Reminder

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Chapter 2

Paradigms, Theory, And Research

Theory and Research

Theory functions three ways in research:1. Theories prevent our being taken in by

flukes.2. Theories make sense of observed

patterns in ways that can suggest other possibilities and causal connections.

3. Theories can direct research efforts, pointing toward likely discoveries through empirical observation.

Paradigms

• Frames of reference we use to organize our observations and reasoning.

• Often implicit, assumed, taken for granted.

• We can see new ways of seeing and explaining things when we step outside our paradigm.

Paradigms

Social Science Paradigms:

• Positivism

• Post-positivism

• Conflict

• Symbolic interaction

• Ethnomethodology

• Structural Functionalism

• Feminist

• Race

Social Science Paradigms: Macrotheory

• Macrotheory deals with large, aggregate entities of society or whole societies. • Struggle between economic classes,

international relations

Social Science Paradigms: Microtheory

• Microtheory deals with issues at the level of individuals and small groups.– Dating behavior, jury deliberations, student

faculty interactions

Social Science Paradigms: Conflict

• Marx suggested social behavior could be seen as the process of conflict: – Attempt to dominate others.– Attempt to avoid domination.

Social Science Paradigms: Ethnomethodology

• People are continuously trying to make sense of the life they experience.

• One technique is to break the rules and violate people’s expectations.

Social Science Paradigms: Structural Functionalism

• A social entity, such as an organization, can be viewed as an organism.

• A social system is made up of parts, each of which contributes to the functioning of the whole.

• This view looks for the “functions” served by the various components of society.

Social Science Paradigms: Feminism

• Focuses on gender differences and how they relate to the rest of social organization.

• Draws attention to the oppression of women in many societies, and sheds light on all kinds of oppression.

Paradigm v. Theory

• What’s the difference?

• Theories tend to be much more narrow and specific

• The theory of distributive justice may fit in a larger paradigm (i.e. conflict paradigm)– Conflict over wealth is based on both actual

wealth of an individual but also relative or comparable wealth.

• Not always obvious: Realism; Rational Choice

Examples of Theories

• Modernization

• Social Capital

Rational Choice Theory

In choosing lines of behavior, humans make rational calculations with respect to:

– the utility of an action in reference to the preference hierarchy• For example, congress members want “good” policy, but

their primary preference is to get reelected (Mayhew 1974).– the costs of each alternative action in terms of utilities foregone

• i.e. cost/benefit analysis– “Utility maximization”

Rational Choice Theory

Emergent social phenomena -- social structures, collective decisions, and collective behavior -- are ultimately the result of rational choices made by utility-maximizing individuals.

Emergent social phenomena that arise from rational choices constitute a set of parameters (e.g. incentives and constraints) for subsequent rational choices of individuals in the sense that they determine:

– the distribution of resources among individuals– the distribution of opportunities for various lines of behavior– the distribution & nature of norms & obligations in a situation.

Reductionism

Jumping ahead a little (see chapter 4)

Two meanings:

1. suggesting a phenomenon can be explained in terms of a single factor or type of factors (i.e. biological)

2. explaining a phenomenon in terms of lower-order concepts (opposite of ecological fallacy)

Social science wants to produce a parsimonious model of the complex world, but we don’t want to be reductionists. Finding the balance of parsimony and realistic model and/or explanation.

Induction v. deduction

Research Design (paper)

• Deductive– Because you will have to choose a theory

before actually collecting any data/observations

• Don’t have to mention any paradigms

• Not going to invent a new theory. Instead, borrow one that you uncover in your readings/literature review.