• air-conditioning makes it possible to createworking environments with the desiredtemperature and humidity levels.

2.3.1.1 Refrigeration and employmentIn industrialised countries, the number of jobsin the refrigeration and air-conditioning sectorscan be roughly calculated as follows, but differsaccording to the branch examined (equipmentmanufacturers, installers and operators, end-user industries):

• manufacturers of refrigerating equipmentand components.This sector is not labour-intensive, but generates a number of jobsthat is by no means negligible: roughly onein 1,000 jobs in industrialised countries. It isa sector characterised by:- slow growth in terms of job creation,- highly skilled personnel;

• Installers and maintenance firms which areexperiencing significant growth in terms ofjob creation. In the United States, accordingto the Department of Labor, heating, air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanicsand installers held about 286,000 jobs in1998; more than half of these worked forcooling and heating contractors. All UnitedStates technicians who purchase or workwith refrigerants must be certified in theirproper handling.To become certified topurchase and handle refrigerants,technicians must pass a writtenexamination specific to the type of work inwhich they specialise. Exams areadministered by organisations approved bythe Environmental Protection Agency.TheUnited States industry has recentlyannounced the adoption of one standardfor certification of experienced technicians:the Air-conditioning Excellence Program,which is offered through North AmericanTechnician Excellence (NATE). In theUnited States, employment of heating, air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics


and installers is expected to increase aboutas fast as the average (that is an increase of10% to 20%) for all occupations up to andincluding 2008.

In Europe, a survey conducted by AREA (Air-conditioning and Refrigeration EuropeanAssociation) among national refrigerationassociations in 12 countries (Belgium,Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,Hungary, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain,Sweden and the United Kingdom) involving312 million inhabitants provided the followinginformation:

- number of specialised firms, 5,000;- personnel employed by these firms,

73,000;- total turnover: 20 billion.

• End-user industries:- these industries have a strong impact

on job creation thanks to the largenumber and wide variety ofrefrigeration users on an industrialscale,

- growth in terms of job creation andenhanced skills varies greatly accordingto the sector considered.

2.3.1.2 Refrigeration and food In the past, people cultivated the foods theyate.The number of farmers has graduallydecreased: in developed countries today, lessthan 5% of the population is involved inagriculture. Moreover, land, sea and airtransport have expanded, making it possible totransport foodstuffs over increasingly largedistances. Cold chains, vital to the ensuring ofthe safety, organoleptic quality and marketvalue of perishable foodstuffs, have been setup in this context of long-distance transport.Therefore refrigeration plays an indispensablerole in the food supply chain of developedcountries.Starting with production (fruit and vegetableharvesting, slaughtering of animals, fishharvesting and milking) perishable foods arechilled or quick-frozen. Roughly 75% of the

foods we consume have been processed. Infood processing plants, refrigeration is a vitalelement in the manufacturing process. Mostmanufacturing processes use successiveheating and cooling cycles.

Following manufacturing, foods are stored incold stores or cold rooms several times beforereaching the consumer (in the manufacturer’spremises then at supermarket distribution-hublevel or retail-store cold-room levels). Foodsare also transported several times. Firstly inlong-distance vehicles and afterwards in local-delivery vehicles. A given food or ingredient isconsidered to be transported 2.5 times.Certain exported foods are transported inmarine or air-freight containers. At retailoutlets, perishable foods are then displayed inrefrigerated display cabinets.

It is estimated that in developed countriesapproximately 70% of all foods are chilled orquick-frozen when produced and that about50% of all food sold (in terms of value)requires refrigerated display at retail level.Extrapolation of national figures concerningseveral countries implies that the value ofchilled and quick-frozen foods in thehousewife’s shopping basket is roughlyUSD1,000 per capita per year.There are 1.2 billion people living in developed countries;this means that annual purchases of chilled andquick-frozen foods in these countries totalaround USD1,200 billion.

Providing the consumer with wholesome, safefood is a major challenge to be met bygovernments and food-industry stakeholders.In this context, the setting up of tailored coldchains is a vital tool enabling overall policy tobe implemented.

2.3.1.3 Refrigeration and healthRefrigeration inhibits the development ofbacteria and toxic pathogens, and thereforeprevents foodborne diseases. Consumers andthe media attach a great deal of importanceto foodborne diseases in particular and health


hazards in general: food safety is a major issuein today’s society.The following aspects needto be given full consideration:

• certain bacteria are able to develop at lowtemperatures (0-3°C). Listeriamonocytogenes and Yersinia enterocolitica fallinto this category;

• certain foodstuffs are now more likely totransmit foodborne diseases thanpreviously: this is because less additives (orno additives at all) are used, sell-by datesare longer and prepared foods are cookedat lower temperatures in order to improvetheir sensorial properties;

• domestic refrigerators provide an excellentmeans of preserving perishables. Howeversurveys have demonstrated that in mosthouseholds, refrigerators are operated ataverage temperatures that are higher thanthose recommended for perishable foods.Insufficient user awareness seems to be thecause of this situation: users do not keeptheir refrigerator settings at a sufficientlylow level.The consumer needs to beprovided with better information;

• improving the cold chain from producer toconsumer is one of the refrigerationindustry’s prime objectives.

Cryosurgery is a technique that is easy to use,relatively inexpensive and requires only fairlybasic equipment.

2.3.1.4 Comfort coolingPeople feel comfortable within a certaintemperature and humidity range and need aspecific quantity of fresh air for breathing.Therequired temperature and humidity range ismuch smaller than the range for survival,especially when people have to performdemanding manual or mental work.This iswhy social development, followed bytechnological and industrial development,started in temperate climate areas andexpanded in cold climates. Hot areas andzones with high air humidity have developedeconomically since the introduction of air-

conditioning technology over the past five tosix decades.

The oldest example is the ‘sun-belt’ in thesouthern United States, followed by SouthJapan and south-east Asia, encompassing areassuch as Singapore, Hong Kong, South China,Indonesia, etc.The same situation then arose incentral and southern America, in India, in theArabic area and now in Africa. Air-conditioningis therefore an important tool for economicand social development in hot and humidareas of the world. Most major developingcountries are in these areas of the world.

High air quality in a space can be achieved bydecreasing the pollution sources, by increasingthe ventilation rate, or by cleaning the air.Several independent studies document thatthe quality of indoor air has a significant andpositive influence on the productivity of officeworkers [Fanger, 2000]. However, air-conditioning is not only important for humanhealth and human effectiveness, but also has amajor influence in the industrial area, inparticular in new high-tech branches, includingthe whole information technology (IT) branch.

2.3.2 Developing countriesThe impact of refrigeration is less marked indeveloping countries due notably to a lack ofequipment and insufficient technology transfer.In these countries, the refrigeration sector hasa vital role to play in the food sector and thehealth sphere. In the least developed countries(LDCs), the refrigeration sector must becomea major driver of social and economicdevelopment. However, the lack of financialresources is the main obstacle to overcome.

2.3.2.1 Refrigeration and employmentIt is difficult to obtain reliable figures on thenumber of jobs in the refrigeration sector.Thefigures supplied by certain countries do nottake into account the informal sector thatprobably involves many technicians in thesecountries.Technicians trained in refrigeration-plant procedures tend to be scarce. Few


refrigeration operators are certified,particularly in countries characterised by largeinformal sectors.

Benin is a case in point.The population ofBenin was 6.2 million in 1999 and the numberof refrigeration technicians has been evaluatedas being 700, of whom only about 100 arecertified refrigeration technicians [UNEP,2000]. Other African countries areencountering similar situations.

The situation is likely to improve in thesecountries, however, thanks to rapid expansionof the refrigeration sector.Training needs to beexpanded in order to train refrigerationtechnicians and raise their levels ofqualification. Raising awareness concerning thebenefits of refrigeration at governmental,industrial and end-user levels is also important.

2.3.2.2 Refrigeration and foodRefrigeration technologies have a vital role toplay in developing countries.The four mainstakes for refrigeration sectors can besummarised as follows [Billiard, 1999].

• Reduction of post-harvest lossesGlobal agricultural and fish production (seefigure 1 in Annexe 1) reached a level of 5,165million tonnes in 1997 (FAO, 1998). Of thetotal amount of cereals produced, it isestimated that 50% of the quantity is destinedfor human consumption and the rest is foranimal feed, seed production, processing innon-food applications, or is lost [Alexandratos,1995]. If the fact that 25% of root and tubercleproduction, 50% of fruit and vegetables and100% of very perishable foods (meat, fish andmilk) require refrigeration is considered [Jul,1985], this represents 31% of all agriculturaland fish production, that is 1,600 milliontonnes that need to be refrigerated in orderto reduce the considerable losses taking placeat present. In reality, only 350 million tonnesare refrigerated [Mattarolo, 1990].Kaminsky [1995] estimated total lossesworldwide as being 30% of primary

production in general and 40% in the case offruit and vegetables. Kaminsky [1995] alsoconsiders that about 300 million tonnes ofproduce are lost annually through non-use ofrefrigeration, above all in developing countries.

These figures clearly demonstrate that thepolicy adopted so far is to keep raisingproduction by using more and more land forcultivation purposes (more often than not tothe detriment of forestry), and by increasingyields thanks to the development of newvarieties of produce and the use of irrigation,fertilizers and pesticides, etc. Unfortunately, thispromotion of raised production has not gonehand-in-hand with the implementation ofmeans of reducing post-harvest losses[Okezie, 1998]. It has to be stressed that it iseconomically sounder to implement betterpreservation of foodstuffs that have beenproduced thanks to considerable efforts interms of growers’/farmers’ time and costlyirrigation, fertilizers and pesticides, etc., ratherthan to accept losses as inevitable.

Avoiding waste is part and parcel ofsustainable development.This is whererefrigeration techniques play a key role. Manyconsider that ancient methods (salting, drying,storage in the ground, etc.) should bepromoted in developing countries.Thesetechniques alter the original qualities of thefoodstuff and have not been proven to beeffective. Other specialists consider thatinhabitants of developing countries have thesame right to food preservation technologies(including refrigeration technology inparticular) as those that have been put to thetest and proved successful in developedcountries [Cleland, 1998]; [Djiako, 1999].

• Improved food safety and hygieneFoods of animal origin are highly perishable,particularly in countries with hot climateswhere bacterial growth is rapid.The use ofrefrigeration substantially reduces microbialgrowth in foods and thus reduces both foodlosses and the number of cases of foodborne


diseases. It is difficult to determine the numberof persons affected by foodborne diseasesworldwide, or the cost to society in terms ofworking days lost and medical care, butintestinal disorders are clearly endemic indeveloping countries and are at least partiallydirectly related to insufficient food hygiene.Such illnesses are often debilitating enough tomake sufferers vulnerable to other diseasessuch as tuberculosis.

To cite just one example, FAO and WHO[1992] figures indicate that 70% of the 1.5 billion cases of diarrhoea in children underfive years of age (leading to three milliondeaths per year) are caused by insufficientfood hygiene. It is plain to see thatrefrigeration would have a highly beneficialimpact on food safety, if applied.

Meat consumption is rising in developingcountries and this is good news, given thatmeat provides certain amino acids that arevital to growth and the sustaining of life; theseamino acids are not present in foods of plantorigin. In China, for instance, consumption ofproducts of animal origin has risen from 481 kJper capita/day in 1970 to 1445 kJ percapita/day in 1992 [FAO, 1994]. It is importantnot to waste these nutritionally valuable foods;implementation of refrigeration technologiesavoids waste.

• Promotion of international exchangeMarine refrigerated transported freight isgrowing at a rate of 5% per year [Stera, 1999].Forty-three million tonnes of freight weretransported in 1993, and this figure will beapproximately 50 million tonnes in 2001.International trade in refrigerated produceprovides a means of exporting perishable veryhigh-added-value produce and facilitates foodimports.

Concerning exports, tropical produce –including fruit such as pineapples, mangoes,avocados and papaya, as well as vegetables, fishand cut flowers much of which come from

developing countries – is increasingly popularin developed countries and is a source ofrevenue for the exporting countries. Providedthat suitable logistics and a commercialframework are implemented and suitablequality standards adopted, such produce canbring in hard currency both for growers andthe country itself, thus creating jobs. However,tropical produce is particularly perishable andtherefore requires a flawless cold chain. It isalso important to note that the productionand storage technologies applied to thisexport produce can also form the basis fordevelopment of applications for local non-exported produce.

Imports of refrigerated foodstuffs can also playan important economic role. Even thoughgovernments may understandably considerthat a country’s self-sufficiency in terms offood is desirable from a security point of view,such policy is not always rational in that anyone country is not always potentially capableof producing all types of foods. It is often moreprofitable to export produce that can begrown inexpensively in a given country (thanksto its soil type and climate) and to buyproducts that can not be economicallyproduced in this country. Food prices aretending to drop and this reinforces thesoundness of such an approach.These days, forinstance, many developing countries importfrozen fish products and meat.

• Improving food supply to the citiesUrban populations have exploded indeveloping countries, rising from 17% of thetotal population in 1950 to 35% in 1990 and,according to UN estimates, will have grown to54% in 2020.This represents a 12-fold increasefrom 295 million inhabitants in 1950 to 3,580million inhabitants in 2020 [United Nations,1998].

In order to meet the new urban nutritionalneeds, greater and greater quantities of food,including perishable food, will have to betransported over longer distances and the


duration of transport will also increaseconsiderably. Refrigeration limits losses due tohandling, shocks, temperature rises and theduration of transport. Refrigerated storage atthe production site, followed by refrigeratedtransport, avoids temperature rises andpreserves the quality of the produce.

2.3.2.2.1 Refrigeration and food in the leastdeveloped countries In the least developed countries, agricultureplays a vital role. It is in most cases subsistenceagriculture that primarily provides food for thefarmer’s family. Over 60% of jobs in the leastdeveloped countries are in the agriculturalsector, compared with fewer than 2% indeveloped countries such as the United Statesand Canada. One reason this subsistenceagriculture is practiced is the lack oftechnology.

Refrigeration is a technology that cancontribute to the development of commercialagriculture, that is agriculture undertakenprimarily to generate products for sale fromthe farm.

2.3.2.3 Refrigeration and healthOver the past 40 years, life expectancy hasrisen to a greater extent in developing than indeveloped countries.Table A illustrates thistrend. Progress achieved in terms of lifeexpectancy is directly related to progress inthe medical field and to improved hygiene.However, the gap between life expectancy atbirth in developed and developing countries isstill very wide.

The contribution of refrigeration to sustainablehealth policy is undeniable.

• foodborne diseases caused by foodcontaminated with pathogenic micro-organisms are widespread and the cost tosociety is high. It is up to governments toensure that the food supplied within theircountries is wholesome and that balanceddiets can be achieved. Perishable foods arehigh-risk foods because bacteria, includingpathogenic bacteria, and toxins, tend todevelop in them. In order to preventmultiplication of these bacteria, fresh foodsshould be consumed rapidly (this beingincreasingly difficult in large cities due totime delivery considerations), keptrefrigerated, or cooked longer. Cookingdestroys pathogenic bacteria, but in manyregions where wood is the only source ofthermal energy, resources are becomingscarce;

• refrigeration also makes it possible to storevaccines.Vaccines must be stored within atemperature range of 0-8°C, a temperaturerange that can be achieved only by usingrefrigerators. Several technologies areavailable.The most commonly used is thevapour-compression cycle using arefrigerant such as HFC134a, a non-ozone-depleting substance.This type of system hasa major drawback: it requires electricalenergy and is thus vulnerable to powercuts. Photovoltaic refrigerators are alsoused for vaccine storage.The World HealthOrganisation (WHO) encourages the useof these refrigerators for its ExpandedProgramme of Immunisation (EPI) and haspublished the first specifications for solarmedical-use refrigerators [WHO/UNICEF,


Period More developed Less developed Least developedregions (years) regions (years) regions (years)

1950 to 1955 66.5 40.9 35.51990 to 1995 74.2 62.1 49.7Gain 7.7 21.2 14.2

Table A: Life expectancy at birth (UN, 1998)

1997]. At the end of 1985 there wereabout 600 solar refrigerators installedworldwide. By the beginning of 1993, thenumber of systems in operation had risento about 3,700, with half of these in Africa[IIR, 1999]. At the end of 1997, totalinstalled photovoltaic solar devices wereestimated at about 7,000.

However, few solar refrigerators are in use. InIndia, for instance, of the 40,000 refrigeratorsand ice chests used to store vaccines, only 32use solar energy [WHO, 1997]. However, inrecent years, the trend is towards rising use. Aparticularly striking example is the role playedby refrigeration in the eradication ofpoliomyelitis. In 2000, the number of cases ofpoliomyelitis occurring worldwide was lessthan 3,500, which is a 99% decrease incomparison with the 350,000 cases registeredin 1988 [WHO, 2001].Therefore refrigeration,through a reliable cold chain for vaccines andthanks to the extreme efficacy of WHO, fullyparticipated in this achievement.

2.4 The economic dimensionThe social and economic dimensions ofsustainable development are closely linked: thesocial benefits and jobs generated by therefrigeration sector have positive spin-offs in theeconomy as a whole.The same is true in thefood and health spheres.These aspects aredealt with in the section devoted to the socialdimension and are not reiterated in this section.

2.4.1 WorldwideTable B on p22 provides an overview ofrefrigeration and air-conditioning worldwide.No such table showing the annual sales figuresfor refrigeration, air-conditioning and heat-pump equipment has been published to date.This should be considered as a tentative tablethat needs to be regularly improved andupdated.

According to these estimates, total annual salesof refrigeration, air-conditioning and heat-pumpequipment amount to almost USD200 billion,this being roughly one-third of the automobileindustry’s annual sales.

2.4.2 Developing countriesIt is difficult to characterise the refrigeratingequipment used in developing countries. Dataare unfortunately extremely fragmentary andmake it difficult to provide an accurate pictureof the overall situation in developing countries.Certain data are available concerning two linksin the cold chain in developing countries: coldstorage and domestic refrigeration.

Billiard [1999] evaluates the refrigeratedstorage capacity of developing countries asbeing 36 to 45 million m3, this being eightlitres per inhabitant (compared with 220 litresper inhabitant in developed countries). Somedata are available and deserve to be cited: CaoDesheng [1999] estimates that China’srefrigerated storage capacity in 1997 was 20 million m3 (for 1,236 million inhabitants), or16 litres of refrigerated storage space perinhabitant. Morocco has a cold storagecapacity of 1,356,000 m3 for 26 millioninhabitants, this being 52 litres per inhabitant[ANAF, 1994].

At the other end of the cold chain, householdrefrigeration is developing fast. In 1992, 28%(18 million appliances) of all domesticrefrigerators worldwide were manufactured indeveloping countries mainly for local sales,while in 1996 this figure had risen to 33%(26.9 million appliances) [UNEP, 1998].Domestic refrigerators enable users to reducelosses of food at home and to become moreaware of the benefits of refrigeration; theexpansion of domestic refrigeration isgenerating user expectations concerning acomplete cold chain.

The number of supermarkets located in largecities in developing countries is on the rise, butglobal data on this trend are scarce.


