Indian religions

This article is about the religions that originated in theIndian subcontinent. For religious demographics of theRepublic of India, see Religion in India.

Indian religions, also termed as Dharmic faiths or re-ligions, are the religions that originated in the Indiansubcontinent; namely Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism andSikhism.[web 1][note 1] These religions are also classified asEastern religions. Although Indian religions are con-nected through the history of India, they constitute a widerange of religious communities, and are not confined tothe Indian subcontinent.[web 1]

Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the In-dian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rockpaintings. The Harappan people of the Indus ValleyCivilisation, which lasted from 3300 to 1300 BCE (ma-ture period, 2600–1900 BCE), was an early urbanisedculture which predates the Vedic religion.[1]

The documented history of Indian religions begins withthe historical Vedic religion, the religious practices ofthe early Indo-Iranians, which were collected and laterredacted into the Vedas. The period of the composi-tion, redaction and commentary of these texts is knownas the Vedic period, which lasted from roughly 1750 to500 BCE.[2] This religion was closely related to earlyZoroastrianism and its liturgical language, Vedic San-skrit, was intelligible with Avestan.The Reform Period between 800–200 BCE marks a“turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindureligions”.[3] The Shramana movement, an ancient In-dian religious movement parallel to but separate fromVedic tradition, gave rise to Jainism[4] and Buddhism,[5]and was responsible for the related concepts of Yoga,[6]saṃsāra (the cycle of birth and death) andmoksha (liber-ation from that cycle).[7] This period also saw the writingof the Upanishads and the rise of Vedanta.The Puranic Period (200 BCE – 500 CE) and Early Me-dieval period (500–1100 CE) gave rise to new config-urations of Hinduism, especially bhakti and Shaivism,Shaktism, Vaishnavism, Smarta and much smaller groupslike the conservative Shrauta.The early Islamic period (1100–1500 CE) also gave riseto newmovements. Sikhismwas founded in the 15th cen-tury on the teachings of Guru Nanak and the nine succes-sive Sikh Gurus in Northern India.[web 2] The vast major-ity of its adherents originate in the Punjab region.With the colonial dominance of the British a

reinterpretation and synthesis of Hinduism arose,which aided the Indian independence movement.

1 History

See also: Outline of South Asian history, History ofIndia, History of Hinduism and History of Buddhism

1.1 Periodisation

Main article: Periodisation of Hinduism

JamesMill (1773–1836), in his The History of British In-dia (1817), distinguished three phases in the history of In-dia, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations. Thisperiodisation has been criticised, for the misconceptionsit has given rise to. Another periodisation is the divisioninto “ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods”,although this periodization has also received criticism.[8]

Romila Thapar notes that the division of Hindu-Muslim-British periods of Indian history gives too much weightto “ruling dynasties and foreign invasions,”[9] neglectingthe social-economic history which often showed a strongcontinuity.[9] The division in Ancient-Medieval-Modernoverlooks the fact that the Muslim-conquests took placebetween the eight and the fourteenth century, while thesouth was never completely conquered.[9] According toThapar, a periodisation could also be based on “signifi-cant social and economic changes,” which are not strictlyrelated to a change of ruling powers.[10][note 2]

Smart and Michaels seem to follow Mill’s periodisation,while Flood and Muesse follow the “ancient, classical,mediaeval and modern periods” periodisation. An elab-orate periodisation may be as follows:[11]

• Pre-history and Indus Valley Civilisation (until c.1750 BCE);

• Vedic period (c. 1750-500 BCE);

• “Second Urbanisation” (c. 500-200 BCE);

• Classical period (c. 200 BCE-1100 CE);[note 3] Jain-ism and Buddhism. For Smart, the “classical pe-riod” lasts from 100 to 1000 CE, and coincides with

1

2 1 HISTORY

the flowering of “classical Hinduism” and the flow-ering and deterioration of Mahayana-buddhism inIndia.[12]

• For Michaels, the period between 500 BCE and 200BCE is a time of “Ascetic reformism”,[13] whereasthe period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is thetime of “classical Hinduism”, since there is “a turn-ing point between the Vedic religion and Hindureligions”.[3]

• Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namelybetween 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he callsthe “Classical Period”. According to Muesse, someof the fundamental concepts of Hinduism, namelykarma, reincarnation and “personal enlightenmentand transformation”, which did not exist in the Vedicreligion, developed in this time.[14]</ref>

• Pre-classical period (c. 200 BCE-300CE);

• “Golden Age” (Gupta Empire) (c. 320-650 CE);

• Late-Classical period (c. 650-1100 CE);

• Islamic period (c. 1100-1850 CE) and beginning ofwestern colonialism (c. 1500-1850);

• Modern period (British Raj and independence)(from c. 1850).

1.2 Prevedic religions (before c. 1750BCE)

1.2.1 Prehistory

Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the In-dian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rockpaintings such as at Bhimbetka, depicting dances andrituals. Neolithic agriculturalists inhabiting the IndusRiver Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestiveof spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an af-terlife and belief in magic.[15] Other South Asian StoneAge sites, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in centralMadhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of easternKarnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites andevidence of possible ritualised music.[web 3]

1.2.2 Indus Valley Civilisation

Further information: Prehistoric religion

The religion and belief system of the Indus valley peo-ple have received considerable attention, especially fromthe view of identifying precursors to deities and religiouspractices of Indian religions that later developed in the

“Priest King” of Indus Valley Civilisation

The so-called Pashupati seal, showing a seated and possiblyithyphallic figure, surrounded by animals.

area. However, due to the sparsity of evidence, which isopen to varying interpretations, and the fact that the Indusscript remains undeciphered, the conclusions are partlyspeculative and largely based on a retrospective view froma much later Hindu perspective.[16][17] An early and influ-ential work in the area that set the trend for Hindu inter-pretations of archaeological evidence from the Harrapansites[18] was that of JohnMarshall, who in 1931 identifiedthe following as prominent features of the Indus religion:a Great Male God and a Mother Goddess; deification or

1.2 Prevedic religions (before c. 1750 BCE) 3

veneration of animals and plants; symbolic representationof the phallus (linga) and vulva (yoni); and, use of bathsand water in religious practice. Marshall’s interpretationshave been much debated, and sometimes disputed overthe following decades.[19][20]

One Indus valley seal shows a seated, possibly ithyphallicand tricephalic, figure with a horned headdress, sur-rounded by animals. Marshall identified the figure as anearly form of the Hindu god Shiva (or Rudra), who is as-sociated with asceticism, yoga, and linga; regarded as alord of animals; and often depicted as having three eyes.The seal has hence come to be known as the PashupatiSeal, after Pashupati (lord of all animals), an epithet ofShiva.[19][21]WhileMarshall’s work has earned some sup-port, many critics and even supporters have raised sev-eral objections. Doris Srinivasan has argued that thefigure does not have three faces, or yogic posture, andthat in Vedic literature Rudra was not a protector of wildanimals.[22][23] Herbert Sullivan and Alf Hiltebeitel alsorejected Marshall’s conclusions, with the former claim-ing that the figure was female, while the latter associ-ated the figure with Mahisha, the Buffalo God and thesurrounding animals with vahanas (vehicles) of deitiesfor the four cardinal directions.[24][25] Writing in 2002,Gregory L. Possehl concluded that while it would be ap-propriate to recognise the figure as a deity, its associationwith the water buffalo, and its posture as one of ritualdiscipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would be goingtoo far.[21] Despite the criticisms of Marshall’s associa-tion of the seal with a proto-Shiva icon, it has been inter-preted as the Tirthankara Rishabha by Jains & Dr. VilasSangave[26] or an early Buddha by Buddhists.[18] Histo-rians like Heinrich Zimmer, Thomas McEvilley are ofthe opinion that there exists some link between first JainTirthankara Rishabha & Indus Valley civilisation.[27][28]

Marshall hypothesized the existence of a cult of MotherGoddess worship based upon excavation of several fe-male figurines, and thought that this was a precursor ofthe Hindu sect of Shaktism. However the function ofthe female figurines in the life of Indus Valley peopleremains unclear, and Possehl does not regard the evi-dence forMarshall’s hypothesis to be “terribly robust”.[29]Some of the baetyls interpreted by Marshall to be sa-cred phallic representations are now thought to have beenused as pestles or game counters instead, while the ringstones that were thought to symbolise yoni were deter-mined to be architectural features used to stand pillars, al-though the possibility of their religious symbolism cannotbe eliminated.[30] Many Indus Valley seals show animals,with some depicting them being carried in processions,while others show chimeric creations. One seal fromMohen-jodaro shows a half-human, half-buffalo mon-ster attacking a tiger, which may be a reference to theSumerian myth of such a monster created by goddessAruru to fight Gilgamesh.[31]

