Reinforcement theory

Reinforcement.

– The administration of a consequence as a

result of a behavior.

– Proper management of reinforcement can

change the direction, level, and persistence of

an individual’s behavior.

Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement Theory

Law of effect.– Theoretical basis for manipulating

consequences of behavior.

– Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is likely to be repeated while behavior that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated.

Reinforcement Theory

Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod).– The systematic reinforcement of desirable

work behavior and the nonreinforcement or punishment of unwanted work behavior.

– Uses four basic strategies:• Positive reinforcement.• Negative reinforcement.• Punishment.• Extinction.

Reinforcement Theory

Positive reinforcement.– The administration of positive consequences

to increase the likelihood of repeating the desired behavior in similar settings.

– Rewards are not necessarily positive reinforcers.

– A reward is a positive reinforcer only if the behavior improves.

Reinforcement Theory

Principles governing reinforcement.

– Law of contingent reinforcement.

• The reward must be delivered only if the desired

behavior is exhibited.

– Law of immediate reinforcement.

• The reward must be given as soon as possible

after the desired behavior is exhibited.

Reinforcement Theory

Scheduling reinforcement.– Continuous reinforcement.

• Administers a reward each time the desired behavior occurs.

– Intermittent reinforcement.• Rewards behavior periodically — either on

the basis of time elapsed or the number of desired behaviors exhibited.

Reinforcement Theory

Negative reinforcement.

– Also known as avoidance.

– The withdrawal of negative consequences to

increase the likelihood of repeating the

desired behavior in a similar setting.

Reinforcement Theory

Punishment.

– The administration of negative consequences

or the withdrawal of positive consequences to

reduce the likelihood of repeating the

behavior in similar settings.

Reinforcement Theory

Implications of using punishment.– Punishing poor performance enhances

performance without affecting satisfaction.

– Arbitrary punishment leads to poor performance and low satisfaction.

– Punishment may be offset by positive reinforcement from another source.

Reinforcement Theory

Extinction.– The withdrawal of the reinforcing

consequences for a given behavior.– The behavior is not unlearned; it simply is not

exhibited.– The behavior will reappear if it is reinforced

again.

Reinforcement Theory

Equity Theory and Social Comparison

Workers are more likely to be motivated when they have ratios equal to those of the comparison person or persons.

Outcomes of Individual versus Outcomes of Others

Inputs of Individual Inputs of Others

When the ratio is not right, the worker might attempt to alter the outcome, input, or just leave.

INPUTS OUTCOMES

Examples of Inputs and Outcomes in Organizations

Age

Attendance

Interpersonal skills, communication skills

Job effort (long hours)

Level of education

Past experience

Challenging job assignments

Fringe benefits

Job perquisites (parking space or office location)

Job security

Monotony

Promotion

INPUTS OUTCOMES

Examples of Inputs and Outcomes in Organizations (continued)

Performance

Personal appearance

Seniority

Social status

Technical skills

Training

Recognition

Responsibility

Salary

Seniority benefits

Status symbols

Working conditions

Equity Theory

Equity Outcomes = Outcomes Inputs Inputs

Negative Outcomes < Outcomes Inequity Inputs Inputs

Positive Outcomes > Outcomes Inequity Inputs Inputs

Person Comparison other

Inequity as a Motivational Process

Individualperceivesinequity

Individualexperiences

tension

Individualwants toreducetension

Individualtakesaction

Actually change inputs

Actually change outcomes

Mentally distort inputs or outcomes

Leave organization or transfer to another department

Change the reference group

Distort others’ inputs or outcomes

Ways to Reduce TensionProduced by Inequity

Emphasizes processes used to reach a decisionFocuses on fairness of rules and proceduresFair procedures lead to high job satisfaction

and performance

Emphasizes processes used to reach a decisionFocuses on fairness of rules and proceduresFair procedures lead to high job satisfaction

and performance

Procedural Justice

Employees going beyond what is formally required by the job

Focus on fair exchanges among employees

Employees going beyond what is formally required by the job

Focus on fair exchanges among employees

Organizational Citizenship Behavior

Decision-making Using Equity Theory

Organizational Usesof the Equity Model

Treat employees fairly

People make decisions concerning equity after comparing themselves with others

Procedural justice influences perceptions of organizational fairness

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

• People strive for worthwhile outcomes.• Expectancy is a subjective hunch ( 0 to 1) about

attaining performance.• Instrumentality is a subjective hunch (0 to 1) that

rewards will follow performance.• Valence (- 100 to +100) is the importance of

outcome.• Motivation = E x I x V. (A zero for any value will

eliminate motivation.)

Basic Assumptions of theExpectancy Model

A combination of forces determines behavior

Individuals decide their own behaviors inorganizations

Different individuals have different needsand goals, and want different rewards

Individuals decide among alternatives basedon their perceptions

First-level outcomes—results of doing the job

Second-level outcomes—positive or negative events produced by first-level outcomes

Expectancy—effort-performance belief

Instrumentality—relationship between first-level and second-level outcomes.

Valence—preference for a second-level outcome

Key Variables in theExpectancy Model

Expectancy Model in Action

EffortAttend classStudyTake notesPrepare for exams

Performance:Grade in Class

A B C D F

Self-confidence

First-level Outcomes Second-level Outcomes

Self-esteem

Personal happiness

Overall GPA

Approval of others

Respect of others

Expectancy

Instrumentality

Expectancy Theory

Accurate measurement of effort is difficult

Importance of second-level outcomes hard to determine

Assumption that motivation is a conscious choice process

Potential Problems of theExpectancy Model

Works best in cultures that emphasize internal attribution(e.g. Canada, U.S.A., U.K.) rather than fatalism (e.g.Brazil, Iran, China)

Organizational Uses of theExpectancy Model

Determine outcomes that each employee values

Define measurable performance levels

Ensure that desired performance can be attained

Link desired performance and employees’ outcomes

Remember that motivation is based on perceptions

Make sure changes in rewards are linked toemployee’s effort

Goal Theory

1.Specific goals are better than generalized goals.

2.Performance increases with goal difficulty.

3.Worker must accept the goal.

4.Goals are more effective when used to evaluate performance.

Goal Theory, continued

5. Goals should be linked to feedback and rewards.

6. Deadlines improve goal effectiveness.

7. Learning goal orientation better than performance goal orientation.

8. Group goal setting is as important as individual goal setting.

Important Goal Characteristics

SPECIFIC GOALS

DIFFICULT GOALS

FEEDBACK ONPROGRESS

COMPETITION

PARTICIPATIONIN GOAL SETTING

MOTIVATION

GOALACCEPTANCE

GOALCOMMITMENT

Management by ObjectivesManagement by Objectives

• Management by objectives (MBO) is a motivational technique in which the manager and employee work together to set employee goals.

• MBO combines many key goal setting principles, including setting of specific goals, participation in goal setting, and feedback on performance.

• MBO may be difficult and time consuming to implement, and may encourage focus on easily-quantifiable goals.

• 68 of 70 major studies showed MBO to result in productivity gains.