Sector of activity Number of equipment and plantsin service

Domestic refrigeration 700 - 1,000 million units (1)

Commercial refrigerationSupermarkets 117,000 units (2)Condensing units 2,850,000 units (3)Stand-alone display cabinets 10,000,000 unitsMiscellaneous 13,250,000 units (4)

Agri-foodBulk milk coolers 5,000,000 units (1)

Industrial refrigerationCold storage 300 million m3 (5)

Air-conditioning (air-cooled systems)Room air-conditioners 79 millionDuct-free packaged and split systems 89 millionDucted split systems 55 millionCommercial unitary systems 16 million

Air-conditioning (water chillers) 856,000 units

Refrigerated transportMarine containers 410,000 units (6)Reefer ships 1,088 shipsRefrigerated railcars 80,000 unitsRoad transport 1,000,000 unitsMerchant marine 30,000 ships (7)Buses and coaches 320,000 unitsLiquified gas tankers 71 units (8)

Mobile air-conditioningPassenger cars and commercial vehicles 380 million (9)

Heat pumpsResidential heat pumps 110 million (10)Heat pumps in commercial and institutional applications 15 million (10)Industrial heat pumps 30,000 (10)


Table B: Refrigerating systems: worldwide figures on equipment in use

All figures come from UNEP [1998] except those for which other sources are mentioned(1) IIR estimation(2) Sales area of over 400 m2

(3) Small cold rooms, vending machines, etc(4) Ice makers, etc (5) [L. Mattarolo, 1990] (6) Actual units, regardless of size (7) Ships in excess of 300 gross tonnes with cold rooms and air-conditioning(8) [Crosnier, 1992] (9) 51,7 % of the estimated 740 million passenger cars and commercial vehicles in 2000

(Delphi Automotive Systems, 2002) (10) IEA/Heat Pump Centre (2001)


Equipment Annual Average Totalproduction wholesale price (USD billion)

(M = million) (USD)Domestic refrigerators 82 M (1) 400 (2) 32.8Commercial refrigeration equipment 18.6 (3)Bulk milk coolers 2.4Cold storage 15 M m3 (4) 133 (2) 2.0Absorption chillers 8,600 (5) 93,000 (5) 0.8 (6)Centrifugal chillers 8,000 (5) 116,000 (5) 0.9 (6)Reciprocating, screw chillers 114,000 (5) 20,000 (5) 2.3Room air-conditioners 29.9 M (7) 700 (8) 20.9Packaged Air-conditioners 9.8 M (7) 1,600 (8) 15.7Rooftops 6.5 (6)Refrigerated transport vehicles 135,000 (9) 15,500 (9) 2.0Refrigerated containers 50,000 (9) 24,000 (9) 1.2Passenger car air-conditioning 31 M (11) 900 (10) 27.9Commercial vehicle air-conditioning 11 M (11) 1500 (2) 16.5Railway car and coach air-conditioning 40,000 (2) 7000 (8) 0.3Residential heat pumps 12.3 M (12) 1000 (2) 12.3Commercial heat pumps 1.5 M 3000 (13) 4.5Industrial heat pumps 4000 250 000 (13) 1.0Installation of refrigerating plant 30.0 (2)Total 198.6

Table C: Estimation of the annual sales of refrigeration, air-conditioning and heat-pump equipment

(1) 1996 world production (UNEP, 1998)(2) estimation (3) www. profound.com: includes display cabinets (USD3 billion), reach-ins and walk-ins

(USD4.95 billion), vending machines (USD2.5bn), ice machines (USD1.35 billion) and parts(USD6.8 billion) (1999 value)

(4) 1/20th of world cold store capacity(5) 1997 world production: JARN, 25 November 1998(6) 1997 world value: JARN, 25 November 1998(7) 2000 world shipments: JARN, 25 May 2001(8) Estimation calculated from JARN figures(9) Carrier Transicold (2001) – condensing unit + insulated body(10) 1999 Automotive News Market Data Book (11) Delphi Automotive Systems(12) IEA/HPP – 2001(13) price depends greatly on size, especially for commercial and industrial heat pumps

2.5 The environmentaldimensionThe refrigeration industry is addressing acomplex set of environmental issues and isevolving within an increasingly complexregulatory context at domestic, regional andinternational levels.

At environmental level, the impact ofrefrigeration is twofold due to:

• atmospheric emissions of certainrefrigerant gases used in refrigeratinginstallations.These emissions arise due toleaks occurring in insufficiently leak-tightrefrigerating installations or duringmaintenance-related refrigerant-handlingprocesses, and depending on therefrigerants concerned, can have an impacton:- ozone depletion,- global warming, by exerting an

additional greenhouse effect.A loss of refrigerant may also induce a lossin efficiency, particularly in critically chargedsystems;

• The energy consumption of theserefrigerating installations that contributes toCO2 emissions and reduces global energyresources.

Other indirect impacts should be mentionedsuch as pollutants (SO2, nitrous oxide),emissions related to component productionand waste products associated with thedestruction of refrigerants, oils and theequipment itself.

2.5.1. Atmospheric emissions ofrefrigerant gasesRefrigerating installations known as vapour-compression installations are by far the mostcommonly used.These installations use fluidscalled ‘refrigerants’, without which cooling isimpossible.The basic process by whichrefrigerants induce cooling involves liquid-gas

phase change, that is evaporation.The wholerefrigerating cycle involves evaporation,compression, condensation and expansion ofthe refrigerant.

Certain refrigerants used in refrigeratinginstallations exert adverse effects on theenvironment when released into theatmosphere, by contributing either to ozonedepletion or global warming.These gasesbelong to the fluorocarbon family:

• CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons); theserefrigerants were developed in the 1930s.In 1974, Rowland et Molina showed thatCFCs have an impact on ozone depletion;moreover, they also exert global-warmingeffects;

• HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons); theserefrigerants were developed more recently.These refrigerants have a considerablysmaller ozone-depleting effect and a lessmarked direct global warming effect thanCFCs;

• HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons); theserefrigerants have no ozone-depletingeffects and have been developed asalternatives to CFCs and HCFCs. However,they do contribute to global warming butto a lesser extent than CFCs.

Atmospheric emissions of refrigerant gasesarise in several ways: poor plant tightness, oroperating, incorrect or negligent refrigeranthandling, insufficient plant maintenance, etc.Actions designed to reduce emissions mustthus be implemented throughout the plant lifecycle:

• during the design and manufacturingphases,

• during installation and operation,• during disposal of plant.

2.5.1.1 Ozone depletionA brief explanation of this phenomenonThe ozone present in the stratosphere (thepart of the atmosphere located at an altitude


of roughly 12km to 50km) protects us fromthe harmful effects of short wavelengthultraviolet solar radiation (UVB). Stratosphericozone levels vary according to the altitude,and are extremely low, being of the order ofone molecule of ozone per two millionmolecules of oxygen. CFCs are extremelystable and reach the stratosphere unchangedover a five to seven year period followingrelease into the atmosphere. CFC and HCFCmolecules are then broken down under theinfluence of UVB solar radiation, and chlorineis released.This chlorine in turn breaks downozone molecules (a single chlorine atom cantrigger 100 to 10,000 ozone breakdownreactions). CFCs and HCFCs have longatmospheric lifetimes (50 to 100 years ormore for CFCs and 14 to 20 years forHCFCs), and their ozone-depleting effects arethus very long-lasting.

The Montreal ProtocolIn order to combat ozone depletion, theinternational community adopted the MontrealProtocol on Substances that Deplete theOzone Layer on 16 September 1987, thisprotocol being one outcome of the ViennaConvention of 22 March 1985. It has beenmodified and completed by severalamendments.Thanks to the Montreal Protocol,as of 31 July 2001, 179 countries arecommitted to implementing concretemeasures designed to protect stratosphericozone known as ‘the ozone layer’. Amongthese measures is the gradual phase-out thenbanning of CFCs and HCFCs within definedtime frames.

Countries that have adopted the MontrealProtocol fall into two categories:• developing countries (covered by Article 5

of the Montreal Protocol); countries withannual ozone-depleting substance (ODS)consumptions of under 0.3 kg per capitaon the date on which the MontrealProtocol entered into force;

• developed countries (covered by Article 2of the Montreal Protocol).

The key measures defined by the MontrealProtocol are:• developing countries (Article-5 countries):

- CFCs, total ban on production andconsumption as of 1 January 2010,

- HCFCs, total ban on consumption as of1 January 2040.

• Developed countries:- CFCs, total ban on production and

consumption as of 1 January 1996,- HCFCs, total ban on consumption as of

1 January 2030.

The quantitative objectives and correspondingtime frames specified by the MontrealProtocol and its amendments are shown infigure 2 in Annexe 1.

Certain countries or regional economicintegration organisations have reinforced themeasures defined in the Montreal Protocol orhave added regulatory measures governing theuse of CFCs and HCFCs.This is the case forthe European Community that on severaloccasions has adopted regulations applying toits 15 member states.The latest one isRegulation 2037/ 2000 on Ozone-DepletingSubstances dated 29 June 2000 that comprisesthe following key measures:

• CFCs, a total ban on use for maintenanceand servicing of equipment as of 1 January2001;

• HCFCs, a total ban on production as of 1 January 2025; a ban on use of virginHCFCs in maintenance and servicing ofequipment as of 1 January 2010; a ban onthe use of HCFCs for the production ofnew equipment from 1 January 1996 to 1 January 2004 according to applications.

The United States approach is noteworthy.Whenever a new amendment to the MontrealProtocol is submitted for ratification by theparties, the United States immediatelyimplements the new measures without waitingfor them to enter into force; this keeps thenumber of ratifications required to a minimum.


The impact attributed to the refrigerationsectorThe impact of an ozone-depleting substance(ODS) is quantitatively measured using itsOzone Depleting Potential (ODP).Thispotential provides a quantified evaluation ofthe destructive effect of the substance inquestion compared with that of CFC11 usedas a reference.

Figure 3 in Annexe 1 shows the ODP of themost commonly used CFC and HCFCrefrigerants. Most CFCs have an ODP of 0.6 -1.The most widely used HCFCs have ODPsranging from 0.02 to 0.055. Refrigeration andair-conditioning-related emissions represented64% of all CFCs and HCFCs produced[AFEAS, 2001].

2.5.1.2 Global warmingA brief explanation of this phenomenonThe sun emits radiation with a shortwavelength comprising ultraviolet, visible andnear infrared radiation; 50% of solar radiationreaches the surface of the earth.The earthabsorbs this radiation then re-emits radiationwith a longer wavelength (far infraredradiation) and certain gases present in theatmosphere absorb part of the latter : theseare called ‘greenhouse gases’.The atmosphereacts as a transparent medium for shortwavelength radiation, that is it behaves like agreenhouse; on the other hand, theatmosphere absorbs the long-wavelengthradiation re-emitted by the earth in the samemanner as a greenhouse.This ‘greenhouseeffect’ exerts a temperature-raising effect.

The greenhouse effect is necessary up to apoint: without it, the mean temperature onearth would be -18°C and life on earth wouldbe impossible. But the amplification of thegreenhouse effect that has been observedover the past century is exerting adverse‘climate-change’ effects including globalwarming and a sea-level rise.

Global warming is now at least partiallyattributed to anthropogenic causes, above allCO2 (carbon dioxide) emissions derived fromthe combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, oilor natural gas. CFCs, and to a lesser degree,HCFCs and HFCs, contribute to globalwarming and are thus considered as beinggreenhouse gases.

The Kyoto ProtocolOne concrete outcome of the Earth Summitheld in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 is theadoption of the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change (UNFCCC);the objective of this convention is to ‘stabilisegreenhouse gas concentrations in theatmosphere at a level that would preventdangerous anthropogenic interference with theclimate system’.

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted on 11December 1997 within the framework of thisConvention, but has yet to enter into forcebecause the number of countries havingratified it is insufficient (December 2001).Theobjective of the Kyoto Protocol is to reduce, in39 developed countries, emissions of a basketof six greenhouse gases by at least 5%between 1990 and 2008 and 2012. HFCs areamong the six greenhouse gases covered bythe Kyoto Protocol. CFCs and HCFCs are notincluded in the basket of Kyoto-controlledgases because the Montreal Protocol alreadycovered them.

The impact attributed to the refrigerationsectorThe impact of greenhouse gases on globalwarming is measured using their GlobalWarming Potential (GWP) defined as beingthe radiative forcing (additional greenhouseeffect) caused by a substance over a specificperiod. GWP is expressed with respect to theradiative forcing exerted by the same quantityof CO2, used as a reference gas.This definitionenables comparison of various gases withvariable atmospheric lifetimes. GWPs arecalculated for specific time horizons (20, 100


or 500 years).The 100-year time horizon isthat which is the most widely used. Figure 3 inAnnexe 1 shows the GWPs of the mostwidely used refrigerants.

However, the use of GWP measurements hasits limitations; GWP measurements provideinformation on the properties of a gas (inparticular its ability to absorb infrared radiationand its lifetime), but do not make it possible toquantify the overall greenhouse effect of arefrigerating plant using the refrigerant inquestion.

Total Equivalent Warming Impact (TEWI) is aconcept introduced in 1989. It takes intoaccount not only direct, but also indirect,emissions of greenhouse gases attributed torefrigerating plant.The mean values concerningdirect and indirect emissions have beenestimated as follows:

• direct emissions (leaks) of refrigerantscontained in refrigerating installationsaccount for about 20% of the overallimpact of the refrigeration sector on globalwarming,

• indirect CO2 emissions generated by theproduction of (essentially electrical) energyrequired to operate refrigeratingequipment account for about 80% of theoverall impact of the refrigeration sectoron global warming, [IIR, 2000].

Life Cycle Climate Performance (LCCP), is aconcept that emerged more recently andenables more comprehensive evaluation, sinceit covers all emissions throughout the life cycleof the installation (‘from cradle to grave’)including emissions occurring during themanufacturing of various chemical installationcomponents, as well as emissions occurringduring scrapping or recycling of itscomponents.

2.5.2 Energy consumptionRefrigeration requires energy.Vapourcompression is the most widely usedrefrigeration technology. It requires energy inorder to operate the compressor used in theplant, and to a lesser extent, to operate othercomponents of the plant (pumps, fans,defrosting heaters). Electrical energy is thatwhich is the most commonly used, but inroad-, marine- and air-transport applications(transport of perishable foodstuffs, air-conditioning) petrol or diesel fuel energysources are used. In absorption technology,thermal energy is used to operate thedesorber.

The energy efficiency of a refrigerating plant ismeasured using the coefficient of performance(COP).This COP describes the relationshipbetween the refrigerating capacity provided bythe plant and the energy consumed by thecompressor, both types of energy beingexpressed in the same units.The COP reflectsthe efficiency of the plant and is usually greaterthan one.

The COP of a typical commercial vapour-compression refrigeration plant, operating witha temperature lift of about 40K betweencondenser and evaporator, is roughly three. Inother words, a refrigerating plant with anelectric power input of 1kW is generating arefrigerating capacity of 3kW.The COP of arefrigeration plant using absorption technologyfor conventional systems is often about 0.7.With new advanced multi-effect systems it ispossible to reach 1.5.When the energyefficiency of a refrigeration plant is improved,the energy consumption of the plant drops;clearly, less energy needs to be consumed inorder to operate the plant.

Thus, when one considers a refrigeration plantrunning on electricity, it is important to bear inmind that the efficiency of most electric powerplants using fossil fuels such as coal, oil andnatural gas, these being the most widely usedworldwide, is at best 40%; however, new


combined gas-vapour plants can reach close to60%.

The refrigeration and air-conditioning sectorsconsume about 15% of all electricityconsumed worldwide [IIR, 1997].This figureillustrates the importance of achieving optimalenergy efficiency for refrigerating plants.Beyond the positive impact on the earth’senergy resources, by improving the energyefficiency of installations, one is also able toexert a positive effect on the indirectemissions of CO2 that is the main component(80% over the overall impact) of therefrigeration sector on the greenhouse effectand global warming.

The refrigeration industry is thus faced with adaunting array of complex environmentalissues to be addressed and is responding byconstantly developing new technologies andraising energy efficiency. Part 3 covers ongoingachievements and actions worldwide.


3.1 IntroductionThis section provides a summary ofrefrigeration stakeholders’ recent achievementswithin the framework of sustainabledevelopment. Most of these achievements,particularly those related to the environmentaldimension of sustainable development, areconstantly evolving; past efforts will need to bemaintained and new initiatives launched.Thesechallenges are presented in Part 4.

This section provides an overview of strategiesdeveloped to date and recent achievementswithin the refrigeration sector, and thenprovides a per-sector analysis.

Among refrigeration stakeholders’ recentachievements within the framework ofsustainable development, the most significantis the industry’s landmark contribution to theimplementation of the Montreal Protocol onsubstances that deplete the ozone layer.Therefrigeration industry over a decade hascompletely changed the refrigerants fromCFCs and HCFCs to ozone friendlysubstances to protect the global environment.This contributed to lowering the chlorineconcentration in the stratosphere andreducing ozone depletion that threatened lifeon Earth.

Industries also took the opportunity ofchanging over to second generation and moreenergy-efficient technology over the last tenyears. Refrigeration is one of the uniquesectors that has witnessed a completetechnology overhaul that was environmentally-friendly.This has been made possible throughco-operation between developing anddeveloped countries through the MontrealProtocol, through funding of new technologyby the Multilateral Fund, and throughinternational co-operation between

organisations like IIR, UNDP, UNEP, UNIDO,the World Bank,WHO and many others.

Unprecedented technological developmentstook place in the refrigeration industry thatincluded retrofitting the existing equipment withozone friendly refrigerants to more complextechnology using vapour absorption and NIKtechnologies such as thermoelectric cooling.Technologies were disseminated and deployedwidely through global co-operation catalysed bythe Montreal Protocol. UN agencies,government, industry associations and NGOscontributed immensely to these efforts that area unique experience of the last decade.

The industry is now gearing up to faceanother environmental challenge of the nextmillennium, global warming. In order tocombat global warming the main strategies arethe following:

1. reductions in refrigerant emissions,2. reductions in energy consumption,3. research and development on new

refrigerants and new technologies,4. new developments in the cold chain,5. new developments in indoor air quality.

The first three achievements have been madepossible by taking into consideration all phases(design, manufacture, installing, operation anddisposal) in the life cycle of refrigeration andair-conditioning systems and require concertedefforts involving all refrigeration stakeholders:researchers, designers, manufacturers,distributors, plant operators and end users.The strategies used within these three fields ofachievements have led to the development ofnew refrigerants and new equipment.

The positive environmental benefits must beconsidered using an objective measure ofenvironmental merit.This measure must be

Means of implementation: Strategies achievement and limits 29

Part 3: Means of implementation: Strategies,achievements and limits

based on a true life cycle assessment. It musttake into account the overall environmentalimpact throughout the life cycle of therefrigeration or air-conditioning system.Thus,concerning the greenhouse effect, life cycleclimate performance (LCCP), which is ameasure of total greenhouse emissions (‘fromcradle to grave’), is no doubt the mostobjective criterion.

Air-conditioning and refrigeration systems cancontribute to global warming gas emissions inthree ways. Firstly, during the manufacture ofrefrigerants and components, secondly, in theproduction of electric power required tooperated the equipment, and thirdly, throughleaks and other emissions of refrigerants fromthe device itself. LCCP is a measure of thosetotal emissions and is more encompassing thanGWP, which only accounts for the globalwarming properties of the refrigerant itself. Byusing LCCP as a measure of merit, it is easierto see for instance where replacing a higherGWP refrigerant with a lower GWPrefrigerant in some applications can result ingreater emissions elsewhere in the chain. Forexample, replacing a refrigerant with one oflower GWP could reduce the systemefficiency, resulting in greater energy use andgreater emissions of CO2 at the power plant.

The initiatives implemented within the contextof these strategies have involved adaptation ofpreviously used technologies and equipment,and beyond the investment costs andresearchers’ time devoted to thisdevelopment, have led to profound changes inall refrigeration stakeholders’ attitudes,particularly at end-user level. For instance,when it proved necessary to replace CFC12and HCFC22, a whole range of newrefrigerants was developed and in many casescomprised mixtures of refrigerants with oftenmore complex properties than purerefrigerants. New knowledge had to beacquired and new ways of operatingequipment had to be found.

Within this context, information disseminationis vital. It is necessary to raise decision-makers’and users’ awareness of the adverse effects offormerly-used refrigerants.The retrofitting ofexisting plants in order to use a newrefrigerant implies explaining new operatingprinciples and training staff in the use of newoperating methods. In terms of informationand knowledge sharing, the refrigeration sectoris now highly mobilised thanks to:

• global scale co-operation catalysed by theMontreal Protocol on substances thatdeplete the ozone layer,

• national and international conferencesenabling researchers, manufacturers andindustrialists to remain updated on thestate-of-the-art in order to address theissues confronting them;

• information exchange and knowledgemanagement networks of internationalassociations like IIR and UNEP OzonActionProgramme under the Multilateral Fund ofthe Montreal Protocol, ARI, ASHRAE and anumber of national associations;

• training of staff at corporate level (withinthe industry, tertiary firms) and at all levels(maintenance and servicing staff, managerialstaff, decision-makers).