In contrast to contemporary Egyptian andMesopotamiancivilisations, Indus valley lacks any monumental palaces,

even though excavated cities indicate that the society pos-sessed the requisite engineering knowledge.[32][33] Thismay suggest that religious ceremonies, if any, may havebeen largely confined to individual homes, small temples,or the open air. Several sites have been proposed byMar-shall and later scholars as possibly devoted to religiouspurpose, but at present only the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro is widely thought to have been so used, as a placefor ritual purification.[29][34] The funerary practices of theHarappan civilisation is marked by its diversity with evi-dence of supine burial; fractional burial in which the bodyis reduced to skeletal remains by exposure to the elementsbefore final interment; and even cremation. [35][36]

1.2.3 Dravidian culture

See also: South India, Dravidian peoples, Native Dra-vidian religion and Dravidian languages

The early Dravidian religion constituted of non-Vedicform of Hinduism in that they were either historicallyor are at present Āgamic. The Agamas are non-vedicin origin[37] and have been dated either as post-vedictexts.[38] or as pre-vedic oral compositions.[39] The Aga-mas are a collection of Tamil and later Sanskrit scriptureschiefly constituting the methods of temple constructionand creation of murti, worship means of deities, philo-sophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment ofsixfold desires and four kinds of yoga.[40] The worshipof tutelary deity, sacred flora and fauna in Hinduism isalso recognized as a survival of the pre-Vedic Dravidianreligion.[41]

Ancient Tamil grammatical works Tolkappiyam, the tenanthologies Pattuppāṭṭu, the eight anthologies Eṭṭuttokaialso sheds light on early religion of ancient Dravidi-ans. Seyon was glorified as, the red god seated onthe blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent,as the favored god of the Tamils.[42] Sivan was alsoseen as the supreme God.[42] Early iconography ofSeyyon[43] and Sivan[44][45][46][47][48] and their associa-tion with native flora and fauna goes back to Indus Val-ley Civilization.[44][46][49][50][51][52][53] The Sangam land-scape was classified into five categories, thinais, basedon the mood, the season and the land. Tolkappiyam,mentions that each of these thinai had an associated de-ity such Seyyon in Kurinji-the hills, Thirumaal in Mul-lai-the forests, and Kotravai inMarutham-the plains, andWanji-ko in the Neithal-the coasts and the seas. Othergods mentioned were Mayyon and Vaali who were allassimilated into Hinduism over time. Dravidian linguis-tic influence[54] on early Vedic religion is evident, manyof these features are already present in the oldest knownIndo-Aryan language, the language of the Rigveda (c.1500 BCE),[54] which also includes over a dozen wordsborrowed from Dravidian.[55] [56] This represents an earlyreligious and cultural fusion[57][note 4] or synthesis[59] be-tween ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, which be-

4 1 HISTORY

Saga Agastya, father of Tamil literature.

came more evident over time with sacred iconography,traditions, philosophy, flora and fauna that went on toinfluence Hinduism, Buddhism, Charvaka, Sramana andJainism[60][58][61][62]

Typical layout of Dravidian architecture which evolved fromkoyil as kings residence.

Throughout Tamilakam, a king was considered to be di-vine by nature and possessed religious significance.[63]The king was 'the representative of God on earth’ andlived in a “koyil”, which means the “residence of a god”.The Modern Tamil word for temple is koil. Titual wor-ship was also given to kings.[64][65] Modern words forgod like “kō” (“king”), “iṟai” (“emperor”) and “āṇḍavar”( “conqueror”) now primarily refer to gods. These el-ements were incorporated later into Hinduism like thelegendary marriage of Shiva to Queen Mīnātchi whoruled Madurai or Wanji-ko, a god who later merged into

Indra.[66] Tolkappiyar refers to the Three Crowned Kingsas the “Three Glorified by Heaven”.[67] In the Dravidian-speaking South, the concept of divine kingship led to theassumption of major roles by state and temple.[68]

The cult of the mother goddess is treated as an indi-cation of a society which venerated femininity. Thismother goddess was conceived as a virgin, one whohas given birth to all and one, typically associated withShaktism.[69] The temples of the Sangam days, mainlyof Madurai, seem to have had priestesses to the de-ity, which also appear predominantly a goddess.[70] Inthe Sangam literature, there is an elaborate descriptionof the rites performed by the Kurava priestess in theshrine Palamutircholai.[71] Among the early Dravidiansthe practice of erecting memorial stones “Natukal orHero Stone had appeared, and it continued for quite along time after the Sangam age, down to about 16thcentury.[72] It was customary for people who sought vic-tory in war to worship these hero stones to bless themwithvictory.[73]

1.3 Vedic period (1750-800 BCE)

Main articles: Vedic period and Historical Vedic religionSee also: Proto-Indo-European religion and Proto-Indo-Iranian religion

The documented history of Indian religions begins withthe historical Vedic religion, the religious practices ofthe early Indo-Aryans, which were collected and laterredacted into the Samhitas (usually known as the Vedas),four canonical collections of hymns or mantras composedin archaic Sanskrit. These texts are the central shruti (re-vealed) texts of Hinduism. The period of the composi-tion, redaction and commentary of these texts is knownas the Vedic period, which lasted from roughly 1750 to500 BCE.[2]

The Vedic Period is most significant for the compositionof the four Vedas, Brahmanas and the older Upanishads(both presented as discussions on the rituals, mantras andconcepts found in the four Vedas), which today are someof the most important canonical texts of Hinduism, andare the codification of much of what developed into thecore beliefs of Hinduism.[74]

Some modern Hindu scholars use the “Vedic reli-gion” synonymously with “Hinduism.”[75] According toSundararajan, Hinduism is also known as the Vedicreligion.[76] Other authors state that the Vedas con-tain “the fundamental truths about Hindu Dharma”[77]which is called “the modern version of the ancient VedicDharma”[78] The Arya Samajis recognize the Vedic re-ligion as true Hinduism.[79] Nevertheless, according toJamison and Witzel,

... to call this period Vedic Hinduismis a contradiction in terms since Vedic reli-

1.4 Sanskritization 5

gion is very different from what we gener-ally call Hindu religion – at least as muchas Old Hebrew religion is from medievaland modern Christian religion. However,Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor ofHinduism.”[74][note 5]

1.3.1 Early Vedic period – early Vedic compositions(c. 1750–1200 BCE)

Main articles: Vedas and Samhitas

The rishis, the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda,were considered inspired poets and seers.[note 6]

The mode of worship was the performance of Yajna, sac-rifices which involved sacrifice and sublimation of the ha-vana sámagri (herbal preparations) in the fire, accompa-nied by the singing of Samans and 'mumbling' of Yajus,the sacrificial mantras. The sublime meaning of the wordyajna is derived from the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has athree-fold meaning of worship of deities (devapujana),unity (saògatikaraña) and charity (dána).[81] An essentialelement was the sacrificial fire – the divine Agni – intowhich oblations were poured, as everything offered intothe fire was believed to reach God.Central concepts in the Vedas are Satya and Rta. Satya isderived from Sat, the present participle of the verbal rootas, “to be, to exist, to live”.[82] Sat means “that which re-ally exists [...] the really existent truth; the Good”,[82]and Sat-ya means “is-ness”.[83] Rta, “that which is prop-erly joined; order, rule; truth”, is the principle of naturalorder which regulates and coordinates the operation ofthe universe and everything within it.[84] “Satya (truth asbeing) and rita (truth as law) are the primary principlesof Reality and its manifestation is the background of thecanons of dharma, or a life of righteousness.”[85] “Satyais the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute, ritais its application and function as the rule and order op-erating in the universe.”[86] Conformity with Ṛta wouldenable progress whereas its violation would lead to pun-ishment. Panikkar remarks:

Ṛta is the ultimate foundation of every-thing; it is “the supreme”, although this is notto be understood in a static sense. [...] It is theexpression of the primordial dynamism that isinherent in everything....”[87]

The term rta is inherited from the Proto-Indo-Iranian re-ligion, the religion of the Indo-Iranian peoples prior tothe earliest Vedic (Indo-Aryan) and Zoroastrian (Iranian)scriptures. "Asha" is the Avestan language term (corre-sponding to Vedic language ṛta) for a concept of cardinalimportance[88] to Zoroastrian theology and doctrine. Theterm “dharma” was already used in Brahmanical thought,were it was conceived as an aspect of Rta.[89]

Major philosophers of this era were Rishis Narayana,Kanva, Rishaba, Vamadeva, and Angiras.[90]

1.3.2 Middle Vedic period (c. 1200–850 BCE)

See also: Painted Grey Ware culture

During the Middle Vedic period Rgveda X, themantras of the Yajurveda and the older Brahmana textswere composed.[91] The Brahmans became powerfulintermediairies.[92]

1.3.3 Late Vedic period (from 850 BCE)

The Vedic religion evolved into Hinduism and Vedanta,a religious path considering itself the 'essence' of theVedas, interpreting the Vedic pantheon as a unitaryview of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as im-manent and transcendent in the forms of Ishvara andBrahman. This post-Vedic systems of thought, along withthe Upanishads and later texts like epics (namely Gitaof Mahabharat), is a major component of modern Hin-duism. The ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are pre-served in the conservative Śrauta tradition.

1.4 Sanskritization

Main article: Sanskritization

Since Vedic times, “people from many strata of soci-ety throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their re-ligious and social life to Brahmanic norms”, a processsometimes called Sanskritization.[93] It is reflected in thetendency to identify local deities with the gods of the San-skrit texts.[93]

1.5 Shramanic period (c. 800–200 BCE)

During the time of the shramanic reform movements“many elements of the Vedic religion were lost”.[3] Ac-cording to Michaels, “it is justified to see a turning pointbetween the Vedic religion and Hindu religions”.[3]

1.5.1 Late Vedic period – Brahmanas and Upan-ishads – Vedanta (850–500 BCE)

Main articles: Brahmanas, Upanishads and Vedanta

The late Vedic period (9th to 6th centuries BCE)marks the beginning of the Upanisadic or Vedanticperiod.[web 4][note 7][94][note 8] This period heralded the be-ginning of much of what became classical Hinduism,with the composition of the Upanishads,[95]:183 later theSanskrit epics, still later followed by the Puranas.

6 1 HISTORY

Statue of a standing Bodhisattva.

Upanishads form the speculative-philosophical basis ofclassical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta (conclusionof the Vedas).[96] The older Upanishads launched attacksof increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who wor-ships a divinity other than the Self is called a domesticanimal of the gods in the BrihadaranyakaUpanishad. TheMundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritualby comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafeboat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death.[97]

Scholars believe that Parsva, the 23rd Jain tirthankaralived during this period in the 9th century BCE.[98]

A statue of Mahavira.

Hindu Swastika

1.5.2 Rise of Shramanic tradition (7th to 5th cen-turies BCE)

See also: Shramana and Magadha

Jainism and Buddhism belong to the sramana tradition.These religions rose into prominence in 700–500 BCE

1.5 Shramanic period (c. 800–200 BCE) 7

[4][5][6] in the Magadha kingdom., reflecting “the cosmol-ogy and anthropology of a much older, pre-Aryan upperclass of northeastern India”,[99] and were responsible forthe related concepts of saṃsāra (the cycle of birth anddeath) and moksha (liberation from that cycle).[7][note 9]

The shramana movements challenged theorthodoxy of the rituals.[100] The shra-manas were wandering ascetics distinct fromVedism.[101][102][note 10][103][note 11][104][note 12] Mahavira,proponent of Jainism, and Buddha (c. 563-483), founderof Buddhism were the most prominent icons of thismovement.Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birthand death, the concept of samsara, and the concept ofliberation.[105][note 13][106][note 14][107][note 15][note 16] The in-fluence of Upanishads on Buddhism has been a sub-ject of debate among scholars. While Radhakrishnan,Oldenberg and Neumann were convinced of Upanishadicinfluence on the Buddhist canon, Eliot and Thomashighlighted the points where Buddhism was opposed toUpanishads.[109] Buddhism may have been influenced bysome Upanishadic ideas, it however discarded their or-thodox tendencies.[110] In Buddhist texts Buddha is pre-sented as rejecting avenues of salvation as “perniciousviews”.[111]

Jainism Main articles: Mahavira, Jainism, Timelineof Jainism and Jain community

Jainism was established by a lineage of 24 enlightenedbeings culminating with Parsva (9th century BCE) andMahavira (6th century BCE).[112][note 17]

The 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, Mahavira, stressedfive vows, including ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truth-fulness), asteya (non-stealing) and aparigraha (non-attachment). Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of theTirthankaras predates all known time and scholars believeParshva, accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara, was ahistorical figure. The Vedas are believed to have docu-mented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similarto the shramana movement.[113][note 18]

Buddhism Main articles: Gautama Buddha,Buddhism, Early Buddhism, Pre-sectarian Buddhism,History of Buddhism and History of Buddhism in India

Buddhism was historically founded by Siddhartha Gau-tama, a Kshatriya prince-turned-ascetic, and was spreadbeyond India through missionaries. It later experienced adecline in India, but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka, andremains more widespread in Southeast and East Asia.Gautama Buddha, who was called an “awakened one”(Buddha), was born into the Shakya clan living atKapilavastu and Lumbini in what is now southern Nepal.

The Buddha was born at Lumbini, as emperor Ashoka'sLumbini pillar records, just before the kingdom ofMagadha (which traditionally is said to have lasted fromc. 546–324 BCE) rose to power. The Shakyas claimedAngirasa and Gautama Maharishi lineage,[114] via de-scent from the royal lineage of Ayodhya.Buddhism emphasises enlightenment (nibbana, nirvana)and liberation from the rounds of rebirth. This objectiveis pursued through two schools, Theravada, the Way ofthe Elders (practised in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, SEAsia, etc.) and Mahayana, the Greater Way (practisedin Tibet, China, Japan etc.). There may be some differ-ences in the practice between the two schools in reach-ing the objective. In the Theravada practice this is pur-sued in seven stages of purification (visuddhi); viz. phys-ical purification by taking precepts (sila visiddhi), men-tal purification by insight meditation (citta visuddhi), fol-lowed by purification of views and concepts (ditthi vi-suddhi), purification by overcoming of doubts (kinkhavitarana vishuddhi), purification by acquiring knowledgeand wisdom of the right path (maggarmagga-nanadasanavisuddhi), attaining knowledge and wisdom through thecourse of practice (patipada-nanadasana visuddhi), andpurification by attaining knowledge and insight wisdom(nanadasana visuddhi) (ref: The Progress of Insight Vi-suddhinana katha. Ven Mahasi sayadaw, translated byNyanaponika Thera. 1994. ISBN 955-24-0090-2)

1.5.3 Spread of Jainism and Buddhism (500–200BCE)

Mahabodhi Temple, Bodh Gaya, Bihar.

8 1 HISTORY

Palitana temples

Main articles: Maurya Empire and Silk Road transmis-sion of Buddhism

Both Jainism and Buddhism spread throughout India dur-ing the period of the Magadha empire.Buddhism in India spread during the reign of Ashoka ofthe Maurya Empire, who patronised Buddhist teachingsand unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd centuryBCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhismto spread across Asia.[115] Jainism began its golden pe-riod during the reign of Emperor Kharavela of Kalinga inthe 2nd century BCE.

1.6 Epic and Early Puranic Period (200BCE – 500 CE)

Main articles: Pala Empire and Gupta Empire

Flood and Muesse take the period between 200 BCE and500 BCE as a separate period,[117][118] in which the epicsand the first puranas were being written.[118] Michaelstakes a greater timespan, namely the period between 200BCE and 1100 CE,[3] which saw the rise of so-called“Classical Hinduism”,[3] with its “golden age”[119] duringthe Gupta Empire.[119]

According to Alf Hiltebeitel, a period of consolidationin the development of Hinduism took place between thetime of the late Vedic Upanishad (c. 500 BCE) and theperiod of the rise of the Guptas (c. 320–467 CE), whichhe calls the “Hindus synthesis”, “Brahmanic synthesis”, or

A Statue of Lord Krishna.

Sri Ranganatha Swamy Temple in Srirangam, Tamil Nadu, In-dia, is the largest functioning Hindu temple in the world.[116]

“orthodox synthesis”.[120] It develops in interaction withother religions and peoples:

The emerging self-definitions of Hinduismwere forged in the context of continuous in-teraction with heterodox religions (Buddhists,Jains, Ajivikas) throughout this whole period,and with foreign people (Yavanas, or Greeks;Sakas, or Scythians; Pahlavas, or Parthians;and Kusanas, or Kushans) from the third phaseon [between the Mauryan empire and the riseof the Guptas].[121]

1.6 Epic and Early Puranic Period (200 BCE – 500 CE) 9

Akshardham

Tirumala Venkateswara Temple the most visited and richestHindu temple in the world.

The end of the Vedantic period around the 2nd cen-tury CE spawned a number of branches that furtheredVedantic philosophy, and which ended up being seminar-ies in their own right. Prominent amongst these develop-ers were Yoga, Dvaita, Advaita and the medieval Bhaktimovement.