Making information, knowledge-sharing, andtraining available to all refrigerationstakeholders is a vital action, particularly indeveloping countries with needs that willincrease in the years to come (see Part 4).This is the International Institute ofRefrigeration’s mission.

3.2 General approach3.2.1 Industrialised countries3.2.1.1 Emissions reductionsActions implementedThese actions include various initiativesimplemented in order to reduce atmosphericemissions of refrigerants in general, and CFCsand HCFCs in particular, given the adverseeffects of the latter on the ozone layer and on

30 Means of implementation: Strategies achievement and limits

global warming, and HFCs, which aregreenhouse gases.These initiatives concern allphases (design, manufacture, installing anddisposal) in the life cycle of refrigeration andair-conditioning systems.

Design and manufactureOptimisation of tightnessRight from the refrigerating system designphase, all potential sources of leaks should beeliminated. Refrigerating equipmentmanufacturers’ R&D teams are developingsystems with a minimum number of leak-prone joints and connections, and where jointsare required, reliable joining techniques areused. Ongoing research is being conducted onways of monitoring the refrigerant charge (thequantity of refrigerant) in refrigerating plant,thus enabling leak detection. Cooling systemmanufacturers have defined minimum tightnessrequirements to guarantee permanentoperation during defined periods. Reference tothese requirements must be extended.

It is difficult to implement overall indicatorsdemonstrating achievements in the field ofinstallation tightness – plants and the measuresneeded differ greatly. However, we can citeresults of surveys conducted on installationtightness [UNEP, 1998]:

- Climafort (a French association ofchiller operators) has published figureson the air-conditioning field; chiller leakshave been halved between 1987 and1994. However, leakage remains at alevel of around 10% and varies widelyaccording to applications.

- United States EPA has provided figureson the commercial refrigeration sector(in which the leakage rate is generallyhigh due to the layout and size ofinstallations) and mentions a 15%leakage rate in 110 stores in the UnitedStates following the implementation ofstrict equipment selection procedures(such as selection of equipment withbrazed valves), a vast improvement

over the average leakage in the samesector (considered as being 25%).

Minimisation of refrigerant charges The higher the refrigerant charge in aninstallation, the more refrigerant is releasedinto the atmosphere when a pipe burstoccurs. Reducing the initial charge used is thusa major objective, but until recently was nodoubt not given the consideration it deserves,given the stakes involved.

A highly useful ratio is that reflecting therelationship between the refrigerant chargeand the refrigerating capacity. In medium-temperature commercial refrigeration (usedfor chilled foods), this ratio is often around 1.5 kg/kW [UNEP,1998].With air-conditioningwater chillers, this ratio is much lower (0.25 kg/kW) because these units provideindirect cooling using water as a secondaryrefrigerant and contain a much lower charge.These chillers are also fully prefabricated andfactory-tested.

However, when reducing charges, other factorsrelated to energy consumption need to betaken into consideration. For instance, a low-refrigerant-charge system using a secondaryrefrigerant may require more energy becauseof the additional heat exchange taking placebetween the primary refrigerant and thesecondary loop.

Charge minimisation remains a field of greatinterest in terms of R&D and innovation to beachieved.

Minimisation of pipingThe shorter the piping used in refrigeratingsystems, the less refrigerant is likely to leak.Moreover, detecting leaks is easier in morecompact systems.The development of systemsemploying secondary refrigerants, particularlyin supermarket and food industry applications(fruit-packing stations, abattoirs, dairyinstallations) is a source of progress in thisrespect as the refrigerating equipment is


confined to a machinery room. However, thesesystems tend to use a little more energy:(i) additional electrical energy is required todrive additional equipment such as pumps, and(ii) the temperature difference betweencondensing and evaporating temperaturesincreases, thereby reducing the COP. Suchsystems lead to lower direct emissions ofrefrigerant but to higher emissions of CO2

linked to additional consumption of energy.Improved heat exchangers compensate atleast partially for the drawbacks associatedwith the additional heat exchange.

Adapting equipment in order to facilitatemaintenance operationsDesigners of refrigerating equipment are nowworking on making maintenance and servicingeasier and reducing the risk of triggeringemissions of refrigerants, for instance bylocating valves both at the low point of theinstallation and at each vessel for efficientrefrigerant recovery [UNEP, 1998].

Installation and commissioningOptimal refrigerant containmentThe best way to ensure that equipment is asleak-tight as possible is to ensure that it isprecision-manufactured complying with strictqualitative procedures. For this reason,domestic appliances are generally entirelywelded, and manufacturers pay particularattention to the quality of the welding in orderto achieve zero leakage to the greatest extentpossible.

Detection of leaks into the ambient atmosphereIn large plants and all machine rooms,multiprobe sensing of ambient conditionsnormally provides the most reliable system ofmonitoring. Air-flow patterns should beinvestigated in order to select sensor siteswhere the refrigerant, usually heavier than air,tends to concentrate.This monitoring knownas ‘threshold monitoring’ requires highlysensitive and accurate detectors (low ppm),suitable for use with new HFC refrigerants.

In the refrigerant-leak-detection field,considerable progress has been achievedrecently. Care must be taken when choosing adetection system: it must be suitable for theplant layout in question and the type ofrefrigerant used. Many standards (such asASHRAE standards) now provide forautomatic refrigerant-leak detection

Rigorous acceptance of new plant At the time of plant commissioning, it is vitalto check the manufactured quality achieved,particularly in terms of tightness.The energyefficiency should also be carefully examined(see section 3.2.1.2).The current trend is toimplement acceptance procedures based onstandards or specifications, particularly in thecase of industrial installations. A definedacceptance process makes it possible to checkthat the performance of the plant is thatclaimed by the manufacturer and also providesa basic benchmark for subsequentperformance, enabling preventive or correctivemeasures to be implemented where necessary.

Servicing/maintenanceMonitoring of plant tightnessReliable monitoring of refrigerating planttightness should be performed within theframework of a leak-management programme.This programme requires the setting up of thefollowing actions for a given plant:

- for each refrigerant, an inventory of allequipment and piping used should beprepared;

- for all equipment, specifications definingmonitoring methods should beprepared;

- corrective measures to be appliedwhen anomalies are detected duringthe monitoring process (maintenance,repairs, component replacement) mustbe defined;

- a maintenance record system should beused in order to note all themonitoring tests performed;

- a refrigerant record-keeping system


must be implemented;- staff operating the equipment should

be given prior training in thesemethods.

Leak-management programmes are being setup to an increasing degree in large plants, andthis trend should be extended to allcorporations. In the leak-management field, theinitial driving force is in some cases simply theindustry’s response to regulatory requirementssuch as those inherent in the EuropeanRegulation 2037/2000 governing ozone-depleting substances.This regulation came intoforce on 1 October 2000 in all 15 EUcountries, and stipulates that all fixedrefrigerating, air-conditioning and heat-pumpequipment with a charge of at least 3kg mustbe subjected to annual testing in order todetect any leakage that may be present.

Leak detection can be facilitated, or evenperformed, in a predictive manner bymonitoring other indicators, particularlyrefrigerant pressure drops and reduced oilquality.The monitoring, whenever conditionsmake this method reliable, of refrigerantconcentrations in machine rooms using fixedhigh-sensitivity detectors, is an optimalmeasure.

Remote plant management enables detectionof anomalies and alerts maintenance staff tothe need to act; use of this technology is onthe increase, particularly where safetyparameters need to be monitored.

Systematic refrigerant recovery duringmaintenance and repair operationsIn order to achieve emissions reductions, goodpractice procedures must be applied, includingrefrigerant recovery during all refrigerant-handling operations associated with therunning of plants. Recovery, at end-user level,can only be achieved where operators havebeen trained in recovery techniques. In severalcountries, the authorities have backed therefrigeration industry’s actions by implementing

financial incentives promoting refrigerantrecovery.

Most developed countries have opted forregulations making it compulsory, for manytypes of plants, to recover used refrigerants inorder to comply with Montreal Protocolcommitments.Within this context, the EU,through its Regulation 2037/2000 on ozone-depleting substances that entered into force on1 October 2000, made it compulsory torecover CFCs and HCFCs from all refrigerationand air-conditioning equipment.This regulationwill also apply to domestic refrigerators andfreezers as of 1 January 2002.

Progress can be achieved in this field only ifinstallers and operators are aware of theenvironmental consequences of venting certainrefrigerants into the atmosphere.The effect ofrefrigerant management programmes andpolicies in developed countries are generallypositive, even though the approaches in termsof avoidance of emissions, programmeorganisation and control, responsibility levels,regulatory legislation, financing arrangements,and operating procedures, differ considerably.There is also a lack of information on theenvironmental and economic benefits [IEA,2001].

Disposal of equipment at the end of its life cycleRefrigerant recoveryThe recovery of refrigerants from plants priorto disposal is vital: without such recovery, therefrigerants are released into the atmosphere.For some years now, manufacturers have beenoffering a wide range of recovery equipment(with a wide price range).

Standards for measuring recovery andrecycling performances have been designed:ISO 11650, the international standard or ARI740-95 (United States) can be used and arebased on the same elements.The efficacy ofpresently used recovery equipment has nowbeen demonstrated as being 92% to 97%


[UNEP, 1998]. Even better results can beobtained using equipment that operates overlonger periods (recovery of the vapour phase).

Recovery must be performed by speciallytrained personnel. In the United States, Section608 ‘Refrigerant Recycling Rule’ of the CleanAir Act of 1990 (EPA) defines the rules to becomplied with in terms of minimumqualification of the technicians authorised toperform recovery, and also defines theminimum recovery rates to be achieved.Section 608 also defines specifications to becomplied with in terms of componentcertification.

As described above, raised user awareness ofthe adverse environmental effects of certainrefrigerants is the key to prevention of theventing of refrigerants into the atmosphere.

Financial incentives and regulatory obligationsare fuelling achievements, as illustrated by thefigures on the quantities of CFCs and HCFCsrecovered in France, (French decree dated 7 December 1992 making recovery from plantwith a refrigerant charge of over 2kgcompulsory) (see Table D).

A substantial quantity of clean refrigerant isalso recovered and immediately reused in theplant.

Recycling Once a refrigerant has been recovered, it canbe recycled, provided that this is in compliancewith national regulations and themanufacturer’s recommendations. In theregulatory field, in the United States, Section608 of the Clean Air Act of 1990 (EPA)defines the rules to be complied with in termsof recovery-equipment certification and

certification of the technicians authorised toperform recycling.

The introduction of recycling processes has ledfirms to set up staff certification programmesinvolving training plans and resulting inenhanced skills at staff level. Manufacturers arenow offering a wide range of recyclingequipment.The entering into force of theEuropean Regulation 2037/2000, which definesCFCs as waste, as of 1 January 2001, bans therecycling of CFCs and imposes theirdestruction.

DestructionWhen a recovered CFC or HCFC cannot berecycled or reclaimed (processed to newproduct specifications), it must be destroyed.Although progress has been achieved in thefield of destruction technology, destruction isstill expensive and there are a limited numberof suitable plants. Much remains to be done inthis field, and financial incentives will no doubtbe needed in order to make destructiontechnology more accessible and prevent theventing of refrigerants into the atmosphereand illegal exports, particularly to developingcountries.

Overall achievementsBeyond achievements within the framework ofthe previously described actions, a goodindicator of achievements in terms ofemissions reductions is the recently observeddecrease in the chlorine concentration of thestratosphere.

Overall achievements can, be evaluated byexamining figures on the contribution offluorocarbons (CFCs + HCFCs + HFCs) toozone depletion and the greenhouse effect.In order to illustrate the contribution of


Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996Tonnes of CFCs 150 260 250 300 420 500 550and HCFCs recovered

Table D: Quantities of CFCs and HCFCs recovered in France

fluorocarbons to ozone depletion, figure 4.1 inAnnexe 1 shows the evolution of productionof CFCs and HCFCs, with weighting based onthese refrigerants’ respective ODPs. A peakoccurred in 1988 then was followed by adecreasing trend reflecting the actionsimplemented in compliance with commitmentswithin the framework of the MontrealProtocol; this decreasing trend is continuing toemerge.These figures demonstrate that post-1989 production is markedly lower than theobjectives defined by the Montreal Protocol.

In order to demonstrate the contribution offluorocarbons to the greenhouse effect, figure4.2 in Annexe 1 illustrates evolution ofproduction of CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs, withweighting based on these refrigerants’respective GWPs.The same diminishing trendas that observed for ozone depletion emerges:starting in 1989, a marked decrease in thegreenhouse effect is observed.

The proportion of all fluorocarbons in annualgreenhouse gas emissions can also beevaluated.The proportion of fluorocarbons hasdropped rapidly over the past decade or so:14.6% in 1988 (the year during whichemissions peaked), 9.3% in 1992, 6.5% in 1995.However, it covers several applications(refrigeration, insulation, aerosols).

3.2.1.2 Reductions in energy consumptionIndirect emissions of CO2 account forapproximately 80% of the overall globalwarming impact of refrigerating systems.Actions applied in order to reduce refrigerantemissions are applied at all stages in the lifecycles of plants and the same is true forinitiatives implemented in order to raise plantenergy efficiency.

Actions implemented Design and manufacturingManufacturers’ R&D departments haveperformed a great deal of work oncomponent design, in order to improve energyefficiency. In the case of technologies based on

vapour compression, research has above allfocused on improving the performance ofcomponents of refrigerating systems:

• in the compressor field, an importantbreakthrough has been the development ofelectronically regulated variable-speedcompressors; the efficiency of pumps andfans has also been raised thanks toimproved regulation;

• in the evaporator and condenser fields, thedevelopment and optimisation of plate heatexchangers has made it possible to increasethe heat exchange coefficients, consequentlyto reduce the difference betweencondensing and evaporating temperaturesand therefore to raise efficiency;

• the use of floating condensation, particularlywhere electronic valves are used, has madeit possible to raise energy efficiency,particularly in the commercial-refrigerationsector;

• the performance of systems usingsecondary refrigerants has been significantlyimproved by the development of new heat-transfer fluids.Within this context, iceslurries (two-phase liquid water/icemixtures with marked energy-storageproperties) and CO2 in low-temperaturecooling systems are promising;

• Electricity meters installed in therefrigerating part of installations make itpossible to monitor and manage follow-up.Heat pump technology is also a goodexample of a field in which design is aimedat reducing energy consumption.

Installation – commissioningAcceptance of plant is a vital phase that iscovered by good practice procedures.Measurement of the energy consumption of aplant is an essential benchmark in theacceptance process. Electricity meters installedin the refrigerating part of installations make itpossible to monitor and manage follow-up.Other measurements performed during laterstages make it possible to detect anomalies andto apply corrective measures.


Maintenance and servicingRefrigeration practitioners involved inmaintenance and servicing are now moreaware that high-quality operating proceduresneed to be implemented in order to reducethe energy consumption of refrigerating plants.Many factors affect plant efficiency andrefrigeration engineers have focused on someof these factors in particular in recent years.

Charge optimisation has now become a majorconcern for all those operating installations.Installations are increasingly designed to uselow charges and consume as little mechanicalenergy as possible; long-term chargemonitoring is therefore of vital importance.Keeping exchangers clean, preventing air fromentering plant and the ensuring of smoothoperating optimal regulation are all keyparameters that must be checked by plantmaintenance and servicing personnel.

Energy consumption record keeping isbecoming a widely used strategy that makes itpossible to monitor all parameters relating toplant energy consumption: early detection ofanomalies is easier and solutions can be appliedfaster.

Installation maintenance (defouling and cleaningexchangers) or use of larger sized exchangersenables gains of 2°C to 3°C to be obtainedbetween condensation and evaporationtemperatures; given that a gain of 1°C at -30°Craises the COP of the installation by 4 to 6%and that a gain of 1°C on the condensationside raises the COP by about 3%, it is obviousthat substantial savings can be achieved[ECSLA, 2000].

Many installations are now remotely managedthanks to remote processing systems. Asmentioned in section 3.2.1.1 on refrigerant leakprevention, remote systems that were originallydesigned to meet safety requirements mustalso address energy-efficiency needs.

Standardisation – regulationsBeyond initiatives implemented in order toimprove the energy efficiency of refrigeratingplants, it is necessary to establish a benchmarkcapable of accurately and objectively assessingthe performance of a plant.This is wherestandardisation comes into play.

If we examine the case of refrigerators, thanksto studies performed in laboratories, standardsgoverning energy-use (and thus efficiency)measurement methods have been developed.Appliance performances can thus be reliablymeasured, and labelling can be used to providepotential purchasers with information enablingthem to choose, if they so wish, an appliancethat may initially be more expensive but will beless expensive in the long-term thanks toenergy savings.

The United States’ approach in this respect isnoteworthy: government/industry partnershipshave led to large energy savings.Therefrigeration and air-conditioning industrysuccessfully uses voluntary initiatives such asstandards, guidelines and certificationprogrammes and governmental participation toaddress its sustainable-developmentresponsibilities.The Air-Conditioning andRefrigeration Institute’s 80 standards andguidelines and 25 product certificationprogrammes provide the means by whichmanufacturers test and assign energy efficiencyratings to air conditioners and heat pumps.

These ratings allow educated consumerchoices and provide benchmarks for energyefficiency.The ratings known as SEER (SeasonalEnergy Efficiency Rating) and HSFP (HeatingSeasonal Performance Factor) are adopted bythe United States government and variousstates through two laws:The United StatesNational Appliance Energy Conservation Act of1987 (NAECA) and the United States EnergyPolicy Act of 1992 (EPACT).They apply tohome and commercial equipment.


Training – certificationQuality procedures are now widely used,particularly in large corporations. Heating andcooling plants were often formerly neglectedin these procedures but are now included inthem. Quality procedures increasingly includetraining of technicians and installers followedby certification.This approach constitutes amajor achievement in the refrigeration world.

In the United States, more than 10,000refrigeration and air-conditioning techniciansand installers have demonstrated theirproficiency by achieving North AmericanTechnician Excellence (NATE) certification. Intime, hundreds of thousands of technicians andinstallers are expected to be NATE certified.

NATE testing and certification encouragesproper installation and servicing of air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment. As aresult, equipment owners enjoy energy savingsand can be assured that refrigerant is notvented to the atmosphere, in accordance withUnited States regulations. NATE is endorsedby the United States Department of Energybecause equipment that is properly installedwill operate at peak efficiency, helping utilitiesachieve load and energy goals.

In Europe, the CEN/TC 182 Committee ispreparing a prEN 13313 standard calledRefrigerating systems and heat pumps –Competence of personnel.

The Air-conditioning and RefrigerationEuropean Association (AREA) has finalisedguidelines (AREA, 2001) for ‘emission controlof stationary refrigeration and air-conditioningsystems and heat-pumps with a refrigerantfluid charge of more than 3kg’ advocating eachEuropean member state to appoint one ormore national organisations responsible fordelivering and controlling mandatory orvoluntary certifications to refrigerationcompanies and personnel.

Efforts must, of course, continue on a globalscale and would be facilitated by thedevelopment of common internationallyrecognised certification standards definingpractitioner certification.

Overall achievementsThe best performance indicator for overallachievements in the energy-efficiency field isthe coefficient of performance (COP). Anexcellent example illustrating such progress iscommercial refrigeration.The mean COP ofinstallations (for a temperature lift of 30 K)was roughly 2.5 during the 1960s. In the1990s, this COP had risen to about 3.3.Today,it has increased to approximately 3.8.

Certain figures provide striking evidence ofachievements in the field of energy savings.During the period 1977 to 1999, refrigerationand air-conditioning industry andgovernmental initiatives resulted in a reductionof energy intensity (a unit of energy producingUSD1 of GDP) by 42% and of carbonintensity (carbon emissions per unit of GDP)by 47%. One example is that by increasingchiller (large air-conditioner) efficiency by 20% globally,greenhouse emissions by utilities is reduced byabout ten million tonnes of CO2 and morethan 80 and 34 billion grams of SO2 andnitrous oxide respectively.