1.6.1 Smriti

The smriti texts of the period between 200 BCE-100CE proclaim the authority of the Vedas, and “nonrejec-tion of the Vedas comes to be one of the most impor-tant touchstones for defining Hinduism over and againstthe heterodoxies, which rejected the Vedas.”[122] Of thesix Hindu darsanas, the Mimamsa and the Vedanta “arerooted primarily in the Vedic sruti tradition and are some-times called smarta schools in the sense that they de-velop smarta orthodox current of thoughts that are based,like smriti, directly on sruti.”[123] According to Hiltebei-tel, “the consolidation of Hinduism takes place underthe sign of bhakti.”[124] It is the Bhagavadgita that sealsthis achievement. The result is a universal achievementthat may be called smarta. It views Shiva and Vishnuas “complementary in their functions but ontologically

identical”.[124]

1.6.2 Vedanta – Brahma sutras (200 BCE)

Main article: Vedanta

In earlier writings, Sanskrit 'Vedānta' simply referred tothe Upanishads, the most speculative and philosophi-cal of the Vedic texts. However, in the medieval pe-riod of Hinduism, the word Vedānta came to mean theschool of philosophy that interpreted the Upanishads.Traditional Vedānta considers scriptural evidence, orshabda pramāna, as the most authentic means of knowl-edge, while perception, or pratyaksa, and logical infer-ence, or anumana, are considered to be subordinate (butvalid).[125][126]

The systematisation of Vedantic ideas into one coherenttreatise was undertaken by Badarāyana in the Brahma Su-tras whichwas composed around 200BCE.[127] The cryp-tic aphorisms of the Brahma Sutras are open to a varietyof interpretations. This resulted in the formation of nu-merous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in itsown way and producing its own sub-commentaries.

1.6.3 Indian philosophy

Main article: Indian philosophy

After 200 CE several schools of thought were formallycodified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga,Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimāṃsā and Advaita Vedanta.[128]Hinduism, otherwise a highly polytheistic, pantheisticor monotheistic religion, also tolerated atheistic schools.The thoroughlymaterialistic and anti-religious philosoph-ical Cārvāka school that originated around the 6th cen-tury BCE is the most explicitly atheistic school of Indianphilosophy. Cārvāka is classified as a nāstika (“hetero-dox”) system; it is not included among the six schoolsof Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox. It is note-worthy as evidence of a materialistic movement withinHinduism.[129] Our understanding of Cārvāka philosophyis fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas byother schools, and it is no longer a living tradition.[130]Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheisticinclude Samkhya and Mimāṃsā.

1.6.4 Hindu literature

Main articles: Mahabharata, Ramayana and Puranas

Two of Hinduism’s most revered epics, the Mahabharataand Ramayana were compositions of this period. Devo-tion to particular deities was reflected from the compo-sition of texts composed to their worship. For example,

10 1 HISTORY

The Golden Temple of Mahalakshmi at Vellore.

the Ganapati Purana was written for devotion to Gana-pati (or Ganesh). Popular deities of this era were Shiva,Vishnu, Durga, Surya, Skanda, andGanesh (including theforms/incarnations of these deities.)In the latter Vedantic period, several texts were alsocomposed as summaries/attachments to the Upanishads.These texts collectively called as Puranas allowed for adivine and mythical interpretation of the world, not un-like the ancient Hellenic or Roman religions. Legendsand epics with a multitude of gods and goddesses withhuman-like characteristics were composed.

1.6.5 Jainism and Buddhism

Main article: Decline of Buddhism in India

The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture:the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize theirrule, but they also patronized Buddhism, which continuedto provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. Bud-dhism continued to have a significant presence in someregions of India until the 12th century.There were several Buddhistic kings who worshipedVishnu, such as the Gupta Empire, Pala Empire,Malla Empire, Somavanshi, and Sattvahana.[131] Bud-dhism survived followed by Hindus. National Geo-graphic[132][note 19]

1.6.6 Tantra

Main article: Tantra

Tantrism originated in the early centuries CE and de-veloped into a fully articulated tradition by the end ofthe Gupta period. According to Michaels this was the“Golden Age of Hinduism”[133] (c. 320–650 CE[133]),which flourished during the Gupta Empire[119] (320 to550 CE) until the fall of the Harsha Empire[119] (606to 647 CE). During this period, power was centralised,along with a growth of far distance trade, standardizarion

of legal procedures, and general spread of literacy.[119]Mahayana Buddhism flourished, but the orthodox Brah-mana culture began to be rejuvenated by the patronageof the Gupta Dynasty.[134] The position of the Brahmanswas reinforced,[119] and the first Hindu temples emergedduring the late Gupta age.[119]

1.7 Medieval and Late Puranic Period(500–1500 CE)

1.7.1 Late-Classical Period (c. 650–1100 CE)

See also Late-Classical Age and Hinduism Mid-dle Ages

After the end of the Gupta Empire and the collapse ofthe Harsha Empire, power became decentralised in In-dia. Several larger kingdoms emerged, with “countlessvasal states”.[135][note 20] The kingdoms were ruled via afeudal system. Smaller kingdoms were dependent on theprotection of the larger kingdoms. “The great king wasremote, was exalted and deified”,[136] as reflected in theTantric Mandala, which could also depict the king as thecentre of the mandala.[137]

The disintegration of central power also lead to region-alisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry.[138][note 21]Local cults and languages were enhanced, and the in-fluence of “Brahmanic ritualistic Hinduism”[138] wasdiminished.[138] Rural and devotional movements arose,along with Shaivism, Vaisnavism, Bhakti and Tantra,[138]though “sectarian groupings were only at the beginningof their development”.[138] Religious movements had tocompete for recognition by the local lords.[138] Buddhismlost its position, and began to disappear in India.[138]

Vedanta See also: Advaita Vedanta and Ajativada

In the same period Vedanta changed, incorporatingBuddhist thought and its emphasis on consciousnessand the working of the mind.[140] Buddhism, whichwas supported by the ancient Indian urban civilisationlost influence to the traditional religions, which wererooted in the countryside.[141] In Bengal, Buddhism waseven prosecuted. But at the same time, Buddhismwas incorporated into Hinduism, when Gaudapada usedBuddhist philosophy to reinterpret the Upanishads.[140]This also marked a shift from Atman and Brahman asa “living substance”[142] to “maya-vada”[note 22], whereAtman and Brahman are seen as “pure knowledge-consciousness”.[143] According to Scheepers, it is this“maya-vada” view which has come to dominate Indianthought.[141]

Buddhism Main article: Decline of Buddhism in India

1.7 Medieval and Late Puranic Period (500–1500 CE) 11

Between 400 and 1000 CE Hinduism expanded as thedecline of Buddhism in India continued.[144] Buddhismsubsequently became effectively extinct in India but sur-vived in Nepal and Sri Lanka.

Bhakti Main articles: Bhakti movement, Alwars andNayanars

The Bhakti movement began with the emphasis on theworship of God, regardless of one’s status – whetherpriestly or laypeople, men or women, higher social sta-tus or lower social status. The movements were mainlycentered on the forms of Vishnu (Rama and Krishna)and Shiva. There were however popular devotees ofthis era of Durga. The best-known devotees are theNayanars from southern India. The most popular Shaivateacher of the south was Basava, while of the northit was Gorakhnath. Female saints include figures likeAkkamadevi, Lalleshvari and Molla.The “alwar” or “azhwars” (Tamil: ஆழ்வார்கள்,āzvārkaḷ [aːɻʋaːr], those immersed in god) were Tamilpoet-saints of south India who lived between the 6thand 9th centuries CE and espoused “emotional devo-tion” or bhakti to Visnu-Krishna in their songs of long-ing, ecstasy and service.[145] The most popular Vaishnavateacher of the south was Ramanuja, while of the north itwas Ramananda.Several important icons were women. For example,within the Mahanubhava sect, the women outnumberedthe men,[146] and administration was many times com-posed mainly of women.[147] Mirabai is the most popularfemale saint in India.Sri Vallabha Acharya (1479–1531) is a very importantfigure from this era. He founded the Shuddha Advaita(Pure Non-dualism) school of Vedanta thought.According to The Centre for Cultural Resources andTraining,

Vaishanava bhakti literature was an all-India phenomenon, which started in the 6th–7th century A.D. in the Tamil-speaking re-gion of South India, with twelve Alvar (oneimmersed in God) saint-poets, who wrote de-votional songs. The religion of Alvar poets,which included a woman poet, Andal, was de-votion to God through love (bhakti), and in theecstasy of such devotions they sang hundredsof songs which embodied both depth of feel-ing and felicity of expressions [web 8]

1.7.2 Early Islamic rule (c. 1100–1500 CE)

Main articles: Muslim conquest of India, Islamic Em-pires in India, Bahmani Sultanate, Deccan Sultanates

and Delhi Sultanate

In the 12th and 13th centuries, Turks and Afghans in-vaded parts of northern India and established the DelhiSultanate in the former Rajput holdings.[148] The subse-quent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer largeareas of northern India, approximately equal in extent tothe ancient Gupta Empire, while the Khilji dynasty con-quered most of central India but were ultimately unsuc-cessful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent. TheSultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renais-sance. The resulting “Indo-Muslim” fusion of culturesleft lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music,literature, religion, and clothing.