According to the Association of ApplianceManufacturers in the United States, a typicalnew American refrigerator (in 1997)consumed 48% less energy than its ancestormanufactured in 1980. Given that the 112million United States refrigerators consumed151TWh in 1997, it can be seen that thebenefits, in terms of energy saving, of currentachievements in the field of energy efficiency,are enormous.

In Europe, energy labelling of new refrigeratorshas brought about average energy savings of15.5% in new refrigerators purchased between1992 and 1995 in Germany, and similar energy


saving is being achieved in neighbouringcountries [Lebot, 1998].

When one considers that 1m3 of refrigeratedstorage space consumes roughly 40 kWh/yearand that a 300-litre European refrigeratorconsumes 560 kWh/y, it can be calculated thatthe refrigerator consumes 45 times moreenergy per volume unit and that considerablesavings can be achieved, even if the entireenvironment equipment, operating conditionsand use patterns, etc. are by no meanscomparable.

In the United States, the Air-Conditioning andRefrigeration Institute’s (ARI) Heating,Ventilation, Air-conditioning and RefrigerationResearch for the 21st Century Programme hasan ambitious objective – to reducehousehold/building operating, maintenance andenergy costs by 50% within ten years. Giventhat in commercial buildings, the energyrequirements, in terms of heating, refrigeratingand air-conditioning are colossal (estimated tobe 1,610TWh in commercial buildings and theresidential sector in the United States), it canbe seen that huge progress is on the horizon[ARI, 1997].

A final important point: the United StatesDepartment of Energy has proposed to raisethe minimum SEER (seasonal energy efficiencyratio) from ten to 12Btu/(Wh) (which isequivalent to a cooling COP of 2.93 to 3.52) asof 2006.The EER is defined as the quotient (atstandard rating conditions) of the two quantities:capacity in Btu/h and power input in watts.

This brief overview of energy issues would notbe complete without mentioning that the 125million heat pumps currently in use enable 800TWh/y of heating to be produced and reduceCO2 emissions by 130 Mt per year.

3.2.1.3 Alternative refrigerants and not-in-kind technologies Actions implementedR&D achievements were described in parts

3.2.1.1 and 3.2.1.2.The objectives of theactions leading to these achievements were:

• to reduce direct emissions and thus reducethe direct effects of these emissions,

• to improve the energy efficiency ofrefrigerating installations, and by doing so,to reduce the indirect effects exerted byvapour-compression installations.

Actions leading to the use of not-in-kindtechnologies and alternative refrigerants shouldalso be envisaged.These actions have beenimplemented within the framework of threestrategies developed in order to meetregulatory requirements, particularly those onozone depletion and global warming:

• new HFC refrigerants developed in orderto replace CFCs, HCFCs and equipmentdesigned to use these refrigerants;

• alternative refrigerants to fluorocarbons;• new technologies that do not use

refrigerants.

New HFC refrigerantsHCFCs were the most widely usedalternatives to CFCs initially; now, they arebeing replaced by HFCs. Put simply, the firstphase in managing the transition toenvironmentally friendly refrigerants thusinvolved the phase-out of CFCs and theintroduction of HCFC mixtures, and thesecond phase involved the phase-out ofHCFCs and the introduction of HFCs.Thedevelopment of these new refrigerantsinvolved taking into account a whole set ofparameters and has ensured that the user canstrike the best balance in terms ofcompatibility with existing equipment, cost,safety and energy efficiency.

Refrigerant choices are often thought of interms of fitness for service, environmentalprotection and cost. Safety is also a majorfactor in refrigerant choice and use, and needsto be considered along with the social,economic and environmental dimensions of


choosing the most appropriate refrigerant.Safety issues are typically addressed throughnational and international technical standards.Addressing these criteria has led to theintroduction of refrigerants that are in mostcases binary or tertiary mixtures.Thesemixtures are generally more complex to usethan pure refrigerants.Where pure refrigerantsare used, plant operation is relatively simple; inthe case of many refrigerant mixtures,operators need to be trained to handle morecomplex operating procedures.

Alternative refrigerants to fluorocarbonsActions enabling fluorocarbon refrigerants tobe replaced are focusing on the following inparticular.

AmmoniaOf the traditional refrigerants, ammonia is theonly one to remain in widespread use. Usageof ammonia in the industrial field is increasingand ammonia is being introduced in indirectsystems in commercial fields and air-conditioning chillers. Ammonia has zeroozone-depleting and zero global-warmingeffects. However, ammonia is acutely toxic andmust be applied with care.

The advent of the screw compressor, whichovercomes the high discharge temperatureproblems, and the introduction of plate-typeheat exchangers containing very low volumesof refrigerant, make it possible to design verysimple low-charge ammonia systems. Ammoniais not suitable for use with thermostaticexpansion valves [Pearson, 1999] and is notused in low-capacity applications. It remains tobe seen if ammonia can take a significant shareof the air-conditioning market. Due to its zero-GWP and ODP and its inherent goodefficiency, this refrigerant may be consideredfor wider use provided that safety issues andstaff training are well handled.

HydrocarbonsHydrocarbons are natural substances that haveexcellent thermodynamic properties and good

miscibility properties with inexpensive mineraloil.They have zero-ODP, negligible GWP andinherently good efficiency.They are highlyflammable and this restricts the way in whichthey can be used.The two main hydrocarbonsused as refrigerants are isobutane andpropane. HC mixtures and propene are alsoused.

• isobutane is used in low- and medium-sized domestic refrigerators. In Europe,isobutane refrigerators make up 35% ofEuropean output (UNEP, 1998). In theUnited States, isobutane is being used to alimited extent due to flammabilityconcerns. Production of HC refrigeratorsand freezers is also increasing in Japan andsouth-east Asia;

• propane has several applications. It is aniche market for small commercialappliances. Propane is also used inresidential heat pumps.They are usuallyconnected to a hydronic system for heatdistribution in the building, and are ofteninstalled outside or in a separatedventilated machine room, usually aboveground level. Propane is also used in largeindustrial plants that are sited in flameproofareas.

Carbon dioxideCarbon dioxide is one of the classicrefrigerants which had fallen into almostcomplete disuse, but which is likely to make acomeback.The major objection to the use ofcarbon dioxide as a refrigerant is its low criticalpoint and its high operating pressure comparedwith other refrigerants. Carbon dioxide is likelyto be used in three distinct ways:

• as a supercritical refrigerant for automobileair-conditioning. A significant number ofdevelopmental efforts are directed towardsthis application;

• as a low-stage refrigerant in a cascadesystem using a more conventionalrefrigerant such as HFC or ammonia in thehigh-temperature stage. Cascade carbon


dioxide systems are in use in about 20supermarket installations in Europe;

• as a refrigerant operating on a large scalewith heat rejection in the supercritical field.The high pressure would be in the range of70 to 100 bars. Refrigerating equipment forsuch pressure levels is not yet available ateconomic prices today [Pearson, 1999].

WaterWater is a non-toxic, non-flammable,environmentally friendly refrigerant for use attemperatures above 0°C.The majordisadvantages of water as a refrigerant are itshigh specific volume due to the very lowpressure at which it must be evaporated. Low-pressure systems using large centrifugal or axialcompressors are being developed. It remainsto be seen whether the capital cost andreliability of water refrigerating systems will beacceptable [Pearson, 1999]. In addition, waterhas been used as refrigerant in water/lithiumbromide absorption systems for years.

Non-vapour-compression technologies In the field of technologies that providesuitable alternatives to vapour compression,key research focuses include absorption andadsorption technology, solar refrigeration,desiccant cooling, air cycles, the Stirling cycle,and thermoelectric cooling.These technologiesare presented in section 4.2.2.

The introduction of alternative refrigerants andtechnologies involves the implementation of

actions involving various refrigerationstakeholders at various levels.

Obviously, these actions can only beimplemented where the prerequisiteinvestments (within a long-term strategicframework) are available.The changingregulatory environment has made itincreasingly difficult to define investment policy.The long-term use of HFCs is being debatedin some countries. HFCs were developed,following extensive research and development,in order to address Montreal-Protocolcommitments; however, they are now in theKyoto-Protocol basket of six greenhouse gasesand should be mitigated.

In certain countries, regulations specifyingrestrictions or a ban on the production ofHFCs (Denmark, Austria, United Kingdom,Switzerland, Ireland, Luxembourg) are beingconsidered, or taxes on HFC use (Denmark,Norway, Sweden, Ireland, Japan) have beenadopted.

AchievementsBeyond the achievements realised thanks toactions at all levels in order to develop newtechnologies and alternative refrigerants,figures on CFC and HCFC consumption andproduction provide an excellent summary ofprogress.

CFCsThe objectives governing the use of CFCs in


Stakeholders ActionsResearchers R&D of sustainable refrigerants and technologiesDesigners and manufacturers R&D enabling retrofitting/design of alternative refrigerants,

equipment and technologiesDistributors Setting up of the logistics required

Providing of information for usersPlant operators Retrofitting (where possible) or replacement of Maintenance companies the existing plantEnd users Training of service and maintenance technicians

Table E:Actions implemented in order to phase-in alternative refrigerants and technologies

developed countries were defined by theMontreal Protocol in 1987. Following theadoption of the Montreal Protocol, productionand consumption of CFCs decreased rapidlyas of 1988. Overall, on a global scale, the totalproduction of CFCs in 1999 represented only4% of the 1988 (the peak production year)production level [AFEAS,].

HCFCsThe time frame for HCFC phase-out wasspecified in 1992 by the CopenhagenAmendment to the Montreal Protocol.

HCFCs, thanks to their far less adverse impacton ozone depletion, were adopted by therefrigeration industry as an alternative toCFCs; new mixtures were developed in orderto address rising demand, and productionincreased accordingly.This trend that wasfollowed by a levelling off, then decreasingproduction starting in 1997.

3.2.1.4 New developments in the cold chainPresent progress is the result of efforts in thefood industry and supermarkets and is mainlydriven by consumer needs. Authorities alsoexert a strong influence via regulations, butvoluntary measures are gradually emerging toan increasing extent. Salient developments thatshould be mentioned are:

• cleanability; increasing importance is beingattached to cleanability in order to preventcontamination of foods. Improvementsconcern shapes of connecting areas,adjustment of panels, possibility ofdismantling systems for cleaning, fitting ofcleaning systems on the equipment,recording of cleaning operations onlogbooks;

• flexibility of equipment, examples are themulti-compartment and multi-temperaturesrefrigerated vehicles, swap bodies incombined transport and direct accessstorage in cold stores instead of massstorage. Flexibility means equipment thatcan meet several functions. Flexibility entails

a better return on investment and is finallymore sustainable;

• regulation of ambient conditions, examplesare controlled atmosphere for preservationof fruit and vegetables or clean rooms inthe food industry;

• traceability of foods; traceability oftemperatures during the cold chain is partof the global concept of traceability;

• consumer information; labelling oftemperatures, thermometers attached todisplay cabinets or refrigerators, labelling ofenergy consumption of householdappliances are examples;

• interface management; complying with thecold chain in refrigerated areas (coldstores, refrigerated transport vehicles,display cabinets) is quite well mastered.However, it is more difficult to limittemperature rise at interfaces.Valuabledevelopment in design and operation(codes of practice) has been achieved.

All these developments are key facets ofsustainable preservation of foods. Energyconsumption of processes and systems shouldbe also addressed.

3.2.1.5. New developments in air-conditioningand heating systemsIndoor air quality (IAQ) and its relationshipwith occupant comfort, health and productivityhas received increased attention in recentyears. Assuring proper IAQ involves handlingvarious factors: ventilation, source control,humidity management and filtration/air cleaning[Schultz, 2001].

Ventilation air (outdoor or fresh air) hashistorically been used to assure acceptableIAQ.This works on the principle of dilution ofindoor-source contaminants with relativelyclean outdoor air. But the use of ventilation airfor dilution can significantly increase thecooling and heating load. Increased emphasison the use of energy-recovery technologieshas helped to reduce the energy penaltyassociated with dilution ventilation.


To assure IAQ through dilution ventilation,firstly the proper amount of ventilation airmust be introduced to the system and, second,the proper amount of ventilation must bedelivered to the zone. But buildings often donot run under the conditions for which theair-conditioning systems were designed.

Dynamic control, that is real-time sensing ofairflow, occupancy, and air quality along withreal-time calculation of required airflow isbeing introduced. It represents opportunitiesto assure IAQ at all operating conditionswithout energy-wasteful over-ventilation.

Source control includes the building,equipment and people. Building products andequipment used within buildings are evaluatedfor contaminant generation.The air-conditioning systems themselves can become asignificant source of contaminants – particularlythose associated with microbiologicalcontamination – without proper unit designand maintenance. Research is still needed toidentify construction materials that inhibit thegrowth of microbes inside air-conditioningsystems.This includes drain pans, insulation,blowers, coils, duct materials and filters.Investigations on cost-effective anti-microbialmaterials to assess their impact on IAQ arealso required [ARI, 1997].

Humidity management can become a seriousissue with the introduction of significantamounts of ventilation air, especially in humidclimates. Air cleaning is the only option whenoutdoor air of unacceptable quality must beused for ventilation.There is currently asignificant amount of research in commercialair cleaning to remove gaseous contaminantsas well as particulate matter. Air cleaningtechnology exists today and has been used formany years in industrial and militaryapplications.The next step will be to bring itinto commercial air-conditioning applicationscost effectively.

Energy efficiency is becoming increasinglyimportant within the sustainable buildingapproach, and several developments such as‘low-temperature heating’ and ‘high-temperature cooling’ are taking place. Specialdevelopments include:

• separation of fresh air and re-circulated air,• separation of dehumidification and removal

of the cooling load by means of coolingceilings,

• thermally activated parts of the buildingsuch as walls and concrete ceilings,

• internal storage systems,• external storage systems (in-ground

storage with direct cooling at least at thebeginning of the cooling season),

• improved cooling tower concepts,• improved exhaust air heat (and ‘cold’)

recovery systems,• fresh air heating systems for low-energy

buildings,• open and closed cycle ground-source

systems.

3.2.2 Developing countries3.2.2.1 Actions implementedIn order to respond to the challenges ofsustainable development, several positiveactions have been carried out in developingcountries:

• within the framework of the MultilateralFund set up in the context of the MontrealProtocol, and under the auspices of UNEP,Refrigerant Management Plans (RMPs)have been set up in many countries.Theseprogrammes have made it possible toprepare inventories of existing equipment.This initial diagnosis is an essentialprerequisite to actions and traininginitiatives designed to achieve sustainabledevelopment;

• implementation of training programmesaddressing refrigeration technicians’ andcustoms officers’ needs;


• adoption of regulations that in many casesgo beyond the scope of the MontrealProtocol;

• publication of statistics on the productionand consumption of CFCs and HCFCs;

• production and consumption of CFCs:TheVienna Amendment, adopted in 1995,stipulates 100% phase-out of CFCs inArticle-5 countries as of 2010.The resultsshow that during the 1986 to 1995 period,production and consumption of CFCsgradually rose, and have been droppingsince 1996;

• production and consumption of HCFCs:The Vienna Amendment, adopted in 1995,stipulates that the phase-out of HCFCsshall start in 2010 and that 100% phaseout of HCFCs shall be achieved as of 2040.

3.2.2.2 LimitsHowever, the development of the refrigerationsector has limits that should be emphasisedhere:

• the training of technicians in recoverytechniques is a vital measure, but notenough basic training for refrigerationtechnicians and installers is available at themoment. Current training is made up ofshort courses. However, long-termprogrammes are necessary in order to turnout skilled refrigeration technicians.

• more courses and training programmes onammonia, HFCs (particularly refrigerantmixtures) and hydrocarbons are needed.

• the certification of refrigerating-plantoperators and maintenance technicians isnot common practice and tends to be tooinfrequently applied.The consequences ofinsufficient certification range from highplant leakage to plant anomalies.

• the relatively low cost of CFC refrigerants(which will not be banned until 2010) indeveloping countries is not an incentive toplant containment and refrigerant recoveryduring maintenance operations anddisposal of plant. Conversely, refrigeratingplant is expensive and this situation does

not encourage replacement of equipmentonce it becomes obsolete. Investing inrecovery and recycling equipment alsotends to be prohibitive for developingcountries;

• sales of obsolete, environmentallyunfriendly equipment in developingcountries;

• regeneration and refrigerant destructionplants are scarce in developing countries.

• at present, actions designed to implementtrue cold chains lack overall co-ordination.

3.3 Approach on per-sectorbasisRefrigeration and air-conditioning applicationfields have been divided into eight sectors. Foreach sector we have mentioned the mainchanges, achievements and limits. A moredetailed report on each sector is provided inAnnexe 3.

3.3.1 Domestic refrigeration• starting in 1992-1994, developed countries

moved to new refrigerants, particularlyHFC134a, following the ban on CFCs;

• certain countries, especially in Europe, haveopted for widespread use of HC600a(isobutane), a refrigerant with nogreenhouse effect but which is a flammablegas;

• higher refrigerator energy efficiency hasbeen achieved over the last 30 years.

3.3.2 Commercial refrigeration• small shops are mainly equipped with self-

contained display cabinets using HFC134a.A few of them use HFC404A orhydrocarbons. However, many shops arestill equipped with CFC12 appliances;

• supermarkets are mainly equipped withcentral machinery rooms.The mostcommon refrigerant is now HFC404A inreplacement of CFCs or HCFC22;

• indirect systems using HFCs, ammonia orHCs as the primary refrigerant and single-phase liquid or phase-change binary ice or


CO2 heat-transfer fluids, are increasinglybeing used;

• great improvements in the quality of thecold chain and in the achievement ofbetter levels of food-product temperaturehave been obtained;

• a huge gap still remains betweendeveloped-country distribution systemsand those in developing countries.

3.3.3 Cold storage• the phase-out of CFCs and the planned

phase-out of HCFCs have led to an overallincrease in the use of ammonia. HFC404Aand HFC507 are also used;

• progress has been achieved in the field ofenergy efficiency thanks to new design andnew logistics systems.

Again in this sector, the gap betweendeveloped and developing countries is aconcern.

3.3.4 Industrial refrigeration From a refrigerant viewpoint, the situationencountered in this sector is similar to thatseen in the cold-storage sector. Ammonia hasnow become the most widely used refrigerantin this field.

3.3.5 Air-conditioning (air-cooledsystems)• up until its phase-out became compulsory

within the framework of the MontrealProtocol, HCFC22 was (and still is) themost widely used refrigerant in this sector.Mixtures of HFCs have been developed inorder to replace HCFC22;

• in developing countries, the demand forHCFC22 is likely to rise over the next fewyears.

3.3.6 Air-conditioning (water chillers)• HFCs are now the most widely used

replacements for CFCs and HCFCs, butHCFCs are still used;

• in developing countries the demand forCFCs has decreased markedly.

3.3.7 Transport• before the signature of the Montreal

Protocol the main refrigerants utilised wereCFC12 for chilled foods and CFC502 andCFC500 for frozen foods. After a shorttransition period during which HCFC22and HCFC blends were used, HFC404A isthe main refrigerant in current use in roadvehicles and HFC134a is widely used inrefrigerated containers;

• developing countries have very poorrefrigerated road and rail transportnetworks and this is another area requiringaddressing.

3.3.8 Mobile air-conditioning• since 1995, in developed countries, all new

air-conditioned cars have been utilisingHFC134a instead of CFC12;

• CO2 and hydrocarbons are now beingintensively investigated;

• a lot has been done in order to reduceboth refrigerant charges and emissions.


4.1 General challengesThe main general challenges can besummarised as follows.

Developed countries:

• to address the environmental impact ofrefrigerating systems by using an overall lifecycle approach such as the LCCP conceptfor greenhouse impact.To this end, thestandardising of its calculation andpromotion of the application of thisconcept among all stakeholders isimportant;

• to consider the whole system and not justthe refrigerant;

• to design equipment with a reducedrefrigerating capacity as far as practicable,for instance by attaching great importanceto well-calculated and efficient insulation;

• to reduce leakage thanks to better design;• to bear in mind that the primary goal of a

refrigerating plant is to make it possible tosupply high-quality foodstuffs and to ensurehigh indoor air quality;

• to give top priority to proper maintenance:such practice reduces leakage andimproves energy efficiency;

• to recover, recycle, regenerate or destroy,following standardised procedures,refrigerants, lubricants and materials used inrefrigerating plants;

• to further improve energy efficiency andperformance;

• to use the capabilities of heat-pumptechnologies for reducing energyconsumption by utilising renewable energysources and waste heat.