Bhakti movement During the 14th to 17th centuries, agreat Bhakti movement swept through central and north-ern India, initiated by a loosely associated group of teach-ers or sants. Ramananda, Ravidas, Srimanta Sankardeva,Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Vallabhacharya, Surdas, MeeraBai, Kabir, Tulsidas, Namdev, Dnyaneshwar, Tukaramand other mystics spearheaded the Bhakti movement inthe North while Annamacharya, Bhadrachala Ramadas,Tyagaraja among others propagated Bhakti in the South.They taught that people could cast aside the heavy bur-dens of ritual and caste, and the subtle complexities ofphilosophy, and simply express their overwhelming lovefor God. This period was also characterized by a spate ofdevotional literature in vernacular prose and poetry in theethnic languages of the various Indian states or provinces.

Lingayathism Main article: Lingayatism

Lingayatism is a distinct Shaivite tradition in India, estab-lished in the 12th century by the philosopher and socialreformer Basavanna. The adherents of this tradition areknown as Lingayats. The term is derived from Lingavan-tha in Kannada, meaning 'one who wears Ishtalinga ontheir body' (Ishtalinga is the representation of the God).In Lingayat theology, Ishtalinga is an oval-shaped em-blem symbolising Parasiva, the absolute reality. Contem-porary Lingayatism follows a progressive reform–basedtheology propounded, which has great influence in SouthIndia, especially in the state of Karnataka.[149]

Unifying Hinduism Main article: Unifying Hinduism

According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and16th century,

... certain thinkers began to treat as asingle whole the diverse philosophival teach-ings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, andthe schools known retrospectively as the “six

12 1 HISTORY

systems” (saddarsana) of mainstream Hinduphilosophy.[150]

The tendency of “a blurring of philosophical distinc-tions” has also been noted by Burley.[151] Lorenzen lo-cates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the in-teraction between Muslims and Hindus,[152] and a pro-cess of “mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslimother”,[153] which started well before 1800.[154] Both theIndian and the European thinkers who developed the term“Hinduism” in the 19th century were influenced by thesephilosophers.[155]

Harmandir Sahib or The Golden Temple of the Sikhs.

Sikhism (15th century) Main article: SikhismSee also: History of Sikhism, Sikhism and Jainism,Sikhism and Hinduism and Sikhism in India

Sikhism originated in 15th-century Northern India withthe teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus. Theprincipal belief in Sikhism is faith in Vāhigurū— repre-sented by the sacred symbol of ēk ōaṅkār [meaning onegod]. Sikhism’s traditions and teachings are distinctlyassociated with the history, society and culture of thePunjab. Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs (stu-dents or disciples) and number over 27 million across theworld.

1.8 Modern period (1500 – present)

1.8.1 Early modern period

Main articles: Mughal period and Maratha Empire

According to Gavin Flood, the modern period in Indiabegins with the first contacts with western nations around1500.[117][118] The period ofMughal rule in India[156] sawthe rise of new forms of religiosity.[157]

Mahamagam Festival is a holy festival celebrated once in twelveyears in Tamil Nadu. Mahamagam Festival, which is held atKumbakonam. This festival is also called as Kumbamela ofSouth.[158][159]

The largest religious gathering ever held on Earth, the 2001MahaKumbh Mela held in Prayag attracted around 70 million Hindusfrom around the world.

1.8.2 Modern India (after 1800)

Hinduism Main articles: Hindu reform movements,Neo-Vedanta, Hindutva and Communalism (South Asia)

In the 19th century, under influence of the colonial forces,a synthetic vision of Hinduism was formulated by RajaRam Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo,Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Mahatma Gandhi.[160]These thinkers have tended to take an inclusive view ofIndia’s religious history, emphasising the similarities be-tween the various Indian religions.[160]

The modern era has given rise to dozens of Hindu saintswith international influence.[11] For example, BrahmaBaba established the Brahma Kumaris, one of the largestnew Hindu religious movements which teaches the dis-cipline of Raja Yoga to millions. Representing tradi-tional Gaudiya Vaishnavism, Prabhupada founded theHare Krishna movement, another organisation with aglobal reach. In late 18th-century India, Swaminarayanfounded the Swaminarayan Sampraday. Anandamurti,founder of the Ananda Marga, has also influenced manyworldwide. Through the international influence of all of

2.2 Differences 13

these new Hindu denominations, many Hindu practicessuch as yoga, meditation, mantra, divination, and vege-tarianism have been adopted by new converts.

Jainism Jainism continues to be an influential reli-gion and Jain communities live in Indian states Gujarat,Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka andTamil Nadu. Jains authored several classical books in dif-ferent Indian languages for a considerable period of time.

Buddhism Main article: Dalit Buddhist movement

The Dalit Buddhist movement (dubbed as Navayana bycertain Ambedkerites)[161] is a 19th- and 20th-centuryBuddhist revival movement in India. It received its mostsubstantial impetus from B. R. Ambedkar's call for theconversion of Dalits to Buddhism, to escape a caste-based society that considered them to be the lowest inthe hierarchy.[162]

2 Similarities and differences

Map showing the prevalence of Abrahamic (pink) and Indianreligions (yellow) in each country.

According to Tilak, the religions of India can be inter-preted “differentially” or “integrally”,[163] that is by eitherhighlighting the differences or the similarities.[163] Ac-cording to Sherma and Sarma, western Indologists havetended to emphasise the differences, while Indian Indol-ogists have tended to emphasise the similarities.[164]

2.1 Similarities

Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism share certainkey concepts, which are interpreted differently by differ-ent groups and individuals.[164] Until the 19th century,adherents of those various religions did not tend to la-bel themselves as in opposition to each other, but “per-ceived themselves as belonging to the same extended cul-tural family.”[165]

2.1.1 Soteriology

Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism share the con-cept of moksha, liberation from the cycle of rebirth.[166]They differ however on the exact nature of thisliberation.[166]

2.1.2 Ritual

Common traits can also be observed in ritual. The head-anointing ritual of abhiseka is of importance in three ofthese distinct traditions, excluding Sikhism (in Buddhismit is found within Vajrayana). Other noteworthy ritualsare the cremation of the dead, the wearing of vermilion onthe head by married women, and various marital rituals.In literature, many classical narratives and purana haveHindu, Buddhist or Jain versions.[web 9] All four traditionshave notions of karma, dharma, samsara, moksha andvarious forms of Yoga.

2.1.3 Mythology

Rama is a heroic figure in all of these religions. In Hin-duism he is the God-incarnate in the form of a princelyking; in Buddhism, he is a Bodhisattva-incarnate; in Jain-ism, he is the perfect human being. Among the Bud-dhist Ramayanas are: Vessantarajataka,[167] Reamker,Ramakien, Phra Lak Phra Lam, Hikayat Seri Ramaetc. There also exists the Khamti Ramayana among theKhamti tribe of Asom wherein Rama is an Avatar of aBodhisattva who incarnates to punish the demon king Ra-vana (B.Datta 1993). The Tai Ramayana is another bookretelling the divine story in Asom.

2.2 Differences

Critics point out that there exist vast differences betweenand even within the various Indian religions.[168][169] Allmajor religions are composed of innumerable sects andsubsects.[170]

2.2.1 Dharma

For a Hindu, dharma is his duty. For a Jain, dharma isrighteousness, his conduct. For a Buddhist, dharma isusually taken to be the Buddha’s teachings.