Developing countries:

• to make refrigeration available indeveloping countries for food, industry andair-conditioning purposes;

• to set as a rule that developing countrieshave the same rights to refrigerationtechnology as developed countries;

• to take advantage of current technologicalachievements in order to develop directlynew environmentally friendly, reliable,robust and cost-effective technology thanksto technology transfer and increasedtraining and education provided bydeveloped countries;

• to avoid dumping old polluting, high-energy-consuming technology indeveloping countries, even if initial costsappear to be attractively low.

4.2 Industrialised countriesSustainable development-driven challenges tobe met by the refrigeration sector in years tocome will be numerous; the durably addressingof issues that so far have no long-termsolutions constitutes a major challenge(covered in Part 2) and so does the expandingof actions that have already been implemented(focused on in Part 3). In this section, we willexplore several refrigeration technologies andapplications that will undoubtedly playimportant roles in ensuring sustainabledevelopment, drawing the followingdistinctions:

• applications using vapour-compressiontechnology; these are well-known, but stillhave many inherent challenges to be metin terms of sustainable development;

• technology and applications based on non-vapour-compression systems, which, even ifcertain systems are already in use, stillrequire concerted research, developmentaland promotional efforts.

Challenges 45

Part 4: Challenges

4.2.1 Technologies and applicationsusing vapour-compression systems4.2.1.1 IntroductionMost specialists are of the opinion that vapour-compression systems are likely to be thedominating trend over the next 20 years.Thechallenge to be met is to develop vapour-compression systems that are environmentallyfriendly, energy-efficient, robust and sustainable,cost-effective and safe for users.

In developing countries, there are additionalissues to be addressed: environmentallyfriendly technology has to be made available(and should not be technology discarded byindustrialised countries), training in theinstallation, maintenance and good-practiceprocedures has to be provided, and the costmust be tailored to suit low budgets. Bearingin mind these challenges, here are some globalobjective challenges for the next 20 years, with2000 as baseline:

• to reduce energy consumption by 30% to50%,

• to halve leakage,• to improve LCCP by 30% to 50%,• to reduce the refrigerant charge by 30% to

50%.

However, defining quantitative objectives isuseful only if reliable benchmarks are definedand validated. In this field, at national, regionaland global levels, structures and proceduresenabling benchmarking to be performedshould be set up and periodic assessmentshould be performed in order to monitorprogress.

Refrigerant selection is only one facet of anoverall system-focused approach.Whenassessing the environmental impact, the entiresystem must be examined.The life cycleconcept, on which the LCCP concept is based,takes on its full meaning in this approach, andshould be widely applied and used as abenchmark by refrigeration contractors.

It is important to choose between severalrefrigerants and to opt, according to theapplications and the desired temperaturelevels, for the refrigerant with the optimalprofile in terms of LCCP, safety, cost-effectiveness and reliability. Being able tochoose between several refrigerants makes itpossible, according to the applications, to optfor the most energy-efficient and the mostenvironmentally friendly solution.

The challenges to be met for vapour-compression systems are the following:

• to promote R&D in certain specific fields,for instance the development of low-capacity ammonia compressors or high-capacity CO2 compressors;

• to develop international standardspromoting the application of the life cycleassessment to the design of refrigeratingsystems;

• to raise manufacturers’, installers’ and users’awareness of the LCCP concept in orderto improve refrigerant containment andraise energy efficiency;

• to give higher priority to internationalregulations than to national regulations;

• to promote the development ofinternational standards on refrigeratingsystems and equipment and refrigerants toa greater extent than national standards;international standards or codes onhydrocarbon and ammonia use would beparticularly valuable;

• in developing countries, to promote thetransfer of technology with provenreliability (such as vapour-compressionsystems) and the use of new refrigerants;

• to provide suitable training, along withtechnology transfer.

4.2.1.2 Air-conditioning and sustainablebuildingsGeneral solution strategies [ASHRAE/IESNA,1989]:

46 Challenges

• consider energy efficiency from the outsetof the building design process;

• seek the active participation of membersof the design team including architects,engineers and builders;

• consider building attributes such as buildingfunction, form, orientation, window/wallratio and HVAC system types early in thedesign process;

• minimise heating and cooling loads byanalysing the external and internal loadsboth for peak-load and part-loadconditions;

• consider how to reclaim, redistribute andstore energy for later use;

• transporting energy from production andavailability locations to locations of demandshould be considered instead of thepurchase of additional energy;

• never reject waste energy at temperaturesusable for space conditioning withoutcalculating the benefits of energy recoveryor reuse;

• make use of heat pumps for upgradingwaste heat to the temperature levelrequired for further use;

• maintaining good indoor air quality (IAQ)by introducing the outside air flowrecommended in standards.The energycost for greater quantities can bedisproportionate;

• Apply new concepts such as low-temperature heating and high-temperaturecooling;

• Use design solutions that are easilyunderstood by building occupants.

Principles of design – building envelope[ASHRAE/IESNA, 1989]:

• the building design should attempt to offsetgains and losses of heat, light and moisturebetween the interior and exterior of thebuilding, among interior spaces and overtime;

• in energy design, the desired goal shouldbe to produce a controlled membrane thatallows or prevents heat, light and moisture

flow so as to achieve a balance betweeninternal and external loads.Thus theenvelope becomes an integral part of thebuilding’s environmental conditioningsystem;

• traditional building components must beused – insulation, caulking, weatherstripping and solar shading devices;

• thermal conductivity should be controlledthrough the use of insulation, thermal massand/or phase-change thermal storage atlevels that minimise net heating and cooling.

Principles of design – Air-conditioning systems[ASHRAE/IESNA, 1989]:

• major heat-generating equipment(computer centres, kitchen areas, etc.)should, where practical, be located where itcan offset heat losses;

• the supply of zone cooling and heatingshould be sequenced to prevent thesimultaneous operation of heating andcooling systems for the same space;

• controls should be provided to allowsystems to operate in an occupied and anunoccupied mode.

4.2.1.3 Mobile air-conditioningEnvironmental impactAssumptions made by Ecofys Energy andEnvironment [Harnisch; Hendriks, 2001] areinteresting. According to this report, by 2010the total quantity of HFC refrigerant in mobileair-conditioning in Europe will be 73,630tonnes and total emissions 10,120 t/y (notincluding decommissioning estimated as being3480 t/y).The amount of HFCs contained in allthe other refrigeration and air-conditioningequipment (domestic, commercial, transportand industrial refrigeration, stationary air-conditioning and heat pumps) is estimated tobe 75,800 tonnes and total emissions 7,940tonnes.

These figures show that in terms of theamount of refrigerant in use and emissionsoccuring, the impact of mobile air-conditioning

Challenges 47

(cars and utility vehicles) in 2010 would beapproximately equivalent to that of all otherrefrigeration and air-conditioning sectors.The share of new vehicles equipped with air-conditioning is estimated in this report to haveincreased from 10% in 1993 to 50% in 1997and assumed to further increase by 2% peryear thereafter.

Socio-economic stakes Automobile air-conditioning providesadditional comfort and tends to significantlyreduce the number of accidents: manyinsurance companies now offer reducedinsurance premiums for owners of air-conditioned vehicles. However consumerdemand and manufacturers’ designs favour useof more glass and this trend raises heatpenetration.

ChallengesThe first challenge to be met is to reduce theadditional fuel consumption of the vehiclerelated to the operating of the air-conditioningsystem.This additional consumption, at presentevaluated as being 6% of the total annual fuelconsumption, is likely to be substantiallyreduced in years to come thanks to improvedrefrigerating-system COPs.This value is givenfor an HFC-134a air-conditioning systemweighing 15kg in a United States made cardriven 16.400 km per year.

Some progress should be made concerningthe passenger compartment in order toreduce warming of the vehicle when it isstationary (insulation, glass radiation, etc.).

Another challenge is improving componenttightness in the vehicle’s air-conditioningsystem. Although significant progress has beenachieved in this field (new vehicles emit only4% to 7% of the emissions of pre-1994vehicles – see Annex 3), a lot more progressremains to be realised, particularly in terms ofwidespread use of brazed piping instead offlexible hoses or metallic bellows.

Another major challenge is user safety: thesafety of environmentally friendly, butflammable, hydrocarbon refrigerants in vehicleair-conditioning systems needs to beaddressed. Another option under developmentis the use of CO2 as a refrigerant forautomobile air-conditioning.

4.2.1.4. Heat pumps A heat pump is a device suitable for bothheating and cooling. At present about 125 million heat pumps with a thermal outputof 1,300TWh/y are in operation worldwide,reducing CO2 emission by about 130Mt/ythanks to reductions in primary energyconsumption.

The diffusion of the heat pump is negligible inthe transport sector, low in industry andagriculture, but already substantial in theresidential/commercial sector of somecountries.Whereas in the residential sectorthere are typically a large number of smallunits, in industry there are a relatively smallnumber of large heat pumps.

Residential and commercial applicationsThe main application of heat pumps is theresidential and commercial sector.The thermalglobal output relating to residential applicationsis 750TWh/y and that of commercialapplications is 350TWh/y. Concerning theresidential applications, the majority of heatpumps in operation are reversible air-to-airconditioners for both heating and cooling.

In the United States, Japan and in the south-east Asia, a continuous changeover fromcooling-only to heating and cooling air/air unitshas taken place.The units have been improvedby advanced compressor and heat exchangertechnologies. Concerning outside air units theintroduction of the inverter technology,(compressor speed control), means animprovement in efficiency as well as comfort.In some large buildings, chillers have beenmodified to heat pumps for both heating andcooling. In Stockholm, Sweden, large heat

48 Challenges

pumps supply about 35% of the total annualdistrict heating demand.

Industrial applicationsIndustrial Heat Pumps (IHPs) are a usefultechnology option for recovering industrialwaste heat.The five main configurations areclosed-cycle compression, mechanical vapourrecompression (MVR), thermal vapourrecompression (TVR), absorption, andabsorption heat transformation.

The primary applications for IHPs are foodprocesses, chemical processes, pulp and paperprocesses, petrochemical and refiningprocesses, drying processes. Surveys [IEA/HPC,1995] have found that about 30,000 IHPs arenow in use worldwide.Their heating capacityranges widely from 100kW to a few MW. IHPsare employed in all major industries, but thelargest number of installations is in the lumberindustry.The total heat demand in industrysupplied by IHPs also ranges widely fromalmost negligible to 15% (Norway).

Stakes and challengesHeat pumps are an efficient tool to reduceCO2 emissions. Comparing heat delivery bymeans of heat pumps with conventionalmethods, (burning fossil fuels), one can easilyshow that with heat pumps, primary energyconsumption can be at least cut in half.

The potential for reducing CO2 emissionsassuming a 30% share in the building sectorusing technology presently available is about6% of the total worldwide CO2 emission of22 000 Mt CO2/y (1997).

With future technologies up to 16% reductionseem possible: 2,000Mt CO2/y in residentialapplications, 1,100Mt CO2/y in commercialapplication and 200Mt CO2/y in industrialapplications [IEA, 2000].

• In residential and commercial applications,great efforts remain to be made to raisethe penetration of this technology,

especially in Europe where heat-pumptechnology diffusion is still very low.

• In industrial applications, the overall use ofIHPs, to date, has been far below their truetechnical and economic potential. IHPs canreduce total industrial process heat energyconsumption by an average of 2% to 5%.This equates to 1,300 to 3,100 PJ/yearworldwide. At the individual plant level, anIHP will make energy savings of 15% to30% of that required for process heat [IEA,2000]. Despite the technical and economicbenefits of IHPs, relatively few IHPs areused in industry worldwide. Factorsexplaining this situation include:

- lack of suitable hardware in some typesof applications;

- lack of demonstration plants in differenttypes of industries;

- lack of combined knowledge of processtechnology and heat pump technologyin industry, consulting firms, etc;

- lack of system suppliers (typicallycomponents are assembled on thespot);

- lack of suitable alternative refrigerantsfor high temperature (above 80°C)closed-cycle compression applications.

Organisations that support the industrial sector,particularly those with the capacity to providefinancial assistance, for instance governmentagencies, and utilities can play important rolesin helping to realise the potential benefits ofIHPs.These organisations can:

- help reduce the perceived risk oruncertainty associated with IHPs bysponsoring demonstration projects andby helping in the informationdissemination and awareness raisingprocess;

- increase the financial attractiveness ofIHPs by providing financial assistance todefray investment costs or by applyinglower energy rates to lower energycosts.

Challenges 49

Organisations outside of industry, for instancegovernment, utilities and engineering firms canalso actively support continued IHP technologydevelopment to ensure improvements inperformance and to extend the range of IHPapplications such as in high-temperatureprocesses.

4.2.2 Non-vapour-compressionsystems:Technology and applications4.2.2.1 Absorption-adsorption Absorption and adsorption cooling systemsare generally fuel-fired systems that providethe most practical means of providing bothcommercial and industrial cooling withoutimposing a major drain on a developingelectric infrastructure and therefore a majordrain on the limited developmental capitalavailable to most developing countries.

These systems can directly use various fuelsincluding natural gas, oil, and indirectly coal orother solid fuels such as biomass andcombustible waste as a heat source; they canalso be fired from the waste heat given offfrom industrial processes or electricgeneration, providing a very efficient‘cogeneration’ system. Cogeneration systemsprovide the greatest potential advantages byproviding high efficiencies unachievable withother technologies (see section 4.1.2).

For all these reasons, adsorption andabsorption systems are widely used today inareas where restraining the demands on theelectric distribution system has been a priority.However, to accelerate the implementation ofthese systems, a number of technical issuesneed to be addressed.

Technology statusAdsorption and absorption technologies aretwo refrigeration disciplines that havetraditionally commanded only a niche positionon the world market. Based on thermallyactivated cycles, they are represented on themarket by a relatively broad range of productscovering capacities from small residential

appliances to large industrial refrigerationplants.

These technologies are still wrestling with twoproblems responsible for the lower acceptanceof their products on the current market; theirhigher cost and lower efficiency as comparedwith continuously improving mechanically-driven air-conditioning and refrigerationtechnologies.

Absorption and adsorption are the only twopractical approaches to heat-activated systems.They have often been relegated to applicationswhere thermal energy was free or cheap.Currently, this translates into an asset that canplay a significant role in reducing thermalpollution.

One area where this potential could and isbeing realised is its application in systemscombined with power generation.There, improvements in the efficiency ofprimary energy use are significant. However,even where thermal energy is not cheap, forinstance in Japan, absorbers are widely used tocontrol electrical power demand.The same istrue in China, where the motivation is the costof expanding power supply.These technologiesare used in different ways and their benefitsare so significant that further developmentwould definitely be warranted.

Adsorption technology issuesIn the adsorption/desiccant area the majorobjectives are:

• simplification of packaged units and theircontrols so that the overall cost could bereduced,

• less expensive components would bedesirable,

• improvements in operating characteristicswould be needed to reduce the influenceof auxiliary power requirements on theoperating costs.

50 Challenges

Absorption technology issues Absorption based air-conditioning in the formof large absorption chillers for majorcommercial buildings or industrial applicationsis the most widespread application of thesetechnologies today.Technical developmentsneeded to make this equipment more widelyapplied must address the following issues:

• higher efficiency absorption systems arelarger, more material intensive, andtherefore more expensive than theirelectrically powered counterparts.Developments in system simplification andcost reduction are essential;

• Absorption systems must be developedthat are practical for the smallercommercial structures.This is the key tobringing the advantages of these systems tosmaller businesses that are more likely tobe locally owned. Of particular interestwould be a small-capacity fuel-fired airconditioners, requiring no electricalconnections, suitable for application tosmall storefronts;

• Adaptation of fuel-fired absorptionrefrigeration systems for food preservation,particularly in rural locations where noelectricity is available, should be atremendous aid in improving the efficiencyof food distribution in the developingworld. Reduced food spoilage will increasefood supplies, and decrease the retail costof foods, while improving agriculturalprofitability.With proper development, thistechnology should be practical in smalllow-cost systems appropriate for smallerfarms or rural cooperatives;

• Development of high efficiency absorptioncycles that can be operated withoutconsuming and evaporating fresh water forheat rejection. Such ‘air-cooled’ systemswould be more suitable to areas wherefresh water is in short supply.

Absorption air-conditioning and refrigeratingsystems can be of significant assistance incutting the cost and time required to develop

critical infrastructures in developing nations.However, this technology needs to bedeveloped in directions that serve this market.

Absorption applied to chillers Absorption chillers convert heat energy intouseful refrigeration with minimal electricityrequirement. Absorption chillers also employenvironmentally benign working fluids andproduce very little noise.These factors makeabsorption chillers attractive whereverelectricity is expensive, unavailable orunreliable.

Absorption chillers are 25% to 100% moreexpensive than conventional vapour-compression chillers with absorption chillersbecoming relatively more cost-effective in thelarger (greater than 1MW) size range.Consequently, selection of an absorption chillermust be justified by either energy cost savings,government incentives, electricalreliability/scarcity problems or environmentalbenefits.

Energy savings can be obtained in geographiclocations where fuel is less expensive thanelectricity (electricity to fuel kWh price >5) orwhere waste heat of low value is used to firethe absorption chiller.

Environmental issuesThe principal environmental concern is theemissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) caused bythe energy consumption of absorption chillers,compared with conventional vapour-compression chillers.While vapourcompression chillers are a lot more efficient,they consume electricity, which is normallymore carbon intensive than heat. Multi-stageabsorption cycles can also be used to improveenergy efficiency in absorption chillers andreduce CO2 emissions. Hence carbonemissions comparisons must take into accountthe efficiency (COP) of the absorption unit,the fuel source and the carbon intensity of thenational electricity network.

Challenges 51

Technology advancesOver the next ten years, there is expected tobe a shift away from large centralised powerstations towards smaller on-site powergeneration. New power generationtechnologies (such as. micro-turbines, fuel cells,renewables, Stirling engines), economies ofmass production, electricity industryderegulation, and concerns over powerreliability, are expected to drive this ‘distributedgeneration’ (DG) revolution. Indeed, developingcountries have an opportunity to leapfrog thelarge centralised power generation economyand move directly to a distributed economy.This can benefit local communities and it avoidshuge transmission infrastructure investment.

Solar air-conditioningSolar heated absorption chillers would providean excellent low emissions technology for air-conditioning if this could be achieved in acost-effective manner. It also eliminates theneed for transmission infrastructure indeveloping countries.

Improved efficiencyThe bulk of industrial absorption chillerresearch has been directed at developingmore efficient chillers. A number of companiesare close to commercialising three-stage gas-fired absorption chillers.With COPs of about1.4, CO2 emissions can be brought down toabout 150 kg/MWh of refrigeration. Similarly, anumber of generator, absorber heat-exchange(GAX) cycles are being developed, particularlyusing the ammonia/water refrigerantabsorbent pair for residential/light commercialheat-pump applications.The ability to operatebelow 0°C is advantageous for heat pumpapplications in cold climates.

Unfortunately, improved efficiency generallyrequires increased heat transfer surface area,this raises the cost of the system.

Conclusion Absorption chillers are environmentallyattractive in many situations. New absorption

cycles and new equipment designs areconstantly being investigated to optimise thecost, size and operability of absorption chillers.This work should continue.

4.2.2.2 Solar technology In spite of the development of solar coolingunits in the 1930s, the growing technologicalknowledge of absorption refrigeration, and thetechnological advances made by solartechnology, until now it has been difficult todevelop a single solar cooling technology thatsatisfies the needs of developing countries.Although development has encountered manyobstacles, solar refrigeration now enablesmillions of doses of vaccines to be stored inhot countries.