2.2.2 Mythology

Indian mythology also reflects the competition be-tween the various Indian religions. A popular storytells how Vajrapani kills Mahesvara, a manifesta-tion of Shiva depicted as an evil being.[171][172] Thestory occurs in several scriptures, most notably the

14 5 STATUS OF NON-HINDUS IN THE REPUBLIC OF INDIA

Sarvatathagatatattvasamgraha and the Vajrapany-abhiseka-mahatantra.[173][note 23] According to Kalu-pahana, the story “echoes” the story of the conversionof Ambattha.[172] It is to be understood in the contextof the competition between Buddhist institutions andShaivism.[177]

3 Āstika and nāstika categorisation

Main articles: Āstika and nāstika, Hindu philosophy andBuddhism and HinduismSee also: Adi Shankara and Charvaka

Āstika and nāstika are variously defined terms sometimesused to categorise Indian religions. The traditional defi-nition, followed by Adi Shankara, classifies religions andpersons as āstika and nāstika according to whether theyaccept the authority of the main Hindu texts, the Vedas,as supreme revealed scriptures, or not. By this defini-tion, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mi-mamsa and Vedanta are classified as āstika schools, whileCharvaka is classified as a nāstika school. Buddhism andJainism are also thus classified as nāstika religions sincethey do not accept the authority of the Vedas.Another set of definitions—notably distinct from the us-age of Hindu philosophy—loosely characterise āstika as"theist" and nāstika as "atheist". By these definitions,Sāṃkhya can be considered a nāstika philosophy, thoughit is traditionally classed among the Vedic āstika schools.From this point of view, Buddhism and Jainism remainnāstika religions.Buddhists and Jains have disagreed that they are nastikaand have redefined the phrases āstika and nāstika in theirown view. Jains assign the term nastika to one who isignorant of themeaning of the religious texts,[178] or thosewho deny the existence of the soul was well known to theJainas.[179]

4 “Dharmic religions”

See also: Saffronization

Frawley and Malhotra use the term “Dharmic traditions”to highlight the similarities between the various Indianreligions.[180][181][note 24] According to Frawley, “all reli-gions in India have been called the Dharma”,[180] and canbe

...put under the greater umbrella of“Dharmic traditions” which we can see asHinduism or the spiritual traditions of India inthe broadest sense.[180]

According to Paul Hacker, as described by Halbfass, theterm “dharma”

...assumed a fundamentally new meaningand function in modern Indian thought, be-ginning with Bankim Chandra Chatterjee inthe nineteenth century. This process, in whichdharma was presented as an equivalent of, butalso a response to, the western notion of “re-ligion”, reflects a fundamental change in theHindu sense of identity and in the attitudetoward other religious and cultural traditions.The foreign tools of “religion” and “nation” be-came tools of self-definition, and a new andprecarious sense of the “unity of Hinduism”and of national as well as religious identity tookroot.[183]

The emphasis on the similarities and integral unity of thedharmic faiths has been criticised for neglecting the vastdifferences between and even within the various Indianreligions and traditions.[168][169] According to Richard E.King it is typical of the “inclusivist appropriation of othertraditions”[160] of Neo-Vedanta:

The inclusivist appropriation of other tra-ditions, so characteristic of neo-Vedanta ide-ology, appears on three basic levels. First, itis apparent in the suggestion that the (Advaita)Vedanta philosophy of Sankara (c. eighthcentury CE) constitutes the central philoso-phy of Hinduism. Second, in an Indian con-text, neo-Vedanta philosophy subsumes Bud-dhist philosophies in terms of its own Vedanticideology. The Buddha becomes a member ofthe Vedanta tradition, merely attempting to re-form it from within. Finally, at a global level,neo-Vedanta colonizes the religious traditionsof the world by arguing for the centrality of anon-dualistic position as the philosophia peren-nis underlying all cultural differences.[160]

5 Status of non-Hindus in the Re-public of India

Main article: Religion in IndiaSee also: Legal Status of Jainism as a Distinct Religion

The inclusion of Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs within Hin-duism is part of the Indian legal system. The 1955 HinduMarriage Act "[defines] as Hindus all Buddhists, Jains,Sikhs and anyone who is not a Christian, Muslim, Parseeor Jew”.[184] And the Indian Constitution says that “ref-erence to Hindus shall be construed as including a ref-erence to persons professing the Sikh, Jaina or Buddhistreligion”.[184]

15

In a judicial reminder, the Indian Supreme Court ob-served Sikhism and Jainism to be sub-sects or spe-cial faiths within the larger Hindu fold,[web 10][note 25]and that Jainism is a denomination within the Hindufold.[web 10][note 26] Although the government of BritishIndia counted Jains in India as a major religious com-munity right from the first Census conducted in 1873,after independence in 1947 Sikhs and Jains were nottreated as national minorities.[web 10][note 27] In 2005 theSupreme Court of India declined to issue a writ of Man-damus granting Jains the status of a religious minoritythroughout India. The Court however left it to the re-spective states to decide on the minority status of Jainreligion.[185][web 10][note 28]

However, some individual states have over the past fewdecades differed on whether Jains, Buddhists and Sikhsare religious minorities or not, by either pronouncingjudgments or passing legislation. One example is thejudgment passed by the Supreme Court in 2006, in a casepertaining to the state of Uttar Pradesh, which declaredJainism to be indisputably distinct from Hinduism, butmentioned that, “The question as to whether the Jains arepart of the Hindu religion is open to debate.[186] How-ever, the Supreme Court also noted various court casesthat have held Jainism to be a distinct religion.Another example is the Gujarat Freedom of ReligionBill, that is an amendment to a legislation that soughtto define Jains and Buddhists as denominations withinHinduism.[web 11] Ultimately on 31 July 2007, finding itnot in conformity with the concept of freedom of reli-gion as embodied in Article 25 (1) of the Constitution,Governor Naval Kishore Sharma returned the GujaratFreedom of Religion (Amendment) Bill, 2006 citing thewidespread protests by the Jains[web 12] as well as SupremeCourt’s extrajudicial observation that Jainism is a “specialreligion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu re-ligion by the Supreme Court”[web 13]

6 See also

• Demographics of India

• Religion in India

• Indian philosophy

• Indology

• Jainism and Hinduism

• Hinduism in India

• Jainism in India

• Sikhism in India

• Islam in India

• Christianity in India

• Ayyavazhi and Hinduism

• Buddhism and Jainism

7 Notes[1] Adams: “Indian religions, including early Buddhism, Hin-

duism, Jainism, and Sikhism, and sometimes also Ther-avāda Buddhism and the Hindu- and Buddhist-inspired re-ligions of South and Southeast Asia”.

[2] See also Tanvir Anjum, Temporal Divides: A Critical Re-view of the Major Schemes of Periodization in Indian His-tory.

[3] Different periods are designated as “classical Hinduism":

• Smart calls the period between 1000 BCE and 100CE “pre-classical”. It’s the formative period for theUpanishads and Brahmanism[lower-alpha 1]

[4] Lockard: “The encounters that resulted from Aryan mi-gration brought together several very different peoplesand cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over manycenturies a fusion of Aryan and Dravidian occurred, acomplex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis.”[57] Lockard: “Hinduism can be seen his-torically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappanand other Dravidian traditions that developed over manycenturies.”[58]

[5] Richard E. King notes: “Consequently, it remains ananachronism to project the notion of “Hinduism” as it iscommonly understood into pre-colonial history.”[80]

[6] In post-Vedic times understood as “hearers” of an eter-nally existing Veda, Śrauta means “what is heard”

[7] “Upanishads came to be composed already in the ninthand eighth century B.C.E. and continued to be composedwell into the first centuries of the Common Era. TheBrahmanas and Aranyakas are somewhat older, reachingback to the eleventh and even twelfth century BCE.”[web 4]

[8] Deussen: “these treatises are not the work of a single ge-nius, but the total philosophical product of an entire epochwhich extends [from] approximately 1000 or 800 BC, toc.500 BCE, but which is prolonged in its offshoots far be-yond this last limit of time.”[94] p. 51

[9] Gavin Flood and Patrick Olivelle: “The second half of thefirst millennium BCE was the period that created many ofthe ideological and institutional elements that character-ize later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition playeda central role during this formative period of Indian reli-gious history....Some of the fundamental values and be-liefs that we generally associate with Indian religions ingeneral and Hinduism in particular were in part the cre-ation of the renouncer tradition. These include the twopillars of Indian theologies: samsara – the belief that lifein this world is one of suffering and subject to repeateddeaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana – the goal ofhuman existence.....”[7]

16 7 NOTES

[10] Cromwell Crwaford: “Alongside Brahmanism was thenon-Aryan Shramanic (self reliant) culture with its rootsgoing back to prehistoric times.”[102]

[11] Masih: “There is no evidence to show that Jainism andBuddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deitiesor caste. They are parallel or native religions of India andhave contributed to much to the growth of even classicalHinduism of the present times.”[103]

[12] Jaini: “Jainas themselves have no memory of a time whenthey fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts tolink the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate ratherdistinctive and very non-vedic character of Jaina cosmol-ogy, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism”.[104]

[13] Flood: “The second half of the first millennium BCE wasthe period that created many of the ideological and insti-tutional elements that characterise later Indian religions.The renouncer tradition played a central role during thisformative period of Indian religious history....Some of thefundamental values and beliefs that we generally associatewith Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particularwere in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. Theseinclude the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara – thebelief that life in this world is one of suffering and subjectto repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana –the goal of human existence.....”[105]

[14] Flood: “The origin and doctrine of Karma and Samsaraare obscure. These concepts were certainly circulatingamongst sramanas, and Jainism and Buddhism developedspecific and sophisticated ideas about the process of trans-migration. It is very possible that the karmas and reincar-nation entered the mainstream brahaminical thought fromthe sramana or the renouncer traditions.”[106] Page 86.

[15] Padmanabh: “Yajnavalkya’s reluctance and manner in ex-pounding the doctrine of karma in the assembly of Janaka(a reluctance not shown on any other occasion) can per-haps be explained by the assumption that it was, like thatof the transmigration of soul, of non-brahmanical origin.In view of the fact that this doctrine is emblazoned on al-most every page of sramana scriptures, it is highly proba-ble that it was derived from them.”[107] Page 51.

[16] Jeffrey Brodd and Gregory Sobolewski: “Jainismshares many of the basic doctrines of Hinduism andBuddhism.”[108]

[17] Oldmeadow: “Over time, apparent misunderstandingshave arisen over the origins of Jainism and relationshipwith its sister religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. Therehas been an ongoing debate between Jainism and VedicHinduism as to which revelation preceded the other. Whatis historically known is that there was a tradition alongwith Vedic Hinduism known as Sramana Dharma. Essen-tially, the sramana tradition included it its fold, the Jainand Buddhist traditions, which disagreed with the eter-nality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual sacrifices and thesupremacy of the Brahmins.”[112] Page 141

[18] Fisher: “The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-vedic,indigenous Indian religion is well documented. AncientHindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an ex-isting tradition which began long before Mahavira.”[113]Page 115

[19] edition reads, “The flow between faiths was such that forhundreds of years, almost all Buddhist temples, includingthe ones at Ajanta, were built under the rule and patronageof Hindu kings.”

[20] In the east the Pala Empire[135] (770–1125 CE[135]),in the west and north the Gurjara-Pratihara[135] (7th–10th century[135]), in the southwest the Rashtrakuta Dy-nasty[135] (752–973[135]), in the Dekkhan the Chalukyadynasty[135] (7th–8th century[135]), and in the south thePallava dynasty[135] (7th–9th century[135]) and the Choladynasty[135] (9th century[135]).

[21] This resembles the development of Chinese Chán dur-ing the An Lu-shan rebellion and the Five Dynas-ties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907–960/979), duringwhich power became decentralised end new Chán-schoolsemerged.[139]

[22] The term “maya-vada” is primarily being used by non-Advaitins. See [web 5][web 6][web 7]

[23] The story begins with the transformation of the Bod-hisattva Samantabhadra into Vajrapani by Vairocana,the cosmic Buddha, receiving a vajra and the name“Vajrapani”.[174] Vairocana then requests Vajrapani togenerate his adamantine family, to establish a mandala.Vajrapani refuses, because Mahesvara (Shiva) “is delud-ing beings with his deceitfull religious doctrines and en-gaging in all kinds of violent criminal conduct”.[175] Ma-hesvara and his entourage are dragged to Mount Sumeru,and all but Mahesvara submit. Vajrapani and Mahes-vara engage in a magical combat, which is won by Va-jrapani. Mahesvara’s retinue become part of Vairocana’smandala, except for Mahesvara, who is killed, and his lifetransferred to another realm where he becomes a bud-dha named Bhasmesvara-nirghosa, the “Soundless Lordof Ashes”.[176]

[24] Occasionally the term is also being used by other au-thors. David Westerlund: "...may provide some possi-bilities for co-operation with Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists,who like Hindus are regarded as adherents of 'dharmic'religions.”[182]

[25] In various codified customary laws like Hindu MarriageAct, Hindu Succession Act, Hindu Adoption and Main-tenance Act and other laws of pre and post-Constitutionperiod, the definition of 'Hindu' included all sects and sub-sects of Hindu religions including Sikhs and Jains[web 10]

[26] The Supreme Court observed in a judgment pertaining tocase of Bal Patil vs. Union of India: “Thus, 'Hinduism'can be called a general religion and common faith of In-dia whereas 'Jainism' is a special religion formed on thebasis of quintessence of Hindu religion. Jainism placesgreater emphasis on non-violence ('Ahimsa') and com-passion ('Karuna'). Their only difference from Hindusis that Jains do not believe in any creator like God butworship only the perfect human-being whom they calledTirathankar.”[web 10]

[27] The so-called minority communities like Sikhs and Jainswere not treated as national minorities at the time of fram-ing the Constitution.[web 10]

17

[28] In an extra-judicial observation not forming part of thejudgment the court observed :"Thus, 'Hinduism' can becalled a general religion and common faith of Indiawhereas 'Jainism' is a special religion formed on the ba-sis of quintessence of Hindu religion. Jainism placesgreater emphasis on non-violence ('Ahimsa') and com-passion ('Karuna'). Their only difference from Hindusis that Jains do not believe in any creator like God butworship only the perfect human-being whom they calledTirathankar.”[web 10]

[1] Smart distinguishes “Brahmanism” from the Vedic reli-gion, connecting “Brahmanism” with the Upanishads.<refname='FOOTNOTESmart200352, 83-86'>Smart 2003,p. 52, 83-86.

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22 11 EXTERNAL LINKS

[3] “Ancient Indians made 'rock music'". BBC News. 19March 2004. Retrieved 7 August 2007.

[4] Indiana University “India Studies Program” Passage to In-dia, Module 10.

[5] Mayavada Philosophy

[6] The Self-Defeating Philosophy of Mayavada

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[13] The Times of India, 11 Mar, 2008 In his letter dated 27July 2007 he had said Jainism has been regarded as “spe-cial religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindureligion by the Supreme Court”.

10 Further reading• Heehs, Peter (2002), Indian Religions: A HistoricalReader of Spiritual Expression and Experience, C.Hurst & Co. Publishers, ISBN 9781850654964

• Kitagawa, Joseph (2002), The Religious Traditionsof Asia: Religion, History, and Culture, Routledge,ISBN 9781136875977

• Zimmer, Heinrich (1951), Philosophies of India(reprint 1989), Princeton University Press

11 External linksStatistics

• “Census of India 2001: Data on religion”. Govern-ment of India (Office of the Registrar General). Re-trieved 28 May 2007.

Constitution and law

• “Constitution of India”. Government of India (Min-istry of Law and Justice). Retrieved 28 May 2007.

Reports

• “International Religious Freedom Report 2006: In-dia”. United States Department of State. Retrieved28 May 2007.

23

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text• Indian religions Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_religions?oldid=690798820 Contributors: Mav, WillWare, SimonP, Heron,