Among key achievements in the solarrefrigeration field is the development ofabsorption air-conditioning systems operatedwith lithium bromide-water solutions.Thesesystems work with simple flat-plate solarcollectors at operating temperatures of 75°C to 100°C. Several units are operatingsatisfactorily worldwide.

The refrigeration technologies considered tohave the best perspectives for use with solarenergy systems are: a) absorption cycles, b)desiccant cooling, c) new cooling cycles withliquid absorbents, d) solid sorption closedcycles (thermochemical reactions andadsorption), e) advanced ejection vapour cyclesat low generation temperatures, f) advancedcombined cycles such as dehumidification withconventional temperature control.

For the operation of solar refrigeration systemsthat use thermal energy, the temperaturerange required is 75°C to 90°C, operatingwith a lithium bromide-water system, in orderto obtain chilled water at a temperature of8°C to 10°C, for air-conditioning facilities andthe operating temperature range of 120°C to160°C in the case of low-temperatureproduction (-10°C to -30°C) where anammonia-water system is used.

52 Challenges

For ice production (-10°C), an ammonia-waterabsorption cycle is proposed, with solarcollector concentrators or with vacuumcollectors that reach temperatures of 120°Cto 130°C.With vacuum collectors, or withcompound parabolic solar collectors (CPC), itis possible to eliminate problems associatedwith the use of a solar tracking system. Atpresent, this technology is in an industrialdevelopmental phase and it is expected thatthese solar devices will above all be used incooling cycles, due to their simplicity, easyhandling and possible low cost in comparisonwith other solar heating systems available.

Among the main arguments in favour of thedevelopment of solar cooling systems are thefollowing:

• environmental aspects; the use of solarheat reduces the fossil energy demand;

• solar industry aspects; the solar collectorsindustry has developed in the last 15 yearsin certain countries.Their high-efficiency,reliable products and decreasing priceshave made their systems a permanentfeature on some markets. Anotherimportant factor is the experienceacquired in big solar plants where somethousands of square meters of solarcollectors have been installed and areworking satisfactorily;

• integral design; the new concepts ofintegral design, as well as the capacity ofcomplex technical systems of control withsupport of on-line units, open newpossibilities for the good integration ofsolar active components for some facilities,such as cooling.This new focus on theintegral system, more than on a specifictechnology has been developing strongly inthe last years.This has produced facilitieswith an efficient operation and aconsequent energy saving with a minimumenvironmental impact.

By using photovoltaic conversion, solar energycan also be employed to operate refrigeratingcycles. Photovoltaic conversion allows the

operation of cooling units based onmechanical vapour compression as well as ofthermoelectric refrigerators.The latter arenow used in hospitals and rural clinics inisolated regions, for vaccine and medicinestorage complying with the standards set bythe World Health Organization.

It is difficult to estimate the potential marketfor solar refrigeration in developing countries.However, the growing demand for ice for theconservation and transportation of perishableproducts, the development of cold storage forfood storage, the freezing of fresh and cookedproducts, space air-conditioning, among otherrefrigeration applications, are only a sample ofthe potential applications of this technology.Many regions in developing countries havenumerous clear days annually, with an averagesolar irradiation of over 700W/m2.

Local companies or joint ventures involvinglocal and foreign companies will focus on thedevelopment of the technology and installationof concentrator solar collectors of thecompound parabolic type (CPC) that will bethe most suitable for solar cooling.Thetechnological problems to overcome will bethe design and production of control devices,particularly for the production of low-capacityunits, which have drawbacks: their impact willbe smaller they will cost more.

To be able to achieve the implementation ofthe above-mentioned strategy, it is necessaryto carry out:

• a market study on various aspects ofcooling demand, with priority given to iceproduction, proposing cooling unitsproducing 2 tonnes to 5 tonnes of ice perday, for the supply of small fishingbusinesses, for example;

• to establish the infrastructure required forthe production of solar refrigeration unitsby existing industrial plants and to obtainsupport from foreign companies wherepossible;

Challenges 53

• important aspects include the sharing ofthe technological and economic benefits ofsolar refrigeration technologies, as well asthe obtaining of financing and theinvestigation of the rate of recovery of theinitial investment;

• to propose educational programmes andtraining in the operation and maintenanceof solar plants as well as in the design andinstrumentation aspects;

• in the case of the conservation ofperishable products using ice, it isimportant to have access to cold-storedesign, construction and instrumentationtechnology.

4.2.2.3 Desiccant coolingDesiccants, or more specifically desiccanttechnology, include a broad spectrum ofsystems designed with desiccant componentsto provide cooling, dehumidification, andventilation functions to control the quality ofthe indoor environment in the industrial andcommercial sectors.These are cooling systemsthat provide latent and sensible load fromfresh air make up. Enthalpy exchangers eitherremove or conserve moisture for thecontrolled space.

New desiccant materials such as titaniumsilicate have much higher affinities for waterthan previously used desiccants such as silicagel.The higher efficiencies of these newerdesiccants make it possible to designpracticable air-conditioning systems [UNEP1998]. According to Wurm (1999), in theUnited States, annual production of desiccantsystems and components in 1997 was worthnearly USD100m, representing about 1% of allUnited States HVAC & R market shipments,and is expected to more than triple by theyear 2003.

Desiccant cooling systems are an interestingsolution, especially for hot and dry regions;high humidity limits the cooling capacity.Hybrid systems, combinations withcompression or sorption machines, where theexcess heat is used for driving the desiccantsystem, can be an excellent solution. Anotheradvantage of desiccant systems is that nocooling tower is necessary.

But many production and technical issues stillhave to be addressed. Among the mostimportant goals are the reduction of rotormatrix costs for dehumidifiers and enthalpyexchangers, and a continuous effort ofeducating architects and engineers on theequipment and the benefits it can bring to thecustomer.

Air-conditioning packagers, operators andusers need to have an opportunity to acquireconfidence in performance and economics ofdesiccant equipment. Suitable tools have onlyrecently become available.The most importanttools in the United States are the rating andtesting standards (ASHRAE 139 and ARI 940)that will establish benchmark performance forsystems and components of desiccanttechnology.The GRI/DOE demonstrationprogrammes have been organised to promoteconfidence in desiccant technology.

4.2.2.4 Trigeneration (combined cooling, heatand power)Cogeneration is simultaneous production ofmechanical energy (often converted intoelectricity) and thermal energy (heat).The heatis produced at a temperature level such that itcan be used to heat premises or employed inindustrial processing plants.What was wasteheat, becomes useful heat.

This technology is optimised, in order toobtain as much energy as possible, and hasconsiderable benefits from an energystandpoint. In the cogeneration process, whenone adds the recovered ‘waste heat’ to theefficiency of the power production (the

54 Challenges

optimal efficiency of gas turbines being 32% to42% and that of gas or diesel thermal enginesbeing 35% to 37%), an overall efficiency of70% to 85% is achieved.

But this overall efficiency is useful only if bothheat and electricity are required at the sametime.Thus, in many residential or tertiary-sector applications (offices, hospitals etc), thiswaste heat can only be utilised in winter andthis reduces cogeneration’s attractiveness.

It is possible to make further use of thebenefits of combined power and heat by usingexcess heat in refrigerating applications, andthis is known as trigeneration.Trigenerationtechnology has been made possible by thedevelopment of absorption units used toproduce chilled water, particularly in tertiarysector: office buildings, hospitals, airports andshopping malls.Trigeneration is used in air-conditioning applications and industrialrefrigeration (for instance -20°C).

The optimal approach is to employ absorptionunits using a water-lithium bromide workingpair or, in the case of commercial refrigeration,units using an ammonia-water working pair.The mean COPs of these units is 0.7 forsimple-effect plant, or one for double-effectplant.The overall refrigerating capacity thusdepends on the efficiency of the absorptionplant used and the operating conditions suchas generator temperature, cooling watertemperature and refrigerating temperature.

It is likely that even higher COPs will beobtained by using a triple-effect plant and asuch plant is being developed at the momentin which COPs of 1.5 are expected [Meunier,1999]. However, double- and triple-effectsystems will require higher temperature heatinput for their operation, which will have anadverse influence on the cogeneration plantoperation.

Considerable R&D remains to be performedin this field and the profitability of these

systems also requires further investigation. Inaddition calculation should take intoconsideration all operating conditions and notjust optimal conditions.

Trigeneration systems have important potentialadvantages. By providing high efficiencies thatare unachievable with other technologies,trigeneration reduces overall emissions,including carbon dioxide, reduces water usefor heat rejection, reduces fuel consumptionand the hard currency drain needed forimported fuel, as well as electric demand,compared with conventional systems. Seizingcogeneration or trigeneration technology now,while electric systems are being developed,can provide developing nations with anadvantage in terms of global economiccompetitiveness through energy efficiency.

4.2.2.5 CryogenicsThe field of cryogenics encompasses allrefrigeration technology used to achievetemperatures below 120K, and has paved theway to a huge range of sustainabledevelopment promoting applications. Here wegive an overview of two of the mostpromising cryogenic technologies:superconductivity and cryomedicine.

Superconductivity This is probably the best-known cryogeniceffect. It has received industrial attention sincethe development of NbTi wires and Nb3Sntapes, in the 1960s. Direct currents higher than1,000 A flow without losses in cables of lessthan 1 mm in diameter when maintained atliquid helium temperatures, that is 4.2K. Use ofsuperconducting materials has made it possibleto develop magnetic systems producingintense magnetic fields with variousapplications.

Here is an overview of some recentlydeveloped applications.

• the largest routine application ofsuperconductivity in medical research is

Challenges 55

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)tomography, which has considerablyrenewed medical radiology in the last 15years. About 10,000 systems are now inuse, and 1,000 are sold every year [Hebral,1997];

• a widely developed application ofsuperconductivity is the laboratoryproduction of large magnetic fields withsmall coils. Large magnetic field gradientsare accessible with superconductingsystems.They have been used for medicalapplications, for example for the guiding ofcatheters giving rapid access to a brainaneurysm. Special magnetic guns forlaunching mini satellites at low cost areanother possible application;

• large-scale applications require giantsuperconducting magnets. CERN (CentreEuropéen de RecherchesNucléaires/European Center for NuclearResearch) is now operatingsuperconducting capacities to produce thevery large electric fields needed toaccelerate particles. Also at CERN, theLarge Hadron Collider (LHC) project willgive access to the high energies needed totest the fundamental theories of particles.For controlled fusion, which could provideaccess to an essentially infinite source ofenergy, a new tokamak, ITER, is now underconsideration;

• in the case of electrical engineering, severalmachine prototypes have been developedover the last 15 years, thanks to theavailability of high-performance conductors.Generators with superconducting rotatingfield wiring or both superconducting fieldwinding and armature have been tested,with powers of 10 to 100kW beingtypically reached. In Japan, for example,units of 70MVA are being tested in theSuper GM project;

• for static electrical engineering, severalapplications have attracted attention assuperconducting transformers.The mostpromising system, at the moment, seems tobe the superconducting current limiter. For

example, during a thunderstorm, it turnsback to the normal state above the criticalcurrent, in order to protect the high-voltage distribution lines after lightning, andrecovers towards the superconductingstate in a few seconds. Such a limiter hasbeen successfully tested up to 40kV;

• the discovery in 1986 of the so-called highTc superconductors triggered intenseresearch into these compounds. Criticaltemperatures have been raised from about25K to roughly 110K.Today, very significantprogress has been made and tapes of1,000m are now produced with valuableproperties.Thanks to these properties, therefrigeration difficulties encountered whenusing liquid helium are much easier toovercome and should simplify applicationsand reduce the operating costs, since forsuperconductors with a criticaltemperature Tc above 77K, liquid nitrogencan be the cooling agent.

Most of these projects need internationalteams to handle the current developmentalchallenges of such unique research on thecutting edge of many cryogenicsuperconductivity, refrigeration andinstrumentation technologies.

Cryomedicine – cryobiologyCryomedicine comprises two domains –cryobiology, in which cryocooling is used forpreservation, and cryosurgery, in whichcryocooling is used for destructive purposes.In between these two extremes, cryotherapymakes use of cold as an anti-inflammatorytreatment in the fields of rheumatology andfunctional re-education.

In the cryosurgical field, new high-performanceequipment has been developed.The advent ofminiaturised probes has made it possible tocryosurgically treat obstructive lesions (moreoften than not benign or malignant tumours)in hollow organs, particularly the bronchi.Echographic guidance has opened up newcryosurgical applications, particularly in the

56 Challenges

treatment of urological and hepatic disorders.The synergic effects of cryosurgery,chemotherapy and radiotherapy used to treatcancer appear to be clinically confirmed.

Cryomedicine and its cryosurgical componentare making, and will continue to make, avaluable contribution to sustainabledevelopment, not only in the health sector, butalso from sociological and economicstandpoints.The efficacy of cryosurgery is notits only benefit: it is also easy to use, safe anddoes not induce complications. Besides thesebenefits, it is important to bear in mind thatthe initial investment cost of cryosurgicalequipment and maintenance costs arerelatively low.

In developing countries, cryosurgery can be atherapeutic option that is less expensive andtherefore more accessible, provided that therefrigerant gas required can be supplied.

Again in the context of a therapeutic approachtaking into account sustainable development,cryosurgery must continue to evolve. In theequipment domain, manufacturers mustcontinue to innovate in order to produce high-performance equipment throughminiaturisation, probe flexibility, regulation ofthe temperature and the speed at which thefreezing interface advances, evaluation of thetarget volume.

In medicine, the objective is to clearly definethe indications, to perform more thoroughevaluation of the effects of associated therapyby performing clinical and experimental trials,and to set up research on the immunologicaleffects of cold, to define tissue cryosensitivity,to publish the results obtained and topromote cryotechnology by expandingteaching programmes and obtaining researchfunding.

In the context of healthcare economicsworldwide, the aim is to raise awareness of atechnique that is generally easy-to-use,

relatively inexpensive, requiring basicequipment with a wide range of applications,and to promote the use of cryotherapy indeveloping countries.

Cryobiological applications should also bementioned here: animal and plantreproduction, research on therapies,preservation of rare and endangered species.4.2.2.6 Other technologiesMany other technologies that could contributeto sustainable development are beingdeveloped or are the focus of researchprojects. Here are a few examples of emergingtechnologies.

Air cycle Air cycle refrigeration was one of the earliestpractical cycles and is one of the simplest. Nochange of state is involved.The efficiency ofthe system is greatly dependent oncompressor and expander efficiencies. Ingeneral, an air-cycle system would only beabout one-third as efficient as a vapour-compression system.

The relatively low efficiency of the air cycle hasrestricted its use to certain niche applications:

• where an abundant supply of pressurisedair is available, as in a gas turbine beforethe combustion stage, a proportion of thatair can be used to operate an air-cyclesystem; this is the dominant air-coolingmethod in jet aircraft where safety issuesare of prime concern. Air cyclerefrigeration units have recently beenapplied in the air-conditioning of theGerman high-speed train;

• air cycles could be of value where a largetemperature range is sought [Pearson,1999].

Stirling cycle refrigerationThe Stirling cycle refrigerating system operatesby compressing and expanding a gas atconstant temperature.

Challenges 57

The Stirling cycle can produce high efficienciescomparable with those of the vapour-compression cycle. It is particularly appropriatefor the production of refrigeration at lowtemperatures.The major disadvantage of theStirling cycle is that it is difficult to scale up tolarge size.The Stirling cycle refrigeratorappears to have a secure niche application inthe production of cryogenic temperatures ona small to medium scale. It is unlikely that therelatively complex Stirling cycle will evercompete effectively with the vapour-compression system for conventionalrefrigeration [Pearson, 1999].

Thermoelectric coolingThe refrigerating capacity of equipment usingthe Peltier effect is rather low, but progress isbeing achieved.The Peltier effect involvesabsorption of the heat produced by an electriccurrent passing across junctions between twodissimilar metals, alloys or semiconductors.For instance, a Swedish firm is manufacturingcooling trays for drinks and sandwiches, thecapacity of which is 300W.Ten years ago, themaximum capacity achieved was only 150W.

Wind refrigerationSmall-scale wind-powered ice-producingsystems have excellent potential, especially forsmall fishing ports in areas where there is ashortage of electricity.The use of ice producedin such wind-powered refrigerators can reducelosses in the quality of fish.

4.3 Developing countries4.3.1 Education and trainingEducation is the cornerstone of developmentin all aspects of refrigeration, including design,installation, and the running and maintenanceof refrigerating equipment. In 1986, the IIRlaunched a large-scale refrigeration-promotingcampaign called Refrigeration forDevelopment. A. Gac presented the results ofthis campaign in 1987 [Gac, 1987]. Based onthe data used by A. Gac and updated to takeinto account current demographics, thepresent population, the annual deficit oftrained staff amounts to roughly 65,000people. Details are given in table F.

58 Challenges

Senior staff (1) Senior technicians (2) Skilled workers (3)

Present Requi- Total Present Requi- Total Present Requi- Totalrements deficit rements deficit rements deficit

Persons/y per Persons Persons/y per Persons Persons/y per Personsmillion inhabitants /y million inhabitants /y million inhabitants /y

Leastdeveloped 0 4 3,200 1 8 5,600 1 7 5,600countries (4)

Other developing 1 3 12,600 3 5 21,000 4 4 16,800countries (5)

Total 15,800 26,600 22,400

Table F:Assessment of the present situation and annual training requirements inorder to provide sufficient refrigeration and air-conditioning specialists worldwide

(1) needs estimated as being four people per year per million inhabitants(2) needs estimated as being eight people per year per million inhabitants(3) needs estimated as being eight people per year per million inhabitants(4) 0.8 billion inhabitants(5) 4.2 billion inhabitants

Over the past few years, short courses havebeen set up in order to train personnel ingood practices in general, and refrigerantrecovery, in particular. However, these shortcourses are no substitute for the basic long-term education of designers, technicians andspecialised installers and maintenancepersonnel. Bilateral and multilateral fundingprovide the opportunity to train refrigerationtechnicians and engineers in designing, installingand maintaining equipment; providing suitablerefrigeration with the required temperatureand humidity levels; ensuring servicing andmaintenance at appropriate intervals thanks togood spares management; ensuring optimalenergy consumption thanks to optimal designand maintenance.

Such approaches appear very basic in theindustrialised world, but implementing them inorder to ensure sustainable development indeveloping countries is in reality a majorchallenge. Suitable courses and trainingprogrammes are currently too scarce: prioritymust be given to the providing of moreeducation.

4.3.2 Reduction of post-harvest lossesPerishable foodstuffs represent 31% of thetotal volume of foods consumed in developingcountries; these perishable foodstuffs provide7.5% of the total energy value derived fromfoods (Jul, 1985). Although perishable foodsare low-energy foods, they have other benefitsthat are sometimes vital in ensuring that abalanced diet is available, since they provideproteins, fibres, vitamins, micronutrients, and apleasant flavour.

In developing countries, only about one-fifth ofperishable foodstuffs is refrigerated, meaningthat high losses are incurred following harvest,slaughter, fishing, milking, then duringtransportation and finally during sale (in marketsand stores with no refrigerating equipment).

The challenge to be met is the reduction ofthese losses and refrigeration is one of the

most effective tools enabling loss reduction tobe achieved, provided that the value of theperishable foodstuffs justifies the outlay.Thehigher the price fetched by a foodstuff, thegreater is the justification for refrigeration, andconversely, for inexpensive foods, refrigerationmay well not be warranted.

Food losses due to non-utilisation ofrefrigeration were estimated to be about 300 million tonnes of perishable foodstuffs indeveloping countries [W. Kaminski, 1995]. Areasonable objective for the next 20 yearswould be to reduce by 30 to 50% losses ofperishable foodstuffs (fish, meat, fruit andvegetables) thanks to the setting up ofappropriate cold chains.

4.3.3 Development of cold chainsEnsuring both food quality and safety to five billion inhabitants of developing countries,thanks to the setting up of effective coldchains, is a major challenge for the refrigerationsector.The Rome Declaration on World FoodSecurity published on 13 November 1996reaffirms the right of everyone to have accessto safe and nutritious food.The heads of statesand governments that signed the RomeDeclaration committed themselves to reducingthe number of undernourished people to halfthe November 1996 level by no later than2015, thus reducing the number ofundernourished persons from 800 million to400 million.