Olivier, Leandrod, Ahoerstemeier, Kingturtle, Usedbook, Kaysov, Nohat, Joy, Warofdreams, Jni, Goethean, Naddy, Rrjanbiah,GreatWhiteNortherner, DocWatson42, Andries, Nat Krause, Luis Dantas, Tom Radulovich, Everyking, Utcursch, LordSimonofShrop-shire, The MoUsY spell-checker, Harno~enwiki, Billposer, Borameer, Figure, Sarcelles, Robin klein, Mike Rosoft, Shahab, Jayjg, Venu62,CALR, Noisy, Rich Farmbrough, Fredericknoronha, Narsil, Dbachmann, Bender235, Kwamikagami, Mwanner, QuartierLatin1968,Bobo192, Skywalker, Oop, Chirag, Kjkolb, Pharos, Kushal, Ogress, Oolong, Sumalsn, SlaveToTheWage, Wiki-uk, Mr Adequate, Ri-ana, LRBurdak, Dhammafriend, Sciurinæ, Rentastrawberry, TShilo12, Hijiri88, Bastin, Navidazizi, Velho, Woohookitty, Humbads, RuudKoot, Jeff3000, Firien, Dangerous-Boy, LeoO3, Hihellowhatsup, BD2412, Dwaipayanc, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Bhadani, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford,Chanting Fox, Gurch, Le Anh-Huy, DaGizza, Bgwhite, Alexeifjodor, Deeptrivia, RussBot, Pigman, Polluxian, Gaius Cornelius, Abarry,Vaikunda Raja, Rak3sh, Rohitbd, Akma, Paul Raj, Aldux, Ospalh, Priyanath, Intershark, Sumanthk, Ninly, Theda, Malaiya, Pb30, Shyam,Katieh5584, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, Saravask, Od Mishehu, Jagged 85, Thunderboltz, Eskimbot, Srkris, Vikram-sidhu, Vassyana, Hmains, Holy Ganga, Anwar saadat, Chris the speller, Jamie C, Bluebot, Freedom skies, ImpuMozhi, Effer, Baronnet,Can't sleep, clown will eat me, OrphanBot, TKD, The Fading Light, JesseRafe, BostonMA, Fullstop, Shamir1, RandomP, Akshaysrini-vasan, Gujuguy, Ohconfucius, SashatoBot, Rigadoun, Nygdan, Hemmingsen, The Silent Contributor, The Man in Question, CharlesMartel,Midnightblueowl, RichardF, Jeev, LadyofShalott, Bharatveer, Dr92, Silverknights, CmdrObot, Estéban, Outriggr (2006-2009), Ajitflora,Bellerophon5685, Eu.stefan, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, DBaba, AroundTheGlobe, Kozuch, Vanished User jdksfajlasd, Vkvora2001, Mat-tisse, Jon C., Kulasman, Anupam, Joy1963, Sacca, Nick Number, IAF, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Doc Tropics, Edokter, Coyets, IndianChronicles, Figma, Asimmhd1990, Ekabhishek, The Transhumanist, Leolaursen, PhilKnight, VoABot II, Caroldermoid, Tinucherian,Sindhutvavadin, Presearch, Catgut, NoychoH, JaGa, B9 hummingbird hovering, Iamg, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Sscheral, Gnanapiti,Abecedare, Fowler&fowler, KazakhPol, Arrow740, Adavidb, India1989, Cymbalta, Sterotz, Skier Dude, Sd31415, Peridotprincess, Natl1,Redtigerxyz, ABF,ManishModi, JeffG., Thaddeus Slamp, Qxz, Buddhipriya, Kenshin, Michaeldsuarez,WJetChao, Stoneagestudy, VladV,Seraphiel, Brianga, Portalmatrix0, Daveh4h, Awaystay~enwiki, Goalsradar, Bandwidthx, FlamesBlaze, Arjun024, Oldag07, Urbanscreen,Temp07, Keilana, Parabolicfunction, FieldDatum, SpatialHarddrive, Sanya3, Fratrep, Maelgwnbot, Drudwyn, Sitush, Randy Kryn, Im-ageRemovalBot, RegentsPark, ClueBot, Dakinijones, Shruti14, Suresh Elangovan, Eric Wester, Plastikspork, Podzemnik, Angle reflection,Nexxt 1, Robby.is.on, Yubanaswa, Puchiko, Relata refero, Tripping Nambiar, Wiki dr mahmad, Shalimer, Cenarium, Arjayay, Schreiber-Bike, Esteban.barahona, Aitias, Teleomatic, Editor2020, Wikidas, Rossen4, Jack Bauer00, Zenwhat, Jose.chacko, Mitsube, Pritsindhar,Doc9871, Voltigeur, Fitzgettys28, Profitoftruth85, Mimosa.cb, Esasus, Tassedethe, Mr. Richard Bolla, Padan, The Mummy, Legobot,Yobot, Signal Tracking, Sindhian, TaBOT-zerem, Ccraccnam, ParsiWala, AnomieBOT, Tryptofish, Eumolpo, Rvd4life, Dewan357, Que-bec99, LilHelpa, Nosarka, Enabled 1, Makeswell, J04n, Oct11988duh, Omnipaedista, Kyng, GradiationScheme, SanjanaG, Verbum Ver-itas, WebCiteBOT, Aslksjsdf, FrescoBot, Mayasutra, Lothar von Richthofen, I dream of horses, Dazedbythebell, Nivas28, Crusoe8181,Cowlibob, Matuenih, Tbhotch, John of Reading, Jujhar.pannu, IndianDreams, Trinanjon, SporkBot, RaptureBot, Eclectic Angel, WillBeback Auto, Pradyumnas741, Pebble101, Winston786, Snotbot, Akhil.bharathan, Dream of Nyx, Irrigator, MerlIwBot, Helpful PixieBot, ?oygul, Hrihr, BG19bot, Solomon7968, Tapuu, Rahuljain2307, Joshua Jonathan, Meclee, OCCullens, Amitrochates, Pendragon5,Raghu-holkar, ChrisGualtieri, Cpt.a.haddock, Rockin It Loud, BigJolly9, Mogism, Abitoby, RTPking, Trphierth, Eshwar.om, Hendrick 99,PaniniPartha, Wikiuser13, The Rahul Jain, Noyster, Bladesmulti, Kansiime, Manzildrewpoudar, Htut45, Hurvashtahumvata888, TapasyaDev, Conradjagan, Renuka sarkar, Ankush 89, Prinsgezinde and Anonymous: 210

12.2 Images• File:01AnnamalaiyarTemple&Thiruvannamalai&TamilNadu&AerialViewfromVirupakshaCave.jpg Source:

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/01AnnamalaiyarTemple%26Thiruvannamalai%26TamilNadu%26AerialViewfromVirupakshaCave.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/bradfordcoy/6427563833/sizes/o/in/photostream/ Original artist: brad.coy

• File:Abraham_Dharma.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Abraham_Dharma.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Avatars_of_Vishnu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Avatars_of_Vishnu.jpg License: CC BY2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Dharma_Wheel.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Dharma_Wheel.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: Shazz, Esteban.barahona

• File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:? Original artist: ?

• File:Golden_Temple_India.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Golden_Temple_India.jpg License: CCBY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Vinish K Saini

• File:HinduSwastika.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/HinduSwastika.svg License: Public domainContributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:HinduismSymbol.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/HinduismSymbol.PNG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Created by Tinette user of Italian Wikipedia. Original artist: Tinette (talk · contribs)

• File:In-jain.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/In-jain.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:• In-jain.gif Original artist: In-jain.gif: Original uploader was Mahima13 at en.wikipedia• File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg License: CC

BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This file was derived from Jain Prateek Chihna.jpg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jain_Prateek_

24 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Chihna.jpg' class='image'><img alt='Jain Prateek Chihna.jpg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Jain_Prateek_Chihna.jpg/50px-Jain_Prateek_Chihna.jpg' width='50' height='72' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Jain_Prateek_Chihna.jpg/75px-Jain_Prateek_Chihna.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Jain_Prateek_Chihna.jpg/100px-Jain_Prateek_Chihna.jpg 2x' data-file-width='198' data-file-height='284' /></a>Original artist: Jain_Prateek_Chihna.jpg: Mpanchratan

• File:Khanda.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Khanda.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Uni-code Original artist: Self-made

• File:Khanda_emblem.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Khanda_emblem.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Khanda.png' class='image'><img alt='Khanda.png' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Khanda.png/75px-Khanda.png' width='75' height='89' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Khanda.png/113px-Khanda.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Khanda.png/150px-Khanda.png 2x' data-file-width='186' data-file-height='220' /></a> Original artist: Fred the Oyster

• File:Kumbh_Mela_2001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Kumbh_Mela_2001.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; Transfer was stated to be made by User:Trengarasu. Original artist: Original uploaderwas Devinasch at en.wikipedia

• File:Mahabodhitemple.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Mahabodhitemple.jpg License: CC BY-SA2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bpilgrim

• File:Mahamaham_Festival_in_Kumbakonam.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Mahamaham_Festival_in_Kumbakonam.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: A postcard (Printed in Germany, Publishers: Wiele & Klein, Madras).The Postcard is in my property. Scan with “Epson Perfection 4490 Photo” in the best resolution without any later change. Original artist:Wiele & Klein

• File:Mahavir.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Mahavir.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:Own work Original artist: Dayodaya

• File:Mohenjo-daro_Priesterkönig.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg License: CC BY-SA 1.0 Contributors: world66.com Original artist: Mamoon Mengal

• File:New_Delhi_Temple.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/New_Delhi_Temple.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://www.akshardham.com/photogallery/mandir/index.htm Original artist: Swaminarayan Sanstha

• File:Om.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Nomachine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided.Rugby471 assumed (based on copyright claims).

• File:Om_symbol.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg License: Public domain Contribu-tors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable authorprovided. Rugby471 assumed (based on copyright claims).

• File:Palitana.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Palitana.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: JAINAOriginal artist: Malaiya at en.wikipedia

• File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0Contributors:Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:Tkgd2007

• File:Shiva_Pashupati.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Shiva_Pashupati.jpg License: Public do-main Contributors: http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/bce_500back/indusvalley/protoshiva/protoshiva.jpg Orig-inal artist: unknown Indus Valley Civilization sealmaker from Mohenjodaro archaeological site

• File:Sripuram_Temple_Full_View.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Sripuram_Temple_Full_View.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dsudhakar555

• File:Srirangam_rajagopuram.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Srirangam_rajagopuram.jpg Li-cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ssriram mt

• File:Standing_Bodhisattva_Gandhara_Musee_Guimet.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Standing_Bodhisattva_Gandhara_Musee_Guimet.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Taj_Mahal_pr.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Taj_Mahal_pr.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contrib-utors: Own work Original artist: Pedro Roque Hidalgo

• File:TirumalTemple.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/TirumalTemple.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: Raji.srinivas at en.wikipedia

• File:WLA_lacma_12th_century_Maharishi_Agastya.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/WLA_lacma_12th_century_Maharishi_Agastya.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Uploaded from the Wikipedia Loves Art photo poolon Flickr Original artist: Wikipedia Loves Art participant "team_a"

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12.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0