Post-harvest losses (from the field to thetable) can be reduced, thanks toimplementation of sustainable cold chains andthanks to international trade in the chilled andfrozen-food sectors meeting both import andexport needs.

Certain links in the cold chain do in fact existin certain countries. For instance, domesticrefrigerators, refrigerating plants for dairyproducts and meat products, a few cold stores(above all in port facilities and food-processingplants) are in use in developing countries to

Challenges 59

variable degrees. Other links in the cold chainare often non-existent or scarce: such linksinclude cold storage at production sites,refrigerated road transport and most retailpremises.

The setting up of cold chains takes decadesand usually requires development plansassociated with financial incentives (providedby the state) fuelling investment.

4.3.4 Technology transferThe refrigerating and air-conditioning systemsproduced in developing countries are generallybased on the technology used in developedcountries – mostly because many firms indeveloping countries, are subsidiaries ofcorporations based in developed countries.This situation means the specific needs ofdeveloping countries are not always sufficientlytaken into account. For example, the localtemperature and humidity conditions implythat cold-storage facilities require betterinsulation and insulated flooring.Therefrigerating equipment used needs to bemore powerful, more robust, and longer-lastingand must also require less maintenancebecause technicians are few and far between.

Whether or not developing countries shouldinvest in technology that is destined to bephased out in the long-term (for exampleHCFC systems) that developed countries arealready phasing out: this issue merits debate. Abetter approach would be to providetechnology transfer, thus enabling developingcountries to use technologies that arecurrently being used in developed countries(HFCs, ammonia, etc.); such technologytransfer also involves adapting equipment tomeet specific local needs.

Developing countries have an opportunity toleapfrog the situation encountered inindustrialised countries (retroconversion andphasing out of existing equipment) and toembrace sustainable technology directly.

The expansion of solar refrigeration indeveloping countries has to overcome anumber of difficulties, particularly in terms ofcapacity: solar equipment tends to be of alower capacity than commercial and industrialranges. It may be premature to consider thatdeveloping countries should be promotingtechnology that, even in developed countries,has yet to be proven to be fully reliable andprofitable.

Technology and information transfer,particularly to developing countries, can speedbenefits derived in developed countries. Ofparticular interest to the air-conditioning andrefrigeration industry are developing countryinitiatives to address ozone depletion andglobal warming. One avenue for enhancingdeveloping country initiatives is through thesharing of developed country industrytechnology and information, includingstandards and certification programmes.Industry has found that developing countriesare generally willing to consider adoption ofexisting industry standards and certificationprogrammes, since country resources arescarce, and the shared information andtechnology transfer can accelerate the learningcurve.

With the adoption of internationallyrecognised industry standards and certificationprogrammes, the harmonisation process isaccelerated and mutually beneficial policiesaddressing sustainable development are morerapidly implemented.

4.3.5 Strengthening of structuresGovernment and trade organisations play keyroles in the promotion of refrigeration and thesetting up of cold chains. In most countries,several ministries are in charge of therefrigeration sector, and usually comprise theministries of agriculture, industry, trade, health,the environment, transport and fisheries, etc. Itis important to define a ministry taking thelead in determining refrigeration and air-conditioning policy at national level.

60 Challenges

Trade organisations and associations play anindispensable role in federating refrigerationstakeholders. A state-approved, neutral,authoritative national refrigeration associationis also necessary: these bodies play consultativeroles in collaboration with governmentdepartments and provide their members, andmore widely, all refrigeration and air-conditioning stakeholders, with the informationthey need.

An interministerial and interprofessionalorganisation, such as a national refrigerationcouncil, can play an important role in co-ordinating actions and defining refrigerationplans that include inventories of existingequipment and a long-term developmentalplan.This type of structure can be effectiveonly if it comprises a secretariat that handlesthe advisory dimension and implementsdecisions. Such an essential structure shouldbenefit from multilateral or bilateral funding.

Excellent symbiosis can be achieved byorganising forums enabling countryrepresentatives faced with similar challenges tomeet and exchange viewpoints. In this respectregional refrigeration organisations play highlyuseful roles.

4.3.6 Data collection Governments should improve informationcollection, enabling the drawing up of a preciseinventory of the needs of developing countries.It is an essential preliminary step in order tofacilitate the design of focused programmesand activities in the various fields concerned:infrastructures, technologies, training.

For example, the setting-up of cold chainsinvolves establishing inventories of existingequipment, followed by the scheduling ofneeds within defined time frames on ageographical basis within refrigerationmanagement plans.These plans must benefitfrom reliable technology transfer tailoredaccording to bilateral or multilateral fundingprogrammes

ConclusionThe contribution of refrigeration to sustainabledevelopment with respect to the 40 actionsdefined in the Agenda 21 can be summarisedas follows.Action 2: International co-operation toaccelerate sustainable development indeveloping countriesInternational standards in the field ofrefrigeration and air-conditioning, such as ISOstandards and international regulations, such asthe Montreal Protocol, the Kyoto Protocol andthe ATP Agreement on the refrigeratedtransport of perishable foodstuffs, promote aglobal approach and are conducive tointernational trading.

Action 4: Changing consumption patternsPeople’s diet in developing countries is poor inquality, quantity and diversity. Refrigerationraises the available food supply by ensuringbetter preservation, by improving quality(safety and wholesomeness) and bydeveloping the diversity required in order toensure that a balanced diet can be achieved.For instance, fish consumption could certainlybe developed, even in countries located farfrom fish resources, thanks to a reliable coldchain.

Action 6: Promotion and protection ofhuman healthImproved preservation of perishable foodsreduces health risks from pathogenic micro-organisms. It also decreases food losses –which are too high and very costly at present.

No-one questions the efficacy of vaccines inprotecting millions of inhabitants of developingand developed countries from a number oflife-threatening diseases. But vaccine storagerequires refrigeration and equipment providingoptimal storage conditions is sorely lacking inmany hot countries. Solar refrigerators aregaining ground but a number of obstaclesneed to be overcome, not the least of which istheir cost.

Challenges 61

Cryosurgery is a technique which is easy touse, relatively inexpensive, requires relativelybasic equipment, and has a wide range ofapplications.This technology deserves muchwider application, especially in developingcountries.

Action 7: Promoting sustainable humansettlement development Refrigeration technologies may significantlycontribute to sustainable human settlement.Vapour-compression technologies which havebeen proven in industrialised countries can betailored to meet specific needs or particularlocal requirements with moderate investments.

Absorption-adsorption technologies, inconjunction with solar energy, are promisingsustainable technologies for cooling in tropicalclimates or heating in cold climates (heatpumps) thanks to their low-emissioncharacteristics. However, these technologiesrequire further research and development.

Action 9: Protection of the atmosphereIn the field of protection of the atmosphere,the advent of more sustainable equipment andthe implementation of more sustainablepractices, including highly significant emissionsreductions, and raised energy efficiency, mayhave far-reaching positive results.

Action 14: Promoting sustainable agricultureand rural developmentReducing the considerable post-harvest losses,thanks to better preservation of agriculturaland fish products is part of sustainabledevelopment. Refrigeration is a key technologyensuring better preservation of foodstuffs.

Action 15: Conservation of biologicaldiversityCryopreservation of gametes and embryos ofrare and endangered species, through low-temperature gene banks, contributes tobiodiversity.

Action 31:The scientific and technicalcommunityInternational networking, international workingparties, either at worldwide or regional levels,are essential to the exchange of knowledgeand the sharing of experiences.The Internetfacilitates the expansion of networkingbetween stakeholders in developing anddeveloped countries.

Action 34:Transfer of environmentally soundtechnologyThe first step is education, followed bytechnology transfer.The technology transferredto developing countries needs to be tailored,thanks to two-way co-operation, in order tomeet local needs, and must also be cost-effective, reliable, and environmentally friendly.

Technology transfer is extremely important inthe refrigeration field; however, its successdepends on the approach adopted byrefrigeration stakeholders. Only technologythat has proven to have the necessary benefitsshould be transferred: emerging technologythat has not been subjected to thoroughtesting is doomed to failure.The introductionof technology which is not suitable to localconditions, the local climate and local logisticsis also doomed to fail.

Article 35: Science for sustainabledevelopmentA multidisciplinary approach is important forsustainable development. An example is thenecessary co-operation between air-conditioning engineers, researchers andarchitects for designing sustainable building.

Action 36: Promoting education, publicawareness and trainingMore short courses and short trainingprogrammes are needed in developingcountries. However, the cornerstone to theeducation of design engineers and servicingand maintenance technicians in developingcountries must be long-term courses.

62 Challenges

Raising stakeholder and public awareness ofthe consequences of venting non-environmentally friendly refrigerants into theatmosphere requires information providing atseveral levels both in developed anddeveloping countries.Without facilities forrecycling and destroying refrigerants andreplacement equipment, environmentalprotection is impossible to achieve. Educationneeds backing up with tools enabling skills andnew knowledge to be applied.

Action 37: Capacity building in developingcountriesProgrammes aimed at defining refrigerationstructures to be set up in developingcountries, long-term RefrigerationManagement Plans (RMPs) are examples ofuseful actions for capacity building.

Action 39: International legal instruments andmechanismsThe Montreal Protocol is a good example of asuccessful international legal instrument whichpromotes sustainable development. It is hopedthat the Kyoto Protocol will be also asuccessful legal instrument once ratified.

Challenges 63

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Sales of Fluorocarbons,http://www.afeas.com

2. Alexandratos, N.; 1995: AgricultureMondiale - Horizon 2010 - Etude de laFAO, Polytechnica. Paris et FAO. Rome.442 p

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8. Bivens, D.B.; 1999: Refrigeration and air-conditioning with reduced environmentalimpact. Proceedings Joint IPCC/TEAPExpert Meeting on Options for theLimitation of Emissions of HFCs and PFCs.WHO - UNEP. Petten.The Netherlands

9. Cao, D.; Qiu, Z.; Jing, H.; 2000: China’srefrigerating and air-conditioning industryProceedings of the 20th Int. Congress ofRefrigeration in Sydney. IIR/IIF. CD-ROM.

10. Cleland, A.; 1998: Market-pull factors forrefrigerated transport services, Bull. of theIIR. vol. 78. no6: p.2-12

11. Crosnier, G.; 1992: Enjeux Economiques liésau froid. IIF. Paris.

12. Djiako,T.; 1999: Refrigeration in developingcountries – CFC phase-out and refrigerationof food in Africa. Bull. of the IIR, vol 79. no2

13. ECSLA (European Cold Storage andLogistics Association), 2000, Energy Guide,Brussels

14. Fanger, O.; 2000: Provide Good Air Qualityfor People and Improve their Productivity.Proceedings of the 7th InternationalConference on Air Distribution in Rooms,Reading, United Kingdom.

15. FAO; 1994: Yearbook-Production 1992.vol46. Rome

16. FAO; 1998: Yearbook-Production 1997.vol51. Rome

17. Fisher, S.K.; 1993: Total Equivalent WarmingImpact: a Measure of the Global WarmingImpact of CFC Alternatives in RefrigeratingEquipment. Int. Journal of Refrig.Vol 16.no6: p. 423-428

18. French, H.; 1999: World Trade Declines. inLester R. Brown, et al.W.W. Norton & Co.New York

19. Gac A. The Campaign ‘Refrigeration forDevelopment’, Proceedings of the 17thInternational Congress of Refrigeration, IIR,Vienna, Austria, 1987: 90-107

20. Harnisch J.; Hendriks, C.; 2001: EconomicEvaluation of Emission Reductions of HFCs,PFCs and SF6 in Europe. Ecofys Energy andEnvironment

21. Hebral, B.; 1997: Applications of cryogenics.Bull. of the IIR. vol. 77, no4: p2-11

22. IEA/Heat Pump Centre Report; 1995:Industrial Heat Pumps: Experiences, Potentialand Global Environmental Benefit. HPP-AN21-1

23. IEA/Heat Pump Centre; 2000: Heat Pumpscan cut global CO2 emissions by more than6%

24. IEA/Heat Pump Centre; 2001: RefrigerantManagement Programmes: An InternationalAssessment. Part 1. Refrigerant Recovery,Recycling and Reclamation

25. IIR; 1996: Informatory Note of the IIR onThe role of refrigeration in worldwidenutrition. IIR. Paris. 4p

26. IIR; 1995: 11th Informatory Note of theIIR on Refrigeration and the GreenhouseEffect: GWP,TEWI or COP? IIR. Paris. 4p

27. IIR; 1999: 14th Informatory Note of theIIR on Reduction of emissions of refrigerantsand containment in systems. IIR. Paris. 6p

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30. Jul, M.; 1985: Refrigeration and world foodrequirements. Int. Journal of Refrig. vol. 8,no. 1 : p. 6-12

31. Kaminski,W.; 1995: Refrigeration and theworld food industry. IIR. Paris. 33p

32. Lebot, B. ; 1998: L’étiquetage énergétique:est-il un bon moyen pour diminuer lesconsommations d’énergie ? Comptes rendusde la Journée effet de serre AFF-AICVF.Paris

33. Mattarolo, L.; 1990: Refrigeration and foodprocessing to ensure the nutrition of thegrowing world population. ProceedingsDresden meeting. IIF-IIR: p. 43-54

34. Meunier, F.; 1999: Introduction à lacogénération. Conférence IFFI/AFF

35. Moisy, M.; 1999: Etude de la trigénérationpour le tertiaire. Conférence IFFI/AFF

36. Okezie, B.O.; 1998:World Food Security:The Role of Postharvest Technology. FoodTechnology. vol 52. no1: p. 64-69

37. Pearson; Forbes S.; 1999: Natural selection -The struggle for survival in the competitiveworld of refrigeration equipment.Proceedings of the 20th Int. Congress ofRefrigeration in Sydney. IIR/IIF. CD-ROM

38. Ramin,T.; Faramarzi, P.E.; Coburn, B.A.;Sarhadian, R.; 2002: Performance and EnergyImpact of Installing Glass Doors on an OpenVertical Deli/Dairy Display Case, ASHRAETransactions. Atlantic City, NJ, UnitedStates

39. Schultz, J.H.; 2001: An Industry PerspectiveOn Future Technology In Heating, Ventilating,Air-conditioning And Refrigeration. Clima2000/Napoli 2001 World Congress.

40. Stera, A.C; 1999: Long Distance RefrigeratedTransport into the third millennium.Proceedings of the 20th Int. Congress ofRefrigeration in Sydney. IIR/IIF. CD-ROM.

41. Technology and Economics AssessmentPanel (TEAP), 2001: Refrigeration TechnicalOptions Committee (RTOC) Report

42. UNEP OzonAction Programme; 2000:Plan de Gestion des Fluides Frigorigènes,Bénin

43. UNEP; 1998: 1998 Report of theRefrigeration, Air-conditioning and HeatPumps Technical Options Committee

44. United Nations; 1998: World PopulationProspects – The 1996 Revision, UN, NewYork

45. WHO; 1997: Consultation Technet,. Manila,12-16, February 1996, Geneva.

46. WHO/UNICEF; 1997: StandardPerformance Specifications for Solar(Photovoltaic) Refrigerators & Ice PackFreezers (1997 Revision). WHO. Geneva

47. WHO (OMS) ; 2001: Eradication de lapoliomyélite: encore 1%, mais le plusdifficile reste à faire. Communiqué depresse OMS/17 du 3 April 2001

48. Wurm, J.; Kosar, D; Czachorski M.; 1999:Quo vaditus desiccants. Proceedings of the20th Int. Congress of Refrigeration inSydney. IIR/IIF. CD-ROM

49. Young, M.; 1997: Economies of high-rise coldstores. Proceedings, Annual Conference ofthe Institute of Refrigeration. London.

50. UNEP OzonAction Programme; 2000:Sourcebook of Technologies to Protect theOzone Layer: Refrigeration, Air-conditioningand Heat Pumps

References 65

Annexe 1: Figures:

66 Annexe 1

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Cereals

Foods not requiring refrigeration Foods requiring refrigeration

Root crops

Vegetables

Milk

Fruits

Oil crops

Meat

Sugar

Seafood

Pulses

Eggs

Misc.

Million tonnes

Figure 1: Global agricultural and fish production in 1997 (million tonnes)

Source: FAO; 1998,Yearbook - Production 1997, vol 51, Rome

Annexe 1 67

2001

Phase-out of CFCs – Article 5-Countries

Phase-out of HCFCs – Article 2-Countries

Phase-out of HCFCs – Article 5-Countries

2000 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 20110

20

40

60

80

100

2000 2005

65

15

50

80

35

10

0.5 0.5

2010 202520202015 20300

20

40

60

80

100

2000 2005 2010 2015 20402030 20352020 2025 20450

30

605040

2010

80

100110

90

70

120

Figure 2: Objectives specified by the Montreal Protocol

68 Annexe 1

R22

R123HCFCs

CFCs

R11

R12

R502

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Figure 3.1: Ozone Depleting Potential of several HCFCs and CFCs(HFCs have an ODP of zero)

Source: UNEP, 1998: 1998 Report of the Refrigeration, Air-conditioning and Heat Pump TechnicalOptions Committe

R134aR404AR407CR410A

R507

R22R123

R11R12

R502

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Figure 3.2: Global Warming Potential (100 yr) of several HFCs,HCFCs and CFCs

Source: IPCC, 1995: Climate Change 1995, Contribution of working Group I to the SecondAssessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

Annexe 1 69

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Sum CFCs Sum HCFCs

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

ODP-weighted production103 metric tonnes equivalent

Figure 4.1: Evolution of ODP-weighted production of CFCs and HCFCs

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

1980 1982

Sum CFCs Sum HCFCs Sum HFCs

1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Figure 4.2: Evolution of GWP-weighted production of CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs

Source: AFEAS; 2001: Issue Areas: Production and Sales of Fluorocarbons, http://www.afeas.com

70 Annexe 2

Annexe 2: Developing countries and territories – DAClist (Development Assistance Committee of OECD), asof 1 January 2000

Least developed Other low Lower middle income Upper middle income High incomecountries income countries and countries and countries and

countries territories territories territoriesAfghanistan Armenia Albania Anguilla MaltaAngola Azerbaijan Algeria Antigua & Barbuda SloveniaBangladesh Cameroon Belize ArgentinaBenin China Bolivia BahrainBhutan Congo, Rep. Bosnia & Herzegovina BarbadosBurkina Faso Côte d’Ivoire Colombia BotswanaBurundi East Timor Costa Rica BrazilCambodia Ghana Cuba ChileCape Verde Honduras Dominica Cook IslandsCentral India Dominican Rep. CroatiaAfrican Rep.Chad Indonesia Ecuador GabonComoros Kenya Egypt GrenadaCongo, Dem. Rep. Korea, Dem. Rep. El Salvador LebanonDjibouti Kyrgyz Rep. Fiji MalaysiaEquatorial Guinea Moldova Georgia MauritiusEritrea Mongolia Guatemala MayotteEthiopia Nicaragua Guyana MexicoGambia Nigeria Iran MontserratGuinea Pakistan Iraq NauruGuinea-Bissau Senegal Jamaica OmanHaiti Tajikistan Jordan Palau IslandsKiribati Turkmenistan Kazakhstan PanamaLaos Vietnam Macedonia Saudi ArabiaLesotho Zimbabwe Marshall Islands SeychellesLiberia Micronesia, Fed. St. St HelenaMadagascar Morocco St Kitts and NevisMalawi Namibia St LuciaMaldives Niue Trinidad and TobagoMali Palestinian Adm.Areas TurkeyMauritania Papua New Guinea Turks & Caicos IslandsMozambique Paraguay UruguayMyanmar Peru VenezuelaNepal PhilippinesNiger South AfricaRwanda Sri LankaSamoa St Vincent

& GrenadinesSao Tome Suriname& Principe

Annexe 2 71

Least developed Other low Lower middle income Upper middle income High incomecountries income countries and countries and countries and

countries territories territories territoriesSierra Leone SwazilandSolomon Islands SyriaSomalia ThailandSudan TokelauTanzania TongaTogo TunisiaTuvalu UzbekistanUganda Wallis and FutunaVanuatu Yugoslavia, Fed.Rep.YemenZambia

72 Annexe 3

Annexe 3: Achievementsand limits: Approach on aper-sector basis

1. Domestic refrigerationThe main changes, achievements and limits are:

• before CFCs were banned, in domesticrefrigeration the most widely usedrefrigerant used to be CFC12. Starting in1992/1994, developed countries moved tonew refrigerants, particularly HFC134a;

• certain countries have opted forwidespread use of HC600a (isobutane), arefrigerant with no greenhouse effect butwhich is a flammable gas. Hydrocarbon(HC) domestic refrigerators make up 35%of European output [UNEP, 1998].Production of HC refrigerators andfreezers is also increasing in Japan andsouth-east Asia. Now, 10% of domesticrefrigerators worldwide are presumablyhydrocarbon refrigerators [UNEP, 1998];

• manufacturers of insulating foam blowingagents have moved from CFC11 tocyclopentane and to HCFC141b.Theformer is largely utilised in Europe and thelatter in United States and Japan. It isworthwhile to mention that the mass ofblowing agent in a refrigerator isapproximately four times the mass ofrefrigerant. Better insulation means that therefrigerating capacity of the appliance islower and consequently that energydemand is also lower;

• thanks to multilateral funds, manymanufacturers in developing countries haveshifted from CFC12 as a refrigerant toeither HFC134a or hydrocarbons;

• many countries have set up regulations onthe labelling of annual energy consumptionin standardised conditions.These rules haveshifted the purchases of consumerstowards lower energy consumingrefrigerators.This is particularly importantas refrigerators consume about 4% to 5%

of all electricity consumed in developedcountries;

• higher refrigerator energy efficiency hasbeen achieved over the last 30 years.According to AHAM (Association of HomeAppliances Manufacturers), a typical UnitedStates refrigerator-freezer uses 30% of theenergy required by a typical 1972 UnitedStates production model [UNEP, 1998] anda typical new American refrigerator (in1997) consumed 48% less energy than itsancestor manufactured in 1980. Given thatthe 112 million United States refrigeratorsconsume (1997 figures) 151TWh, it can beseen that the benefits, in terms of energysaving, of current achievements in the fieldof energy efficiency, are enormous.

In developed countries, all households haverefrigerators. In developing countries that aremore often than not located in hot regions ofthe world, the refrigerator is rightly consideredto be the one vital appliance everyone needsin order to achieve a satisfactory level ofcomfort and food safety.

2. Commercial refrigerationThe development of supermarkets began 40to 50 years ago.Today, in developed countriesabout 70% of fresh and frozen foods are soldthrough supermarket outlets.The traditionalretail network is rapidly declining, withconsequences on employment and downtownactivity.

The main changes, achievements and limits are:

• small shops (bakers, butchers) are mainlyequipped with self-contained displaycabinets using HFC134a. A few of themuse HFC404A (for low-temperatureapplications) and some of them usehydrocarbons. However, many shops arestill equipped with CFC12 appliances.Thegreat advantage of self-contained cabinetsis the very low leakage rate;

• supermarkets are mainly equipped withcentral machinery rooms.The most

widespread design is a direct system wherethe refrigerant circulates from themachinery room to the display cabinets.The most common refrigerant is nowHFC404A. It has replaced CFC502, CFC12and HCFC22. Other new concepts aredeveloping;

• indirect systems using HFC404A, ammoniaor hydrocarbons in a primary circuit andthen a heat transfer fluid to cool productsin display cabinets. Advantages are a lowrate of leakage of refrigerant and goodcontrol of leakage in the machinery roomequipped with sensors. A drawback isincreased energy consumption due to thedouble heat transfer. Plate exchangers mayreduce this penalty. A number of plantsusing CO2 as a refrigerant or as a heattransfer fluid are operating now;

• in order to reduce the refrigerant charge,another concept consists in severaldistributed small circuits within thesupermarket instead of a single centralisedplant.The refrigerant charge is reduced byalmost 50% in comparison with a centralsystem [UNEP, 1998];

• open display cabinets are taking the leadon closed display cabinets.The main goal isto increase sales.The sustainability of openequipment regarding energy consumptionand product temperatures needs furtherinvestigation. Studies indicate that theenergy consumption of open-type cabinetsis greater than that of glass-door types[Ramin, 2002];

• great improvements in the quality of thecold chain and in the achievement ofbetter levels of food product temperaturehave been obtained.This is of greatimportance: it makes it possible to deliversafe and wholesome foods to consumers.These improvements have been achievedthanks to regulations, standards, regulatorycontrols and consumer awareness.

In this field, the concern is certainly the hugegap between the developed countrydistribution system in which about 50% ofconsumer purchases involve perishableproducts preserved using a high-quality coldchain, and that in developing countries, wherefoods are generally sold in traditional marketswith an almost total lack of refrigeration.Therefore, the loss level is high and losses inquality and safety are also no doubt high.

3. Cold storageCold storage is an important link in the coldchain.The main changes achievements andlimits are:

• before the signature of the MontrealProtocol, the main refrigerants utilisedwere ammonia, CFC502 and HCFC22.Thephase-out of CFCs and the planned phase-out of HCFCs has led to an overallincrease in the use of ammoniarefrigeration, even if regulations vary greatlyfrom one country to another, and aresometimes probably too stringent.HFC404A and HFC507A are also used toreplace CFC502;

• energy efficiency progress has beenachieved thanks to new design (high-risecold stores) and new logistics systems(small doors, rapid opening systems, doubledoors). Cold storage energy consumptionas low as 16 kWh/m3/y instead of anaverage consumption of 60 kWh/ m3/y isquoted [Young, 1997];

• supermarkets have developed new hubsbetween production and delivery.Theconsequence is a very fast rate of vehicleloading, less lorries on the roads and finallya better usage of energy.

Again in this sector, the gap betweendeveloped and developing countries is aconcern. Cold storage in developing countriesis mainly geared to imported refrigeratedfoods (chilled and mainly frozen), with facilitiesin ports and large cities. Cold stores onproduction sites are scarcely equipped and this

Annexe 3 73

is another area of concern.The preservation offoods and the achieving of reductions in post-harvest losses are both essential componentsof sustainable development.

4. Industrial refrigeration • from a refrigerant viewpoint, the situation

encountered in this sector is similar to thatseen in the cold-storage sector.Ten yearsago, ammonia, CFC502 and HCFC22 werethe three common working fluids, withhydrocarbons being used in the chemicalindustry.The phase-out of CFCs andHCFCs means that ammonia has nowbecome the most widely used refrigerantin this field. Ammonia was formerly widelyused in a number of countries, and is nowcommonly used in countries such as theUnited States or Japan where it was littleused until recently. HFC404A is sometimesused even in flooded systems;

• the food processing industry is part ofindustrial refrigeration. As developingcountries have economies largely based onagriculture, promotion of sustainable foodprocesses is to be encouraged both forlocal consumers and exportation.The useof ammonia refrigeration for medium- andlarge-range capacity plants is a sustainableprocess provided training of personnel isorganised.

5.Air-conditioning and heat pumpsUp until its phase-out became compulsorywithin the framework of the MontrealProtocol, HCFC22 was (and still is) the mostwidely used refrigerant in this sector. PureHFCs and mixtures of HFCs have beendeveloped in order to replace HCFC22.

In low- and medium-capacity air conditionersand heat pumps, HFC410A and HFC407C arethe leading refrigerant candidates. HFC410A,due to its higher pressure, needed longercomponent developments than HFC407Cwhich gives pressures similar to those ofHCFC22.

HFC134a is commercialised in large-capacityunitary products (>100 kW). For example, inJapan there has been a substantial shift to non-ODP technologies, with approximately 15% ofJapanese unitary products now using HFCs(HFC407C or HFC410A) [TEAP, 2000].

In the United States, the penetration of non-ODP technologies is expected to increasesignificantly between now (about 5% ofHCFC22 usage was replaced by HFCrefrigerants in 1999) and 2006.

In Europe, the transition from HCFCs to HFCsand to a lesser extent hydrocarbons, isoccurring at a much faster pace as a result ofregulations requiring accelerated HCFC phase-out in new equipment, and at a later stage,also for servicing [TEAP, 2001].

In developing countries, the demand for HCFC22 is likely to rise over the next few years.Hydrocarbon refrigerants are in use in someproduct categories: air-to-water heat pumpsand in air-to-air systems with a very lowcharge.

Carbon dioxide is the focus of significantresearch activities. Challenges in developing air-to-air carbon dioxide systems have been lowoperating efficiencies, high operating pressuresand the availability of components designed forcarbon dioxide systems: compressors,exchangers, etc. [TEAP, 2001].

Significant progress is being achieved in gas-fired absorption technology. Challenges arecost-effectiveness and energy efficiency.

6.Air conditioners (water chillers)Water chillers have a long lifetime. As a result,the shift towards new technologies and newrefrigerants is rather slow.

The vapour compression cycle remains thepredominant technology. Refrigerant choice islinked to the type of compressor and to therefrigerating capacity.

74 Annexe 3

For centrifugal water chillers the purerefrigerants HCFC123 and HFC134a havebeen the leading candidates over the last fewyears.There are discussions about thefavourable global environmental properties ofHCFC123 even if it contains chlorine (but hasa low ODP of 0.014) and if in compliancewith the Montreal Protocol it should bephased-out.

For reciprocating, screw or scroll compressors,depending upon a number of factors,HFC407C, HFC410A, HFC134a and lesscommonly HFC404A, ammonia and propylene[TEAP, 2001] are considered and used inwater chillers.

There is a clear trend to improve the energyefficiency of chillers. Data for the highestefficiency chillers show a 33% reduction inenergy consumption from 1978 to 1998[Bivens, 1999].The United States decision toraise the minimum SEER (Seasonal EnergyEfficiency Ratio) from 10 to 12 and to make iteffective from 2006 will undoubtedlyaccelerate this trend.

Absorption chillers with steam, natural gas orwaste heat as an energy source are alsoavailable.The market for absorption chillers isgreatest in Asia (Japan, China, South Korea) butremains much smaller elsewhere. Challengesare cost effectiveness and energy efficiency.

In developing countries, where chillers are lesswidely used than in developed countries,thanks to technology transfer, the demand forCFCs has decreased markedly [UNEP, 1998].

7.TransportThe main changes, achievements and limits are:

• before the signature of the MontrealProtocol the main refrigerants utilised wereCFC12 for chilled foods and CFC502 andCFC500 for frozen foods. After a shorttransition to HCFC22 and HCFC blends,HFC404A is the main refrigerant in current

use.This refrigerant is popular in this fieldbecause of its flexibility (medium- and low-temperature applications) and its safety.HFC134a is also used, particularly inrefrigerated containers;

• the high GWP of HFC404A may be aconcern due to the high leakage level inrefrigerated transport, even if greatimprovements have been achieved at thislevel. Some developments with HFC410Aand hydrocarbons are quoted;

• the development of multi-temperature andmulti-compartment vehicles allows a betterlevel of loading of vehicles (fewer vehicles,less energy);

• work on energy labelling of refrigeratingunits is under way;

• intermodal transport, and particularly rail-road transport, has expanded only incountries that have made this form oftransport compulsory through regulations.The natural laws governing the markethave not proved sufficient to attract users.Cost and insufficient flexibility are the twodrawbacks of rail-road intermodalrefrigerated transport;

• here again, good improvements in cold-chain quality have been achieved.Thedevelopment of temperature recorders hasprovided a useful tool making it possible tomonitor temperatures during journeys(time-temperature history);

• marine refrigerated transport is expandingat the rate of 5% per year [Stera, 1999];

• air transportation of perishable products isalso expanding. Considering that eachtonne of freight moved by plane uses 49times as much energy per kilometre thanwhen it is moved by ship [French, 1999], athorough comparison between slowmarine transport with high-qualitypreservation processes and rapid airtransport should be made.

Developing countries have poor refrigeratedroad and rail transport networks and this isanother area requiring addressing.Furthermore, refrigerated transport

Annexe 3 75

equipment is rather expensive and needs awell-structured maintenance network whichmore often than not is unavailable indeveloping countries.

8. Mobile air-conditioningThe main changes, achievements and limits are:

• since 1995, in developed countries, all newair-conditioned cars have been utilisingHFC134a instead of CFC12;

• a lot has been done in order to reduceboth refrigerant charges and emissions. Interms of global warming, new air-conditioning systems have an impact whichis far lower than that of the air-conditioningsystems before 1995, due to the shift fromCFC12 to HFC134a which has a GWPwhich is one-sixth of that of CFC12 anddue to great improvements in tightness ofequipment.The 1998 UNEP Report[UNEP, 1998] gives the following example:before 1994 when CFC12 was used, totalneeds during the lifetime of a car werecalculated as being four times the meancharge, that is 4.72 kg of CFC12.Today,CFC12 has been replaced with an HFC-refrigerant (HFC134a) and thanks toimproved designs the total needs areestimated as being 1.26 to 1.92 times theinitial charge, that is 1.15 to 1.75 kg ofHFC134a. In terms of emissions expressedin CO2 equivalents, new vehicles emit only4% to 7% of the emissions of pre-1994vehicles (4.72 x 8100 = 38 230 kg of CO2for CFC12 and 1638 to 2496 kg of CO2per year for HFC134a);

• new designs have been explored forseveral years: transcritical carbon dioxidesystems and hydrocarbons with or withoutthe use of a secondary coolant loop. Bothof these systems need additional studiesand development.The critical point will beenergy consumption, this being crucial inorder to preserve natural resources and toreduce carbon dioxide emissions.

76 Annexe 3

Annexe 4: Presentation ofthe International Instituteof Refrigeration (IIR)The International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR)is a scientific and technical intergovernmentalorganisation enabling pooling of scientific andindustrial know-how in all refrigeration fieldson a worldwide scale.

Its mission is to promote progress andexpansion of knowledge and to disseminateinformation on refrigeration and air-conditioning technology and applications forthe benefit of humanity. IIR is committed toimproving both quality of life and theenvironment in which we live.

Members of IIR include member countries (ofwhich there are 61). Member countries takepart in IIR activities via the commissionmembers they select.There are also other IIRmembers: associate members, collective(corporate) or benefactor members(companies, laboratories, universities) orprivate (individual) members.

IIR provides its members with tailored servicesmeeting a wide range of member-country,national and international organisation, decisionmakers’, researchers’ and refrigerationpractitioners’ needs.

Its most important services are:

• networking with specialists and expertsworldwide,

• access to the IIR Web site which provides awide range of services and information,

• the Fridoc database specialised in the fullspectrum of refrigeration fields (over60,000 entries),

• conferences and congresses,• recommendations,• working parties and workshops,• training designed to meet users’ needs,• information resources.

• Publications:- Bulletin of the IIR,- International Journal of Refrigeration: this

journal is focused on new technology,- IIR Newsletter,- Technical books and manuals,- Conference and congress proceedings,- IIR informatory notes on major current

refrigeration-related issues.

The structure of IIR comprises the generalconference, which brings together membercountrys’ delegations every four years; theexecutive committee and the managementcommittee that manage IIR between meetingsof the general conference.The scientific councilcoordinates the scientific and technicalactivities of IIR’s five sections and tencommissions.

The bylaws of IIR as an intergovernmentalorganisation were defined by an InternationalAgreement signed on 1 December 1954, andan Application Protocol signed on 20November 1956.

The IIR Strategic Plan 2000-2003, endorsedduring the XXth IIR International Congress ofRefrigeration in Sydney, Australia, defines theguidelines governing IIR activities over thecoming years.

Annexe 4 77

78 Refrigeration

Refrigeration 79

80 Refrigeration

• consulting engineering• electricity• fertilizer• finance and insurance• food and drink• information and

communications technology• iron and steel

• oil and gas• railways• refrigeration• road transport• tourism• waste management• water management

• accounting• advertising• aluminium• automotive• aviation• chemicals• coal• construction

UNEP contribution to the World Summit on Sustainable Development

The mission of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is to provide leadership andencourage partnerships in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations andpeoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations. The UNEPDivision of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE) contributes to the UNEP mission byencouraging decision-makers in government, business, and industry develop and adopt policies, strategiesand practices that are cleaner and safer, make efficient use of natural resources, ensure adequatemanagement of chemicals, incorporate environmental costs, and reduce pollution and risks for humansand the environment.

This report is part of a series facilitated by UNEP DTIE as a contribution to the World Summit onSustainable Development. UNEP DTIE provided a report outline based on Agenda 21 to interestedindustrial sectors and co-ordinated a consultation process with relevant stakeholders. In turn,participating industry sectors committed themselves to producing an honest account of performanceagainst sustainability goals.

The full set of reports is available from UNEP DTIE’s web site (http://www.uneptie.org/wssd/), whichgives further details on the process and the organisations that made it possible.The following is a list ofrelated outputs from this process, all of which are available from UNEP both in electronic version andhardcopy:

- industry sectoral reports, including

- a compilation of executive summaries of the industry sectoral reports above;- an overview report by UNEP DTIE;- a CD-ROM including all of the above documents.

UNEP DTIE is also contributing the following additional products:- a joint WBCSD/WRI/UNEP publication entitled Tomorrow’s Markets: Global Trends and Their

Implications for Business, presenting the imperative for sustainable business practices;- a joint WB/UNEP report on innovative finance for sustainability, which highlights new and effective

financial mechanisms to address pressing environmental, social and developmental issues;- two extraordinary issues of UNEP DTIE’s quarterly Industry and Environment review, addressing key

regional industry issues and the broader sustainable development agenda.

More generally, UNEP will be contributing to the World Summit on Sustainable Development withvarious other products, including:- the Global Environmental Outlook 3 (GEO 3), UNEP’s third state of the environment assessment

report;- a special issue of UNEP’s Our Planet magazine for World Environment Day, with a focus on the

International Year of Mountains;- the UNEP photobook Focus on Your World, with the best images from the Third International

Photographic Competition on the Environment.

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http://www.uneptie.org/wssd/),

http://www.uneptie.org/wssd/

For further information contact:

International Institute of Refrigeration/Institut International du Froid (IIR/IIF)177 boulevard Malesherbes75017 ParisFranceTel: +33 1 42 27 32 35Fax: +33 1 47 63 17 98 E-mail: [email protected] site: http://www.iifiir.org

United Nations Environment ProgrammeDivision of Technology, Industry and Economics39-43 Quai André Citroën75739 Paris Cedex 15FranceTel: +33 1 44 37 14 50Fax: +33 1 44 37 14 74E-mail: [email protected] site: http://www.uneptie.org/wssd/

Sustainability profile of the Refrigeration industry

• Achievements- A marked reduction in the production and consumption of CFC and then HCFC refrigerants, a process involving all

refrigeration stakeholders, has since 2000 been reversing the previously ever-rising stratospheric chlorineconcentration, responsible for ozone depletion.

- Major developments in the cold chain – equipment design optimisation, traceability of foods, consumer information– are enabling sustainable preservation of foods in industrialised countries.

- In the health field, refrigeration is making a major contribution to sustainable health policy, notably in theimmunisation of populations against infectious diseases thanks to refrigerated vaccine storage in the developing countries.

• Unfinished business- The refrigeration sector’s energy efficiency and alternative refrigerant-development initiatives must continue: they are

protecting the environment and preventing global warming.- Actions designed to reduce refrigerant emissions leakage throughout the plant life cycle must be expanded.- Heat pump technology, which is an efficient tool enabling reductions in energy consumption, must be more

widely diffused.

• Future challenges and possible commitments- To develop more environmentally-friendly, energy-efficient vapour-compression systems with ambitious objectives:

reduction of energy consumption by 30-50 %, and reduction of refrigerant leakage by 50%.- To further develop promising non-vapour compression refrigeration technologies and applications including

absorption and adsorption, solar refrigeration, desiccant technology, trigeneration, cryogenics and many others.- To make refrigeration widely available in developing countries in order to set up viable cold chains, reduce food

losses, and encourage environmentally-friendly technology through technology transfer and increased trainingprovided by developed countries.

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